Ports of the Transatlantic slave trade - International Slavery Museum... http://www.liverpoolmuseums.org.uk/ism/resources/slave_trade_port...

Conference paper given by Anthony Tibbles at the TextPorts conference, Liverpool Hope University College, April 2000.

In this paper I

ant to loo! at the "#ropean ports

hich ere involve$ in the hy ere for the%. 'hat

transatlantic slave tra$e. I

ant to exa%ine the characteristics of the tra$e, hat the conse&#ences

partic#lar ports beca%e involve$ an$

%a$e a so(calle$ slave port) 'hy $i$ so%e ports specialising in slaving) *i$ the nat#re of the slave tra$e enco#rage s#ch specialisation) I shall be concentrating on the pre(nineteenth cent#ry perio$ hen slaving as still an officially co#ntenance$ ere activity + hilst ac!no le$ging that the tra$e contin#e$ for %ore than six $eca$es after it as first %a$e illegal an$ that nearly a &#arter of all those Africans enslave$ transporte$ in this later perio$,.

-o

hich ports

ere involve$) The %ain slaving nations

ere the 'estern "#ropean hich cr#cially ha$

po ers

ith coasts on the Atlantic .cean. They

ere the politically an$ econo%ically

$o%inant states of 'estern "#rope in the early %o$ern perio$,

colonies an$ econo%ic interests in the A%ericas/ -pain an$ Port#gal, "nglan$ an$ 0rance, the 1etherlan$s an$ *en%ar!. In the first co#ple of cent#ries, the Iberian nations ere not s#rprisingly the %ost active, servicing their $eveloping A%erican e%pires. 2#t the $e%an$ partic#larly for s#gar fro% the %i$(seventeenth cent#ry on ar$s an$ the rapi$ colonisation of the Caribbean by the northern "#ropean po ers, le$ by the 2ritish an$ 0rench, sa the tra$e $o%inate$ by these sa%e nations #ntil the hat is often sai$ the Port#g#ese, not early nineteenth cent#ry. The Iberians then ret#rne$ to the forefront $#ring the perio$ of the so(calle$ illegal tra$e. In$ee$, contrary to the "nglish, Atlantic. ere responsible for shipping the greatest n#%ber of Africans across the

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2#t hat abo#t the ports) The point is often %a$e that virt#ally every port sent a ship into slaving. In "nglan$ one can co%e #p ith a list incl#$ing not only the obvio#s ones li!e Liverpool, Lon$on an$ 2ristol b#t also Ply%o#th, "xeter, 2ri$port, an$ locally Chester an$ Po#lton. In reality, tho#gh, the half $o3en or so ships that so%e here li!e Chester or Po#lton sent is insignificant co%pare$ ith the $o%inant involve%ent of Liverpool +4500 voyages,, Lon$on +5600 voyages, an$ 2ristol +2200 voyages, bet een the% acco#nte$ for over 708 of the 2ritish tra$e. An$ the process of $o%ination see%s to have accelerate$ at the en$ of the cent#ry ith Liverpool not only o#tstripping its "nglish rivals b#t the "#ropean co%petition. In the t o $eca$es prece$ing abolition, Liverpool as responsible for 948 of all slaving voyages across "#rope. The sa%e sit#ation is tr#e else here. Again in 0rance e can co%e #p ith a list of nearly 20 ports hich ere involve$ ith the tra$e at so%e point b#t there ere fo#r principal slaving ports/ 1antes, 2or$ea#x, La :ochelle an$ Le Havre. .ver the perio$, 1antes sent ;48 of all the ships in the 0rench tra$e the other three sen$ing 668 of the tra$e each an$ the rest share$ bet een the other ports. In -pain, -eville as initially the port for all In$ies tra$e incl#$ing slaving b#t this an$ after 69<4 other ports as transferre$ to Ca$i3 in 6920 apart fro% 2arcelona as ere allo e$ to participate b#t fe hich

ere %#ch involve$ in slaving voyages. In Port#gal the principal participant cent#ry of slaving a n#%ber of ports ere involve$

Lisbon. A si%ilar pattern of specialisation e%erges in the 1etherlan$s. In the first half ith A%ster$a% at the hea$ +5<8,, the =eelan$ ports +2>8,, follo e$ by :otter$a% an$ ports in the =#i$er3ee, 0rieslan$ an$ ?roningen. Ho ever, in the last 94 years of the tra$e, the so(calle$ years of free tra$e hen the %onopoly of the 'est In$ies Co%pany as lifte$, the =eelan$ ports of 0l#shing an$ @i$$leb#rg acco#nte$ for 9>8 of all *#tch voyages an$ only A%ster$a% an$ :otter$a% ha$ any significant involve%ent ith 608 each.

A pattern th#s e%erges that A#st a han$f#l of ports in each co#ntry tra$e as so%eho

as responsible for

the vast %aAority of their nationBs slaving activity. This is not to arg#e that the slave a peripheral activity carrie$ on at the %argins, b#t to recognise as concentrate$ in relatively fe places. that the organisation of the tra$e

-o, hat

as i%portant) ?eographical location ( %ost i%portant slave ports ha$ easy hich ith the eather con$itions of the tropics an$ the Atlantic.

access to the Atlantic, they also ha$ goo$ port facilities for the $eep sea vessels ere essential to cope

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-everal of the ports ha$ existing tra$ing lin!s ith the A%ericas ( not only in the early $ays ith Lisbon an$ Ca$i3, b#t Lon$on, Liverpool, 2ristol an$ 1antes all ha$ beg#n tra$ing in tropical goo$s, partic#larly s#gar, before they beca%e heavily involve$ in slaving.

Access to tra$e goo$s as essential. A i$e variety of goo$s -o%e of these ite%s forget A#st ho

as in $e%an$ on the

'est African coast incl#$ing textiles, g#ns, alcohol, %etal goo$s, bea$s an$ co ries. ere available locally fro% local %an#fact#rersC others co#l$ be ith a i$er hinterlan$. Here geography as i%portant ( e ere for the transportation of goo$s in the orl$ ( s#ch as the textiles fro% In$ia s#pplie$ fro% connections

i%portant rivers an$ canals

eighteenth cent#ry. 2#t a significant proportion of tra$e goo$s also ca%e fro% f#rther afiel$, in fact fre&#ently fro% the other si$e of the an$ co ries fro% the In$ian .cean. If e loo! at Liverpool, it pro$#ce$ very little in the to n itself b#t it ha$ goo$

connections, principally thro#gh rivers li!e the @ersey an$ 'eaver an$ thro#gh the gro ing canal net or! to @anchester, Lancashire, an$ beyon$ to Dor!shire, an$ so#th to the gro ing in$#strial @i$lan$s. Th#s textiles ca%e fro% Lancashire an$ Dor!shire, copper an$ brass goo$s fro% 'arrington, 1orth Cheshire an$ -taffor$shire, g#ns an$ a%%#nition fro% 2ir%ingha%. 2#t the to nBs %erchants also ha$ to $evelop lin!s to obtain so%e goo$s ( there i$er as a strong $e%an$ for "ast In$ian cloth in 'est hich as not bro!en #ntil after the as glass bea$s. as

Africa. Liverpool %erchants ha$ no $irect access to "astern %ar!ets beca#se of the %onopolistic position of the "ast In$ia Co%pany, slave tra$e ha$ been abolishe$. They, therefore, ha$ to obtain s#ch goo$s fro% Lon$on an$ so%eti%es A%ster$a%. Another so#ght(after co%%o$ity In the 6990s, they constit#te$ bet een 248 an$ 408 of the val#e of the cargo of the average slaver. 'illia% *avenport, one of the portBs %ost active slave tra$ers, obtaining bea$s fro% Italy an$ bro#ght in E57,000 Altho#gh 1antes 2#t it orth in A#st ; years.

as so%e 40 %iles fro% the sea, its position at the confl#ence of the hich gave it easy

Loire an$ the "r$re rivers gave it access to an i%portant hinterlan$, incl#$ing Paris. as also the %ain i%port port for the 0rench In$ies Co%pany access to In$ian cloths. ?oo$ international tra$ing connections ere nee$e$ for other

ite%s ( it got g#ns fro% "nglan$ an$ bea$s an$ co ries ca%e thro#gh A%ster$a%. 2#t 1antes ha$ one significant a$vantage over Liverpool/ it ha$ its o n textile in$#stry pro$#cing fine &#ality printe$ cloths hich ere %#ch in $e%an$ in 'est Africa. These in$iennes, pro$#ce$ fro% 6947 on ar$s, beca%e an i%portant local in$#stry. 2y 69>0 there ere a $o3en factories, e%ploying ;,400 or!ers, all pro$#cing cloth al%ost excl#sively for the tra$e to Africa. 1antes also pro$#ce$ alcohol ( the local ea#x $e vie

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( as

ell as s or$s an$ !nives.

Another factor

as %ercantile initiative. Liverpool as a rapi$ly expan$ing port in ith a ne %erchant class $eveloping, often loo!ing for ne illing to ta!e ris!s. -laving as ris!y b#t it as also ho ca%e into

eighteenth cent#ry

openings, &#ic! profits an$ th#s slaving

potentially very profitable. -i%ilarly in 1antes %any of the %erchants ere loo!ing for s#ccessC fe

ca%e fro% Fol$ %oneyG an$ %any, in fact, sa it

as a ay of getting the here ithal to obtain ennoble%ent. 0e %erchants, tho#gh, investe$ solely in slaving an$ the $iversity of their portfolios co#l$ be an a$vantage, often one enterprise s#pporting another. Hohn Ashton, one of the Liverp#$lians liste$ a%ongst the Co%pany of African @erchants in 6942, in the -an!ey Canal, as also a pro%oter an$ investor vines an$ then hich helpe$ i%prove$ LiverpoolBs connections to its Lancashire

neighbo#rs. ?#illa#%e ?ro# bo#ght a co#ntry property here he gre pro$#ce$ bran$y, for the slave tra$e.

2#t in so%e cases there appears to have been an ele%ent of necessity. Liverpool slo co%pare$ ay, only $oing so in the 6950s an$ ;0s. There is so%e evi$ence that in the early eighteenth cent#ry, Liverpool as being p#she$ o#t of so%e tra$es ( by ?lasgo in tobacco, 2ristol an$ Lon$on in s#gar ( an$ th#s its %erchants trie$ e%bracing the %ore ris!y slave tra$e as one ay of establishing a niche. -i%ilarly, %any of the ere a%bitio#s yo#ng %en ho Lancaster %erchants ho too! to the slave tra$e lac!e$ openings in the tra$itional tra$es.

as

ith 2ristol after the %onopoly as lifte$ in entering the tra$e in a big

There is no $o#bt that slaving beca%e a specialist tra$e. A slave voyage as &#ite co%plex to organise an$ the balance of tra$e goo$s experience as cr#cial. Ino le$ge an$ ere the !eys to s#ccess. @erchants gave their captains $etaile$ letters of

instr#ction ith very specific instr#ctions. The range an$ relatively &#antities of goo$s as also vitally i%portant. The relationship bet een %erchants in "#rope an$ African tra$ers as &#ite sophisticate$ an$ personal contacts $evelope$ an$ helpe$ s#stain it. .ften ships carrie$ &#ite s%all parcels of goo$s an$ so%eti%es there ere specific re&#ests. The invest%ent as also high ( by the late eighteenth cent#ry it as costing E60(62,000 to o#tfit a vessel, a very significant s#%. The ret#rn on that invest%ent also relatively slo partly 5(< %onths to obtain a cargo of enslave$ Africans on the est African coast. This is hy %any vessels chose to ret#rn to "#rope itho#t aiting for a cargo in the as not only beca#se of the length of the voyages, b#t it fre&#ently too!

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Caribbean an$ ca%e bac!

ith bills of exchange,

hich

ere negotiable.

This experience pai$ off. Lancaster hich briefly entere$ the slave tra$e, %ost actively in the perio$ 6944(69<9, fo#n$ it as #nable to co%pete s#ccessf#lly eno#gh ith as also as as Liverpool an$ its %erchants %ove$ bac! into their tra$itional tra$es. 1antes partly beca#se of preferential tariff arrange%ents b#t also beca#se 2or$ea#x alrea$y very s#ccessf#l, $o%inating the $irect Caribbean tra$e. 0#rther, the specialisation of 1antes, res#lting fro% its "ast In$ian connections an$ in$iennes cloth, gave it that all i%portant e$ge in co%peting. The pattern see%s to be that having establishe$ a $o%inant position, the %aAor slave ports li!e Liverpool, 1antes an$ the =eelan$ ports, tightene$ their grip to ar$s the en$ of the eighteenth cent#ry. This concentration %ay have been helpe$ by one or t o other factors. Legislation in 2ritain an$ 0rance as beginning to reg#late the tra$e %ore than before an$ it %#st have been so%e hat %ore ir!so%e to organise. The ca%paigns of the abolitionists +beg#n in earnest in the 69>0s, %ay also have ha$ so%e effect perhaps in $iss#a$ing so%e of the %inor ports an$ potential ne entrants ho %ay have been %ore s#sceptible to the $istastef#l aspects of the tra$e an$ there %ay also have been a realisation that the abolitionist %ove%ent o#l$ #lti%ately s#ccee$. 'hy not get o#t before yo# ere force$ o#t)

able to beat off co%petition fro% its %ost i%portant 0rench rival, 2or$ea#x. This

There are also certain si%ilarities bet een the slave ports. Partly this res#lts fro% their prosperity b#t so%e of it is also %ore specific. Altho#gh slaving tra$ing activity for these ports, it apart%ents in s#ch b#il$ings that visiting to$ay. That is perhaps less tr#e of its 2ritish co#nterparts. 2#t Lon$on still has its eighteenth cent#ry s&#ares an$ if one r#bs belo -&#are one fin$s slaving an$ slavery here the s#rface in say so%e here li!e Port%an itho#t too %#ch tro#ble. @any of the inhabitants ith 2arba$ian as not the only as cr#cially i%portant an$ bro#ght the% ealth an$ ere al%ost palatial insi$e. They ere concentrate$

s#ccess. -everal of the %ain slaving %erchants ha$ i%pressive to n ho#ses or ha$ in the Ile $e 0ey$ea# an$ one can still see the eighteenth cent#ry gran$e#r hen

ere absentee 'est In$ian lan$o ners incl#$ing 'illia% 2ec!for$ Jthe

#ncro ne$ !ing of Ha%aicaB, La$y Ho%e, a Ha%aica heiress, "rle *rax, $efen$er of slavery both at sea an$ later in the Ho#se of Lor$s.

interests an$ others li!e -ir Peter Par!er, Lor$ @aynar$ an$ A$%iral :o$ney, a sto#t

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An$ e !no

fro% conte%porary $escriptions of Liverpool an$ 2ristol, beginning

ith

riters li!e Celia 0iennes an$ *aniel *efoe in the early eighteenth cent#ry, that both ere fine to ns architect#rally an$ physically. .ne perceptive visitor :ochfo#ca#l$ ho as in Liverpool in 69>4. Altho#gh only 67 he as as 0rancis La ell(travelle$.

LiverpoolBs %ost s#ccessf#l %erchants also ten$e$ to live %ore %o$estly

ithin the

to n itself than their 0rench co#nterparts. Ho ever, they also investe$ in ho#ses on the o#ts!irts of the to n or so%eti%es f#rther afiel$. Tho%as Leylan$ ha$ several #nexceptional ho#ses in Liverpool $#ring his lifeti%e b#t also ac&#ire$ 'alton Hall north of the city +in fact not a st#nning architect#ral b#il$ingK,. The Ashtons bo#ght 'oolton Hall, hich as in a $ifferent leag#e, especially after it as re%o$elle$ by :obert A$a%, the lea$ing architect an$ interior $ecorator of the age. 2#t the infl#ences of slavery co#l$ be %ore specific. LiverpoolBs To n Hall is !no n for its frie3e incl#$ing African hea$s, elephants an$ croco$iles ( b#t si%ilar African %as!s are fo#n$ on b#il$ings in 1antes an$ in 2or$ea#x. -treet na%es reflect not only the na%es of slave tra$ers ( again in Liverpool, "arle, Tarleton, C#nliffe b#t also in na%es li!e ?oree +the slave islan$ off *a!ar, an$ Ha%aica -treet, an$ in 2ristol again Ha%aica -treet, ?#inea -treet an$ 2lac! 2oy Hill.

@any of the ports have stories abo#t the slave tra$e passe$ on by

or$ of %o#th an$ here they

in pop#lar histories. Liverp#$lians are very fa%iliar ith the stories of t#nnels #n$er the city for transporting slaves bet een the $oc!s an$ the to n an$ the cellars are sai$ to have been !ept an$ shac!le$. 2#t one can fin$ si%ilar tales of t#nnels an$ cellars in 2ristol an$ in 1antes. Perhaps %ore s#rprisingly, there are stories of slaves being !ept in the cellars of isolate$ far%ho#ses in @oreca%be 2ay an$ local &#arries ( a reflection of LancasterBs brief foray into the tra$e. Altho#gh the nat#re of the tra$e as triang#lar an$ in general Africans transporte$ only as far as the A%ericas an$ people of African $escent ere or!ing in the

here their labo#r as nee$e$, so%e Africans

ere bro#ght bac! to "#rope. 1ot s#rprisingly, all the

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slave ports ha$ 2lac! pop#lations to varying $egrees. In so%e cases, proxi%ity an$ the existence of $irect tra$e %ay have been the pre$o%inant factor. Lisbon is esti%ate$ to have ha$ 60,000 2lac! slaves in 6<20 an$ a contin#ing significant 2lac! pop#lation. They see% to have been e%ploye$ in specific occ#pations ( partic#larly as ferry%en, as steve$ores an$ b#il$ers ( an$ in the nineteenth cent#ry 608 of ho#se painters in the city ere sai$ to be 2lac!. as fo#n$ in the capital Lon$on, probably ere as an

In "nglan$, the largest 2lac! pop#lation $o%estic servants, b#t they There no(one. "lse here the n#%bers exchange, there

n#%bering bet een 4,000 an$ 64,000 at the en$ of the eighteenth cent#ry. @any ere also e%ploye$ in other tra$es an$ there

#n!no n b#t significant n#%ber of sailors, both in the 1avy an$ the %ercant %arine. ere also a noticeable n#%ber of free 2lac!s, ho recognise$ allegiance to

ere s%aller an$ it is even %ore $iffic#lt to be precise. of sales in coffee ho#ses an$ on the references in parish registers

Liverpool certainly ha$ its 2lac!s ( e !no

ere $o%estic servants, there are a fe

b#t there ere also a noticeable n#%ber of Africans +%ainly sons of lea$ers an$ chiefs, being e$#cate$ in the to n, n#%bering perhaps 40 in the last fe years of the cent#ry. In ter%s of absol#te n#%bers, they ere probably al ays a s%all percentage of the pop#lation b#t they are no less significant for that. 2ristol has its fa%o#s to%bstone to -cipio African#s in Henb#ry ch#rchyar$ ( a rare physical re%in$er ( an$ a si%ilar %ix of servants, sailors an$ free 2lac!s of #n!no n n#%ber. 1antes, too, ha$ a significant 2lac! pop#lation in the eighteenth cent#ry an$ at the beginning of the revol#tion as able to raise a 2lac! battalion, les h#ssar$s $e -aint(*o%inig#e. Their $escen$ants have %erge$ into the present pop#lation, as in 2ristol an$ Liverpool.

The i%portance of the slave tra$e to the ports involve$, an$ to the i$er econo%ies of the co#ntries pro%oting it, is %#ch $isc#sse$. ?iven the co%plexity of the tra$e in all its aspects, stran$. 2#t it activity an$ hether of s#pply or $e%an$, it is al%ost i%possible to $isentangle every as clearly a cr#cial part of these econo%ies an$ generate$ b#siness ealth on a significant scale. In the case of Liverpool, it is esti%ate$ that

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In the context of the Caribbean tra$e it is also orth re%e%bering that s#gar an$ other pro$#cts being bro#ght in by $irect tra$e often represente$ pay%ent for African slaves $elivere$ by other ships. Again in 2ristol, abo#t 69>7, tra$e to Africa an$ the Caribbean, b#t %ost partic#larly to the Caribbean, co%prise$ over >08 of 2ristolBs overseas tra$e. The sit#ation in 1antes is not $issi%ilar. The %aAor a#thority on the 0rench slave tra$e, :obert -tein, has ritten

Again over a thir$ of the exotic pro$#cts entering 1antes fro% the Caribbean represente$ slaving pay%ents. In the case of so%e of the s%allest ports participating in the tra$e, the reliance co%%#nities, as greater. @i$$leb#rg an$ 0l#shing ere virt#al slaving ith s#bstantial a%o#nts of capital an$ %anpo er involve$ in the traffic.

A report of 6940 confir%s that the slave tra$e as 0l#shingBs only significant co%%ercial activity. 2#t e sho#l$ re%e%ber that it as not A#st the tra$e itself, the goo$s tra$e$ an$ the

profit of the voyage. It sti%#late$ %#ch else besi$es fro% the shipb#il$ing in$#stry to the general o#tfitting of the vessel. In the case of the "nterprise this a%o#nte$ to nearly E2000, incl#$ing obtaining s#pplies fro% sail%a!ers, chan$lers, rope %a!ers, to foo$ an$ s#pplies for the voyage, the a$vance$ ages of the sea%en an$ 2s <$ to @argaret @cIoy for cleaning the captainBs cabinK The ealth $eriving fro% the slave tra$e as reflecte$ not only in the b#il$ings an$ as involve$ to a

general econo%ic cli%ate b#t in the fort#nes of the in$ivi$#al participants. In Liverpool, e !no that every %aAor %erchant an$ th#s every %aAor citi3en, greater or less extent in the slave tra$e an$ its benefits. It is often &#ote$ that all the @ayors of the to n fro% the %i$(eighteenth cent#ry #ntil 6>09 +an$ it incl#$es the other civic officials, ha$ slaving lin!s. 2#t so%e *avenport ere %ore involve$ that others. 'illia% his fort#ne as involve$ in 6;0 voyages. Hohn Tarleton, %ayor in 69<;, sa

increase fro% E<000 in 69;> to E>0,000 by 6995. Tho%as Leylan$, three ti%es @ayor, left nearly E940,000 in 6>29 an$ fo#n$ing a ban!. 'hilst the slave tra$ers ere clearly f#lly integrate$ ithin the %ercantile an$ civic as involve$ in a range of activities, incl#$ing

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society in Liverpool, the sa%e

as not necessarily tr#e in 1antes

here at least one

conte%porary $escribes a $ifferent sit#ation/

He goes on to $escribe the% in ter%s that %a!e the% see% $an$ies/

2#t then, %a!ing %oney in the slave tra$e Certainly there

as one

ay to gain ennoble%ent. I ho ere involve$ ith the tra$e

s#spect one is $isting#ishing bet een s#ccessf#l %erchants an$ less s#ccessf#l ones. ere several fa%ilies, as in Liverpool, thro#gho#t the eighteenth cent#ry. In 1antes, the @onta#$oin fa%ily, the largest private tra$ers in the city, sent 549 ships to Africa bet een 6<7; an$ 6976. They also fo#n$e$ La ?ran$e @an#fact#re to pro$#ce in$iennes cloths, a %aAor 1antais in$#stry. The ?ro# fa%ily organise$ 40 slaving voyages in the ;0 years fro% 6926 to 69<5. ?#illa#%e ?ro# left 2 %illion livres, besi$es giving 200,000 livres to the ?eneral Hospital an$ b#il$ing perhaps the %ost elegant to n %ansion of any of his conte%poraries. Perhaps the piLce $e resistance is the clai% that %any of these %erchants sent their la#n$ry

'hen abolition ca%e none of the slave ports s#ffere$ %ore than te%porary proble%s. This is partly beca#se of the co%plex interloc!ing of all the tra$es hich %eant that losing one co%ponent $i$ not spell $isaster. In fact, one of the legacies of the tra$e an$ its conse&#ences is that it helpe$ shape the f#t#re pattern of tra$e. 1antes contin#e$ to %aintain %aAor lin!s ith the Caribbean an$ also contin#e$ its $o%inance

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of the "ast In$ies tra$e. In Liverpool, t o ar%s of the triangle ere %aintaine$. Tra$e ith 'est Africa contin#e$ an$ partic#larly the $eveloping an$ l#crative pal% oil tra$e, the %ain participants of hich ere those very %erchants ho ha$ previo#sly been ith the involve$ ith slaving. 1ot s#rprisingly as they ha$ goo$ contacts in 'est Africa an$ the infrastr#ct#re as alrea$y in place. 2#t Liverpool also contin#e$ its tra$e A%ericas an$ increasingly $evelope$ the i%port of ra i%port of cotton an$ the export of finishe$ cotton goo$s cotton, a slave pro$#ce$ ere to be the portBs %aAor

co%%o$ity, hich it ha$ initially beg#n in the late eighteenth cent#ry. In$ee$, the activities in the nineteenth cent#ry an$ #n$erpinne$ %#ch of its other tra$e. 2ristol, too, contin#e$ to rely on its A%erican tra$es, i%porting s#gar an$ increasingly tobacco. These co%%o$ities ere not only i%portant as tra$e b#t also s#staine$ cr#cial hich in

%an#fact#ring in$#stries in the ports. In 2ristol, 'ills tobacco as a %aAor in$#stry an$ e%ployer. An$ 2ristol also ha$ its 'est African connections i%porting cocoa, ent to Levers at Port -#nlight, an$ there tobacco pro$#cts fro% .g$ens. t#rn beca%e chocolate in 0rys factory. 2ac! on the @ersey, large &#antities of pal% oil as s#gar refining by Tate an$ Lyle an$

2#t there are other sorts of legacies, apart fro% the econo%ic ones. .ne i%portant one is ho the ports an$ their inhabitants have $ealt ith their past involve%ent ith slaving. There is no $o#bt that on a pop#lar level, !no le$ge of the slaving past has been an i%portant part of the inhabitantsB conscio#sness for a long ti%e. In large part this has probably been s#staine$ by the stories of t#nnels, of secret cellars an$ slaves being sol$ or chaine$ #p ( reg#larly repeate$ in the local press over the last cent#ry an$ s#pporte$ in pop#lar literat#re. In Liverpool, as early as 6>>;, FA *ic!ey -a%G p#blishe$ Liverpool an$ -lavery/ A History of the Liverpool(African -lave Tra$e an$ this as follo e$ by %ore co%prehensive or!s s#ch as ?o%er 'illia%sB 6>79 history of the Liverpool privateering an$ slaving. Ho ever, at an official level, the slave tra$e as generally perceive$ as so%ething best forgotten. This is reflecte$ in the treat%ent of the long(stan$ing 2lac! pop#lations, certainly in the 2ritish an$ 0rench ports, hich have been %arginalise$, neglecte$ an$ $isa$vantage$. The sit#ation has change$ in the last 20 to 50 years an$ the i%portance of the slave tra$e in the history of the slave ports has been increasingly on the agen$a. Partly this is as a res#lt of the or! of aca$e%ics. 2#t it is also as a res#lt of lobbying by the 2lac! pop#lations the%selves, loo!ing pri%arily for recognition an$ ac!no le$ge%ent of the past, an$ by a realisation a%ongst so%e hites that this is an i%portant iss#e.

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In 1antes, t o %aAor international aca$e%ic conferences have been hel$, the first in 6794. The city also has t o organisations %e%orialising the involve%ent an$ lobbying for greater recognition. .ne of the%, Les Annea#x $e la @L%oires, involve$ in the te%porary exhibition hich an easy or si%ple proAect. Liverpool ha$ its first conference on the tra$e in 679<, tho#gh it $ealt tra$e an$ lac!e$ the international involve%ent that .ctober 677; sa ith the 2ritish a#thorities s#pporte$ the exhibition, b#t the process of achieving it as closely as by no %eans as hel$ in the %#se#% in 6772. The civic

as a !ey feat#re of the one in

1antes. The opening of the Transatlantic -lavery ?allery in the @ariti%e @#se#% in the first per%anent gallery $evote$ to the s#bAect in any of the slave i$er afiel$. 2ristol ith its involve%ent an$ %ore rel#ctant. The City i$er ports. The gallery has ha$ a significant i%pact both in the city an$ has been slo er to co%e to ter%s 6777, the core of hich has no

@#se#% in 2ristol hel$ a %aAor te%porary exhibition on 2ristol an$ the slave tra$e in been installe$ in the In$#strial @#se#%. .n a basis, the 1ational @ariti%e @#se#% at ?reen ich has incorporate$ a section on the slave tra$e in its Tra$e an$ "%pire ?allery also opene$ in 6777. The Co%%on ealth an$ "%pire @#se#% to be base$ in 2ristol plans to incl#$e significant reference to the s#bAect. The 1ational @ariti%e @#se#% in A%ster$a%, another slaving port, is consi$ering a te%porary exhibition of the *#tch tra$e an$ $eter%ining ho the s#bAect can be per%anently incorporate$ in the %aAor ref#rbish%ent of their %#se#%. There is th#s so%e recognition in the for%er slave ports that the slaving past nee$s to be recognise$. There is obvio#sly a long ay to go an$ %ore that can be $one. An$ there are also so%e i$er %ove%ents beginning to #nfol$. In 6775 U1"-C. began its -lave :o#te proAect, an atte%pt to recognise the i%portance an$ conse&#ences of the slave tra$e on an international basis an$ in partic#larly to see! the assistance of "#ropeans in helping both African, Caribbean an$ -o#th A%erican nations in this process. In this sense, the triangle hich began as a tra$ing arrange%ent is being re(establishe$ to %e%orialise it. The slave tra$e co%pletely change$ the history of three continentsC b#t it also profo#n$ly change$ the ports that organise$ it an$ they are still str#ggling to live ith the conse&#ences.

JTransatlantic -lavery/ Against H#%an *ignityJ by Anthony Tibbles is available to purchase from the online bookshop.

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