Africas Private Radio Stations: The Next Best Thing For African Democracy? (dissertation A!

stract

The constr"ction of inde#endent and #$"ra$ist media sectors is increasing$y inc$"ded in de!ates on #o#"$ar em#o%erment& good governance& and #overty red"ction' A $i!era$ised media environment ( in %hich the state o#ens "# media o%nershi# to #rivate #arties ( is #artic"$ar$y regarded as contri!"ting to deve$o#ing nations democratic and hence deve$o#menta$ #rogress' As a res"$t of %ides#read media $i!era$isation the African media $andsca#e has diversified ra#id$y) most nota!$y #rivate radio stations have f$o"rished' B"t introd"cing media $i!era$isation %hi$st sim"$taneo"s$y introd"cing m"$ti*#arty #o$itics& in a co"ntry context %here (+ identity #o$itics #$ay an a$$*determining ro$e in defining the socia$ contract !et%een state and society& (, #overty& de#rivation and internationa$ margina$isation #ersists& (- forma$ democratic instit"tions are %ea. or not yet instit"tiona$ised and %here im#osed externa$ #o$icies have (/ %ea.ened the states ca#acity to govern& the o#ening "# of the radio mar.et to #rivate #arties can and has sho%n to #rod"ce "ndemocratic o"tcomes in Africa' Radio stations have not on$y !ecome co* o#ted !y com#eting (ethnic #o$itica$ forces in #"rs"it of #rotecting vested interests or o!taining #o$itica$ #o%er& they have e0"a$$y !ecome a 1!att$efie$d on %hich ethnic differences and ethnic #o%er str"gg$es are fo"ght' A more !a$anced a##roach to media $i!era$isation in %hich reforms are directed at !"i$ding instit"tions and str"ct"res that %i$$ red"ce the incentives for state ca#t"re and #artisan a!"se is needed to inform internationa$ #o$icy ma.ing' Do%n$oad dissertation as PDF: Africas Private Radio Stations: The Next Best Thing for African Democracy?

Ta!$e of 2ontents A!stract 3333333333333333333333333333333''

Ac.no%$edgments 33333333333333333333333333'

Africas Private Radio Stations: The Next Best Thing for African Democracy?

+' 2haracterising Africas Democracies 333333333333333''

+'+' 4thnicity 5atters: 6aying the Basis for 7dentity Po$itics 33333''

+',' 7ntrod"cing Neo*$i!era$ist Po$icies and 6i!era$ Democratic 8a$"es

+'-' 9ndemocratic Democratisation: Res#onses of State and Society

+'/' Africas 18irt"a$ Democracies 333333333333333333''

,' 2haracterising Africas 5edia 3333333333333333333''

,'+' 7nformation as Po%er 3333333333333333333333''

,',' 7nformation as 2ommodity 33333333333333333333

,'-' Private Radio Stations in :enya and ;hana: A 2om#arison 33''

,'/' The Po$itics and B"siness of 7nformation and <#inion*Formation

-' 2onc$"sion 33333333333333333333333333333

References 333333333333333333333333333333 Page

Africas Private Radio Stations: The Next Best Thing For African Democracy? By Anne*5ie.e 5inderho"d Se#tem!er ,==> <n ? @an"ary ,==>& @ohn Atta 5i$$s %as ina"g"rated as #resident of ;hana& an event that signified the co"ntrys second #eacef"$ transition of #o%er from inc"m!ent #arty to o##osition& des#ite remar.a!$y c$ose e$ection res"$ts (BB2 Ne%s += @"$y ,==> ' The co"ntrys #o$itica$ sta!i$ity after fo"r #residentia$ and #ar$iamentary e$ections in +>>,& +>>A& ,===& and ,==/& is rare among ne% democracies !oth in Africa and e$se%here in the %or$d (;yimah*Boadi ,==> ' An achievement that %as re%arded !y 9S President <!amas recent visit to the co"ntry (;hana%e! ++ @"$y ,==>) Ne% Bor. Times ++ @"$y ,==> ' According to ;yimah*Boadi (,==> & media vigi$ance he$#ed to .ee# the e$ectora$ cam#aign iss"e*!ased and #eacef"$ !y informing the e$ectorate a!o"t the #arties and their #rogrammes' Te$evision and radio stations sent re#orters a$$ over the co"ntry to cover the voting #rocess #roviding constant and instant "#dates on the vote ta$$y thro"gh mo!i$e*#hone text messaging and ca$$s to radio stations' The im#ortance of the ;hanaian media in the co"ntrys democratic #rogress %as e0"a$$y #ointed o"t !y Temin C Smith (,==,:DEA in their research on ;hanas first transition of #o%er in ,=== in %hich they conc$"ded that 1it is no coincidence that one of Africas most democratic co"ntries is a$so home to some of the most vi!rant and o"ts#o.en media o"t$ets on the continent (see a$so :ari.ari ,=== ' As the #$atform thro"gh %hich the $i!era$ democratic freedom of& and the h"man right to& free ex#ression and information is exercised& the media and its #otentia$ to contri!"te to%ards democratisation ( regarded as critica$ in co"ntries deve$o#ment ( has in recent years !ecome the s"!Fect of gro%ing attention amongst a range of internationa$ deve$o#ment actors& #o$icy ma.ers& academics& and donors (see s"rvey res"$ts BB2 GST ,==>a) Gor$d Ban. ,==,aH!) 2ommission for Africa ,==D) 9N42A ,==? ' As s"ch& the constr"ction of inde#endent and #$"ra$ist media sectors is increasing$y inc$"ded in de!ates on #o#"$ar em#o%erment (Norris C Iinn!a"er ,==,) P"dde#hat ,==E) <d"g!emi C @aco!son ,==E & good governance (9N4S2< ,==D) DF7D ,==,) 6oc.s$ey ,==> & and #overty red"ction (Sen +>>>) ;F5D ,==D) 9N4S2< ,==A) Panos 7nstit"te ,==?!) 275A ,==? ' 7n #artic"$ar& #rivate$y o%ned media have !een cham#ioned as inFecting an e$ement of inde#endence and #$"ra$ism into a co"ntrys media environment' Private media organisations are considered to !e more res#onsive to the #"!$ic& more .een to .ee# a %atchf"$ eye on government& and more o#en to o##osing #ers#ectives (Tettey ,==+ ' 5edia $i!era$isation& %here!y the state o#ens "# media o%nershi# to #rivate #arties& has therefore !een active$y #romoted !y inf$"entia$ actors $i.e the Gor$d Ban. (2arver ,===) A$hassan ,==D ' A $i!era$ised media environment ( it is arg"ed ( #ositive$y contri!"tes to a co"ntrys democratic and deve$o#menta$ #rogress: an ass"m#tion ( %hich %i$$ !e criti0"ed in this #a#er ( that contin"es to

dominate and inform contem#orary donor a##roaches to media deve$o#ment (see a$so Sand!roo. +>>E) Gor$d Ban. ,==,aH!) Jyden et a$' ,==,) Norris C Iinn!a"er ,==,) 9N4S2< ,==D) 275A ,==?) Tettey ,==E) BB2 GST ,==>a) 6oc.s$ey ,==> ' 9nder#inning the ass"m#tion is the notion that %ith state contro$ of the media o#ening "# to #rivate o%nershi#& #eo#$es access to information %i$$ increase and state censorshi# and contro$ of information %i$$ red"ce' This %i$$ give the #"!$ic greater access to a #$"ra$ity of media o"t$ets %hich in t"rn %i$$ ex#ose the #o#"$ation to a $arger diversity of #ers#ectives %hich %i$$ assist in ma.ing them informed citiKens' <nce media $i!era$isation has ta.en #$ace& democratic conso$idation and h"man deve$o#ment %i$$ !e strengthened as Fo"rna$ists in inde#endent media %i$$& in their f"nction as societys %atchdog& faci$itate greater trans#arency and acco"nta!i$ity in governance) #rovide a civic for"m for m"$ti#$e voices in #"!$ic de!ate) and high$ight socia$ #ro!$ems to inform the #o$icy agenda (Norris ,==A:,& see fig' + ' Fig"re +: Ana$ytica$ frame%or. (So"rce: Norris ,==A

As a res"$t of %ides#read media $i!era$isation& the media $andsca#e in s"!*Saharan Africa ( the region of foc"s in this #a#er ( has evo$ved ra#id$y in the $ast t%o decades (Tettey ,==E ' The o#ening "# of the air%aves as %e$$ as the #rivatisation and intensified commercia$isation of media o#erations have $ed to a more dynamic African media environment (<g!ondah ,==,) B$an.son ,==,) 5yamnFoh ,==D ' 7n #artic"$ar& #rivate radio stations have f$o"rished: in a$most a$$ s"!*Saharan African co"ntries& state radio is coming "nder increasing #ress"re from regiona$ or $oca$ commercia$ radio (A5D7 ,==A ' African #"!$ic c"$t"res are radio*driven c"$t"res (Fardon C F"rniss ,=== : no other medi"m has remote$y the same reach and accessi!i$ity on the continent (Bo"rga"$t +>>D) 2arver ,===) 7R4L ,==E ' A!o"t E=M of African #eo#$e cite radio& in com#arison to /,M citing te$evision and ,AM citing ne%s#a#ers& as their dominant so"rce of information and ne%s (Afro!arometer ,==> ' Private F5 radio stations are& according to 2o$$ier (intervie% in BB2 GST ,==>a:,+ & the 1!ig #henomenon in Africa at the moment' A feat"re of these stations has !een their introd"ction of #o$itica$ ta$. sho%s and ca$$*ins& %hich have emerged as a ne% and #o#"$ar %ay to stim"$ate citiKen #artici#ation in #"!$ic affairs (5%esige ,==> ' 7n ;hana& these disc"ssion #rogrammes have cr"cia$$y contri!"ted to and 1!roadened the #o$itica$ de!ate (:ari.ari ,===:,? ' Private radio ta$. sho%s can& ho%ever& demonstrate !oth 1democratic f"nctions and dysf"nctions (5%esige ,==>:+ em#hasis added ) individ"a$s #artici#ating in ca$$*ins can e0"a$$y heighten socia$ tensions thro"gh ex#ressing "ninformed o#inion& c"$t"ra$ stereoty#es and #reF"dices' This has recent$y !een i$$"strated !y the ,==?H,==E #ost*e$ection crisis in :enya& home to an e0"a$$y vi!rant and o"ts#o.en media' Ghen the ne%s !ro.e that President 5%ai :i!a.i %as !eing ret"rned to #o%er& vio$ence er"#ted across the co"ntry and :enya gra!!ed the head$ines a$$ over the %or$d as it 1descended into chaos and voi$ence and $eft more than a tho"sand dead in $ess than a month and -==&=== others dis#$aced from their homes (:iai ,==E:+A- ' Some $oca$ radio stations in r"ra$ areas %ere acc"sed of 1f"e$$ing ethnic conf$ict and enco"raging vio$ent confrontations !efore& d"ring and after the e$ection (;"ardian @"$y ,- ,==> ' According to J"man Rights Gatch (,==E:-A a$tho"gh there %as no 1c$ear evidence that the #o#"$ar :a$enFin* $ang"age radio station :ASS F5 active$y so"ght to disseminate hate s#eech& 1it did not #revent g"ests from "sing the air%aves to do so' The "nmoderated ex#ression of citiKens o#inions heightened ethnic #o$arisation (BB2 GST ,==E ' The rea$ity of 1s"!stantia$ democratic reversa$s (P"ddington ,==>:+=+ & !oth in Africa and e$se%here in the %or$d& fre0"ent$y cha$$enges medias ass"med #ositive democratic contri!"tion' 5edia effects are 1neither direct& sim#$e& or immediate (NyamnFoh ,==D:+ as a co"ntrys #o$itica$ context tends to 1r"! off on its air%aves (9N4S2< 2o"rier + A#ri$ ,==+ ' 2ritics arg"e that a 1romanticised (Temin C Smith ,==,:A=- vie% of medias democratic ro$e ( s"ch as ex#ressed !y $eading deve$o#ment actors ( over$oo. the many& oft interde#endent& cha$$enges co"ntries face in #rocessess of democratisation and deve$o#ment' 7n this #a#er 7 %i$$ arg"e that the inevita!$e #ositivity that is arg"ed to arise !et%een a $i!era$ised media environment and democracy is over$y o#timistic: media $i!era$isation #o$icies do not a"tomatica$$y res"$t in

democratic o"tcomes' Ghen divorced from a co"ntrys #revai$ing societa$ and #o$itica$ character& they can #rod"ce high$y "ndemocratic effects' 7t is therefore #aramo"nt that in assessing a medias #otentia$ for democratic contri!"tion& the #o$itica$ character vis*N*vis a co"ntrys media character has to !e examined more c$ose$y (an arg"ment made !y NyamnFoh (,==D %hich 7 strong$y s"##ort ' This #a#er is divided into three cha#ters' The first cha#ter ex#$ores ho%& inf$"enced !y historica$ $egacies and externa$ interference& socia$ and #o$itica$ #atterns and #o%er re$ations frame the incentives for democratic transfor*mation in African #o$itics and societies) this affects the character of African democracies' 2ha#ter t%o examines ho% a $i!era$ised and commercia$ised media ( %ith a #artic"$ar foc"s on #rivate radio stations ( !oth mirror and sha#e these #atterns and #o%er re$ations "sing ;hana and :enya as the dominant exam#$es to demonstrate ho% the democratic contri!"tion of radio !roadcasting can !e affected !y a co"ntrys #revai$ing #o$itica$ character' The fina$ cha#ter #resents this #a#ers conc$"ding arg"ments in %hich 7 %i$$ em#hasise that a$tho"gh a $i!era$ised media can have #ositive democratic effects& its #ositive effects are not inevita!$e' Divorcing the notion of media $i!era$isation from a co"ntrys #o$itica$ context (see A$$en C Strem$a" ,==D ris.s act"a$$y reinforcing the #revai$ing (and often "ndemocratic socia$ #atterns and #o%er str"ct"res (Snyder C Ba$$entine +>>A) Snyder ,===) Price C Thomson ,==,) P"tKe$ C 8an De I%am ,==A ' To s"##ort the ana$ysis& 7 have main$y "sed secondary so"rces in the fie$ds of #o$itica$ and socia$ sciences as %e$$ as media and Africa st"dies' F"rthermore& 7 have $oo.ed into a range of grey so"rces& from on$ine radio& ne%s media and !$ogs to domestic and internationa$ non* governmenta$ and governmenta$ organisations' 7t is im#ortant to note that at the time of %riting and to my .no%$edge& s#ecific academic research on the #o$itica$ effects of radio and on the re$ationshi# !et%een media and democratic and deve$o#ment o"tcomes #artic"$ar$y in ne% or fragi$e democracies %as sti$$ $imited or in #rogress (see BB2 GST ,==>!) #ersona$ comm"nication D' 5oeh$er @"ne ,A& ,==> '

2JAPT4R <N4 2haracterising Africas Democracies The end of Gor$d Gar 77 introd"ced Africas inde#endence from co$onia$ r"$e: in +>D? ;hana !ecame s"!*Saharan Africas first ne% nation*state %ith the vast maFority of African co"ntries& inc$"ding :enya in +>A-& fo$$o%ing s"it (27A ,==> ' 7nde#endence started off as a ( #art$y internationa$$y s"##orted and f"nded ( #roFect aimed at driving African 1modernisation thro"gh deve$o#ment and nation*!"i$ding' B"t as time %ent !y& the disa##ointing and often adverse res"$ts of Africas incor#oration into the g$o!a$ #o$itica$ economy and its 0"est to modernise& $ed to a $oss in Africas ne% $eaders democratic $egitimacy to govern the ne%$y created states (Thomson ,==/ ' Fearing their #otentia$ $oss of #o%er& the $eadershi#s started to increasing$y

reinforce the centra$ ro$e of the state as they resorted to a"thoritarian and coercive meas"res) o##ositiona$ #o$itica$ forces %ere co*o#ted or si$enced& voices of dissent e$iminated and the #o$itica$ #rocess #ersona$ised (Bo"ng +>>> ' Thro"gho"t the +>A=s*+>E=s #ost*co$onia$ Africa !ecame 1reno%ned for its 1Big 5en& reg"$ar mi$itary co"#s& %ides#read #atrimonia$ism and ostentio"s$y dis#$ayed %ea$th !y the fe% a$ongside rec"rring famines and extreme #overty for the many' D"ring the 1>=s& as the democratic transitions in 6atin America and 4astern and 2entra$ 4"ro#e triggered a %or$d%ide #ress"re for #o$itica$ $i!era$isation& it !ecame increasing$y c$ear to Africas $eaders that their $egitimacy co"$d no $onger !e s"stained !y coercion a$one) ne% or revived #o$itica$ #arties started to o##ose the $eaders and& as the continent re$ied heavi$y on internationa$ aid& the donor comm"nity %as increasing$y forcing states to ado#t $i!era$ democratic #rinci#$es (@ose#h +>>> em#hasising the (re introd"ction of free& fair and reg"$ar m"$ti*#arty e$ections& the r"$e of $a%& the se#aration of exec"tive& $egis$ative and F"dicia$ #o%ers& and the #rotection of the civi$ $i!erties of s#eech& assem!$y& re$igion and #ro#erty (Ia.aria +>>? ' As a res"$t& more than +/= com#etitive e$ections %ere he$d in s"!*Saharan Africa in the $ast decade of the ,=th cent"ry (Thomson ,==/ ' 7n !oth ;hana and :enya& the res#ective regimes of 6t' @erry Ra%$ings and #resident Danie$ Ara# 5oi acceded to #ress"res and restored m"$ti*#arty #o$itics in their co"ntries in +>>, (:afe%o ,==A) 2hege ,==E ' A$most ,= years have #assed since the change to m"$ti*#arty r"$e& !"t Africas democratisation #aths contin"e to !e high$y varia!$e (2arothers ,==/ ) today& its #o$itica$ regimes are fe$t to !e 1neither conso$idating nor f"$$y democratic (Afro!arometer ,==>:+ ' 7n the year ,==E the continent act"a$$y ex#erienced s"!stantia$ democratic reversa$s %ith civi$ "nrest and vio$ence fo$$o%ing a contested re*e$ection of the inc"m!ent #resident in :enya& #o$itica$ #$"ra$ism !eing "ndermined in B"r"ndi& #o$itica$ o##osition facing crac.do%ns in 2ameroon and Nigeria& severe media restrictions and an enhanced environment of fear emerging in 40"atoria$ ;"inea and crac.do%ns against civi$ society and threats to freedom of ex#ression !eing on the rise in ;a!on and ;am!ia (P"ddington ,==>:+=, ' Ghat ma.es transitions to and conso$idation of democracy so diffic"$t in s"!*Saharan Africa? Fai$ing democratic reforms are often ex#$ained a%ay as a 1$ac. of #o$itica$ %i$$& !"t Booth et a$' (,==D:, rightf"$$y #oint o"t that the reasons %hy co"ntries are a##arent$y "n%i$$ing to confront the need for f"ndamenta$ change are rare$y examined' 7n this cha#ter 7 %i$$ examine %hat these "nder$ying reasons are as 7 %i$$ ex#$ore ho% 1ethnicity and 1identity #o$itics& as %e$$ as the externa$ introd"ction of neo*$i!era$ #o$icies and $i!era$ democratic va$"es have critica$$y affected and sha#ed the character of democracy that has emerged in Africa' First 7 $oo. at ho% the deve$o#ment and #o$iticisation of African ethnicity has $aid the !asis for the identity #o$itics of today' Second& 7 examine ho% the introd"ction of neo*$i!era$ #o$icies and the #romotion of $i!era$ democratic va$"es have f"rther intensified Africas identity #o$itics' Third& 7 ex#$ore ho% ( in a context of democratisation ( the #ervasiveness and #ersistence of identity #o$itics have $ed to "ndemocratic res#onses !y !oth the state and society' Fina$$y& 7 %i$$ conc$"de that identity

#o$itics& exacer!ated !y externa$$y introd"ced forces& has res"$ted in the emergence of %hat @ose#h (+>>>:A+ has descri!ed Africas 1virt"a$ democracies' +'+' 4thnicity 5atters: 6aying the Basis for 7dentity Po$itics 4thnicity em!odies a common identity !"i$t on a shared c"$t"re& $ang"age& history& gro"nds& or even ancestry (<tta%ay +>>> ' 4thnicity has in some form or other a$%ays !een cr"cia$ for h"man !eings& and most $i.e$y a$%ays %i$$ !e (A$$en C 4ade ,=== ' 4thnic identities are not necessari$y fixed) %hether vo$"ntary or forced& individ"a$s can come to see themse$ves as #art of a #artic"$ar ethnic gro"# or nation' 2o$onia$ #o$icies& con0"est or a redefinition of #o$itica$ !o"ndaries are a$$ instances of %hat Bertrand (,==/:+= ca$$s 1critica$ F"nct"res& exogeno"s changes that can resha#e or #o$itica$$y mo!i$ise identities' As a conse0"ence of s"ch changes& #o$itica$ and societa$ #o%er str"ct"res go thro"gh a #rocess of rec$assification and redefinition %hich introd"ces the #ossi!i$ity (or threat ( de#ending on %hether one stands to gain or $ose ( of changing the #o$itica$ !a$ance of #o%er' This increased str"gg$e for #o%er is often a so"rce of ethnic conf$ict (Bertrand ,==/ ' 7n this and the next section 7 %i$$ $oo. at the critica$ F"nct"res that have affected and sha#ed these str"gg$es in Africa' 2o$onia$ #o%ers have !een instr"menta$ in the constr"ction of contem#orary African ethnicity as they !oth created and #o$iticised its notion (A$$en C 4ade ,=== ' Their !"rea"cratic need to 1$ocate& demarcate& c$assify and co"nt the #o#"$ation (Berman +>>E:-,+ & and their ex#ectations a!o"t African c"$t"res& reinforced !y missionairies and anthro#o$ogists& res"$ted in an externa$$y im#osed invention of African ethnic identities (<tta%ay +>>> ' B"t more critica$$y& as the co$onia$ state had f"$$ contro$ over the extraction of nat"ra$ and the organisation of h"man reso"rces& it introd"ced the #ractice of ma.ing the indigeno"s #eo#$es access to these reso"rces de#endent on socia$ differentiation: a differentiation that %as !ased $arge$y on (invented ethnic designation' This instit"tiona$ised the notion that contests over access and #ro#erty %ere $in.ed to contests over the definition and #o$itica$ $egitimacy of different ethnic comm"nities (Bratton C 8an De Ga$$e +>>/ ' The #artia$$y intended and #artia$$y "nintended conse0"ence of this divide and r"$e strategy !ro"ght a!o"t "nder$ying economic& #o$itica$& and societa$ #rocesses that have !een cr"cia$ to the constr"ction of Africas identity #o$itics' 4thnicity !ecame a maFor factor in #eo#$es re$ationshi#s %ith the state as a #ervasive c$ient*#atron re$ationshi# emerged %here African #eo#$e !ecame more re$ated to an a"thoritarian state as s"!Fects and c$ients& than as citiKens (Berman et a$' ,==/ ' F"rthermore& ethnicity evo$ved as a form of tr"st and sec"rity for African #eo#$e& not on$y in o##osition to a foreign and coercive state& !"t a$so in re$ation to com#eting ethnic comm"nities (4.eh ,==/:-A & an assertion of significance %hich 7 %i$$ re#eat thro"gho"t this #a#er' At the time of inde#endence& Africas ne% sovereign states inherited the geogra#hica$ !orders that had !een #revio"s$y defined !y its co$onisers' 5any comm"nities %ith ( often conf$icting (

ethnica$ identities and interests fo"nd themse$ves divided amongst different states or !eing made #art of #o$itica$ entities they #erceived as foreign (Bo"rga"$t +>>D) Berman +>>E) <tta%ay +>>> ' B"t %itho"t a sense of common ex#erience and a common set of #o$itica$ va$"es& the !o"ndaries of a state& are 1meaning$ess (Bertrand ,==/:+D and many African $eaders therefore em!ar.ed on a #rocess of nation*!"i$ding %hich ca$$ed for a move !eyond the ethnic comm"nities and transforming Africas s"!Fects into (nationa$ citiKens (see 5amdani +>>A in NyamnFoh ,==D:,A ' The !"i$ding of nations and nationa$ identities& ho%ever& inherent$y invo$ves #rocesses of inc$"sion and exc$"sion) nations are organised aro"nd #o$itica$& c"$t"ra$& or ethnic #rinci#$es of mem!ershi# s"ch as officia$ $ang"age& nationa$ sym!o$s& re$igio"s #ractice or forma$ re#resentation in #o$itica$ instit"tions' Africas nation*!"i$ding #rocess therefore not on$y constit"ted constr"cting ne% (nationa$ identities& it more critica$$y invo$ved the renegotiation of Africas ne% 1nationa$ mode$s and their #rinci#$es of mem!ershi# (Bertrand ,==/ ' This meant that #revio"s$y esta!$ished #rinci#$es in ethnic re$ations& s"ch as had !een defined "nder co$onia$ r"$e& %ere o#en for rec$assification' 7n the constr"ction of a ne% nation*state ethnic conf$ict started to arise as each gro"# com#eted for recognition and re#resentation (Berman et a$' ,==/ ' As <tta%ay (+>>> convincing$y arg"es& gaining #eo#$es $oya$ty to a ne% 1 imagined nationa$ comm"nity (Anderson +>E- in Fatton +>>D:EE does not tend to s"cceed "n$ess the ne% identity offers re%ards' B"t as the ne% inde#endent co"ntries %ere economica$$y %ea. and its economic deve$o#ment fa$tered& African $eaders %ere not %e$$ #$aced to #rovide their citiKens incentives to identify strong$y %ith the ne% nation and give "# on ethnic a$$egiances' 4thnic !onds had evo$ved as a form of tr"st and sec"rity& not on$y in o##osition to the state& !"t a$so in re$ation to com#eting ethnic comm"nities (4.eh ,==/ ' 4thnic mem!ershi# remained a means for Africans to co#e %ith the 1vicissit"des of historica$ change and the materia$ de#rivations of dai$y existence (Fatton +>>D:?D ' The ethnica$$y*!ased com#etition over #o%er and reso"rces that %as introd"ced "nder co$onia$ r"$e #ersisted' Beca"se Africas reso"rces remained scarce& tensions !et%een the different ethnic gro"#s com#eting for their share rose' To avoid f"$$*sca$e ethno*regiona$ cha$$enges& $eaders !egan to mani#"$ate ethnic differentiation& !y #romoting their o%n ethnic gro"# to the exc$"sion of others and co*o#ting #o%erf"$ ethnic o##onents thro"gh effective$y !"ying their s"##ort %ith state* contro$$ed reven"es (Thomson ,==/ ' The effect of this #atrimonia$ism or #atronage system %as that the act"a$ o#eration of African #"!$ic affairs !ecame dictated& not !y forma$ administrative str"ct"res and the r"$e of $a%& !"t !y a different set of #rinci#$es) state reso"rces& inc$"ding !"rea"cratic #ositions& the #o%er to a$$ocate rents& #rovide services& and determine #o$icies and their !eneficiaries& !ecame ca#t"red !y #ersona$ or #rivate net%or.s in the hands of dominant #atrons' Th"s& instead of !eing governed !y ex#$icit o!Fectives and $ega$ r"$es& the state !ecame effective$y an a##arat"s exc$"sive$y serving the interests of #artic"$ar (ethnic gro"#s and of those individ"a$s that had managed to ca#t"re it (Booth et a$' ,==D ' +',' 7ntrod"cing Neo*6i!era$ist Po$icies and 6i!era$ Democratic 8a$"es

Regimes& ho%ever& !"i$t on 1#ersona$ $oya$ty rather than !"rea"cratic a"thority are s"sce#ti!$e to instit"tiona$ co$$a#se %hen #atronage reso"rces r"n o"t (Bratton C 8an De Ga$$e +>>/:/A= %hich is %hat ha##ened %hen in the 1E=s' Africas economic gro%th sta$$ed and the conse0"ent de!t crisis res"$ted in& internationa$ financia$ instit"tions (7F7s $i.e the Gor$d Ban. and the 7nternationa$ 5onetary F"nd (75F im#osing $arge*sca$e economic and state reforms as a strategy to get African co"ntries to meet de!t*re#ayment sched"$es' These neo*$i!era$ reforms& so*ca$$ed Str"ct"ra$ AdF"stment Programmes (SAPs & $i!era$ised Africas economies !y o#ening them "# to internationa$ and domestic #rivate ca#ita$& red"cing the ro$e (and siKe of the state and #rivatising state enter#rises and services (Thomson ,==/ ' The SAPs had a co$ossa$ socia$ and #o$itica$ im#act as Africas economies %ith their sma$$ ind"stria$ !ase #roved inca#a!$e of %ithstanding and s"rviving foreign com#etition %itho"t #"!$ic #rotection (Fatton +>>D ' The %ides#read ado#tion of mar.et*oriented economic strategies (%hi$st the continents margina$isation in the g$o!a$ #o$itica$ economy #ersisted $ed to mass "nem#$oyment& $eft the vast maFority of African citiKens %itho"t access to !asic needs and exacer!ated #overty (@ose#h +>>>) Potter ,===) NyamnFoh ,==D) Bond ,==A) Ferg"son ,==A ' Str"ct"ra$ adF"stment #$"nged African society into "ncertainty and 1#o$ariKed insta!i$ity (Fatton +>>D:E/ ' Gith the state having fe%er o##ort"nities to !esto% #atronage to c$ients this not on$y increased the ethnic com#etition over reso"rces& it dec$ined the governments $egitimacy) food riots and ind"stria$ stri.es emerged and #"!$ic demands for m"$ti*#arty democracy in Africa gre% (Thomson ,==/ ' As a res"$t of these gro%ing democratic demands and the ins#iring democratic transitions in 6atin America and 2entra$ and 4astern 4"ro#e that characterised the 1>=s& the internationa$ comm"nity started to em!race democracy 1as not F"st a $"x"ry that on$y rich co"ntries co"$d afford (Jyden C <.ig!o ,==,:// ' Aid agencies and donors !egan to attach #o$itica$ conditiona$ities to their aid #ac.ages& advocating $i!era$ democratic va$"es s"ch as m"$ti#arty #o$itics& #"!$ic #artici#ation and the res#ect for civi$ $i!erties (Fatton +>>D ' The granting of $oans !ecame de#endent on a regimes h"man rights record and commitment to democratic reforms& c"$minating in the introd"ction of the 1good governance agenda and the em#hasis on #artici#atory deve$o#ment %here!y civi$ society %as ce$e!rated as a maFor so"rce of socia$ and #o$itica$ change and a critica$ agent of democratisation) the 1co"nter%eight to a 1!ad& corr"#t and #redatory state (Fatton +>>D) Potter ,===) Thomson ,==/) P"dde#hat ,==E) <d"g!emi C @aco!son ,==E ' Today& #o%erf"$ 7F7s& donors and transnationa$ instit"tions s"ch as the 9nited Nations contin"e to ( effective$y and often not so effective$y ( r"$e $arge domains of African economy and society (Ferg"son ,==A ' B"t %hi$st #ress"ring African $eaders to democratise as 5.anda%ire (+>>> and <$".oshi (+>>> rightf"$$y #oint o"t: these organisations are themse$ves not acco"nta!$e to those #eo#$e that are affected !y their #o$icies ( the African #o#"$ace' Their neo*$i!era$ #o$icies have red"ced the African state to the #oint that 1it cannot #rovide #hysica$ #rotection and access to !asic socia$ services (PrKe%ors.i +>>D in Fatton +>>>:E) see a$so Berman et a$' ,==/ ' 9nder s"ch conditions& 1it is not on$y democracy that is threatened& !"t the very !ases of socia$

cohesion (PrKe%ors.i +>>D in Fatton +>>D:E ' As a conse0"ence& materia$ s"rviva$ and even #hysica$ safety can on$y !e ( as !efore ( ethnica$$y sec"red and decentra$ised and %ides#read ethnic (vio$ent conf$ict is $i.e$y to emerge (Fatton +>>D ' The fear and s"!se0"ent #otentia$ for vio$ence are direct res"$ts of a #o$itica$ system in %hich one gro"# dominates the instr"ments of state #o%er and "ses them to deny simi$ar access or #rivi$eges to other ethnic gro"#s (Bertrand ,==/ ' The transition from a"thoritarian regimes %hich de#end on state contro$& to democracy and $i!era$ #rinci#$es of individ"a$ 1inc$"sive citiKenshi#& %hich de#end on #o%er*sharing& #"!$ic #artici#ation and is driven !y maFority consens"s& can ( as Bertrand (,==/ correct$y arg"es ( create serio"s #ro!$ems of re#resentation for #artic"$ar gro"#s' Githo"t ta.ing into acco"nt some $eve$ of gro"# recognition& the $ess dominant c"$t"ra$ gro"#s (in act"a$ citiKen n"m!ers may find themse$ves exc$"ded from access to the state& #artic"$ar$y in sit"ations ( s"ch as is the case in many deve$o#ing nations inc$"ding in Africa ( %here F"dicia$ and #o$itica$ instit"tions that can sec"re e0"a$ re#resentation are %ea.' The #eriod !et%een the initia$ o#ening of an a"thoritarian regime and a f"$$y conso$idated democracy is cr"cia$ for re$ations !et%een ethnic gro"#s' 7f conf$icts !et%een the most #o%erf"$ gro"#s can !e reso$ved immediate$y #rior to a democratic o#ening& s"ch as in So"th Africa& then it is #ossi!$e to o#en "# to $ess #o%erf"$ gro"#s thro"gh a #act*ma.ing #rocess $eading to a transition' B"t So"th Africa has !een the exce#tion on the continent and not the r"$e (Bertrand ,==/ ' +'-' 9ndemocratic Democratisation: Res#onses of State and Society African $eaders recognised ear$y on that act"a$ #o#"$ar #artici#ation had the #otentia$ to dismant$e the mechanisms that had reg"$ated ethnic re$ations in the #ast and had .e#t them in #o%er (2$a#ham +>>-) Jer!st +>>> ' The introd"ction of com#etitive #o$itics %o"$d im#act that !a$ance of #o%er as com#eting ethnic gro"#s no% had their o%n access: thro"gh the !a$$ot !ox (2$a#ham +>>-) Jer!st +>>> ' B"t& es#ecia$$y in a context of #overty and de#rivation& increased com#etition is $i.e$y to s#"r the "se of #o$itica$ #atronage (6ind!erg C 5orrison ,==E and as a res"$t& identity #o$itics intensified) the #rocess of #referentia$ inc$"sion of some and exc$"sion of others from the c$aim to economic and #o$itica$ o##ort"nities and entit$ements !ecame more visi!$e and in some cases more destr"ctive (NyamnFoh ,==D ' 7n res#onse to this threat and to 1$egitimiKe their #o%er %itho"t endangering their #rivi$eges& African $eaders em!ar.ed on a #rocess of 1contro$$ed $i!era$iKation (Fatton +>>D:?> ) %hi$st #aying $i# service to the demands for democratisation& they $oo.ed to maintain the #o$itica$ order and #rotect the interests of dominant socia$ gro"#s (@ose#h +>>> ' 7n the #rocess they ne"tra$ised and disa!$ed democracys transformative mechanisms !y a$$o%ing some s#ace for inde#endent civic and #o$itica$ action %hi$e caref"$$y contro$$ing its im#$ementation and avoiding the #o$itica$$y to"gh decisions that gen"ine democratic reform %o"$d necessitate (Booth et a$' ,==D ' By denying African citiKens any meaningf"$ sense of citiKenshi# co"#$ed %ith 1the socia$ and economic emasc"$ation of the state this 1is generating a descent into a O%ar of a$$ against a$$P

that constit"tiona$ design and e$ectora$ #rocesses are "n$i.e$y to sto# (Fatton +>>>:E ' Not on$y the genocides of R%anda and B"r"ndi are exam#$es of an 1ex#$oding and "ncontro$$a!$e civi$ society& other ethnica$$y charged vio$ence has occ"red in 6i!eria& Sierra 6eone& Soma$ia& Togo& 2ongo*BraKKavi$$e& Niger& Ango$a and S"dan (Fatton +>>>:, ' 7n a #o$itica$$y acco"nta!$e environment& the state m"st #$ay a centra$ ro$e in organising #rod"ction and investments& in correcting mar.et fai$"res& in red"cing materia$ ine0"a$ities& and in sec"ring #"!$ic #eace thro"gh the enforcement of #redicta!$e rights and o!$igations (Fatton +>>D ' Far from engaging in this tas.& African states ( %ea.ened !y neo*$i!era$ reforms ( have !ecome not on$y inca#a!$e of effective$y administering their o%n economic reforms& !"t a$so instit"tiona$ restr"ct"ring and grassroots #artici#ation in the #o$itica$ #rocess (Berman et a$' ,==/ ' And a$tho"gh the state is (a$!eit$y s$o%$y* rec$aiming #art of its cr"cia$ ro$e in the #rocess of deve$o#ment& to %hat #oint state ca#acity sho"$d !e strenghtened contin"es to !e a matter of internationa$ de!ate and contin"es to !e directed from o"tside of Africa' There is and has sho%n to !e a ris. of states strengthening themse$ves at the ex#ense of its citiKens& !"t as Berger (,==, convincing$y arg"es& this sho"$d not res"$t in com#$ete anti*state attit"des (see a$so 2arothers ,==? ) in order to !e a!$e to safeg"ard and deve$o# democracy& 1the African state m"st not !e ro$$ed !ac. so m"ch that its !asic f"nction %ithers a%ay& for it is thro"gh the state that h"man and citiKens rights are sec"red (Ronning +>>> in Berger ,==,:,A) see a$so @ose#h +>>> ' F"rthermore& the African #o$itica$ agenda a##ears to %ithho$d significant freedom in #"!$ic #artici#ation %ith regards to co"ntries economic #o$icies d"e to internationa$ #ress"res to ado#t neo*$i!era$ reforms' B"t African citiKens regard their #o$itica$ em#o%erment as a %ay for increased economic o##ort"nity and e0"a$ity) for them& #o$itica$ freedom %itho"t economic s"ccess seems meaning$ess (<$".oshi +>>>) Potter ,=== ' 7n terms of e$ectora$ #rogrammes& !y offering $itt$e choice for #o$itica$ #arties to com#ete over& this effective$y enco"rages the #ersona$isation of the #o$itica$ #rocess a$ong ethnic $ines (5.anda%ire +>>>) <$".oshi +>>> ' This is !est i$$"strated !y Africas voting !ehavio"r' Ghen #eo#$e have !een ex#osed to ethnicity !eing a (#redominant means of gaining access to #atronage and therefore is a via!$e $ive$ihood strategy& as voters& they tend to vote a$ong ethnic $ines (see research 4$ischer ,==E on Nigeria& :enya& and ;hana ' 7dentity voting is strongest in ethnica$$y fragmented societies' 7n a context %here others are ass"med to vote a$ong identity $ines& voters %i$$ "se information on the ass"med ethnic identities of #arties and cast their !a$$ots for those they ca$c"$ate %i$$ !est defend their gro"# interests (Bratton C :imenyi ,==E ' The fear of ethnic domination and s"##ression !ecomes a motivating force for the ac0"isition of #o%er thro"gh the !a$$ot !ox (Bertrand ,==/ ' 4ven if #eo#$e #refer to vote on #o$icy& they find themse$ves at the same time 1tra##ed in an e0"i$i!ri"m %here ethnic favoritism is the r"$e& and %here they $ose o"t in access to reso"rces if they ignore its im#$ications for #o$itica$ !ehavior (Posner ,==D in Bratton C :imenyi ,==E:? ' They do not need to !e #rimari$y motivated !y their o%n ethnic origins in order to !ehave in this fashion !"t as Bratton C :imenyi (,==E convincing$y assert: they on$y need fear that their o##onents %i$$ vote ethnica$$y'

+'/' Africas 18irt"a$ Democracies 7n Africa& %ho is inc$"ded and %ho is exc$"ded from economic and #o$itica$ o##ort"nities and rights contin"es to !e !ased on ethnicity and ethnic mem!ershi#& rather than the !roader $i!era$ democratic conce#t of citiKenshi# (Berman et a$' ,==/ ' The res"$ting identity #o$itics com!ined %ith a %ides#read system of #atronage therefore have come to define the character of the socia$ contract !et%een the state and society) ethnic and socia$ gro"#s com#eting for c$ose connections to the state has remained a #rinci#$e %ay to o!tain #rotection& stat"s& !asic needs and %ea$th (Berger ,==,) NyamnFoh ,==D ' The introd"ction of m"$ti*#arty& com#etitive #o$itics in a context of economic de#rivation and internationa$ margina$isation& have increased the #o$itica$ mo!i$isation of ethnicity' 7t seems that in Africa democratisation is itse$f a threat to democracy& !eca"se it "n$eashes forces that tend to s#"r #o$itica$ insta!i$ity (<g"ndim" ,==, ' For African $eaders& the transition from a"tocracy to democracy has therefore !een more a strategy for maintaining and sec"ring #o%er& than a vehic$e for #o#"$ar em#o%erment (A.e +>>-) 2ha!a$ C Da$oK +>>>) Tettey et a$' ,==-) Berman et a$' ,==/ ' They have $earned to ta$. the ta$. of democratisation %hi$e contro$$ing #rocesses of #o$itica$ $i!era$isation and mani#"$ate democratic transitions to the !enefit of (re $egitimising their #o%er (Fatton +>>D) Booth et a$' ,==D ' 7n the #rocess they have constr"cted 1virt"a$ democracies) com!ining a seeming$y forma$ !asis in citiKen r"$e !"t exc$"ding .ey decision*ma.ing from #o#"$ar #artici#ation (@ose#h +>>>:A+ ' For society& ethnicity has remained a form of #rotection and a means to #rovide !asic needs vis* a*vis the state and com#eting ethnic comm"nities (4.eh ,==/ ' 4thnica$$y !ased o##ort"nism is not on$y #reva$ent in state #o$itics !"t is #art of many Africans dai$y $ife (2ha!a$ C Da$oK +>>> ' The em#hasis the internationa$ comm"nity #"ts on strenghtening civi$ society in o##osition of the state therefore o!sc"res the fact that $oca$ comm"nities can inc$"de very #ersistent and "ndemocratic str"ct"res of #o%er: as the se#aration of #o$itica$ and economic #o%er remains non*existent in many co"ntries& #artici#ation in #"!$ic affairs may sim#$y !e a means of concea$ing ongoing #atronage (5ohan C Sto..e ,===) Jic.ey C 5ohan ,==D ' 7n Africa #o#"$ar democratic $egitimacy is "$timate$y derived from the #o$itics of deve$o#ment (A$hassan ,==D & !"t the rea$ity of Africas s$o% and at times adverse economic #rogress seems to contradict democracys !e$ieved instr"menta$ity in the #rocess (8an De Ga$$e +>>>) Berman et a$' ,==/ ' ;iven the continents #ersistent "nderdeve$o#ment& the 1#o$itics of the !e$$y therefore contin"e to !e a via!$e strategy as 1#eo#$e cannot eat democracy (5.anda%ire in <$".oshi +>>>:/D> ' For African democracies to effective$y democratise this invo$ves a transition 1from a #o$itics !ased on c"$t"ra$ identity to a #o$itics !ased on #o$icy choice (Bratton C :imenyi ,==E:+- ' Democratic conso$idation is $ess $i.e$y to ha##en in states in %hich #o$itica$ #arties are !ased on a str"gg$e for #o%er driven !y a #ervasive c"$t"re of ethnic #atronage' As Bratton C :imenyi (,==E rightf"$$y #oint o"t: a transformation from an ethnica$$y and #atronage*!ased identity #o$itics to%ards an iss"e*!ased #o$itics and from ethnic voting into

#o$icy voting re0"ires socia$ and economic str"ct"ra$ change& inc$"ding greater contact& integration and economic e0"a$ity among ethnic gro"#s' This #a#er ana$yses African medias contri!"tion to African democratisation and deve$o#ment' To assess this contri!"tion& the character of African democracies vis*a*vis the character of a $i!era$ised African media ( as arg"ed in the introd"ction ( needs to !e examined more c$ose$y' The 1dynamics of democracy are intimate$y $in.ed to the #ractices of comm"nication %hich means that a 1concern for democracy& therefore necessitates a concern a!o"t media (@aco!s ,==, in Tettey ,==E:, ' This cha#ter has ex#$ored the character of African democracies& the next cha#ter %i$$ contin"e to ex#$ore ho% this re$ates to the character of the African media environment'

2ha#ter T%o 2haracterising African 5edia The constit"tiona$ introd"ction of m"$ti*#arty #o$itics and the %ides#read ado#tion of media $i!era$isation have !een .ey factors in the gro%th of the media sector in !oth ;hana and :enya& most nota!$y the radio sector (:ari.ari ,===) :afe%o ,==A) 5aina ,==A) see a$so fig' , ' 7n ;hana& %here the state*o%ned ;hana Broadcasting 2or#oration %as the on$y station "nti$ +>>/& "# to EA F5 and - short%ave stations had !een $icensed !y ,==?' The :enyan states !roadcasting mono#o$y o#ened "# in +>>A and c"rrent$y ,/ A5& E, F5 and A short%ave radio stations can !e fo"nd thro"gho"t the co"ntry (!oth data ta.en from 27A ,==> '

Fig"re ,: ;ro%th Radio Stations (So"rce: 5oeh$er C 6"yim!aKi ,==>:, ' 7n #artic"$ar& $oca$ (vernac"$ar radio stations have f$o"rished& %ho ( a$tho"gh a$so often in 4ng$ish ( $arge$y !roadcast in the #redominant $ang"ages of the areas in %hich they o#erate: in ;hana& the $argest a"diences in the five most #o#"$o"s #arts of the co"ntry !e$ong to #rivate commercia$ stations) Peace F5 in Accra& Fox F5 in :"masi& S.y Po%er F5 in Ta.oradi& S#ace F5 in S"nyani& and Diamond F5 in the Northern Region (;adKe.#o ,==D in :afe%o ,==A:+/ ' 7n :enya& %hi$st targeting $isteners from the main ethnic comm"nities s"ch as the :i."y"s in 2entra$ Province& 6"os in Gest& :a$enFins in North%est& :am!as in So"theast& and :isiis in So"theast& $oca$ $ang"age radio stations had ,? #ercent of the radio mar.et !y ,==?& com#ared %ith --M he$d !y mainstream radios (7smai$ C Deane ,==E:-,, ' 4ar$y content of these stations in !oth co"ntries %as m"sic and entertainment*!ased& !"t a"dience demand soon t"rned the foc"s of m"ch of their airtime on #"!$ic disc"ssion fora (BB2 GST ,==E ' As o"t$ets for 1active citiKenshi# (:odi ,==D:,/ & !y #roviding #eo#$e the o##ort"nity to Foin #"!$ic de!ate and ex#ress their voice& ta$. sho%s and #hone*in #rogrammes

have !ecome a disting"ishing and #o#"$ar feat"re of #rivate radio (:ari.ari ,===) Tettey ,==- ' <n the s"rface& these regiona$ stations have #$ayed a significant ro$e in democratica$$y em#o%ering ;hanaian and :enyan $oca$ comm"nities #artic"$ar$y those %ho have $ong !een exc$"ded from #"!$ic administration (:ari.ari ,===) 7$!o"do ,==-) :iai ,==E ' B"t this em#o%erment has not on$y invigorated& it has a$so "ndermined the emergence of a democratic #o$itica$ c"$t"re (BB2 GST ,==E ' Ghereas in ;hana& inde#endent radio stations are said to have !een 1cr"cia$ (:ari.ari ,===:,) see a$so Temin C Smith ,==,) Norris C Iinn!a"er ,==,) Tettey ,==- to the #eacef"$ transitions of #o%er from inc"m!ent #arty to o##osition in ,===& and $ater in ,==E (;yimah*Boadi ,==> & the ro$e vernac"$ar radio ta$. sho%s #$ayed in the ,==?H,==E #ost*e$ection crisis in :enya te$$s a different story (7smai$ C Deane ,==E) JRG ,==E) 2hege ,==E) BB2 GST ,==E) :aia ,==E ' The vio$ent ethnic conf$icts that fo$$o%ed the contested e$ection of the inc"m!ent #resident :i!a.i %ere exacer!ated !y fre0"ent !roadcasts of hate s#eech !oth #rior as %e$$ as after the e$ection and !ro"ght !ac. to mind that radio can a$so #$ay a destr"ctive ro$e: R%andas #o#"$ar !"t infamo"s #rivate radio station Radio*TQ$Qvision 6i!re 5i$$e 2o$$ines (RT65 & cr"cia$ in the organisation of the co"ntrys +>>/ genocide& !eing the most dist"r!ing #roof of that on the continent' 7n this cha#ter 7 investigate %hether a $i!era$ised African media environment& %hich has res"$ted in the gro%th of #rivate radio stations& has indeed !een the next !est thing for African democracy' Ghi$e internationa$ aid agencies and donors increasing$y foc"s on the #ositive ro$e these media o"t$ets #$ay as core constit"ents of 1the ena!$ing environment of democratisation (Da$oK C 8errier*Frechette ,===:+E+ and th"s critica$ in a co"ntrys deve$o#ment& 7 intend to ma.e evident that this ass"m#tion is over$y o#timistic and can in fact have an adverse democratic effect %hen divorced from a co"ntrys societa$& #o$itica$ and economic context' 7 %i$$ first start !y asserting that information is not ne"tra$ (NyamnFoh ,==D ) as a means of #o%er& contro$ over the #$atforms that disseminate information is an im#ortant #o$itica$ too$ (2ha!a$ and Da$oK +>>> ' Second& %hen information is t"rned into a #rod"ct that can !e !o"ght and so$d& this commercia$isation affects medias #"!$ic res#onsiveness& inc$"siveness& and #rofessiona$ism' Third& 7 examine and com#are the ;hanaian and :enyan ex#erience !y eva$"ating the re$ationshi# !et%een the #o$itica$ character of the res#ective co"ntries vis*N*vis the character of its media and in #artic"$ar #rivate radio stations' Fina$$y& 7 %i$$ conc$"de that !oth the #o$itics and !"siness of information and o#inion*formation can severe$y narro% medias and radios democratic #otentia$' ,'+' 7nformation as Po%er As ex#$ored in cha#ter one& identity #o$itics #$ay an a$$*determining ro$e in defining the socia$ contract !et%een the state and society in Africa' The introd"ction of com#etitive #o$itics ("nder conditions of #overty& de#rivation& #ersistent internationa$ economic margina$isation and a %ea.ened state & have on$y f"rther increased the ethnica$$y*!ased str"gg$es for #o$itica$ and economic #o%er and has s#"rred the "se of #o$itica$ #atronage' Processes of #referentia$

inc$"sion of some and exc$"sion of other socia$ gro"#s from the c$aim to economic and #o$itica$ o##ort"nities have exacer!ated' Both the state and society have res#onded to these changes in 1"ndemocratic %ays& that is to say they have !oth made ethnic mem!ershi# instead of citiKen mem!ershi# $eading in their actions and decisions' The state has& !y contro$$ing the #rocess of #o$itica$ $i!era$isation& aimed to #rotect the interest of dominant socia$ gro"#s' Society has thro"gh their voting !ehavio"r reinforced the im#ortance of ethnicity at the !a$$ot !ox and in some cases !oth the state and society have !een invo$ved in instigating and exacer!ating ethnic (vio$ent c$ashes in #"rs"it of #rotecting or gaining #o$itica$ contro$' As a means !y %hich citiKens !ecome engaged %ith #o$itica$ #rocesses& the media have a f"ndamenta$ #o$itica$ f"nction (Panos 7nstit"te ,==?a ' This %as and contin"es to !e %e$$* "nderstood !y African $eaders) "nder its a"thoritarian regimes& media organisations #redominant$y served the interests of those in #o%er and media freedom %as severe$y constrained thro"gh often heavy*handed censorshi# (Bo"rga"$t +>>D ' Today& media freedom remains 1che0"ered (Temin C Smith ,==,:DEE as #o$itica$ $eaders have a tendency to ignore or ar!itrari$y inter#ret $ega$ and constit"tiona$ r"$es' 6egis$ation ( introd"ced "nder co$onia$ r"$e ( can $imit #ress freedom in the interests of defense& #"!$ic safety& #"!$ic order& #"!$ic mora$ity& or #"!$ic hea$th thro"gh meas"res $i.e the interr"#tion or cance$$ation of air%aves andHor harassment and detention of Fo"rna$ists (57SA ,==E) 7P7 ,==E) Freedom Jo"se ,==> ' 4xam#$es a!o"nd from vario"s corners of the continent: in 40"atoria$ ;"inea& President Teodoro Ng"ema !anned Radio Africa ,=== fo$$o%ing critica$ re#orts of the co"ntrys first m"$ti*#arty e$ections' 7n Niger& Radio Anfani and other radio stations %ere sh"t tem#orari$y in +>>A fo$$o%ing an order !y mi$itary strongman& 7!rahim Bare 5ainassara& %ho seiKed contro$ of the co"nting of votes in an e$ection meant to !ring the co"ntry to civi$ian r"$e (<g!ondah ,==,:AA ' As the internationa$ em#hasis on good governance and #artici#atory deve$o#ment ce$e!rating civi$ society as the co"nter%eight to a 1!ad state (Fatton +>>D) NyamnFoh ,==D $ed to #ress"res to shrin. the states #o%er thro"gh #rivatisation and dereg"$ation (Ronning +>>/ in Berger ,==,:,A & for the African media this too. the form of o#ening "# access to air%aves for #rivate !roadcasters (B$an.son ,==, ' The ass"m#tion !ehind this notion of media $i!era$isation %as that it %o"$d stim"$ate an increase in the n"m!er of media channe$s to !ecome avai$a!$e to the #"!$ic and as s"ch %o"$d generate an increase in media inde#endence and #$"ra$ism there!y no"rishing a more com#etitive media environment more res#onsive to the #"!$ic& more .een to .ee# a %atchf"$ eye on government& and more o#en to o##osing #ers#ectives' As a res"$t a more democratic environment (considered critica$ to a co"ntrys deve$o#ment %o"$d arise (Tettey ,==+) Gor$d Ban. ,==,aH!) Norris ,==A ( see fig' + ' 7n this section& ho%ever& 7 arg"e that media $i!era$isation #o$icies do not a"tomatica$$y res"$t in democratic o"tcomes' Ghen divorced from a co"ntrys #revai$ing societa$ and #o$itica$ character& these can #rod"ce high$y "ndemocratic o"tcomes as %e$$' 7n the case of s"!*Saharan Africa %here!y its co"ntries #o$itica$ characters are dominated !y high$y com#etitive identity #o$itics (see cha#ter one & media $i!era$isation #o$icies can act"a$$y reinforce ethnic str"gg$es for

#o$itica$ #o%er' Beca"se of %ides#read #atronage dominant socia$ gro"#s can mono#o$ise the media mar.et to #rotect their vested interests& to exacer!ate socia$ fragmentation and& at its most extreme& to incite ethnic vio$ence (Snyder C Ba$$entine +>>A) Snyder ,===) Price C Thomson ,==,) P"tKe$ C 8an De I%am ,==A ' 7n the context of com#etitive #o$itics %here former$y exc$"ded voices no% have a chance to enter the #o$itica$ arena& media $i!era$isation a$$o%s for #revio"s$y "navai$a!$e comm"nication channe$s to !ecome avai$a!$e' The gro%th of for instance radio stations can res"$t in an "n$eashing of high$y #o$arising voices (Fardon C F"rniss ,===) Bertrand ,==/ ' First& #reva$ent #atronage str"ct"res a$$o% dominant individ"a$s or socia$ gro"#s to gain contro$ of the media mar.et (Price C Thomson ,==,) P"tKe$ C 8an De I%am ,==A ' As commercia$ $icenses are often granted direct$y !y the government rather than !y an inde#endent reg"$atory agency #rotected !y $a% (8an Der 8e"r ,==, & the s"!se0"ent mono#o$isation of the media !y the economic and #o$itica$ e$ite& can $ead to #rivate media o"t$ets !ecoming the mo"th#iece for r"$ing #o%er centres (2arver ,===) Berger ,==, ' This !ecame evident in R%anda& %hen ( "nder the s"#ervision of the 9nited Nations ( a #o%er sharing agreement %as signed !et%een the J"t"s and T"tsis in R%anda in #re#aration for the +>>D m"$ti*#arty e$ections' These so*ca$$ed Ar"sha Accords inc$"ded the deve$o#ment of a $i!era$ised media (2arver ,=== ' B"t as the J"t" e$ite fe$t threatened !y their #otentia$ $oss of #o%er& one reaction %as the introd"ction of the 1#rivate$y*o%ned radio station RT65 of %hich the vast maFority of fo"nders %ere associated %ith the inc"m!ent #resident Ja!yarimana (Des Forges ,==,) 5itche$$ ,==? ' F"rthermore& a mar.et#$ace can !e mani#"$ated) #rivate media o"t$ets de#end on advertising reven"e to s"rvive and this can and has sho%n to foster a c"$t"re of se$f*censorshi# (Tettey ,==A ' 7n order not to Feo#ardise their o%n economic via!i$ity& !"sinessess avoid advertising on stations %ith a re#"tation for !eing hosti$e to the government' <ne re#resentative of ;a!ons Radio So$ei$ ex#$ained that com#anies %ere re$"ctant to invest in its air%aves !eca"se 1%e %ere not s"!servient eno"gh to the centra$ government& %hich has c$ose ties to the !"siness %or$d (9N4S2< 2o"rier + A#ri$ ,==+ ' 7n A#ri$ ,==?& an e*mai$ message !y the :enyan government instr"cted its #"!$ic sector instit"tions not to advertise in The Standard ne%s#a#er and :enyan Te$evision Net%or.& !"t send their ads to media organisations that %ere more favo"ra!$y dis#osed to the governments #o$icies (Tettey ,==E:+/ ' Second& #rivate radio stations %or. in a societa$ and #o$itica$ context %here many #eo#$e have historica$$y !een exc$"ded from e0"a$ #o$itica$ and economic recognition and re#resentation (NyamnFoh ,==D ' <##osing ethnic gro"#s have thro"gh the introd"ction of com#etitive #o$itics o!tained o##ort"nities to sec"re gro"# interests and c$aims thro"gh the !a$$ot !ox) #o$itica$ ethnic mo!i$isation has therefore !ecome a means to o!tain #o$itica$ #o%er' 7n ear$y stages of transition from a"tocracy to democracy& forma$ instit"tiona$ str"ct"res that define ho% gro"# interests and c$aims can !e ex#ressed or negotiated are ty#ica$$y %ea.& missing or not ne"tra$' 7nforma$ str"ct"res s"ch as o#en criticism via radio channe$s can therefore !ecome via!$e strategies to sec"re those interests and c$aims (Bertrand ,==/) see a$so Snyder C Ba$$entine

+>>A) Snyder ,===) P"tKe$ C 8an Der I%am ,==A ' By targeting ca#tive ethnic or regiona$ gro"#s& for instance thro"gh vernac"$ar radio stations& com#eting #o$itica$ #o%ers can mani#"$ate the dissemination of information and o#inions to f"rther their con0"est for #o$itica$ #o%er' The greater the riva$ry !et%een these e$ites& the more de#endent and #artisan the media are $i.e$y to !e' As a res"$t& African #rivate radio stations have ass"med a #artisan and high$y #o$iticised ro$e (NyamnFoh ,==D ' 7n :enya& certain #o$iticians o%n F5 stations& #artic"$ar$y vernac"$ar ones& and their editoria$ content tends to ref$ect their #o$itica$ interests (7smai$ C Deane ,==E ' Ta$. sho%s in #artic"$ar seem to have !een seiKed !y those %ith the strongest and most organised #o$itica$ vie%s' According to 5itch <dero of the 5edia 2o"nci$ of :enya& !oth !efore and after the ,==? e$ection& there %ere many cases %here radio stations cham#ioned hate s#eech on $ive ta$. sho%s as #o$iticians ca$$ed on #eo#$e to rise "# and fight (in BB2 GST ,==E:D ' The str"gg$e for #o%er& ho%ever& is not on$y ta.en "# !y the com#eting gro"#s e$ites' 5any #rivate vernac"$ar radio stations arg"e that their #artisan coverage is !eing driven !y their a"diences) not !eing radica$ $oses $isteners& th"s Feo#ardising their commercia$ existence' 5any of these media cons"mers have historica$$y had very fe% (if at a$$ channe$s thro"gh %hich they can comm"nicate their #ers#ective into #"!$ic de!ate (NyamnFoh ,==D ' <nce given the o##ort"nity& those %ho have 1.e#t 0"iet !efore& no% have the o##ort"nity to !rea. their si$ence and these individ"a$ or comm"na$ voices s"dden$y have the #otentia$ to 1ex#$ode into the #"!$ic stage (Fatton +>>D:EA ' Private regiona$ radio stations have #rovided them a channe$) many of the voices on these #o#"$ar ta$. sho%s and #hone*ins ex#ress anger& are disaffected and determined on change (BB2 GST ,==E) 5%esige ,==> ' 7n :enya& %here many vernac"$ar stations are serving s#ecific comm"nities %ith each its o%n #o$itica$ orientation& their a"diences often on$y %ant to hear one side of the story) 1o!Fectivity and ne"tra$ity is often seen in those areas as a sign of hosti$ity (G' Gar"r"& chairman 5edia 2o"nci$ of :enya in BB2 GST ,==E:A ' Serio"s dis#"tes are he$d over %hether media (in sit"ations s"ch as transitions from a"tocracy to democracy sho"$d em#hasise their critica$ ro$e as %atchdogs& in o##osition to the state& or their constr"ctive ro$e in the deve$o#ment and strengthening the ne% governments a!i$ity to r"$e effective$y (:"#er C :"#er ,==+ ' 7n the case of R%anda& the conc$"sion dra%n !y many Fo"rna$ists& h"man rights and media N;<s& %as that the co"ntry had fai$ed to $i!era$ise its !roadcasting: an ear$y deve$o#ment of a #$"ra$ and diverse media environment co"$d have #revented the genocide& advocating more (instead of $ess free s#eech (2arver ,=== ' B"t critics #ers"asive$y arg"e that the 1drive to%ards #o$itica$ $i!era$isation (A$$en C Strem$a" ,==D:A he$#ed create the environment that a$$o%ed the genocide to occ"r' R%andas forma$ instit"tiona$ fo"ndations %ere ty#ica$$y %ea. and !eca"se of the J"t"s fear of $osing #o%er& informa$ means s"ch as a #rivate radio station co"$d !e co*o#ted for "ndemocratic #"r#oses and #rotecting vested interests) the conf$ict %as in fact intensified !y greater media $i!era$isation (Snyder and Ba$$entine +>>A:-- '

7t is im#ortant to remem!er that none of the co"ntries that 1ma.e "# the internationa$ comm"nity have #erfect$y $i!era$ised media mar.ets' Ghi$e forma$ state censorshi# may !e minima$& there are neverthe$ess mechanisms and codes of cond"ct that serve a simi$ar ro$e) mechanisms that are rare$y in #$ace in ne% or fragi$e democracies' The c"rrent R%andan President Pa"$ :agame #"!$ic$y stated that his co"ntry is not ready for an entire$y free media environment and according to A$$en C Strem$a" (,==D:, he has a #oint' Promoting media reg"$ation sho"$d !e an essentia$ #art in !"i$ding or strengthening the ca#acities of the state to govern& #artic"$ar$y in sit"ations $i.e the aftermath of a maFor change (a 1critica$ F"nct"re & s"ch as the introd"ction of com#etitive #o$itics& or extreme vio$ent conf$ict s"ch as in R%anda& %here nationa$ cohesion and consens"s first needs to !e !"i$t' As Price C Thomson (,==,:+D a#t$y assert: the 1$onger*term good of the society might re0"ire a 1short*term censorshi# of media o"t$ets' P$acing $imits on media& ho%ever& is a diffic"$t and controversia$ !a$ancing act as it can a$$ too easi$y !ecome an exc"se for se$f*serving government censorshi# (P"tKe$ C 8an De I%am ,==A ' 7n res#onse to the ,==?H,==E #ost*e$ection crisis& President :i!a.i& stating that #ress freedom m"st go hand in hand %ith res#onsi!i$ity& signed into $a% a media !i$$ that gives the :enyan a"thorities the #o%er to raid media offices& ta# #hones and contro$ !roadcast content on gro"nd of nationa$ sec"rity' 9nder the ne% !i$$& it %i$$ f"rthermore !e i$$ega$ for an individ"a$ or com#any to o%n !roadcast stations and #ress #"!$ications (BB2 Ne%s , @an"ary ,==> ' P"tKe$ C 8an De I%am (,==A contend that contin"ed state invo$vement in the media can !e a constr"ctive force in a co"ntrys democratisation: instit"tiona$ fo"ndations of free and !a$anced de!ate are not instantaneo"s$y achieved !y the 1invisi!$e hand of the mar.et (Snyder C Ba$$antine +>>A:-/ ' 7n So"th Africa& the transformation of the So"th African Broadcasting 2om#any (SAB2 into a non*#artisan #"!$ic service !roadcaster aimed at the socia$& economic and #o$itica$ reconstr"ction and deve$o#ment of the co"ntry %as #"t onto the negotiating ta!$e at the time of the transition from A#artheid to democratic r"$e' 7n ,===& SAB2 ran.ed highest as most credi!$e socia$ instit"tion ( far !eyond the #resident& the #ar$iament and the army ( in a$$ #o#"$ation gro"#s (5attes et a$' ,=== in :ivi."r" ,==A:+= ' The 0"estion of media o%nershi# in re$ation to medias #"!$ic ro$e a$so arises in the next section %here 7 %i$$ !rief$y address the "ndemocratic conse0"ences of the #rofit*see.ing character of #rivate media o"t$ets !efore contin"ing to com#are :enyas and ;hanas ex#erience %ith #rivate radio stations democratic #otentia$'

,',' 7nformation as 2ommodity According to Shafner (,==A in Tettey ,==E:- the extent to %hich e$ections are "sef"$ instr"ments of democratic acco"nta!i$ity is c$ose$y re$ated to the a!i$ity of citiKens to ac0"ire and "ti$ise information to ma.e informed e$ectora$ choices' 2o$$ier (,==E ma.es a !o$der statement: %itho"t an informed citiKenry& 1e$ections F"st %ont %or.' The increase of media o"t$ets on the

continent have constr"cted a more dynamic African media $andsca#e& !"t it has not necessari$y $ed to a !road$y inc$"sive environment in %hich a #$"ra$ity of vie%s are ex#ressed and heard' As the vast maFority of the %or$ds #oor $ive in s"!*Saharan Africa it is diffic"$t to disting"ish !et%een %hether someone has chosen not to !"y a media #rod"ct !eca"se he or she does not %ant it or !eca"se he or she cannot afford it (5yanmFoh ,==D ) there is a difference !et%een #eo#$e %anting access to media as cons"mers than needing access as citiKens and voters (Bes$ey et a$' ,==, ' For a media to !e tr"$y democratic& it needs to !e inc$"sive of and res#onsive to a !road citiKen !ase' Private media organisations& ho%ever& are !"sinesses and therefore foremost concerned %ith #rofit ma.ing and their commercia$ via!i$ity) an im#erative that often $eads to the exc$"sion of 1commercia$$y "nvia!$e a"diences (Berger ,==,:-? s"ch as minorities& the #oor and %omen %ho are exc$"ded from having their socia$ #ro!$ems high$ighted and from !eing a!$e to inform the #o$icy agenda' The geogra#hic and demogra#hic se$ectiveness of #rivate media o"t$ets does more to reinforce the !roader societa$ feat"res of ine0"a$ities and democratic deficits in Africa than to !rea. them do%n (@aco!s ,==E ' F"rthermore& as democracys 1fo"rth estate the #ress is to act as an im#ersona$ and "n!iased so"rce of information and o#inion*formation (5yamnFoh ,==D ' B"t the em#hasis on commercia$isation has $ed to a 1co$$a#se in Fo"rna$istic standards (Berger ,==,:-E ' Sensationa$ism ( %hether in Africa or e$se%here in the %or$d ( se$$s (Jyden C 6es$ie ,==, ) !rea.ing a !$oc.!"ster story or attac.ing the inc"m!ent regime seem 1too often to !e #rioritiKed over fact*chec.ing and acc"racy (Temin C Smith ,==,:D>/ ' Some scho$ars therefore rightf"$$y contend that tr"e #$"ra$ism can on$y !e fostered and s"stained in a media environment that inc$"des vita$& %e$$*financed #"!$ic service instit"tions (Berger ,==,) P"dde#hat ,==E ' <ne of the .ey #o$icy reforms& %hich most transitions to m"$ti#arty r"$e ty#ica$$y fai$ to rea$ise& is the transformation of the state !roadcasters into inde#endent non#artisan #"!$ic$y f"nded !roadcasters (2arver ,=== ' P"!$ic !roadcasters are "na!$e to com#ete in a $i!era$ised mar.et as media $i!era$isation has !ro"ght in a com#etitive dynamic #rivate sector that has ra#id$y achieved dominance in !oth the advertising mar.et and among the "r!an& cons"mer a"diences advertisers are interested in (BB2 GST ,==E ' ;overnments& stressed !y neo*$i!era$ reforms& have g$ad$y $eft #"!$ic !roadcasting %itho"t s"!sidy and as a res"$t& a$$ former mono#o$y !roadcast stations in Africa have faced maFor #ro!$ems over the $ast decade& and most of them are in dec$ine (:ivi."r" ,==A ' 5edia $i!era$isation has "# to no% not $ed to tr"$y inde#endent and inc$"sive media channe$s& as #rivate media channe$s are neither free from either #o$itica$ (see ,'+' or commercia$ interests' 7t has effective$y re#$aced a government*contro$$ed concentration of media #o%er and contro$ over media content& %ith a commercia$ and #o$itica$ one (<g"ndim" ,==, ' 8ita$ channe$s of comm"nication in 1%ea. mar.ets cannot s"rvive %itho"t state s"##ort (<g"ndim" ,==, ' A$tho"gh there is a$%ays the danger for state media to fa$$ into the hands of re#ressive or vio$ent regimes (Price C Thomson ,==, or of governments se$ective$y not s"##orting media o"t$ets that may act as their critic (BB2 GST ,==>! & to achieve a democratic media environment

res#onsive to a tr"e #$"ra$ity of #ers#ectives and tr"$y re#resentative of a !road citiKen !ase& #rovisions and reg"$ations need to !e #"t in #$ace to #romote& reg"$ate& and strengthen !oth #rivate and #"!$ic$y f"nded media (Randa$$ +>>-) Berger ,==,) :ivi."r" ,==A) P"dde#hat ,==E '

The next section examines and com#ares the :enyan and ;hanaian ex#erience %ith regards to #rivate radio stations and their contri!"tion to the co"ntries democratisation' ,'-' Private Radio Stations in :enya and ;hana: A 2om#arison 7n !oth ;hana and :enya& m"$ti*#arty #o$itics %as restored in +>>,' Their media $andsca#es are e0"a$$y dynamic and o"ts#o.en& their #rivate regiona$ vernac"$ar radio stations share the same #o#"$arity as do their ta$. sho%s and ca$$*ins and !oth co"ntries face simi$ar cha$$enges regarding radio #artisanshi# and $ac. of #rofessiona$ standards (:afe%o ,==A) 5aina ,==A ' B"t %hereas o!servers of the #o$itica$ scene in ;hana credit the trans#arency that characterised the ,=== e$ections (and $ater the ,==E e$ections #art$y to the re$ative$y $arge n"m!ers of #rivate F5 stations aro"nd the co"ntry (:ari.ari ,===) Temin C Smith ,==,) ;yimah*Boadi ,==> & in :enya vernac"$ar radio stations stand acc"sed of having exacer!ated the ethnic conf$ict that fo$$o%ed the contested re*e$ection of President :i!a.i in ,==? (JRG ,==E) :iai ,==E) BB2 GST ,==E) 2hege ,==E) 7smai$ C Deane ,==E ' Ghy is it that the ;hanaian and :enyan ex#erience has $ed to s"ch different o"tcomes and have their res#ective radio stations #$ayed an instr"menta$ ro$e in this? As 7 have arg"ed at the !eginning of this #a#er& to f"$$y assess %hether a media contri!"tes to a co"ntrys democratisation (and hence deve$o#ment & it is #aramo"nt to ana$yse the re$ationshi# !et%een the character of its democracy vis*a*vis the character of its media #artici#ating in that democracy (see 5yamnFoh ,==D ' After first examining the :enyan sit"ation and second the ;hanaian one& 7 %i$$ conc$"de that given the simi$arity of the :enyan and ;hanaian radio environments& the difference in democratic o"tcome has to !e ex#$ained !y the difference in the co"ntries overa$$ #o$itica$ character' Ghereas radio stations !ecame high$y #o$iticised too$s for com#eting ethnic gro"#s in :enya& the #rogress made in ;hana in instit"tiona$ising democracy has res"$ted in a $ess ethnica$$y #o$arising radio environment' Since inde#endence& :enya ( home to an estimated -E mi$$ion #eo#$e and inc$"sive of /, African ethnic gro"#s ( has !een driven !y iss"es of ethnica$$y divided ine0"a$ity' Those comm"nities that have had greater access to #residentia$ #o%er and its accom#anying #atronage are seen as !eneficiaries of favoritism (:iai ,==E ' Foremost on :enyan citiKens minds %ith regards to their democratic ex#ectations& is #o$itica$ and economic e0"a$ity res"$ting in a more e0"ita!$e distri!"tion of o##ort"nity and reso"rces in their society (6ogan et a$' ,==? ' :enyans ac.no%$edge that an ethnic division of #atronage is an im#ortant s"!text in nationa$ e$ectora$ contests) %hen the #an*ethnic Nationa$ Rain!o% 2oa$ition (NaR2 s%e#t into #o%er in ,==,&

$ess than a third of res#ondents (-=M sa% the ethnicity of candidates as an im#ortant consideration for the e$ectorate& !"t the Decem!er ,==? genera$ e$ection %as regarded as the most #o$arised contest of a$$ as ha$f (D=M of res#ondents said that the ethnic origin of candidates %as an im#ortant consideration for their fe$$o% citiKens' By this time& the NaR2 coa$ition had !ro.en do%n and the #residentia$ race had crysta$$ised into a :i."y"*6"o str"gg$e over the #residency (Bratton C :imenyi ,==E:? ' The most com#e$$ing #o$icy iss"e is 1maFim!o& or the decentra$isation of #o$itica$ contro$ over deve$o#ment reso"rces (and !y im#$ication& from the :i."y"*dominated high$ands of 2entra$ Province & a #o$icy that %as a maFor cam#aign iss"e for the o##osition #arty of ,==?& the <range Democratic 5ovement (<D5 & $ed !y Rai$a <dinga (2hege ,==E ' The <D5 grassroots cam#aign t"rned the e$ection into a contest of 1forty*one tri!es against one& #itting the :i."y" against :enyas other African ethnic gro"#s as the former %as acc"sed of having ta.en an economic $ead as a res"$t of #o$itica$ #atronage "nder :enyas fo"nding President @omo :enyatta' The cam#aign high$ighted :i."y" domination in !an.ing& government& trade& o"t* migration& ed"cation& and commercia$ farming: :i."y" s"ccess %as !$amed for the margina$isation s"ffered !y other gro"#s& th"s creating an atmos#here of 1resentment and reta$iation (2hege ,==E: +-/ ' The inc"m!ent President :i!a.is Party of Nationa$ 9nity (PN9 cam#aign e0"a$$y #$ayed on ethnic fears' R"mo"rs %ere s#read that <D5 %as !ac.ed !y the 9S and Britain %hereas PN9 advocated :enyas inde#endence from these forces' Ghi$st the anti*:i."y" rhetoric increased& r"mo"rs !egan to ta.e ho$d amongst the :i."y" that if the <D5 %o"$d %in& they #$anned to #er#etrate a :i."y" genocide' The :i."y" too. this threat serio"s$y and !egan to mo!i$ise as many voters as #ossi!$e as they 1sa% the contest more as a matter of their s"rviva$ than of :i!a.is victory (2hege ,==E:+-A ' The #o$arising ethnic rhetoric t"rned into hate s#eech& getting mass circ"$ation via F5 radio stations) in #artic"$ar& via the vernac"$ar radio stations %ho %ere as a res"$t t"rned into #o$itica$ 1too$s' <n $ive radio ta$.sho%s& #o$iticians and citiKens %ere heard s#reading hate s#eech and ca$$ing fe$$o% ethnic mem!ers to stand "# and fight (BB2 GST ,==E ' 6ive nationa$ coverage of the e$ection sho%ed heated de!ates !et%een the com#eting #o$iticians as %e$$ as the de$ays in anno"ncing the e$ectora$ res"$ts %hich raised the concern that& according to the head of the :enyas 4$ectora$ 2ommission (42: & the res"$ts 1%ere !eing coo.ed (2hege ,==E:+-? ' Ghen in the midst of these de!ates& the state te$evision station #resented the 42: 0"ite s"dden$y anno"ncing that :i!a.i had %on& ethnic conf$ict !egan immediate$y (2hege ,==E ' 7n ;hana& %ith a #o#"$ation of ,-'E mi$$ion #eo#$e today and inc$"sive of a diversity of ethnic gro"#s& s"ccessive e$ections have had a reass"ring effect' ;hanaian citiKens are increasing$y satisfied %ith its democracy) a satisfaction that 1stands in mar.ed contrast to a trend in %hich average satisfaction among Africans fe$$ from a maFority to minority sentiment (from DE to /D #ercent across +E African co"ntries !et%een ,=== and ,==D (Afro!arometer ,==E ' Peo#$es satisfaction %ith 1the %ay democracy %or.s in :enya #$"mmeted from ?>M in ,==-& to F"st

over D-M in ,==D (6ogan et a$' ,==? ' Private F5 stations aro"nd the co"ntry are said to have !ro"ght credence to the res"$ts that %ere dec$ared as in !oth the ,=== and the ,==E e$ections& the #resence of these stations made it diffic"$t to rig res"$ts& !eca"se they %ere a!$e to anno"nce res"$ts from their $oca$ comm"nities (;yimah*Boadi ,==> ' 7n ,===& an o#en de!ate among #residentia$ candidates %as !roadcast $ive on T8 and radio at the eve of the genera$ e$ections (Norris C Iinn!a"er ,==,:,A and %hen at a #o$$ing station in Accra so$diers started destroying voting !oxes& someone ca$$ed an F5 station and it %as re#orted on the air' 5in"tes $ater @<B F5 intervie%ed the #resident of the ;hana Bar Association %ho stated that in the 2onstit"tion citiKens had the right to resist interference in a #o$$ing station' @<B F5 .e#t #$aying the intervie% over and over and a co"#$e of ho"rs $ater the so$diers had !een chased off !y voters (Friedman ,==+ in Tettey ,==-:+== ' Simi$ar to :enya& a$so in ;hana !oth inc"m!ent as %e$$ as o##osing #o$itica$ forces "se their #o%er to inf$"ence e$ections thro"gh the media' D"ring the ,=== e$ections& 2hriss F5& a #rivate radio station in the Brong*Ahafo Region& %as c$osed do%n !y the Regiona$ 5inister a$$eging that the o##osition %as "sing it to desta!i$ise #eace and sec"rity of the area (Temin C Smith ,==,:D>-) Tettey ,==-:>E ' And a$tho"gh the ,==E e$ectora$ cam#aign started of as re$ative$y iss"e*!ased& %hen the com#etition for the #residentia$ seat increased& !oth the o##osing Nationa$ Democratic 2ongress (ND2 and the inc"m!ent Ne% Patriotic Party (NPP resorted to negative and non*iss"e*!ased cam#aigning as !oth #arties attem#ted to mo!i$ise ethnic votes (;yimah* Boadi ,==> ' ;hana in fact faces simi$ar democratic cha$$enges as :enya: #o$itica$ and economic #o%er is high$y centra$ised res"$ting in excessive ethnica$$y !ased #atronage& the system of chec.s and !a$ances is %ea. and $imits the effectiveness of oversight instit"tions s"ch as Par$iament as %e$$ as $eads to deficits in trans#arency and acco"nta!i$ity& forma$ democratic instit"tions and #rocesses fai$ to give ade0"ate voice to the #oor and other margina$ised gro"#s& #overty rates and the $eve$s of ine0"a$ity across regions remain high' 7n short& there is 1no shortage of c$ass and ethnic resentments to !e ex#$oited for #o$itica$ gain (;yimah*Boadi ,==>:+/E ' B"t& critica$ to ;hanas democratic #rogress are the advancements that have !een made in instit"tiona$ising democracy' The co"ntrys .ey democratic instit"tions ( the F"diciary& the 2ommission on J"man Rights and Administrative @"stice& and arg"a!$y Par$iament ( contin"e to deve$o# and so$idify (;yimah*Boadi ,==> ' This is f"rther "nderscored !y genera$$y #ositive #o#"$ar assessments of the degree of democratic freedom enFoyed in the co"ntry and high $eve$s of #o#"$ar confidence in .ey instit"tions and #rocesses of democratic governance (Afro!arometer ,==E ' These #o#"$ar eva$"ations have inf$"enced voting choices& and even tho"gh identity voting is sti$$ #art of #eo#$es voting !ehavio"r& retros#ective assessments of the condition of the nationa$ economy or f"t"re ex#ectations of #ersona$ economic %e$$!eing have tr"m#ed ethnicity in se$ected e$ections (6ind!erg and 5orrison ,==E ' 7n :enya com#etitive #o$itics have consistent$y fai$ed to integrate a$$ maFor gro"#s of the :enyan state into one #o$itica$ force) conse0"ent$y a$$ are ethnic com#eting #arties (4$ischer

,==E ' 7n ma.ing e$ectora$ choices citiKens voting #atterns sho% a co"ntry that is $arge$y divided a$ong ethnic $ines (Bratton C :imenyi ,==E ' 5edia $i!era$isation has res"$ted in a gro%th of $oca$ $ang"age radio stations' B"t in a context of increased #o$itica$ (ethnic com#etition& ma.ing avai$a!$e #revio"s$y "navai$a!$e media channe$s has reinforced the ethnic #o%er str"gg$es that dominate African #o$itics as #revio"s$y exc$"ded voices can "se these radio stations as channe$s for #o$itica$ mo!i$isation to sec"re com#eting gro"# interests and c$aims' ;hanaian com#etitive #o$itics& on the other hand& is $ess c$ear*c"t: #o$itica$ #arties exhi!it ideo$ogica$ agendas& %hi$e incor#orating c$iente$istic e$ements (4$ischer ,==E ' The #rogress made in ;hana in instit"tiona$ising democracy and the #o#"$ar confidence this has generated& has inf$"enced voting choices and a$tho"gh identity voting is sti$$ dominant& iss"e*!ased voting ( ins#ired !y the co"ntrys #erceived economic #rogress * is on the rise' As a res"$t& the radio environment has !ecome $ess #o$arised and has therefore !ecome more contri!"tory to the co"ntrys democratic deve$o#ment' ,'/' The Po$itics and B"siness of 7nformation and <#inion*Formation The contri!"tion of Africas #rivate radio stations to African democratisation cannot !e ana$ysed in iso$ation from the #o$itica$& societa$ and economic environment in %hich they !roadcast' The media are& in many %ays& a ref$ection of their society: as the #o$itics of African society have remained organised a$ong com#etitive ethnica$$y*!ased #atronage $ines& it is "nrea$istic to ex#ect that the media %i$$ !e any different (P"dde#hat ,==E ' The inevita!$e #ositivity that is arg"ed to arise !et%een a $i!era$ised media environment and democracy overstates that medias inde#endence from Africas #revai$ing societa$ and #o$itica$ #atterns and #o%er str"ct"res' 7t f"rthermore "nderstates the media itse$f as an active& #o$itica$ agent as it ignores the #ossi!i$ity that !oth the state and com#eting ethnic comm"nities can "se these channe$s for #o$itica$ mo!i$isation to sec"re gro"# interests and c$aims (Bertrand ,==/) NyamnFoh ,==D ' This can $ead to an exacer!ation of socia$ fragmentation and& at its most extreme& to ethnic vio$ence (Price C Thomson ,==,) A$$en C Strem$a" ,==D ' As #rivate media channe$s are often not inde#endent from #o$itica$ interests& media reg"$ation (%itho"t fa$$ing into the tra# of f"$$*!$o%n censorshi# and contin"ed state invo$vement in the media sho"$d !e made integra$ to !"i$ding or strengthening the states governing ca#acities& #artic"$ar$y in sit"ations %here nationa$ cohesion and consens"s first needs to !e !"i$t (P"tKe$ C 8an Der I%am ,==A Private media o"t$ets are f"rthermore not inde#endent from commercia$ interests as their #rofit* ma.ing im#erative reinforces #reva$ent socia$ ine0"a$ities as it exc$"des %ea. mar.ets (@aco!s ,==E) Berger ,==,) <g"ndim" ,==, ' To achieve a media environment res#onsive to a tr"e #$"ra$ity of #ers#ectives and tr"$y re#resentative of a !road citiKen !ase& !oth #rivate and #"!$ic$y f"nded media need to !e #romoted& reg"$ated& and strengthened (Randa$$ +>>-) Berger ,==,) :ivi."r" ,==A) P"dde#hat ,==E ' B"t as the case st"dies of :enya and ;hana demonstrate: %itho"t the right #o$itica$ c"$t"re& a 1diverse media ecosystem %i$$ not thrive (5oeh$er ,==?:-= ' Priority m"st !e given to the !"i$ding of instit"tions and str"ct"res that %i$$

1red"ce the incentives for state ca#t"re and #artisan a!"se (;yimah*Boadi ,==>:+D= ' A media environment& inc$"sive of #rivate and #"!$ic radio stations& %i$$ on$y contri!"te to African democratisation (and deve$o#ment if their !roadcasting environment is effective$y democratised' 2JAPT4R TJR44 2onc$"sion

The constr"ction of inde#endent and #$"ra$ist media sectors is increasing$y inc$"ded in de!ates on #o#"$ar em#o%erment& good governance& and #overty red"ction' A $i!era$ised media environment ( in %hich the state o#ens "# media o%nershi# to #rivate #arties ( is regarded as a #ositive contri!"tor to deve$o#ing nations democratic and hence deve$o#menta$ #rogress' As a res"$t of %ides#read media $i!era$isation the African media $andsca#e has diversified ra#id$y) most nota!$y #rivate radio stations have f$o"rished' B"t the inevita!$e #ositivity that is arg"ed to arise !et%een a $i!era$ised media environment and democracy is over$y o#timistic: media $i!era$isation #o$icies do not a"tomatica$$y res"$t in democratic o"tcomes' Ghen divorced from a co"ntrys #revai$ing societa$ and #o$itica$ character& they can #rod"ce high$y "ndemocratic effects' 7t is therefore #aramo"nt that in assessing a medias #otentia$ for democratic contri!"tion& the #o$itica$ character vis*N*vis a co"ntrys media character has to !e examined more c$ose$y'

7n cha#ter one& 7 have ana$ysed the dominant #o$itica$ character #reva$ent in many s"!*Saharan African co"ntries and have conc$"ded that identity #o$itics #$ay an a$$*determining ro$e in defining the socia$ contract !et%een the state and society in Africa' The ( externa$$y driven ( introd"ction of com#etitive #o$itics ("nder conditions of #overty& de#rivation& #ersistent internationa$ economic margina$isation and a %ea.ened state have increased the ethnica$$y* !ased str"gg$es for #o$itica$ and economic #o%er and has s#"rred the "se of #o$itica$ #atronage' Processes of #referentia$ inc$"sion of some and exc$"sion of other socia$ gro"#s from the c$aim to economic and #o$itica$ o##ort"nities have intensified and !oth the state& as %e$$ as society have res#onded to these changes in 1"ndemocratic %ays: !oth have made ethnic mem!ershi# instead of citiKen mem!ershi# $eading in their actions and decisions' The state has& !y contro$$ing the #rocess of #o$itica$ $i!era$isation& aimed to #rotect the interest of dominant socia$ gro"#s' Society has thro"gh their voting !ehavio"r reinforced the im#ortance of ethnicity at the !a$$ot !ox and in some cases !oth the state and society have !een invo$ved in instigating and exacer!ating ethnic (vio$ent c$ashes in #"rs"it of #rotecting or gaining #o$itica$ contro$' For African democracies to effective$y democratise& a transition is needed from ethnica$$y*!ased #atronage #o$itics to iss"e*!ased #o$itics and from ethnic voting to #o$icy voting aided !y !oth socia$ as %e$$ as economic str"ct"ra$ change !y increasing the $eve$ of economic gains and the

e0"a$ distri!"tion of these gains'

7n cha#ter t%o& 7 have ex#$ored ho% this democratic defect has affected the #otentia$ democratic contri!"tion of Africas #rivate radio stations and have conc$"ded that their democratic #romise cannot !e divorced from the #o$itica$& societa$ and economic environment in %hich they !roadcast& a conc$"sion f"rther "nder#inned !y the case st"dies of :enya and ;hana' African #rivate radio stations have ta.en "# a high$y #artisan and o##ositiona$ #o$itica$ ro$e' They have not on$y !ecome co*o#ted !y com#eting (ethnic #o$itica$ forces in #"rs"it of #rotecting vested interests or o!taining #o$itica$ #o%er& they have e0"a$$y !ecome a 1!att$efie$d on %hich ethnic differences and ethnic #o%er str"gg$es are fo"ght' F"rthermore& the em#hasis on a #rivate over #"!$ic media has reinforced #revai$ing socia$ ine0"a$ities as #rivate media organisations& as !"sinessess& #rioritise commercia$$y attractive a"diences' Both the #o$itics and !"siness of the media mar.et severe$y narro% #rivate radios democratic #otentia$' For African #rivate radio stations to #$ay a #ositive ro$e in African democratisation& the media environment in %hich it o#erates needs to !e reg"$ated (instead of f"$$y $i!erated and needs to !e made inc$"sive of !oth #rivate and #"!$ic$y f"nded media' B"t %itho"t the right #o$itica$ c"$t"re this %i$$ sti$$ not necessari$y $ead to a democratica$$y contri!"ting media' Priority m"st therefore !e given to the !"i$ding of (democratic instit"tions and str"ct"res that %i$$ 1red"ce the incentives for state ca#t"re and #artisan a!"se (;yimah*Boadi ,==>:+D= ' <n$y %hen the environment in %hich media #$ayers #artici#ate& is effective$y democratised& %i$$ #rivate radio stations contri!"te to African democratisation (and deve$o#ment ' References African 5edia Deve$o#ment 7nitiative (,==A & Research S"mmary Re#ort Ron$ineS& avai$a!$e at htt#:HHdo%n$oads'!!c'co'".H%or$dserviceHtr"st H#dfHA5D7HA5D7Ts"mmaryTRe#ort'#df (accessed ++ A#ri$ ,==> ' Afro!arometer (,==E 1Po#"$ar attit"des to democracy in ;hana& ,==E& Afro!arometer Briefing Pa#er No' D+ Ron$ineS& avai$a!$e at htt#:HH%%%'afro!arometer'org (accessed ,/ 5ay ,==> ' Afro!arometer (,==> 1Neither 2onso$idating Nor F"$$y Democratic: The 4vo$"tion of African Po$itica$ Regimes& +>>>*,==E& Afro!arometer Briefing Pa#er No' A? Ron$ineS& avai$a!$e at htt#:HH%%%'afro!arometer'org (accessed ,/ 5ay ,==> ' A.e (+>>- 1The "ni0"e case of African democracy& 7nternationa$ Affairs& A>(, :,->*,//' A$$en& T' and 4ade& @' (,=== 1The Ne% Po$itics of 7dentity in A$$en& T' and Thomas& A' (ed' Poverty and Deve$o#ment into the ,+st 2ent"ry& Ne% Bor.: <xford 9niversity Press 7nc' A$hassan& A' (,==D 15ar.et va$oriKation in !roadcasting #o$icy in ;hana: a!andoning the 0"est

for media democratiKation& 5edia& 2"$t"re C Society& ,?(, :,++*,,E' A$$en& T' and Thomas& A' (,=== Poverty and Deve$o#ment into the ,+st 2ent"ry& Ne% Bor.: <xford 9niversity Press 7nc' A$$en& T' and Strem$a"& N' (,==D 15edia #o$icy& #eace and state reconstr"ction Ron$ineS& Deve$o#ment Research 2entre& avai$a!$e at htt#:HH%%%'crisisstates'comHdo%n$oadHd#Hd#=E'#df (accessed ? 5ay ,==> ' BB2 Ne%s += @"$y ,==> 1African vie%: Shi#sha#e for <!ama Ron$ineS& avai$a!$e at htt#:HHne%s'!!c'co'".H+HhiH%or$dHafricaHE+///A/'stm (accessed += @"$y ,==> BB2 Ne%s , @an"ary ,==> 1:enyan 1media gag $a% a##roved Ron$ineS& avai$a!$e at htt#:HHne%s'!!c'co'".H+HhiH%or$dHafricaH?E=EE+D'stm (accessed ,, @"$y ,==> ' BB2 Gor$d Service Tr"st (,==E 1The :enyan ,==? e$ections and their aftermath: the ro$e of media and comm"nication Ron$ineS& avai$a!$e at htt#:HHdo%n$oads'!!c'co'".H%or$dserviceHtr"stH#dfH.enyaT#o$icyT!riefing =E'#df (accessed ++ 5arch ,==> ' BB2 Gor$d Service Tr"st (,==>a 1;overnance and the 5edia Ron$ineS& avai$a!$e htt#:HH%%%'!!c'co'".H%or$dserviceHtr"stH#dfH governanceTmediaTs"rveyTA#ri$=>'#df (accessed ,? A#ri$ ,==> BB2 Gor$d Service Tr"st (,==>! 1The Ro$e of 5edia in Fragi$e Sit"ations: A research dia$og"e across disci#$ines Ron$ineS& avai$a!$e at: htt#:HH%%%'!!c'co'".H%or$dserviceHtr"stH#dfHmediaTfragi$eTstates'#df (accessed ,? A#ri$ ,==> ' Bertrand& @' (,==/ Nationa$ism and 4thnic 2onf$ict in 7ndonesia& cha#ter ,& 2am!ridge: 2am!ridge 9niversity Press' Bes$ey& T'& B"rgess& R' and Prat& A' (,==, 15ass 5edia and Po$itica$ Acco"nta!i$ity Ron$ineS& avai$a!$e at htt#:HHecon'$se'ac'".HUt!es$eyH #a#ersHmed!oo.'#df (accessed E @"ne ,==> ' Berger& ;' (,==, 1TheoriKing the media*democracy re$ationshi# in so"thern Africa& The 7nternationa$ @o"rna$ for 2omm"nication St"dies& A?(+ :,+*/D' Berman& B' (+>>E 14thnicity& Patronage and the African State: The Po$itics of 9ncivi$ Nationa$ism& African Affairs& >?:-=D*-/+' Berman& B'& 4yoh& D' and :ym$ic.a& G' (,==/ 4thnicity C Democracy in Africa& <xford: @ames 2"rrey B$an.son& 7'A' (,==, 1Re*examining 2ivi$ Society in 4merging S"! Sahara African Democracies: The State& the 5edia& and the P"!$ic in ;hana& ;$o!a$ 5edia @o"rna$& +(+ '

Bond& P' (,==A 6ooting Africa: The 4conomics of 4x#$oitation& 6ondon and Ne% Bor.: Ied Boo.s' Booth& D'& 2roo.& R'& ;yimah*Boadi& 4'& :i$$ic.& T' and 6"c.ham& R'& %ith Boateng& N' (,==D 1Ghat are the drivers of change in ;hana?& 2DDH<D7 Po$icy Brief Ron$ineS& avai$a!$e at htt#:HH%%%'odi'org'".Hreso"rcesHdetai$s' as#?idV+-,,Ctit$eVdrivers*change*ghana (accessed +A @"$y ,==> ' Bo"rga"$t& 6'5' (+>>D 5ass 5edia in S"!*Saharan Africa& B$oomington and 7ndiana#o$is: 7ndiana 9niversity Press' Bratton& 5' and 8an De Ga$$e (+>>/ 1Neo#atrimonia$ Regimes and Po$itica$ Transitions in Africa& Gor$d Po$itics& /A(@"$y :/D-*E>' Bratton& 5' and :imenyi& 5'S' (,==E 18oting in :enya: P"tting 4thnicity in Pers#ective& Afro!arometer Gor.ing Pa#er No' >D Ron$ineS& avai$a!$e at htt#:HH%%%'afro!arometer'orgH#a#ersH Afro#a#erNo>D'#df (accessed ,= @"$y ,==> ' 2arothers& T' (,==? 1Jo% Democracies 4merge& @o"rna$ of Democracy& +E(+ :+,*,?' 2arver& R' (,=== 1Broadcasting C Po$itica$ Transition in Fardon& R' and F"rniss& ;' (ed African !roadcast c"$t"res: radio in transition& <xford: @ames 2"rrey P"!$ishers' 2enter for 7nternationa$ 5edia Assistance (275A (,==? 17nde#endent 5edias 8ita$ Ro$e in Deve$o#ment 2ha!a$& P' and Da$oK& @*P' (+>>> Africa Gor.s' Disorder as Po$itica$ 7nstr"ment& <xford: @ames 2"rrey P"!$ishers' 2hege& 5' (,==E 1:enya: Bac. from the Brin.?& @o"rna$ of Democracy& +>(/ :+,D*+->' 27A (,==> 1The Gor$d Fact Boo.& avai$a!$e at %%%'%or$dfact!oo.'org (accessed ,= 5ay ,==> ' 2$a#ham (+>>- 1Democratisation in Africa: <!stac$es and Pros#ects& Third Gor$d W"arter$y& +/(- :/,-*/-E' 2o$$ier& P' (,==E 1Strenghtening 7nde#endent 5edia 7nitiative& Sa$K!"rg ;$o!a$ Seminar& excer#t avai$a!$e at htt#:HH%%%'sa$K!"rgseminar'orgH mediafi$esH54D7A//?,-'#df (accessed ,? @"$y ,==> ' 2ommission for Africa (,==D 1<"r 2ommon 7nterest ( Re#ort of the 2ommission for Africa Ron$ineS& avai$a!$e at htt#:HH%%%'commissionforafrica'org (accessed ,= 5ay ,==> ' Da$oK& @*P' and 8errier*Frechette& 2' (,=== 17s Radio P$"ra$ism an 7nstr"ment for Po$itica$ 2hange? in Fardon& R' and F"rniss& ;' (ed African !roadcast c"$t"res: radio in transition&

<xford: @ames 2"rrey P"!$ishers' Des Forges (,==, 1Si$encing the 8oices of Jate in R%anda in Price& 5'4' and Thomson& 5' (ed Forging Peace: 7ntervention& J"man Rights and the 5anagement of 5edia S#ace& 4din!"rgh: 4din!"rgh 9niversity Press' DF7D (,==, 1The 5edia in ;overnance Ron$ineS& avai$a!$e at htt#:HH%%%'dfid'gov'".HDoc"mentsH#"!$icationsHmediaTgovernance'#df (accessed +A @"$y ,==> ' 4$ischer& S' (,==E 1Do African #arties contri!"te to democracy? Some findings from :enya& ;hana and Nigeria& Afri.a S#ectr"m& /-(, :+?D*,=+' 4.eh& P' (,==/ 17ndivid"a$s Basic Sec"rity Needs C the 6imits of DemocratiKation in Africa in Berman& B'& 4yoh& D' and :ym$ic.a& G' (ed' 4thnicity C Democracy in Africa& <xford: @ames 2"rrey Fardon& R' and F"rniss& ;' (,=== African !roadcast c"$t"res: radio in transition& <xford: @ames 2"rrey P"!$ishers' Fatton (+>>D 1Africa in the Age of DemocratiKation: The 2ivic 6imitations of 2ivi$ Society& African St"dies Revie%& -E(, :A?*>>' Fatton (+>>> 12ivi$ Society Revisited: Africa in the Ne% 5i$$eni"m& Gest Africa Revie%& +(+ ' Ferg"son& @' (,==A ;$o!a$ Shado%s ( Africa in the neo$i!era$ %or$d order& D"rham and 6ondon: D".e 9niversity Press' Freedom Jo"se (,==> 1Freedom in s"!*Saharan Africa ,==> ( a s"rvey of #o$itica$ rights and civi$ $i!erties Ron$ineS& avai$a!$e at htt#:HH%%%'freedomho"se'orgH"#$oadsHs#ecia$Tre#ortH??'#df (accessed ,? 5ay ,==> ' ;hana%e! ++ @"$y ,==> 1<!ama admits to !e $ong admirer of ;hana Ron$ineS& avai$a!$e at htt#:HH%%%'ghana%e!'comH;hanaJomePageH Ne%sArchiveHarti.e$'#h#?7DV+AD,+/ (accessed ++ @"$y ,==> ;$o!a$ For"m for 5edia Deve$o#ment (,==D 15edia 5atters: Pers#ectives on Advancing ;overnance C Deve$o#ment from the ;$o!a$ For"m for 5edia Deve$o#ment Ron$ineS& avai$a!$e at htt#:HH%%%'gfmd'info (accessed E @"ne ,==> ' ;"ardian& ,- @"$y ,==> 15a.ing #eace& not %ar: the ro$e of the media in :enya Ron$ineS& avai$a!$e at htt#:HH%%%'g"ardian'co'".H Fo"rna$ismcom#etitionHma.ing*#eace*not*%ar (accessed ,A @"$y ,==> ' ;yimah*Boadi& 4' (,==> 1Another Ste# For%ard for ;hana& @o"rna$ of Democracy& ,=(, :+-E* +D,'

Jer!st& @' (+>>> 1The Ro$e of 2itiKenshi# 6a%s in 5"$ti*4thnic Societies: 4vidence from Africa in @ose#h& R' (ed State& 2onf$ict& and Democracy in Africa& Bo"$der and 6ondon: 6ynne Rienner P"!$ishers' Jic.ey& S'& 5ohan& ;' (,==D 1Re$ocating #artici#ation %ithin a radica$ #o$itics of deve$o#ment& Deve$o#ment and 2hange& -A(, :,-?*,A,' J"man Rights Gatch (,==E 1Ba$$ots to B"$$ets htt#:HH%%%'hr%'orgHnodeHA,-+/ (accessed ,A @"ne ,==> ' Ron$ineS& avai$a!$e at

Jyden& ;'& 6es$ie' 5'& <g"ndim"& F'F' (,==, 5edia and Democracy in Africa& 6ondon: Transaction P"!$ishers' Jyden& ;' and 6es$ie& 5' (,==, 12omm"nications and democratiKation in Africa in Jyden& ;'& 6es$ie' 5'& <g"ndim"& F'F' (ed' 5edia and Democracy in Africa& 6ondon: Transaction P"!$ishers' Jyden& ;' and <.ig!o& 2' (,==, 1The media and the t%o %aves of democracy in Jyden& ;'& 6es$ie' 5'& <g"ndim"& F'F' (ed' 5edia and Democracy in Africa& 6ondon: Transaction P"!$ishers' 7$!o"do& @*P' (,==- 1After D= years: The ro$e and "se of r"ra$ radio in Africa Ron$ineS& avai$a!$e at htt#:HHcom"nica'orgH+*,*%atchH#dfHcha#ter+A'#df (accessed ,= 5ay ,==> ' 7nternationa$ Press 7nstit"te (7PS (,==E 1Gor$d Press Freedom Revie% ,==E Ron$ineS& avai$a!$e at htt#:HH%%%'freemedia'atHindex'#h#?idV> (accessed ,> 5ay ,==> ' 7smai$ and Deane& @' (,==E 1The ,==? ;enera$ 4$ection in :enya and its Aftermath: The Ro$e of 6oca$ 6ang"age 5edia& The 7nternationa$ @o"rna$ of PressHPo$itics& +-:-+>*-,?' 7R4L (,==E & 5edia S"staina!i$ity 7ndex Ron$ineS& htt#:HH%%%'irex'orgH#rogramsH5S7TAfricaHindex'as# (accessed ,E 5ay ,==> ' avai$a!$e at

@aco!s& S' (,==E 15edia& Democratic Po$itics in So"th Africa& received via #ersona$ comm"nication += A#ri$ ,==>' @ose#h& R' (+>>> State& 2onf$ict& and Democracy in Africa& Bo"$der and 6ondon: 6ynne Rienner P"!$ishers' :afe%o& S' (,==A 1African 5edia Deve$o#ment 7nitiative: ;hana (Research Findings and 2onc$"sions Ron$ineS& 6ondon: BB2 Gor$d Service Tr"st' :iai& 5' (,==E 1The 2risis in :enya& @o"rna$ of Democracy& +>(- :+A,*+AE' :ari.ari& :' (,=== 1Press& Po%er C Po$itics ( ;hana ,=== Ron$ineS& avai$a!$e at htt#:HH%%%'freedomfor"m'orgH#"!$icationsH internationa$H5ediaFor"mH,===HafricaH,===mf*

af'#df (accessed +D @"$y ,==> ' :e$$o%& 2'6' and Steeves& 6'J' (+>>E 1The ro$e of the radio in the R%andan ;enocide& @o"rna$ of 2omm"nication& S"mmer:+=?*+,E' :ivi."r"& @' (,==A 1To#*Do%n or Bottom*9#?: Radio in the Service of Democracy: 4x#eriences from So"th Africa and Nami!ia& 7nternationa$ 2omm"nication ;aKette& AE(+ :D*-+' :odi& 5'G' (,==D 2ha#ter /: 1Defining ;overnance in 9N4S2< (ed' 15edia and ;ood ;overnance (accessed E @"ne ,==> ' :"#er and :"#er (,==+ 1Serving a ne% democracy: m"st the media s#ea. 1soft$y? 6earning from So"th Africa& 7nternationa$ @o"rna$ of P"!$ic <#inion Research& +-(/ :-DD*-?A' 6ind!erg& S'7' and 5orrison& 5':'2' (,==E 1Are African voters rea$$y ethnic or c$iente$istic? S"rvey evidence from ;hana& Po$itica$ Science W"arter$y& +,-(S#ring ' 6oc.s$ey& ;' (,==> 5edia and Deve$o#ment: Ghats the Story?& Gashington: Gor$d Ban.' 6ogan& 2'& Go$f& T'P'& and Sentam"& R' (,==? 1:enyans and democracy: %hat do they rea$$y %ant from it& any%ay?& Afro!arometer Gor.ing Pa#er No' ?= Ron$ineS& avai$a!$e at htt#:HH%%%'afro!arometer'orgH#a#ersH Afro#a#erNo?='#df (accessed ,= @"$y ,==> ' 5aina& 6'G' (,==A & African 5edia Deve$o#ment 7nitiative ( :enya: Research Findings and 2onc$"sions Ron$ineS& 6ondon: BB2 Gor$d Service Tr"st' 57SA (,==E & 5edia A$erts Africa& avai$a!$e at htt#:HH%%%'misa'orgH (accessed ,E A#ri$ ,==> ' 5itche$$& @' (,==? 1Remem!ering the R%andan ;enocide: Reconsidering the ro$e of 6oca$ and ;$o!a$ 5edia& ;$o!a$ 5edia @o"rna$& A(++ ' 5.anda%ire& T' (+>>> 12risis 5anagement and the ma.ing of O2hoice$ess DemocraciesP in @ose#h& R' (ed State& 2onf$ict& and Democracy in Africa& Bo"$der and 6ondon: 6ynne Rienner P"!$ishers' 5oeh$er& D' (,==? 1Ghose ne%s do yo" tr"st? 4x#$aining tr"st in #rivate vers"s #"!$ic media in Africa& received via #ersona$ comm"nication ,A @"ne ,==> ' 5ohan ;'& Sto..e :' (,=== & 1Partici#atory deve$o#ment and em#o%erment: the dangers of $oca$ism& Third Gor$d W"arter$y& ,+:,:,/?*,AE' 5%esige& P';' (,==> 1The democratic f"nctions and dysf"nctions of #o$itica$ ta$. radio: the case of 9ganda& @o"rna$ of African 5edia St"dies& +(, :,+?*,/+' Ne% Bor. Times ++ @"$y ,==> 1;hana 8isit Jigh$ights Scarce Sta!i$ity in Africa Ron$ineS& avai$a!$e at htt#:HH%%%'nytimes'comH,==>H =?H++H%or$dHafricaH++africa'htm$ (accessed ++ @"$y

,==> ' Norris& P' (,==A 1The ro$e of the free #ress in #romoting democratiKation& good governance& and h"man deve$o#ment Ron$ineS& avai$a!$e at htt#:HH#orta$'"nesco'orgHciHenHev'#h#9R6T7DV,+E>>C9R6TD<VD<TPR7NTPA;4C9R6TS42 T7<NV,=+'htm$ (accessed ,A A#ri$ ,==> ' Norris' P' and Iinn!a"er& D' (,==, 1;iving 8oice to the 8oice$ess: ;ood ;overnance& J"man Deve$o#ment C 5ass 2omm"nications Ron$ineS& 9nited Nations Deve$o#ment Programme& avai$a!$e at htt#:HHhdr'"nd#'orgHenHre#ortsHg$o!a$Hhdr,==,H#a#ersHNorris*Iinn!a"erT,==,'#df (accessed E @"ne ,==> ' NyamnFoh& F'B' (,==D Africas media& democracy and the #o$itics of !e$onging& 6ondon: Ied Boo.s' <d"g!emi& S' and @aco!son& T' (,==E ;overnance Reform 9nder Rea$ Gor$d 2onditions ( 2itiKens& Sta.eho$ders& and 8oice& Gashington& D2: The Gor$d Ban.' <g!ondah& 2'G' (,==, 15edia $a%s in #o$itica$ transition in Jyden& ;'& 6es$ie' 5'& <g"ndim"& F'F' (ed' 5edia and Democracy in Africa& 6ondon: Transaction P"!$ishers' <g"ndim"& F'F' (,==, 15edia and democracy in t%enty*first*cent"ry Africa in Jyden& ;'& 6es$ie' 5'& <g"ndim"& F'F' (ed' 5edia and Democracy in Africa& 6ondon: Transaction P"!$ishers' <$".oshi& A' (+>>> 1State& 2onfict& and Democracy in Africa: The 2om#$ex Process of Rene%a$ in @ose#h& R' (ed' State& 2onf$ict& and Democracy in Africa& Bo"$der and 6ondon: 6ynne Rienner P"!$ishers' <tta%ay& 5' (+>>> 14thnic Po$itics in Africa: 2hange and 2ontin"ity in @ose#h& R' (ed' State& 2onf$ict& and Democracy in Africa& Bo"$der and 6ondon: 6ynne Rienner P"!$ishers' Panos 7nstit"te (,==?a 1At the heart of change& the ro$e of comm"nication in s"staina!$e deve$o#ment Ron$ineS& avai$a!$e at htt#:HH%%%'#anos'org'". (accessed ,E A#ri$ ,==> ' Panos 7nstit"te (,==?! 15a.ing #overty the story& time to invo$ve the media in #overty red"ction Ron$ineS& avai$a!$e at htt#:HH%%%'#anos'org'". (accessed ,D 5ay ,==> ' Potter& D' (,=== 1DemocratiKation& 1;ood ;overnance& and Deve$o#ment in A$$en& T' and Thomas& A' (ed' Poverty and Deve$o#ment into the ,+st 2ent"ry& Ne% Bor.: <xford 9niversity Press 7nc' Price& 5'4' and Thomson& 5' (,==, Forging Peace: 7ntervention& J"man Rights and the 5anagement of 5edia S#ace& 4din!"rgh: 4din!"rgh 9niversity Press'

P"dde#hat& A' (,==E 1Diagnostic too$s and #erformance indicators Ron$ineS& Jarvard*Gor$d Ban. Gor.sho#& avai$a!$e at htt#:HH.sghome'harvard'ed"HU#norrisH2onferenceH2onference M,=#a#ersHP"dden#hattM,=DiagnosticM,=Too$s'#df (accessed ,E A#ri$ ,==> ' P"ddington& A' (,==> 1The ,==E Freedom Jo"se S"rvey: A Third Bear of Dec$ine& @o"rna$ of Democracy& ,=(, :>-*+=?' P"tKe$& @' and 8an der I%am& @' (,==A 1Ghy Tem#$ates for 5edia Deve$o#ment do not %or. in 2risis States Ron$ineS& 6ondon: 6S4 Research <n$ine& avai$a!$e at htt#:HHe#rints'$se'ac'".HarchiveH=====E-? (accessed ,E A#ri$ ,==> ' Randa$& 8' (+>>- 1The media and democratisation in the Third Gor$d& Third Gor$d W"arter$y& +/(- :A,D*A/A' Sand!roo.& R' (+>>E 1Transitions %itho"t conso$idation: democratiKation in six African states& Third Gor$d W"arter$y& +?(+ :A>*E?' Sen& A' (+>>> Deve$o#ment as Freedom& <xford: <xford 9niversity Press' Snyder& @' and Ba$$entine& :' (+>>A 1Nationa$ism and the mar.et#$ace of ideas& 7nternationa$ Sec"rity& ,+(, :D*/=' Snyder& @' (,=== 1Nationa$ist 4$ite Pers"asion in DemocratiKing States in Snyder& @' (ed' From 8oting to 8io$ence: DemocratiKation C Nationa$ist 2onf$ict& Ne% Bor.: Norton C 2om#any' Temin& @' and Smith& D'A' (,==, 15edia 5atters: 4va$"ating the Ro$e of the 5edia in ;hanas ,=== 4$ections& African Affairs& +=+:DED*A=D' Tettey& G'@' (,==+ 1The media and democratiKation in Africa: contri!"tions& constraints and concerns of the #rivate #ress& 5edia& 2"$t"re C Society& ,-:D*-+' Tettey& G'@'& P"#$am#"& :'P' and Berman& B'@' (,==- 2ritica$ Pers#ectives on Po$itics and Socio* 4conomic Deve$o#ment in ;hana& 6eiden and Boston: Bri$$' Tettey& G'@' (,==A 1The Po$itics of 5edia Acco"nta!i$ity in Africa: An 4xamination of 5echanisms and 7nstit"tions& 7nternationa$ 2omm"nication ;aKette AE(- :,,>*,/E Tettey& G'@' (,==E 15edia P$"ra$ism& Democratic Disco"rses& and Po$itica$ Acco"nta!i$ity in Africa& Jarvard*Gor$d Ban. Gor.sho#& avai$a!$e at: (accessed ,= @"$y ,==> ' Thomson& A' (,==/ An 7ntrod"ction to African Po$itics& Ne% Bor.: Ro"t$edge' 9N 4conomic 2ommission for Africa (,==? 1African Frame%or. for the Deve$o#ment of a S"staina!$e and P$"ra$istic 5ediaRon$ineS& avai$a!$e at htt#:HH%%%'"neca'orgHecaTreso"rcesHmaForTecaT%e!sitesHAfricas5ediaHdoc"mentsHSTR4A5FR A54G<R:'#df (accessed ,= 5ay ,==>

9N4S2AP (,==> 1Ghat is ;ood ;overnance Ron$ineS& avai$a!$e at htt#:HH%%%'"nesca#'orgH#ddH#rsHProFectActivitiesH<ngoingHggHgovernance'as# (accessed ,= 5ay ,==> ' 9N4S2< 2o"rier + A#ri$ ,==+ 1The Radio Scene Te$$s A$$ Ron$ineS& avai$a!$e at htt#:HH%%%'"nesco'orgH%e!%or$dH#ointsTofTvie%s H+D=D=+Tngang"e'shtm$ (accessed ,E A#ri$ ,==> ' 9N4S2< (,==D & 15edia and ;ood ;overnance Ron$ineS& avai$a!$e at htt#:HH#orta$'"nesco'orgHciHenHev'#h#T9R6T7DV,?/>AC9R6TD<VD<TT<P72C9R6TS42T7< NV,=+'htm$ (accessed E @"ne ,==> ' 9N4S2< (,==A 15edia Deve$o#ment and Poverty 4radication Ron$ineS& avai$a!$e at htt#:HH#orta$'"nesco'orgHciHenHev'#h#* 9R6T7DV,-?,AC9R6TD<VD<TPR7NTPA;4C9R6TS42T7<NV,=+'htm$ (accessed E @"ne ,==> ' 8an De Ga$$e& N' (+>>> 1;$o!a$iKation and African Democracy in @ose#h& R' (ed State& 2onf$ict& and Democracy in Africa& Bo"$der and 6ondon: 6ynne Rienner P"!$ishers' 8an Der 8e"r& P'R' (,==, 1Broadcasting and Po$itica$ Reform in Jyden& ;'& 6es$ie& 5' and <g"ndim"& F'F' (ed' 5edia and Democracy in Africa& Ne% Br"ns%ic. and 6ondon: Transaction P"!$ishers' Gor$d Ban. (,==,a 1Gor$d Deve$o#ment Re#ort ,==, Ron$ineS& cha#ter +=& avai$a!$e at htt#:HHgo'%or$d!an.'orgH+GE@<89I@= (accessed ,E A#ri$ ,==> ' Gor$d Ban. (,==,! 1The Right to Te$$ ( The Ro$e of 5ass 5edia in 4conomic Deve$o#ment Ron$ineS& avai$a!$e at htt#:HHgo'%or$d!an.'orgHE84B8A??A= (accessed +> A"g"st ,==> ' Bo"ng& 2' (+>>> 1The Third Gave of DemocratiKation in Africa: Am!ig"ities and 2ontradications in @ose#h& R' (ed State& 2onf$ict& and Democracy in Africa& Bo"$der and 6ondon: 6ynne Rienner P"!$ishers' Ia.aria& F' (+>>? 1The Rise of 7$$i!era$ Democracy& Foreign Affairs& Novem!erHDecem!er' <ne Res#onse to OAfricas Private Radio Stations: The Next Best Thing For African Democracy? (dissertation P

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htt#:HH%%%'vee#iK'com& <"r on$ine African 8i$$age' Ge %o"$d high$y a##reciate yo"r !$ogging on o"r site' Bo" can sign in !y <#en 7D("se face!oo.& yahoomai$& hotmai$& etc to sign in or register %ith "s'

NB: Ge are the #remier site in the %or$d %ith a 9niversity Research Too$'Bo" can do%n$oad term #a#ers& notes& exams and research #a#ers s"!mitted !y African st"dents' This feat"re is com#$ete$y free' Second$y& %e have have a $ot more feat"res than Face!oo. (for exam#$e& a !etter chat system& games& chat rooms& "niversity research too$& <#en 7D sign in& an invite too$ and a $ot more F"rthermore& %e are #ro"d$y 4ast African' 5ade in 4ast Africa& coded !y 4ast Africans' 6ast$y& %e are not trying to co#y Face!oo. !"t %e are trying to !e !etter since it is the !enchmar. Re#$y