Transmission Planning MOD 2

Network Planning
1.2 Network Planning Method

3FL 42104 AAAA WBZZA Edition 2 - July 2005
- RADIO NETWORK PLANNING

All rights reserved © 2005, Alcatel

Section 1 - Module 2 - Page 1
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Network Planning - Network Planning Method 1-2-2
- RADIO NETWORK PLANNING All rights reserved © 2005, Alcatel

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Objectives
Network Planning - Network Planning Method 1-2- 3
“Power budget”: to be able to calculate the power budget

of a radio hop.
“Effects of atmosphere”: to be able to understand the
effects of the atmosphere on a radio hop, to calculate
the attenuation introduced by the atmosphere gases.
“Diffraction”: to be able to calculate the Fresnel zone radius and to
satisfy the clearance rules.
“Equipment parameters related to propagation”: to be able to
understand the modulation concepts and to calculate the Rx power
threshold.
“Propagation during rain”: to be able to calculate the rain
unavailability.
“Propagation model”: to be able to calculate the outage due to a flat
fading and to a selective fading.

Objectives
“Quality objectives of Digital Radio Links”: to be able to

calculate the objectives set by the Recommendations.
“Fading countermeasures”: to be able to calculate the
improvement due to the diversity configurations.
“Reflections from ground”: to be able to understand the
problems due to the reflections from ground.
“Frequency re-use”: to be able to understand the
frequency re-use configuration.
“Interferences”: to be able to calculate the degradation introduced by
the interference signals.

Table of Contents
Page
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1 Power budget 7
L.O.S. (Line Of Sight) Radio Links 8
Main Propagation Phenomema 9
Radio Link Equation 11
Free Space Loss 12
Antenna Gain 13
Losses 15
Exercise 16
Exercise 17
Blank Page 18
2 Effects of atmosphere 19
Fixed terrestrial microwave link propagation 20
Refraction through the atmosphere 24
Anomalous propagation 29
Exercise 30
K-factor 32
Variability of the K-factor 35
Attenuation by atmosphere gases 37
Exercise 38
3 Diffraction 39
Diffraction 41
Exercise 42
Fresnel zones 43
First Fresnel zone radius 45
Exercise 46
Obstruction loss 47
Clearance rules 48
4 Equipment parameters related to propagation 49
PRx Threshold General Formula 54
Exercise 55
Exercise 56
Signature measurement 59
Blank Page 60
5 Propagation during rain 61
Propagation during rain 63
Attenuation by rain 69
Rain Unavailability Prediction 70
6 Propagation model 71
Fade margin 73
Fading definitions 74
Exercise 75
Flat fading outage 78
Exercise 79
Selective fading outage 84
Exercise 85
Single channel global outage 86
7 Quality objectives of Digital Radio Links 87
Introduction 88
ITU-T recommendations 89
Error Performance Events 90
Impact of propagation on performance objectives 91
ITU-T G.821 100
Rec. ITU-T G.826 and G.828 110
Rec. ITU-T G.826 and G.828 - ITU-R F.1092 112

Table of Contents [cont.]
Page
Switch to notes view!
Exercise 122
8 Fading countermeasures 123
Adopted techniques 124
Diversity Improvement 131
Frequency diversity 132
Exercise 133
Space diversity 134
Exercise 135
Space and frequency diversity 137
Angle diversity 138
9 Reflections from ground 139
Reflections from ground 140
Geometrical model 141
Rx signal with reflection 142
Rx signal level 143
Exercise 144
Space diversity in reflection paths 145
Exercise 146
10 Frequency re-use 147
Introduction 149
Terminology 150
Exercise 151
Concepts 152
Interferences 153
Interference types 154
Frequency reuse system block diagram 155
Same frequency re-used channel (cross-polar) 156
Exercise 157
Adjacent frequency re-used channel (co-polar) 158
Prediction of outage due to multipath propagation 161
Prediction of outage due to rain effects 164
11 Interferences 165
Introduction 166
Modem performances 167
Local sources 169
Signals belonging to the same system at a common location 171
Signals belonging to the same system from other locations 172
Signals belonging to the same system from other locations through an
overreach condition 173
Exercise 174
Blank Page 175
End of Module 176

1 Power budget

1 Power budget
L.O.S. (Line Of Sight) Radio Links
Site A Site B
Propagation
The electromagnetic wave propagation of L.O.S. RADIO systems is in the lower part of
atmosphere, near the ground.
The presence of the atmosphere and of the ground can affect the RF propagation.
PROPAGATION depends on:
• CLIMATIC CONDITIONS
• RF FREQUENCY BAND
• RADIO HOP LENGTH
• GROUND CHARACTERISTICS

1 Power budget
Main Propagation Phenomema
Atmosphere:
Atmospheric Absorption
Refraction through the atmosphere: Ray Curvature
Refraction through the atmosphere: Multipath Propagation.
Rain:
Raindrop Absorption
Raindrop Scattering
RF Signal Depolarization.
Ground:
Diffraction through Obstacles
Reflections.

1 Power budget
Radio Link Equation [cont.]
Network Planning - Network Planning Method 1 - 2 - 10
GTx GRx
Afsl
AfTx AfRx
Aa
ABRTx ABRRx
PTx PRx

1 Power budget
Radio Link Equation
PRx = PTx + GTx + GRx - Afsl -Aa - Af,Rx - Af,Tx - ABR - A - M
PRx : received power [dBm]

PTx : transmitted power [dBm]
Afsl : propagation free-space loss [dB]
Aa : atmospheric absorption loss [dB]
GTx : transmit antenna gain [dB]
GRx : receive antenna gain [dB]
Af,Tx : loss in the transmit feeder [dB]
Af,Rx : loss in the receive feeder [dB]
ABR : loss in the RF branching (filters) system [dB]
A : other attenuations (mirrors, back-to-back antennas, attenuators) [dB]
M : Margin (tolerance) [dB]

1 Power budget
Free Space Loss
Afsl is the propagation free-space loss and depends on the operating frequency “F” [GHz] and the hop
length "L" [km]:
Afsl (dB) = 92.4 + 20 log (F) + 20 log (L) FSL increase 6 dB if:
150 the hop length is doubled
or
140 the frequency is doubled.
Att.
130
[dB]
120
110
4 8 12 16 20 24 28 32 36 40 44 48
Distance [km]
2 GHz
4 GHz
6 GHz
7 GHz
10 GHz
15 GHz

1 Power budget
Antenna Gain
Antenna gain depends on its diameter “D” [m] and on the operating frequency "F” [GHz]:
2
G=
D = Antenna efficiency = 0.55 0.65
In dB units: (depending on )
G = 20 log( D ) + 20 log( F ) + 18.2 ± 0.5
50 Antenna gain is 6 dB higher if:

4m
- antenna diameter is doubled,
46 3m for a given frequency
2m - frequency is doubled, for a given
Antenn 42 diameter.
aGain 1m
[dB] 38
34
0.5m
30
0 5 10 15 20
Frequency [GHz]

1 Power budget
Losses [cont.]
Feeder loss (Af)

Feeder systems loss depends on its specific attenuation (dB/100m) and its length.
Branching loss (ABR)

ABR is the branching system loss: it may be evaluated by the characteristics of the radio equipment.
In this term it is necessary to insert the total branching loss depending on the system configuration
(i.e. total number of RF circulators and point of measurements of Tx and Rx power).
Other losses (A)

We may consider every kind of other losses like passive repeater systems, carried out by passive
repeaters or back-to-back antennas, attenuators, radomes, obstructions, etc.
Margin (M)
At the end, a value of tolerance may be added (normally 1 dB).

1 Power budget
Losses
Waveguide Attenuation

1 Power budget
Exercise
Exercise 1 - Power budget

Calculate the power budget of the following link
operating at 6 GHz (Margin = 1 dB).
2m 2m
36 km
(EW64) Aa = negligable (EW64)

200 m 200 m
ABRTx= 0.5 dB ABRRx= 0.5 dB

PRx = ?
PTx = +30 dBm

1 Power budget
Exercise
Exercise 2 - Antenna gain calculation

Calculate the gains of the antennas to be used in
the following link:
PTx : +30 dBm
PRx : -36 dBm
Frequency : 6 GHz
Distance : 48 km
Losses of branching filters and
feeder in station 1 : 1.5 dB
Losses of branching filters and
feeder in station 2 : 2.5 dB

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2 Effects of atmosphere

Fixed terrestrial microwave link propagation
A fixed terrestrial microwave link propagate through the lower

portion of the earths atmosphere, referred to as the
troposphere.
The troposphere contains all the “weather” and parameters such

as temperature, water vapour and atmospheric pressure change
between different locations and with time.
The problem is that at microwave frequencies the path an
electromagnetic ray path takes depends greatly on the value of
these parameters so as they vary so will the radio links path
profile.
A need obviously exists to be able to quantify the make up to the

atmosphere and to be able to predict its effect on the ray path.

Refraction through the atmosphere [cont.]
Under normal conditions (the so-called standard atmosphere)

temperature, water vapour and atmosphere pressure will fall with
height.
The fall in these values also represents a fall in the refractive index
(n) “seen” by the electromagnetic wave and Snell’s law dictates
that the ray will be bent away from the normal and back towards
the earth’s surface, a process referred to as refraction.
Although refractive index normally falls continuously with height
we could consider a layered structure shown in the next Figure.
For a standard atmosphere the resulting curvature is less than the

earth’s.

Snell’s Law
c
n=
v
where: c = velocity of light (vacuum)
1
v = velocity of light (medium) v=
(µ
The index of refraction (n) is the ratio of the velocity of light in a vacuum to the velocity of light through
some medium.
n ranges from 1.0 to 1.00045 (typ. 1.0003)

n2
n1 > n 2
2
1 n1
n 2 × cos% 2 = n1 × cos%1
Snell’s Law states that a ray passing from a medium of higher refractive index into (n1) a medium of lesser
refractive index (n2) is bent away from the normal.

.
Etc
n5
n4
n3
n2
n1
Earth
Atmosphere layered structure

Refraction through the atmosphere
As “n” differs only slightly from unity, it is usually convenient to work with the following quantity:
N = (n 1)×106
N is termed "refractivity" (Refer to Rac. ITU-R P.453-6 for the values of N in the world).
(A refractivity of 350 N-units corresponds to a value 1.000350 of the index of refraction “n”).
P e
N = 77.6 × + 3.73 × 105 × 2 = dry term + wet term
T T
where: P = atmospheric pressure (mb)
T = temperature (°K)
e = partial pressure of water vapor (mb)
In general the axis of a microwave beam lies within a hundred meters from ground.
It is known that at these elevations and in a well-mixed atmosphere the refractivity decreases uniformly with
the height “h” and therefore its gradient
dN
G=
is constant with h. dh
This does not mean that G remains constant in time.
On the contrary it greatly varies with metereological conditions.
The median value of G (temperate climate) is -40 N-units/Km

Anomalous propagation [cont.]
Standard Conditions
Standard Conditions
The standard atmosphere has a linear fall of around 40 N units per kilometer of height. This may be expressed
as a dN/dh of -40 units/km.
The daily and seasonal changes in the meteorological conditions produce changes in the refractivity of the
atmosphere. A well designed microwave link will allow the link to operate for all but the most extreme of these
changes.
Broadly there are three abnormal conditions that will give tise to anomalous propagation.

N
=0 positive
negative N dh positive N
dh dh 0
h
negative
Standard Standard
(a) N profile (b) Off boresight path profile and reduced clearance
Sub-refraction
Sub-refractive Conditions
When the refractivity decreases more slowly than normal, or even increases with height, then the atmosphere is
said to be sub-refractive. Under these conditions dN/dh is greater than -40 units/km (and K is less than 4/3). The
N profile is shown in next Figure.
Note that the ray path for mild sub-refractive conditions has different launch and arrival angles compared to
standard refraction and this will cause a reduction in received signal level due to the reduced gain of the
antennas off bore sight. Sub refraction tends to reduce path clearance as the reduced K makes the Earth bulge
effectively larger, increasing the diffraction loss. If the sub-refraction is extreme then the terrain between the two
sites will block the ray path causing obstruction fading.
All of these effects will cause a loss in Received Signal Level (RSL) across the whole of the system’s bandwidth, i.e.
flat fading.

(a) N profile
Super-refraction
Super-refractive Conditions
When the refractivity increases more rapidly than normal (dN/dh less than -40 units/km) the atmosphere is said
to be super-refractive (and K will be greater than 4/3).
The N profile is shown in next Figure.
Note again that the ray moves off bore sight as the refractivity changes and that the ray path becomes closer to
being parallel to the earth’s surface. The first effect will give rise to a loss of signal strength at the receiver, whilst
the second could enable propagation over long distances which could give rise to interference problems.

Causes of anomalous propagation
The sensitivity of the refractivity of the earth’s atmosphere is such that changes of a few
degrees in temperature and a few millibars in water vapour pressure, which can exist
between adjacent masses in certain meteorological conditions, can lead to the refractivity
changing by 10s of units over a height of a several 10s of metres. The resulting ducts, when
they form, can trap radio energy giving rise to both “holes” in coverage and extended
ranges.
Ducts may be caused by:
Evaporation
A shallow surface based duct will normally exist over a sea or other large body of water. It is
formed due to the rapid decrease of water vapour pressure in the first few metres above the
water’s surface and its thickness depends on the geographic region varying from 5m over the
North Sea to 20m in the Gulf.

Anomalous propagation
Nocturnal Radiation
The Earth tends to loose its daytime heat quickly at night and under calm windless conditions
can cause a temperature inversion. If there is a lot of water vapour present fog can occur,
causing an increase in water vapour pressure with height and cause subrefraction. However
if there is little water vapour, then the temperature inversion will cause super-refraction and
even ducting. This form of duct disappears shortly after sunrise as the suns’heat breaks down
the inversion layer.
Subsidence Inversion
Under high pressure conditions large, dense and cool air masses are heated by compression
as they descend, and so form a strong temperature inversion with respect to the cooler air
nearer the surface, creating an elevated duct.
Advection
In coastal regions a relatively warm air flow across a cooler sea will cause a temperature
inversion and form a surface based duct.
Weather Fronts
Cool dense air may force less dense warmer air above it, causing a temperature inversion
and a raised duct.

Exercise
Why does not the electromagnetic wave travel in a

straight line?
due to the gravity of the earth
due to the refractive gradient of the atmosphere
due to the magnetic field of the earth
What does it mean standard atmosphere?

K-factor [cont.]
EQUIVALENT EARTH RADIUS AND FLAT EARTH
In ray tracing problems it is often convenient to use a geometrical transformation to produce diagrams
where either straight rays propagate above an “equivalent earth” of effective radius KRo or alternatively,
rays of effective radius KRo propagate above a “flat earth”.
In either case the value of K (called “effective earth radius factor”) is such that the ray elevation E(x) above
the terrain has the same functional relationship to the distance x as in the original diagram.
1
R eq = KR o R o = 6370 km ; = 157 • 10 6
Ro
1 dn dN
= = 10 6 G where G =
1 dh dh
1 1 1
=
R eq R o 1 Ro
1 1 1 1
= = + 10 6 G
KRo Ro 1 Ro where G is expressed in N - units/km
1 157
KRo + 10 6 G = 1 K=
Ro 157+ G

K-factor
R KR0 R
RAY
T T
B (x)
RAY
h h2
E (x) EQUIVALENT
h H (x) h1
EARTH E (x)
B (x)
FLAT EARTH
T' R' T' R'
x d-x x' d-x
RAY
KR
BR (x) R
T
E (x)
h2
h1 H (x) REAL CASE
BE (x)
T' R'
x d-x
R0

Variability of the K-factor [cont.]
The Vertical Refractivity Gradient G and the K-factor are time varying parameters,
depending on daily and seasonal cycles and on meteorological conditions. Their range
of variation is more or less wide, depending on the climatic region.
In cold and temperate regions the range is rather narrow, while in tropical regions it is very
wide. Experimental observations show for example that the probability of K< 0.6 in
temperate climates is generally well below 1%. In tropical climates the same probability may
be in the range 5% - 10%.
This means that, in tropical regions, there is the highest probability of observing
propagation anomalies due to extreme K-factor values.
In a well planned link, tower-heights are designed in such a way that visibility between
terminals is still assured for the “lowest” ray to be expected on the path.
In practice such a minimum is taken as that value, say K (0.01%), which is not exceed for
0.01% of the time.
157
K min =
(157 + G e (0.01% ))

Variability of the K-factor [cont.]
Figure shows K(0.01%) as a function of path length “d” for the three distributions of G given:
a temperate climate
b northern climate
c tropical climate
Considerable differences may be observed between the curves. As expected, however, all
increase as the hop get longer.
It is important to determine the minimum k-factor, because in this case the radio ray is closer
to the ground (maximum obstruction probability).

Variability of the K-factor
1.4
1.2
K NOT EXCEEDED FOR 0.01% OF TIME
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
10 20 40 60 80 100 200
PATH LENGTH, Km

Attenuation by atmosphere gases [cont.]
In practice a terrestrial fixed link is not propagating through a vacuum, but rather the various
gases that make up the Earth’s atmosphere.
At frequencies above 10 GHz the attenuation experienced by a radio wave is due to these
gases.
Water vapour (H2O) and oxygen (O2) molecules in particular, interact with electromagnetic
wave energy of specific frequencies to produce oscillation or molecular resonance within their
structure.
This excitation of the molecules draws power from the electromagnetic wave causing strong
attenuation, as shown in next Figure.
Some other gases exhibit the same property, but only have a low density in the atmosphere.
The loss in the Figure is expressed as a specific loss in dB/km and is measured under “clear
sky” conditions (i.e. no rain or fog).
The overall attenuation on a link at a given frequency may be simply calculated from:
Specific Attenuation x Path Length (dB)

Attenuation by atmosphere gases

Exercise
Exercise 1 - Atmosphere gas attenuation

Calculate the attenuation due to the atmosphere
gases in a 20 km link at 20 GHz.
Exercise 2 - Rain unavailability
Calculate the rain unavailability in the following link:
Region : L
Distance : 50 km
Frequency : 11 GHz
Polarization : H
Fade Margin : 30 dB

3 Diffraction

3 Diffraction
Diffraction [cont.]
Diffraction is the bending of the electromagnetic waves

around an obstacle depending on the wavelength and
A B
the obstacle itself according to Huygens' theory.
a1 b1
Every point belonging to a wave front has the property
of generating secondary waves. a2 b2
a3 b3
Wave front is the locus of points with the same phase. a4 b4

Line-of-sight conditions is not necessary because
reception is possible through high order waves. a5 b5
The relevance of diffraction is that obstacles near

t0 t0 + dt
the microwave beam can affect propagation
introducing additional losses.

3 Diffraction
Diffraction
Activated
fictitious
sources
Tx Rx
Non-activated
fictitious
sources

3 Diffraction
Exercise
Exercise - Antenna heigths

Calculate the heights of the antennas in a 60 km
link at 7 GHz.
The path is flat with a 20 m knife-edge obstacle in
the middle (clearance: 100%).

3 Diffraction
Fresnel zones
For each point in the plane the phase shifts between P and all the other sources depend ONLY on the path
difference: the locus of points having a path difference between the two antennas = n;/2 and phase shift
of nU is an ellipsoid with radius F1.
7
TxP + PRx = TxRx + n where n = 1, 2....
2
Tx Rx
D
P 1st Fresnel (D + /2)
2nd Fresnel (D + )
a) Side View
3rd Fresnel (D + 3 /2)
+ 1st Fresnel (D + /2)

b) Cross Section - 2nd Fresnel (D + )
+ 3rd Fresnel (D + 3 /2)

3 Diffraction
First Fresnel zone radius [cont.]
The first Fresnel Ellipsoid Radius at a distance D1 (km) from one hop terminal is:
300 D1(D D1)

F1 = (m ) F = Frequency (GHz) D = Hop length (km)
(F D )
The equation shows that F1 depends both on the operating frequency (F) and the distance
from terminals.
F1 is maximum for D1 = D/2.

3 Diffraction
First Fresnel zone radius
First Fresnel Ellipsoid Radius at the middle of the path (D1=0.5D).
60
50
2 GHz
40 4 GHz
Fresnel 7 GHz
Radius [m] 30
12 GHz
20
10
0
0 20 40 60 80 100
D=Hop Length [km]

3 Diffraction
Exercise
Exercise - First Fresnel ellipsoid radius

Calculate the radius of the first Fresnel ellipsoid at
10 km distance from one hop terminal
(Frequency: 7 GHz; Hop length: 40 km).

3 Diffraction
Obstruction loss
-10
Diffraction 10
B
loss relative
to free space 20
(dB) Ad
D
30
40
-1.5 -1 -0.5 0 0.5 1
Normalized clearance h/F1
Diffraction loss for obstructed line-of-sight microwave radio paths

B : theoretical knife-edge loss curve
D : theoretical smooth spherical Earth loss curve at 6.5 GHz and k=4/3
Ad : empirical diffraction loss for intermediate terrain
h : amount by which the radio path clears the Earth’s surface (m)
F1 : radius of the first Fresnel zone (m)

3 Diffraction
Clearance rules
The practical problem in microwave radio path engineering consists in

choosing antenna towers in such a way that they are not higher than
necessary to meet the following objectives:
1. negligibly small probability than visibility is lost under “anomalous”
propagation conditions
2. acceptable diffraction losses under “normal” propagation
conditions.
There are several criteria currently in use.

For example, a popular rule recommends that:
1. clearance be unity or greater at K = 4/3
2. clearance be 0.6 or greater at the minimum K related to the
climatic region and the path length considered

4 Equipment parameters related to propagation

PRx Threshold General Formula [cont.]
F
Low Noise Error
RX Demodulator 10-3
Detector
PRX (Th) PRX(Th) S S

input
N NF N 10
-6 N
F =
S
E quipment parameters related to propagation N
output
F = 1 Theoretical
F > 1 Pratical
PRX(Th) S
=
NF N 10-6

S
In dB PRx (Th) = + 10 log F + 10 log N
N 10-6
N = KTB
K = Boltzman constant
T =Temperature
B = Bandwidth
10 log N=10 log KT + 10 log B
if T = +25C°
10 log KT= - 114 dB
DEPENDS ON THE
10 log N=10 log B - 114 dB
Modulation RF Modulation
Type Amplifier Type
S
PRx (Th) = + 10 log F + 10 log B - 114 dB
N 10-6

Example 1: Calculation of PRX threshold using different modulation types
fb = 140 Mbit/s
RF = 6 GHz 10 log F = 4 dB
T =+25°C
P Rx (Th) = ?
4 PSK
Modulation
16 QAM
Type
64 QAM
18.7
4 PSK P Rx (Th) +13.5

= + 4 + 10 log 140 - 114 = -78.1 dBm
(22 = 4)
2
15.5
16 QAM P Rx (Th) +20.5

= + 4 + 10 log 140 - 114 = -74.1 dBm
(24 = 16)
4
13.3
64 QAM P Rx (Th) +26.5

= + 4 + 10 log 140 - 114 = -70.2 dBm
(26 = 64)
6

Example 2: 10-3 receiver threshold calculation
Input data
F (dB) 2.50
BIT RATE (MHz) 155.52
MOD. (nQAM) 128 7 levels
REDUNDANCY 1.06
S/N MODEM (dB) 26.00
SYMB. RATE (MHz) 23.5
THRESHOLD (dBm) = KTB (symbol) + F + S/N modem
THRESHOLD -71.78
memo
KTB -100.53 KT (dB) -114
KTBF -98.03 THERMAL NOISE

PRx Threshold General Formula
PTX PRX(NOM)
FM = Fading Margin
hop (Km)
FM = PRX(NOM) - PRX(Th)
PRX(NOM) = PRX(Th) + FM

Exercise
Exercise 1 - Roll-off factor
Calculate the roll-off factor with the following data:

Available bandwidth : 30 MHz
Digital signal : STM1
(155.520 Mbit/s)
Modulation type : 128 QAM
Redundancy : 10%

Exercise
Exercise 2 - PRx threshold
Calculate the 10-6 BER PRx threshold in the following

system:
Modulation type : 128 QAM (S/N at 10-6=26.7 dB)
Redundancy : 6.7%
Noise figure : 4 dB
Note: Use the Nyquist bandwidth.

Signature measurement [cont.]
The sensitivity of a digital radio equipment to multipath distortions can be estimated by

laboratory measurements (”Equipment Signature").
The Tx signal passes through a simulated multipath channel, modelled by a direct path plus
echo. This produces a frequency selective response:
Notch Depth = maximum Fade Depth within the signal bandwidth;
Notch Frequency = notch position, relative to the signal carrier.
BER < 10-3

Notch
depth
[dB]
BER > 10-3
-15 -10 -5 0 5 10 15
Relative Notch Position [MHz]
The Notch Depth and Frequency are varied (adjusting amplitude and phase of direct and echo signals). In each
condition the Bit Error Ratio (BER) is measured. In the Notch Depth / Notch Frequency plane, the Signature gives
the region (Notch parameters) with BER > 10-3 (or any other threshold). The area below the Signature gives a
measure of the receiver sensitivity to multipath distortions.

Signature measurement [cont.]
In order to simulate in the laboratory the distortions produced during multipath fading events
a two-ray channel model is usually adopted.
Signature test bench:
Amplitude = 1 = echo signal delay

Tx + Rx
Y
Delay = echo signal

Phase Att
phase shift (relative
MOD
DEM to the direct signal)
b
b = echo signal amplitude
Pattern Error
generator detector

Signature measurement
Measurement Procedure:
The Bit Error Rate (BER) is measured by comparing the bit stream at the Tx input with the one
estimated at the receiver. The following steps must be performed:
a) Set the echo delay to a positive value t (to get a minimum phase signature).
b) Set the echo phase to the value corresponding to Notch Frequency f o = Fc - H F
(Fc = carrier frequency, 2 D F = bandwidth to be explored).
c) Starting with b= 0, increase the Notch Depth B; stop when the BER reaches a given
threshold (usually 10-3). This is the Critical Notch Depth B c for that BER value.
d) The point [Bc ,fo] is a Signature point, to be plotted in the Notch Depth vs. Notch
Frequency plane.
e) Move the Notch Frequency fo of a given frequency step. Repeat steps c), and d) until
fo = Fc + H F (the band to be explored is completed).
f) Repeat steps b) to e) with a negative delay (to get a non- minimum phase signature).

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5 Propagation during rain

Propagation during rain [cont.]
Main phenomena associated to Radio Propagation in the presence of Rain:
Scattering: part of the EM energy is re-irradiated by the raindrops in every

directions.
Absorption: part of the EM energy is transferred to the water molecules in the

raindrops.
De-polarization: the polarization plane (e. g. Vertical) of the incident radio

signal is rotated, thus producing a cross- polarized (e. g. Horizontal) component in
the signal at the receiver.
These phenomena depend on:

Signal Frequency (wavelength compared to the drop size)
Signal Polarization (due to the non-spherical drop)
Rain Intensity.

Propagation during rain
Effect of Scattering: The scattering of radio wave energy produced by rain drops
may cause interference to other radio systems. This effect is particularly significant
with high Tx power (e. g. interference from satellite earth stations to radio- relay
links).
The procedures for the evaluation of the Co-ordination Area around Earth Stations
(ITU- R Rec. 615) include an estimate of this effect.
Effect of Absorption: The absorption of the radio wave energy causes an

attenuation on the Rx power.
Effect of De-polarization: In radio links using the co-channel plan (two cross-
polar radio channels at the same frequency) the C/ I ratio is guaranteed by the
isolation between H and V polarizations.
In the absence of rain, the antenna XPD can provide a C/ I ratio well above 25dB.
The Rain de-polarization reduces the C/ I ratio at the receiver.
A statistical model is proposed by ITU- R Rec. 530.
Example: In a 13 GHz link, with 40 dB rain attenuation, the XPD is reduced to
about 16 dB (according to the ITU model).

Attenuation by rain [cont.]
Attenuation can also occur as a result of rain for frequencies higher than 5 GHz.
A technique for estimating long-term statistic of rain attenuation is reported in ITU 530-7.
The following technique is used for estimating the long-term statistics of rain attenuation:
Step 1: Obtain the rain rate R0.01 exceeded for 0.01% of the time (with an
integration time of 1 min). If this information is not available from local
sources of long-term measurements it is possible to refer to the
following table (Rec. ITU-R P.837).

Rain intensity exceeded for 0.01% of the time (R0.01)
Percentage
A B C D E F G H J K L M N P Q
of time (%)
1 <0.1 0.5 0.7 2.1 0.6 1.7 3 2 8 1.5 2 4 5 12 24
.3 <0.8 2 2.8 4.5 2.4 4.5 7 4 13 4.2 7 11 15 34 49
.1 <2 3 5 8 6 8 12 10 20 12 15 22 35 65 72
.03 <5 6 9 13 12 15 20 18 28 23 33 40 65 105 96
.01 <8 12 15 19 22 28 30 32 35 42 60 63 95 145 115
.003 14 21 26 29 41 54 45 55 45 70 105 95 140 200 142
.001 22 32 42 42 70 78 65 83 55 100 150 120 180 250 170

Rainfall Regions - Europe, Africa and Asia

Step 2: Compute the specific attenuation, R (dB/km) for the frequency,

polarization and rain rate according to the relationship
8 R = k R %0.01
and the data (depending on frequency and polarization) enclosed in the following table.

FREQ. K (H) K (V) (H) (V)
4 0.000650 0.000591 1.121014 1.075118
5 0.001108 0.001019 1.223217 1.158436
6 0.001777 0.001582 1.307902 1.226152
7 0.002897 0.002529 1.334564 1.311525
8 0.004625 0.004021 1.326024 1.312673
11 0.014191 0.012619 1.243525 1.229707
12 0.018810 0.016875 1.217389 1.200131
13 0.024051 0.021738 1.194580 1.173875
15 0.036160 0.033010 1.158202 1.131863
17 0.050182 0.045996 1.131039 1.101352
18 0.057868 0.053060 1.119748 1.089204
20 0.074602 0.068293 1.099966 1.069047
23 0.103276 0.094005 1.073910 1.044816
25 0.124923 0.113187 1.057440 1.030525
27 0.148673 0.134098 1.041143 1.016802
30 0.188249 0.168788 1.016736 0.996539
35 0.264023 0.235197 0.976517 0.962965
38 0.314429 0.279615 0.953212 0.943165
40 0.349597 0.310786 0.938230 0.930273

Attenuation by rain
Step 3: Compute the effective path length deff of the link by multiplying the
actual path length “d” by a distance factor “r”. An estimate of this factor
is given by:
1
r= d 0 = 35e
0.015xmin( R 0.01, ,100)
d
1+
d0
Step 4: An estimate of the path attenuation exceed for 0.01% of the time is
given by:
A 0.01 = 8 R d eff = 8 R dr
Step 5: Attenuation exceed for other percentages of time p in the range
0.001% to 1% may be deduced from the following power law:
(0.546 + 0.043log10 p)
A(dB) = A 0.01 × 0.12 × p
AR
-6.348837 1- 1-0.5769566 Log10
FM 0.12
By setting A R = p = 10
A 0.01

Rain Unavailability Prediction
1
From the Time % vs. Rain Attenuation curve,
the Unavailability is computed as the time percentage
with attenuation greater than Fade Margin.
% of Time
0.1 In the Figure the Fade Margin is 30dB.

Then the Rain Unavailability is about 0.005%.
FM
0.01
0.001
0 10 20 30 40 50
Attenuation [dB]
The above curve is valid for Region L, 50 km, 11 GHz and polarization H.

6 Propagation model

6 Propagation model
Fade margin [cont.]
PERFORMANCES ARE RELATED TO RADIO LINK FADE MARGIN
In a well designed Radio Relay Link the Rx Power is close to the designed level for most of the
time.
The Radio Link is usually designed in such a way that the Received Power “pRx” (normal
propagation conditions) is much greater than the Receiver Threshold “pRx Th”.
Fade Margin FM is defined as : FM (dB) = pRx (dBm) - pRx Th (dBm)
A Fade Margin is required to compensate for the reduction in Rx power caused by Fading
Activity.
The Fade Margin guarantees that the link will operate with expected quality, even if
anomalous propagation condition causes Fading Activity “FA”, as long as the Fading Activity
is lower than the Fade Margin:
FA < FM

6 Propagation model
Fade margin
The Outage condition is present when the Rx power is below the Rx Threshold
Outage probability: P(Outage)= P [pRx < pRx Th]

pRx
NORMAL PROPAGATION
FADING
FADE MARGIN ACTIVITY
THRESHOLDpRx Th
OUTAGE ZONE
TIME

6 Propagation model
Fading definitions
ATMOSFERIC
MULTIPATH
FLAT SELECTIVE
FADING FADING
ANALOG DIGITAL ANALOG DIGITAL
THERMAL THERMAL INTERSYMBOL

INTERMODULATION
NOISE NOISE INTERFERENCE
FADING EXCEEDS DISTORSION PRODUCES

MARGIN OVER EYE CLOSURE AND
THRESHOLD LOSS OF SYNC.

6 Propagation model
Exercise
Which is the cause of the multipath fading?

Rain
Layers in the atmosphere

6 Propagation model
Flat fading outage [cont.]
The Probabilty of having a fade depth A (dB) greater than FM (Fade Margin) is
(Rayleigh formula):
FM
1 Pf = Prob{A > FM} = P010 10
0.1 Curve for P0 = 1

10 dB/dec
P0 = Multipath Occurrence
Prob A > FM
0.01
Factor.
0.001
It is a measure of the multipath
activity in a radio hop.
0.0001
0 10 20 30 40 50
FM [dB]

6 Propagation model
Flat fading outage [cont.]
Occurence Factor “P0” - Alcatel Method
P0 may be measured and directly used or evaluated.

3
f d
P0 = 0.2 a b = 4 • 10 -7 • a • b • f • d 3 (f in GHz; d in km)
4 50
where:
a is the climatic coefficient
b is the roughness factor
Typical values of "a" are:

a = 2.4 for maritime hops
a = 1 for flat hops
a = 0.7 for hill hops
a = 0.3 for mountain hops

6 Propagation model
Flat fading outage
According to the path profile the roughness factor is: flat irregular
- 1.3
S
b= 6 < S < 42(m )
15
(“S” is defined in ITU-R Rep. 338-5 Table III).
Typical values of ”b" are:

b = 0.25 irregular terrain
b = 1 medium terrain
b = 4 flat terrain

6 Propagation model
Exercise
Exercise - Flat fading outage probability
Calculate the outage probability due to the flat

fading in the following link:
Flat Fading Margin : 30 dB
Hop length : 50 km
Type of hop : flat
Frequency : 8 GHz
Roughness (S) : 15

6 Propagation model
Selective fading outage [cont.]
SELECTIVE FADING
refracting layer
a1
reflected rays
a2
1
direct ray
The reflected ray is characterized by:

amplitude
delay
phase shift
Three-ray and two-ray models
The three-ray model is a model in which the signal at the input of the Rx antenna is the sum of three signals
with amplitude:
1 a1 a2
The second and third rays are delayed respect to the first by 1 and 2 seconds.
The channel transfer function is:
Supposing that is very small (at theH 1( w ) = 1ends

and + a 1ofe the band
+ athe j j
2 ephase of the reflected ray a1 will not
1 2
2
change 1 1 = 2 2) and by setting a2 = ab and 2 = , the three-ray model becomes a two-ray model with
± j ± j
H ( w on
The amplitude of the sum vector depends ) = and
a ( 1variesbe e and) a(1+b).
between a(1-b)
The minimum of |H(w)| (“notch”) is reached when:
+ =n with n = 0, 1 …. N
and the minimum points are frequency-spaced by

1
If fo is the frequency of the notch closest frequency fc of the carrier
1
fo fc
2
6 Propagation model
2 ray amplitude response
H( ) -20 lg H( )
15
a(1+b)
20 20 lg a
25
(1+b)
20 lg (1-b) 20 lg
(1-b)
a(1-b)
30
fc f0 f f
channel
bandwidth
1/ 1/

6 Propagation model
2-Ray Group Delay for Fades of 5 dB and 20 dB

6 Propagation model
The Alcatel method to evaluate the selective fading outage is the signature method
Selective fading outage

Kn
× (C m )
2
Ps = 4.3 × D × 2
Ts
where:
(
= 1 exp 0.2 × P0
0.75
)
Bc
Ts
K n = Ts !f o 10 20
!fo = signature bandwidth [GHz]

Bc = notch producting a given BER [dB]
Ts = symbol time depending on capacity and modulation [ns]
m = echo delay mean value [ns]
1. 3
d
m = 0.7 [ns ]
50
d = hop length [km]
r = reference delay [6.3 ns]

6 Propagation model
Selective fading outage
Signature
Bc

6 Propagation model
Exercise
Exercise - Selective fading outage probability
Calculate the outage probability due to the selective

fading in the link of example 1 with the following
data:
Modulation type : 128 QAM
Redundancy : 10%
Kn : 0.25

6 Propagation model
Single channel global outage
The outage time can be expressed, in the most general form, as the weighted sum
of two different contributions concerning flat and selective fading.
2
a a a
P = Pf + Ps 2 2
Where “a” is in the range 1.5 to 2: in the case of single channel, for both ITU and
ALCATEL a=2.

7 Quality objectives of Digital Radio Links

Introduction
The link reference objectives and dimensioning criteria are:
AVAILABILITY OBJECTIVES based on:

• Definition of Availability
• Max. Unavailable Time Percentage
ERROR PERFORMANCE OBJECTIVES based on:

• Quality Parameters
• Max. Time Percentages for each quality parameter below given
thresholds.
Note: Error Performance Objectives are checked only during Available Time.

ITU-T recommendations
Rec. G.821 Rec. G.826 Rec. G.828

First Issue 1980 1992 2000
Ref. Connection 27,500 km 27,500 km 27,500 km
Radio link PDH PDH and SDH SDH
Bit Rate Below Primary Rate At or Above Primary At or Above Primary
Rate Rate
(64 kbit/s) (> 2 Mbit/s) (> 2 Mbit/s)
Performance criteria Errored Bits Errored Blocks Errored Blocks

Error Performance Events
Time
10 sec < 10 10 sec

sec
Unavailability detected Availability detected
Unavailable period Available period
Severely Errored Second
Errored Second (non-SES)
Error-free Second
Example of unavailability determination
Note: Within brackets is explained the event for G.821.

ES - Errored Second
If one or more errored block (or bit) events occur within one second, an errored second event is generated.
SES - Severely Errored Second
A one-second period which contains $30% of errored blocks (or BER $10-3). SES is a subset of ES.
BBE - Background Block/Bit Errors
An errored block (or bit) not occuring as part of an SES.
UAS - UnAvailable Second
Consecutive Severely Errored Seconds may be precursors to periods of unavailability. A period of
unavailable time begins at the onset of ten consecutive SES events. These ten seconds are considered to be
part of unavailable time.
The period of unavailable time ends at the onset of ten consecutive non-SES events.
These ten seconds are considered to be part of available time.

Impact of propagation on performance objectives
Performance Impairment Degradation Period Performance Objective
Rain >10 seconds Availability
Multipath Fading < 10 seconds Error Performance (SES)

ITU-T G.821 [cont.]
ITU refers to three different applicable levels of acceptable connection quality of the
transmission digital circuits, belonging to an ISDN environment.
They are representative of a practical national transmission network structure so that each
digital radio link can be assigned to one of the following reference circuits, depending on its
location within the network.
High Grade
This will encompass long haul national and international connections operating
mainly at high bit rates. These connections will naturally be high grade equipment.
Medium Grade
Systems operating between local exchanges in the national network.
Local Grade
Systems operating between customers’ premises and local exchanges and typically
operating equal to, or lower, than 2 Mbit/s.

ITU-T G.821 [cont.]
Error performance parameters

Error performance should only be evaluated during connection’s availability periods
measuring:
Errored Second Ratio (ESR)
The ratio of ES (one-second period with at least one errored bit) to total seconds in available
time during a fixed measurement interval.
Severely Errored Second Ratio (SESR)
The ratio of SES (one-second period with a BER > 10-3) to total seconds in available time
during a fixed measurement interval.

ITU-T G.821 [cont.]
G.821 Basic apportionment principles 27500 Km
1250 Km 25000 Km 1250 Km
T-reference T-reference
point point
Local Medium High Medium Local

grade grade grade grade grade
Objectives 15% 15% 40% 15% 15%

allocation
SESR 0.00015 0.00015 0.0004 0.00015 0.00015 0.001
ESR 0.012 0.012 0.032 0.012 0.012 0.08

ITU-T G.821 [cont.]
G.821 related specs
High grade Medium grade Local grade

HDRP Rec. 594
Performance
Objectives Rec. 697
Real link Rec. 634
Rec. 696
HDRP Rec. 557

Availability
Objectives Rec. 1053
Real link Rec. 695

ITU-T G.821 [cont.]
ITU-R Rec. 557
Unavailability objective for HDRP (2500 km) high grade link:
•Unavailability < 0.3 %

ITU-T G.821 [cont.]
ITU-R Rec. 695
Unavailability objective for high grade real link:
L
•Unavailability < 0.3x % (L 2500km)
2500

ITU-T G.821 [cont.]
ITU-R Rec. 594
Quality performance for the HDRP (2500 km) should not exceed the
following values.
• SES < 0.054% = 0.004% + 0.05%
• ES < 0.32%

ITU-T G.821 [cont.]
ITU-R Rec. 634

High grade real link
Quality performance should not exceed the following values scaled

depending on the link length
L
• SES < x 0.054% (L 2500km)
2500
L
• ES< x 0.32% (L 2500km)
2500

ITU-T G.821
ITU-R Rec. 696

Medium grade real links are divided in 4 quality classes with different objectives:
Performance Percentage of any month

Parameters
H.G. M.G. M.G. M.G.
Class 1 Class 2 Class 3 Class 4
280 km 280 km 50 km 50 km
Unavailability 0.033 0.05 0.05 0.1
SES 0.006 0.0075 0.002 0.005
ES 0.036 0.16 0.16 0.4

Rec. ITU-T G.826 and G.828 [cont.]
G.826 - Error performance parameters and objectives for

international, constant bit rate digital paths (PDH and SDH) at or
above the primary rate over a 27500 km HRP.
G.828 - Error performance parameters and objectives for

international, constant bit rate synchronous digital paths (SDH)
over a 27500 km HRP.

Definition of block
A block is a set of consecutive bits.
The blocks are defined for:

path by G.826 and G.828 for path based on SDH
MS and RS by G.829

G.826-8 Error Performance Events
Errored Block (EB): 1 block with at least 1 errored bit
Errored Second (ES): 1 second period with at least one errored block or
at least one defect
Severely Errored Second (SES): 1 second containing more than 30%

errored blocks or at least one defect
Background Block Error (BBE): 1 errored block not belonging to a SES
G.828 introduces two additional error performance events, SEP (Severely

Errored Period, sequence of between 3 to 9 consecutive SES) and SEPI
(SEP Intensity) SEP and SEPI values tbd

Errored performance should only be evaluated whilst the path is in the

available state
Errored Second Ratio (ESR). The ratio of ES in available time to total

seconds in available time during a fixed measurement interval
Severely Errored Second Ratio (SESR): The ratio of SES in available time
to total seconds in available time during a fixed measurement interval
Background Block Error Ratio (BBER): The ratio of BBE in available time
to total blocks in available time during a fixed measurement interval
excluding all blocks affected by SES

G.826/G.828 Error performance objective

Global error performance objectives for 27,500 HRDP
Mbit/s 1.5 - 5 5 - 15 15 - 55 55 - 160

ESR 0.04 0.05 0.075 0.16
G.826 SESR 0.002
BBER 2*10-4
ESR 0.01 0.01 0.02 0.04
SESR 0.002
G.828 BBER 5*10-5 5*10-5 5*10-5 5*10-5
SEP t.b.d.

Rec. ITU-T G.826 and G.828
The choice of G.826 or G.828 objectives depends on a mutual agreement

between the parties: the path fails to meet the error performance requirement
if any of these objectives is not met
The actually suggested evaluation period is 1 month: in cases where 1 month

evaluation period may not permit accurate statistical estimation, a longer
evaluation period (up to 1 year) may be used.
Compliance with the performance specification of these Recommendations

will, in most cases, meet the G.821 requirements

G.826-8 Basic apportionment principles
Total objectives
100%
27500 km
Country based Distance based

portion 45% portion 55%
National portion International portion 1% each 500 km (G.826)

35% 10% 0.2% each 100 km (G.828)
Terminating Transit
country 1% (2) country 2% (4)

G.826-8 Country based apportionment

27500 Km
Terminating Transit Terminating

country countries country
PEP PEP
National National
portion International portion portion
17.5% 10% 17.5%

Objectives 45%
allocation
1% 2% 2% 2% 2% 1%

G.826-8 - Allocation to the National/International Portion of the end-

to-End path
For each national portion are allocated a fixed block allowance of 17.5%
of the end-to-end objective
For the international portion is allocated a block allowance of 2% per

intermediate country plus 1% for each terminating country
In both cases a distance-based allocation is added to the block

allowance in terms of 1% per 500 km (Rec. G.826) or 0.2% per 100 km
(Rec. G.828)
The added distance-based allocation is rounded up to the nearest 500 km

for Rec. G.826 and to the nearest 100 km for Rec. G.828

Rec. ITU-T G.826 and G.828
G.826/8 related recommendations
International National
portion portion
HDRP Rec. F.1092 Rec. F.1189

Performance
Objectives
Real link Rec. F.1397 Rec. F.1491
HDRP --- ---

Availability
Objectives
Real link as G.821 as G.821

Rec. ITU-T G.826 and G.828 - ITU-R F.1092 [cont.]
Error Performance Objectives for constant bit rate digital path at or above the primary rate
carried by DRRS which may form part of the international portion of 27500 km HRP
The G.826-8 objective is subdivided into:

Distance allocation factor: FL = 0.01 x L/500 L(km)
Block allowance factor BL (LREF value is provisionally 1000 km) defined as:
Intermediate country Terminating country

L L LREF
BL = BR x .02 x if Lmin < L < LREF BL = BR x .01x if Lmin < L <
LREF LREF / 2 2
BL = BR x .02 if L > LREF BL = BR x .01 if L > LREF / 2
Where: BR = Block allowance ratio (0 < BR < 1)

Lmin = 50 km

Rec. ITU-T G.826 and G.828 - ITU-R F.1092
Stating A = FL + BL the table lists the new objectives
Mbit/s 1.5 - 5 5 - 15 15 - 55 55 - 160 >160

ESR .04*A .05*A .075*A .16*A Under Study
SESR .002*A
BBER .0002*A

EPO (Error Performance Objectives) for real digital radio links used in
the international portion of 27500 km HRP at or above the primary rate
Defines a rule in order to indicate the objectives based on real link length
and it should be used for path, multiplex and regenerator sections
performances according to the parameters defined in G.826-828 for
path and G.829 for multiplex and regenerator sections.
EPO = Bj (Llink / LR) + Cj
where:
LR = 2500 km, Lmin = 50 km
j=1 for Lmin < L < 1000 km, j=2 L > 1000 km for intermediate country
j=3 for Lmin < L < 500 km, j=4 L > 500 km for terminating country

Parameters for the EPO for Intermediate countries according to G.828
Parameter Bit rate Lmin < Llink < 1000 km 1000 km < Llink
(Kbit/s) B1 C1 B2 C2
ESR 1664 5x 10-4 (1+BR) 0 5x 10-4 2 x 10-4 x BR
ESR 2240 5 x 10-4 (1+BR) 0 5 x 10-4 2 x 10-4 x BR
ESR 6848 5 x 10-4 (1+BR) 0 5 x 10-4 2 x 10-4 x BR
ESR 48960 10-3 (1+BR) 0 10-3 4 x 10-4 x BR
ESR 150336 2 x 10-3 (1+BR) 0 2 x 10-3 8 x 10-4 x BR
SESR 1664-150336 10-4 (1+BR) 0 10-4 4 x 10-5 x BR
BBER 1664-48960 2.5 x 10-6 (1+BR) 0 2.5 x 10-6 10-6 x BR
BBER 150336 5 x 10-6 (1+BR) 0 5 x 10-6 2 x 10-6 x BR

Parameters for the EPO for Terminating countries according to G.828
ESR 1664 5x 10-4 (1+BR) 0 5x 10-4 10-4 x BR
ESR 2240 5x 10-4 (1+BR) 0 5x 10-4 10-4 x BR
ESR 6848 5x 10-4 (1+BR) 0 5x 10-4 10-4 x BR
ESR 48960 10-3 (1+BR) 0 10-3 2 x 10-4 x BR
ESR 150336 2 x 10-3 (1+BR) 0 2 x 10-3 4 x 10-4 x BR
SESR 1664-150336 10-4 (1+BR) 0 10-4 2 x 10-5 x BR
BBER 1664-48960 2.5 x 10-6 (1+BR) 0 2.5 x 10-6 5 x 10-7 x BR
BBER 150336 5 x 10-6 (1+BR) 0 5 x 10-6 10-6 x BR

Parameters for the EPO for Intermediate countries according to G.826
ESR 1.5-5 2x 10-3 (1+BR) 0 5x 10-4 8 x 10-4 x BR
ESR >5-15 2.5 x 10-3 (1+BR) 0 5 x 10-4 10-3 x BR
ESR >15-55 3.75 x 10-3 (1+BR) 0 5 x 10-4 1.5 x 10-3 x BR
ESR > 55-160 8 x 10-3 (1+BR) 0 8 x 10-3 3.2 x 10-3 x BR
ESR >160-3500 under study
SESR 1.5-3500 10-4 (1+BR) 0 10-4 4 x 10-5 x BR
BBER 1.5-3500 10-5 (1+BR) 0 10-5 4 x 10-6 x BR

Parameters for the EPO for Terminating countries according to G.826
ESR 1.5-5 2x 10-3 (1+BR) 0 2x 10-3 4 x 10-4 x BR
ESR >5-15 2.5 x 10-3 (1+BR) 0 2.5 x 10-3 5 x 10-4 x BR
ESR >15-55 3.75 x 10-3 (1+BR) 0 3.75 x 10-3 7.5 x 10-4 x BR
ESR > 55-160 8 x 10-3 (1+BR) 0 8 x 10-3 1.6 x 10-3 x BR
ESR >160-3500 under study
SESR 1.5-3500 10-4 (1+BR) 0 10-4 2 x 10-5 x BR
BBER 1.5-3500 10-5 (1+BR) 0 10-5 2 x 10-6 x BR

Error Performance Objectives for constant bit rate digital path at or above the
primary rate carried by DRRS which may form part or all of the national portion of
a 27500 km HRP.
It concerns the national portion of the HRP that is subdivided into three basic
sections
PEP LE PC/SC/TC IG
Access Short Long

Haul Haul
Access
Short haul
Long Haul
Performance objectives are fixed for each of the three types of link, just
for path level, according to the following table

The values for the B parameter are fixed as following:
A1 + .001*L/500 long haul ( 1%<A1<2%)

7.5%<B<8.5% short haul
7.5%<B<8.5% access
Mbit/s 1.5-5 5-15 15-55 55-160 >160
ESR .04*B .05*B .075*B .16*B ?
SESR .002*B .002*B .002*B .002*B .002*B
BBER .0002*B .0002*B .0002*B .0002*B .0002*B
The values indicated can be reallocated in different way within the national portion of the network taking
into account that:
the sum of the 3 contributions shall not exceed 17.5%
the sum resulting from short and long haul contributions are in the range 15.5% to 16.5%.

Error performance objectives for real digital radio links used in the national portion of a
27500 km HRP at or above the primary rate.
Defines a rule in order to indicate the objectives based on real link length and it should be
used for path, multiplex and regenerator sections performances.
The national portion is subdivided into three categories: the access section, the short haul
section and the long haul section.
The parameters used for the performance objectives are defined in

G.826-828 for path section
G.829 for multiplex and regenerator sections

Long haul
Llink
A = (A1 + 0.002) x for50km< Llink < 100km
100
A = A1 + 0.00002 x Llink for Llink > 100 km
where A1 provisionally been agreed in 0.01<A1<0.02
Short haul and access: 7.5% < A < 8.5%
Mbit/s 1664 2240 6848 48960 150336

VC-11 TC-11 VC-12 TC-12 VC-2 TC-2 VC-3 TC-3 VC-4 TC-4
ESR 0.01*A 0.01*A 0.01*A 0.02*A 0.04*A
SESR 0.002*A 0.002*A 0.002*A 0.002*A 0.002*A
BBER 5*A*10-5 5*A*10-5 5*A*10-5 5*A*10-5 1*A*10-4

Exercise
Exercise 1 - Unavailability due to the propagation

Calculate the unavailability due to the propagation in
a 60 km link (using Rec. 695).
Exercise 2 - SES calculation

Calculate the allowed SES by using G.826 (F.1092) in the following link:
Link lenght : 50 km
Type of country : intermediate country
Block Allowance Ratio : 1

8 Fading countermeasures

Adopted techniques
Techniques adopted to reduce the multipath fading impairment:

Adaptive Signal Equalization at the Receiver
Diversity Reception:
• Space Diversity
• Frequency Diversity
• Angle Diversity

Adaptive equalization [cont.]
An Adaptive Equalizer is a circuit used at Rx, to partially compensate for signal

distortion. Adaptativity means that the equalizer response is modified,
depending on the received signal.
In the Intermediate Frequency (IF) implementation, the equalizer amplifies the

spectral components more deeply attenuated by fading.
In the Base Band (BB) implementation, the equalizer cancels from each signal
sample the component due to Inter-Symbol Interference (ISI). This technique is
usually more effective.
The effectiveness of a signal equalizer can be appreciated by comparing the

receiver signatures with and without the equalizer.
The reduction in the area below the signature curve gives a measure of the
improvement provided by the equalizer.

Adaptive equalization [cont.]
Without Equalizer
Notch Depth [dB]

With Equalizer
-15 -10 -5 0 5 10 15
Notch Frequency [MHz]

Diversity Improvement [cont.]
In order to improve link performance diversity scheme can be adopted.
Using more than one receiver the outage probability can be significantly reduced.
The diversity configurations are:

Frequency diversity (two receivers)
Space diversity (two receivers and two antennas)
Space and Frequency diversity (two receivers and two antennas)
Space and Frequency diversity (four receivers and two antennas)
The diversity can be performed by means of:

BB switch (best channel selection)
IF combiner that adds the two signals elaborated with a suitable algorithm
BB switch and IF combiner
In a diversity configuration the probability that BER exceeds performance objective depends
on:
single channel performance
correlation between the bearers
multipath fading probability

TWO RECEIVERS DIVERSITY
Diversity parameter m relevant to “order two diversity” is defined:
(
m = D 1 K2 ) where is the multipath activity parameter
The outage probability for a protected channel is:
Pi • Pj
(
PDIV BER> 10 n = ) m
The corresponding improvement is:
Pi m
I= = where “Pi” is the probability without protection
PDIV Pi

a) Frequency diversity
Kf2 = exp(- 0.9• JF• Cm )
1.3
d
!F = frequency diversity [GHz] m = median hop delay [ns] =0.7
50
where d = hop length [km]
b) Space diversity
* S
2
'
K = exp ( 4 • 10
2
s
6
• %
() 7 %&
S = antenna separation [m] (Max. = 200 in this formula) = wavelenght [m]
c) Space and frequency diversity (2 receivers)

In this case two antennas are used, but the two receivers are at a different frequency. The diversity needs
a BB switch and the correlation coefficient considers separatly the two effects and so:
Kfs2 = Ks2 • Kf2

If four antennas are used to obtain the space diversity also in the other side, the formula is:
Kfs2 = Ks1
2 2 2
• Ks2 • Kf

SPACE AND FREQUENCY DIVERSITY (4 RECEIVERS)
To analyze these configurations we need to extend the definitions given dealing with order
two diversity to the case of order four diversity schemes; so the diversity parameters “m”
becomes
m 4 = D3 • det K 4 where is the multipath activity parameter
Stating that Kij is the correlation coefficient between “i” and “j” channels
1 K12 K13 K14

K 21 1 K 23 K 24
det K 4 =
K 31 K 32 1 K 34
K 41 K 42 K 43 1

Diversity Improvement
1
f
1
2
S S
1 2
3
f
2
4
As shown in the figure, there are two possibilities for this configuration including,
or not, a space diversity on both sides: space diversity correlation in transmission is
generally given by ks1 and its value will be 1 in the case in which there is only one
antenna.
Space diversity in Tx side can be applied ONLY in 1+1 configuration.

Frequency diversity
Multipath fading is frequency selective. In multi-channel radio systems (usually with

about 20 - 30 MHz spacing), not all the RF channels are deeply faded at the same
time.
An RF stand- by channel is usually available (in 1+ 1 or N+ 1 arrangement) for
equipment failure. It can be exploited also for multipath protection.
The traffic of a low quality (deeply faded) working channel can be switched to the stand-
by channel, with high probability of a significant quality improvement.
In some cases, the stand-by channel can be in a different RF band (Cross-band frequency
diversity). Example: 7 GHz system with 11 GHz protection.
Fast quality detector and switching circuits are required (Hitless Switching: without
errors or frame loss caused by the switching itself).
Tx1 Rx1 Dem BB
f1
f2
Tx2 Rx2 Dem BB

Exercise
Exercise - Frequency diversity improvement
Calculate the frequency diversity improvement by

using the following data:
Frequency : 8 GHz
Hop lenght : 50 km
Frequency diversity : 40 MHz
Multipath occurrence factor Po :1
Outage probability without protection (10-3) : 0.0001

Space diversity
Two antennas are usually arranged on a single structure, with a suitable

vertical spacing.
Typical spacing: 150 - 200 wavelengths.
The correlation of fade depth at the two antennas decreases as the antenna
spacing increases. Thus the probability of deep fading at the two antennas
at the same time can be made sufficiently low, with a suitable antenna
spacing.
Rx1 Dem BB
f
Tx1 S
f
Rx2 Dem BB

Exercise
Exercise - Space diversity improvement
Calculate the space diversity improvement by

using the following data:
Vertical antenna separation : 8m
Frequency : 8 GHz
( =3.75 cm)
Multipath occurrence factor Po : 1
Outage probability without protection : 0.0001

Space and frequency diversity [cont.]
a) 2 Receivers
Tx1 Rx1 Dem BB
f1
f2
Tx2 Rx2 Dem BB
Diversity in reception side only
f1
Tx1 Rx1 Dem BB
S1 S2
f2
Tx2 Rx2 Dem BB
Diversity in transmission and reception sides

Space and frequency diversity
F1
b) 4 Receivers F1
Rx1
1/f1
Tx1 3/f2 DEM BB
F1
Rx2
F2
Tx2 4/f2
2/f1 F2
Rx3
DEM BB
F2
Rx4
1+1 configurations with 4 receivers
F1 F1
1/f1
Tx1 Rx1
3/f2 DEM BB
F1
S1 S2 Rx2
2/f1
F2 F2
4/f2
Tx2 Rx3
DEM BB
F2
Rx4
1+1 configurations with 4 receivers and space diversity also in transmission side

Angle diversity
Two implementations of Angle Diversity can be considered:

Antenna Diversity: Two antennas (of the same type or of different types)
side-by-side with slightly different pointing angles.
Beam Diversity: One antenna with two feeders, producing beams with
different shapes and/or pointing.
In both cases, two beams operate at the receiver, closely spaced, but with different
shapes. The multipath components are subject to different weighting at the two
beams and the two composed Rx signals are in some measure uncorrelated.
Advantages: No need of high, complex tower structures; only one antenna with
Beam Diversity; lower costs.
Disadvantages: Less diversity improvement.

9 Reflections from ground

Reflections from ground
Depending on the Path Profile, a part of the Tx radio signal can be reflected by the
ground toward the Rx antenna. At the receiver, in addition to the direct signal (D), arrives a
reflected signal (R).
The presence of a ground reflection can be rather critical :
Fluctuations in the Rx signal level, even for long time periods
Enhancement of Multipath Activity (the reflected signal is not added to a
stable direct signal, but to the fast-varying multipath signal)
Reduction of Space Diversity effectiveness as a countermeasure to
multipath.
Reflections should be avoided by:
Route Planning (in particular over-water paths)
Site Selection: Obstruction of the reflected ray can be obtained in some cases, by suitable
selection of the radio sites and of antenna heights.

Geometrical model
Tx D
2
1
R2
R1 P
Geometrical parameters related to the Reflection mechanism:

• Reflection point P
• Grazing angle
• Direct path length D
• Reflected path length R1+ R2
• Angles a1, a2 between Direct and Refl. Rays
These parameters are varying with time, because of varying propagation conditions (k-factor).

Rx signal with reflection
In the presence of reflection, the overall received signal (S) is given by the (vectorial) addition
of the direct (D) and the reflected (R) signals:
S=D+R
The result of adding the two vectors D and R depends on:

Relative amplitude of D and R:
• reflection loss: depends on the surface type (worst case: 0 dB e. g. water)
• divergence factor: due to the spherical earth surface (usually a small loss)
• antenna directivity: depends on path geometry and antenna beamwidth.
Phase shift between D and R:

• direct and reflected path length difference (expressed in multiples of the
wavelength l; 360 deg. phase shift for each l)
• reflection shift: depends on frequency, grazing angle, and surface type
(usually close to 180 deg).

If the antenna height is varied, then the path length difference and the phase shift between the Direct and the
Reflected signal change. As a result, the Rx signal level is a function of the antenna height.
Direct and Reflected signals co-phased Maximum Rx level

Direct and Reflected signals phase-opposed Minimum Rx level
The exact positions corresponding to the maximum and minimum Rx level change with propagation conditions
(k-factor).

Rx signal level
Rx
Tx
Rx Level

Exercise
Why does the reflected ray from the ground change?

Space diversity in reflection paths
The Rx level varies with the antenna height, but the position of the maximum Rx level is not stable,
due to varying propagation conditions (k- factor).
With two antennas, a good Rx level can be expected at least at one antenna.
Space Diversity Engineering:

Antenna Spacing: The optimum value is computed, but it depends on the k-factor.
Design Rule: Compute Spacing for k= 4/ 3 and check for higher and lower k-factors.
Position of the lower antenna: In general, as low as possible, in order to:
Obstruct (at least partially, if possible) the reflected ray
Clearance:
• For the Lower Antenna, in most cases, Clearance= 0 is enough;
• Usual rules for the Higher Antenna.
Implementation Options:
BB Switching to the best signal
IF Adaptive Combining (as for Multipath countermeasure)
RF Combining (Anti-Reflection System).

Exercise
In the space diversity configuration is the antenna

separation vertical or horizontal?

10 Frequency re-use

10 Frequency re-use
Introduction [cont.]
Polarization is the characteristic of electromagnetic wave related to the

orientation and rotation of the electrical (E) or magnetic (H) vector.

10 Frequency re-use
Introduction
Polarization is a very convenient and simple method to enlarge

the isolation between two signals increasing the spectrum usage.
Isolation (XPI) of 30 - 40 dB can be obtained adopting available
antennas.
By using orthogonal polarization, two independent channels using
the same frequency can be transmitted over a single link.
However, during fading periods, the cross-polarization
discrimination (XPD) is reduced and significant interference from
adjacent or re-used channel can be observed.
Cross Polar Interference Cancellers (XPIC) are used to reduce the
effects of cross-polar interference.

10 Frequency re-use
Terminology
Definition of cross-polarization terms (ITU-R P.310):

Cross-polarization The appearance, during the propagation, of a polarization
component which is orthogonal to the expected polarization.
Cross-polarization
discrimination For one radio wave transmitted on a given polarization, the ratio
at
the reception side of the power received with the expected
polarization to the power received with the orthogonal polarization.
Note - the cross-polarization discrimination depends both on the
characteristics of the antenna and on the propagation medium.
Cross-polarization
isolation For two radio waves transmitted with the same frequency with the
same power and orthogonal polarization, the ratio of the co-
polarized power in a given receiver to the cross-polarized power in
that receiver.
Depolarization A phenomenon by virtue of which all or part of the power of a radio
wave transmitted with a defined polarization may no longer have a
defined polarization after propagation.

10 Frequency re-use
Exercise
What is the difference between XPD and XPI?

10 Frequency re-use
Concepts
Frequency reuse of the same RF channels:
The RF frequency channel is used in Vertical and in Horizontal

polarization, with two different transceivers.
Single antenna, double polarity or

Double antenna, single polarity
Double the RF spectrum traffic capacity
RF frequency reuse types:
1. Without interference canceller (low modulation level)

2. With interference canceller (high modulation level)

10 Frequency re-use
Interferences
Interference due to RF re-use:

1. Same frequency re-used channel (cross-polar)
2. Adjacent frequency re-used channels (co-polar)
Interference level:
The interference level permitted is proportional to:
1. Modulation type
2. XPC (Cross Polar Canceller) gain (for cross-polar channel)
3. NFD & ATPC (for adjacent channel)
The interference is non stationary
It depends on fading activity

10 Frequency re-use
Interference types
1. Same frequency re-used channel (cross-polar) example: ch 2 and ch 2r
2. Adjacent frequency re-used channels (co-polar) example: ch 2 and ch (1r & 3r)
Co-channel mode (RF band reused)
Go (Return) Return (Go)

z x y
H (V) 1 2r 3 4r N 1' 2'r 3' 4'r N'

V (H) 1r 2 3r 4 Nr 1'r 2' 3'r 4' N'r
fo

10 Frequency re-use
Frequency reuse system block diagram
Single antenna, Double polarity
LO
H
DATA DATA
IN H OUT
UP DOWN DEM
MOD TX H H RX IF V
&
H CONV CONV H
XPIC
LO
DATA DATA
V
IN
UP DOWN DEM OUT
MOD V V RX IF &
TX H
V CONV CONV XPIC V
V
LO

10 Frequency re-use
Same frequency re-used channel (cross-polar)
EXAMPLE: 1 dB WORSENING DUE TO C/I
MODULATION C/N E-3 C/I

dB dB
mod 128 cross 23 30
MODULATION C/N E-3 Rx THRESHOLD

dB dBm
mod 128 cross 23 -71.0
INTERF. CALC. Rx PW XPI XPIC GAIN TOTAL

dBm dB dB dBm C/I = 51 dB
-30.00 -35.00 -16.00 -81.00
With the following formula it is possible to calculate the threshold degradation with a stated
C/I ratio:
C C
N I
Degradation(dB) = 10 log 1 + 10 10

10 Frequency re-use
Exercise
What is the difference between C/N and C/I?

10 Frequency re-use
Adjacent frequency re-used channel (co-polar)
EXAMPLE: 1 dB WORSENING DUE TO C/I
MODULATION C/N E-3 C/I

dB dB
mod 128 cross 23 30
INTERF. CALC. PRX NFD TOTAL

dBm dB dBm
-30.00 -27.00 -55.00
Correlated fading on all the co-polar signals (same antenna).

Prediction of outage due to multipath propagation
[cont.]
The combined effect of multipath propagation and the cross-polarization patterns of the
antennas governs the reductions in XPD occuring for small percentage of time. To compute
the effect of these reductions in link performance the following step-by-step procedures
should be used (Rec. ITU-R P.530-7):
Step 1: Compute
XPDg + 5 for XPDg < 35 (5 is the mean field decreasing)

XPD0 =
40 for XPDg > 35
where XPDg is the manufacturer’s guaranteed minimum XPD at boresight for both the
transmitting and receiving antennas, i.e., the minimum of the transmitting and receiving
antenna boresight XPDs.

[cont.]
Step 2: Evaluate the multipath activity parameter ( )
k xp D
Step 3: Determine Q = - 10 • log
P0
0.7 one transmit antenna

kXP =
* S
2
' two transmit antennas
1 - 0.3 exp (- 4x10 -6 t %
() 7 %&
In the case where two orthogonal polarized transmissions are from different antennas:
vertical separation is “St“(m)
carrier wavelength is “ ” (m)

10 Frequency re-use
Step 4: Calculate the probability of outage Pxp due to clear-air cross-polarization from
M XPD
-
Pxp = P0 • 10 10
where MXPD is the equivalent XPD margin for a reference BER given by:
Co
XPD 0 + Q - co-channel without XPIC
I
Co
MXPD = XPD 0 + Q + XPIRF - co-channel with XPIC XPIRF : 15 - 20 dB
I
C
XPD 0 + Q + NFD - o
adjacent channel
I
Co
where is the Carrier - To - Interference ratio for a reference BER (10-3)
I
Step 5: Evaluate the overall outage as the unweighted sum of partial outages
related to flat fadding, selective fading and frequency re-use.
Ptot = Pf + Ps + Pxp

10 Frequency re-use
Prediction of outage due to rain effects [cont.]
Intense rain governs the reductions in XPD observed for small percentages of time. For paths on which
more detailed predictions or measurements are not available, a rough estimate of the unconditional
distribution of XPD can be obtained from a cumulative distribution of the co-polarized rain attenuation
CPA using the equi-probability relation:
XPD = U - V(f) log (CPA)
where:
U = U0 + 30 log (f) (U0 + 15)
V(f) = 12.8 f 0.19 for 8 < f < 20 GH
V(f) = 22.6 for 20 < f < 35 GH
Long-term XPD statistics obtained at one frequency can be scaled to another frequency using the semi-
empirical formula:
XPD2 = XPD1 20 log(f2/f1 ) for 4 < f1, f2 < 30 GHz
where:
XPD1 and XPD2 are the XPD values not exceeded for the same percentage of time at frequencies f1 and f2.
The equation is least accurate for large differences between the respective frequencies. It is most accurate
if XPD1 and XPD2 correspond to the same polarization (horizontal or vertical).

10 Frequency re-use
Prediction of outage due to rain effects [cont.]
Step-by-step procedure for predicting outage due to precipitation effects (Rec. ITU-R P.530-
7):
Step 1: Determine the path attenuation, A0,01 (dB), exceeded for 0.01% of the time.
Step 2: Determine the equivalent path attenuation, Ap (dB):
Ap =10((U C0/I + XPIRF)/V)
where U and V are obtained previously, C0/I (dB) is the carrier-to-interference ratio defined for the
reference BER without XPIC, and XPIRF (dB) is the cross-polarized improvement factor for the reference
BER.
If an XPIC device is not used, set XPIRF = 0.

10 Frequency re-use
Prediction of outage due to rain effects
Step 3: Determine the following parameters:
[
23.26log Ap / 0.12A0.01 ] if m < 40
m=
40 if m > 40
and
(
n = -12.7+ 161.23- 4m /2 )
valid values for n must be in the range of -3 to 0. Note that in some cases, especially when an XPIC device
is used, values of n less than -3 may be obtained. If this is the case, it should be noted that values of p less
than -3 will give outage BER < 1 x 10-5.
Step 4: Determine the outage probability from:
PXPR = 10(n 2)

11 Interferences

11 Interferences
Introduction
Interference could arise from:

1 Local sources (Tx coupled via antennas to Rx)
2 Signals belonging to the same system at a common location
3 Signals belonging to the same system from other locations
4 Signals belonging to the same system from other locations through an overreach
condition
5 Different services sharing the same frequency band (interferences generated by radio
links of other customers)
Depending on frequency spectrum, the interferences can be subdivided into
A Gaussian interferences
B Non Gaussian interferences
Depending on occurrence probability, the interferences can be subdivided into
C Stationary
D Non stationary (depending on fading activity)
E Non stationary (periodic or non periodic, some external sources as radar)

11 Interferences
Modem performances
Each radio system is characterized by a minimum value of Carrier to Noise C/N and is also
characterized by a minimum value of Carrier to Interference C/I.
(In the table are shown some values for training purpose only).
C/I causes 1 dB worsening C/I causes 0.5 dB worsening

C/N W/O FEC (dB) AT C/N E-3 & E-6 W/O AT C/N E-3 & E-6 W/O FEC
FEC
10^-3 10^-6 10^-3 10^-6 10^-3 10^-6

mod level
QAM
512 33.00 36.50 39.00 42.50 42.00 45.50
256 30.00 33.00 36.00 39.00 39.00 42.00
128 27.00 30.00 33.00 36.00 36.00 39.00
64 24.00 27.00 30.00 33.00 33.00 36.00
32 21.00 24.00 27.00 30.00 30.00 33.00
16 18.00 21.00 24.00 27.00 27.00 30.00

11 Interferences
Local sources [cont.]
Transmitter to receiver interference
INTERFERENCE Type "1"

SPECTRUM Type "A" for digital to digital or "B" for analog to digital interference
ACTIVITY Type "C"
WEST EAST
INTERFERENCE
TX TO RX
PTx1 PRx2
ANTENNA 1 ANTENNA 2
AF1= ATTEN. FEEDER 1 AF2= ATTEN. FEEDER 2
TX1 RX2

11 Interferences
Local sources
Transmitter to receiver interference: calculation example
INTERFERENCE CALCULATIONS TX on RX Type
Site of calculations MILAN

West site FLORENCE As example see A, B
East Site VENICE
INPUT DATA (example) OUTPUT DATA

PTX1 Power TX at radio circulator antenna port dBm 30.00 C/I results (at threshold)
PRx thr. PRx at threshold 10^-3 dBm -72.00 level of C/I West on East dB 28.00 B
AF1 Attenuation feeder West dB 0.00
AF2 Attenuation feeder East dB 0.00
D Angle between antennas deg. 80.00 + Threshold 10^-3
A Attenuation provided by West + East ant dB 130.00 for 2 antennas - level of TX West signal on East RX
NFD Net filter discrimination (for co-channel) dB 0.00
COMPUTED DATA
level of TX West signal on East RX dBm -100.00 A + Power TX at radio circulator antenna port
- Attenuation feeder West
- Attenuation provided by West + East ant
- Attenuation feeder East

11 Interferences
Signals belonging to the same system at a common location [cont.]
Receiver to receiver interference

ACTIVITY Type "D" (depending on fading activity)
WEST EAST
INTERFERENCES
Rx to Rx
I
I
PR1* W W PR2*
ANTENNA 1 ANTENNA 2
G1= ANTENNA 1 GAIN G2= ANTENNA 2 GAIN
AF1= ATTEN. FEEDER 1 AF2= ATTEN. FEEDER 2
PR1= RX1 INPUT SIGNAL PR2= RX2 INPUT SIGNAL
RX1 RX2
* power field at antenna input

11 Interferences
Signals belonging to the same system at a common location
Receiver to receiver interference: calculation example

Site of calculations MILAN
As example see A, B, C
West site FLORENCE
East Site VENICE
INPUT DATA OUTPUT DATA
PRx thr. PRx at threshold 10^-3 dBm -72.00 Various C/I results (at threshold)
G1 Gain antenna West dB 40.00 level of C/I West H on East H dB 25.00
G2 Gain antenna East dB 43.00 level of C/I West H on East V dB 28.00
AF1 Attenuation feeder West dB 5.00 level of C/I West V on East V dB 25.00
AF2 Attenuation feeder East dB 5.00 level of C/I West V on East H dB 28.00
PR1 Rec. Power at Rx West dBm -30.00 level of C/I East H on West H dB 26.00 C
PR2 Rec. Power at Rx East dBm -30.00 level of C/I East H on West V dB 30.00
D Angle between antennas deg. 94.00 level of C/I East V on West V dB 26.00
ATTEN Attenuation provided by West antenna HH dB 65.00 level of C/I East V on West H dB 30.00
ATTEN Attenuation provided by West antenna HV dB 69.00
ATTEN Attenuation provided by West antenna VV dB 65.00
ATTEN Attenuation provided by West antenna VH dB 69. + PRX at threshold 10^-3
ATTEN Attenuation provided by East antenna HH dB 70.00 - level of East H signal on West H ant.
ATTEN Attenuation provided by East antenna HV dB 73.00
ATTEN Attenuation provided by East antenna VV dB 70.00
ATTEN Attenuation provided by East antenna VH dB 73.00
BRANC RX branching insertion loss West dB 2.00
BRANC RX branching insertion loss East dB 2.00
NFD Net filter discrimination (for co-channel) dB 0.00
COMPUTED DATA * power field at antenna input
PR1* Power Rx at antenna direction West dBm -63.00 A Rec. Power at Rx West
PR2* Power Rx at antenna direction East dBm -66.00 + Attenuation feeder West
level of West H signal on East H ant. dBm -97.00 - Gain antenna West
level of West H signal on East V ant. dBm -100.00 + RX branching insertion loss West
level of West V signal on East V ant. dBm -97.00
level of West V signal on East H ant. dBm -100.00 B Power Rx at antenna direction West
level of East H signal on West H ant. dBm -98.00 - Attenuation provided by East antenna HH
level of East H signal on West V ant. dBm -102.00 + Gain antenna East
level of East V signal on West V ant. dBm -98.00 - Attenuation feeder East
level of East V signal on West H ant. dBm -102.00 - Net filter discrimination (or filter attenuation)
- RX branching insertion loss East

11 Interferences
Signals belonging to the same system from other locations

ACTIVITY Type "D"
I
C
w
B A
Interfered signal received power
PRXCW = PTXAW - BTXAW + GTXAW - FSLAC + GRXCW - BRXC
Interfering signal received power

PRXCint = PTXAint - BTXAint + GTXAint - DGTXAint - NFD - FSLAC + GRXCW - BRXC

11 Interferences
Signals belonging to the same system from other locations through an overreach condition

ACTIVITY Type "D"
w
I C
D
B I A
w
E F
Interfered signal received power
PRXDW = PTXCW - BTXCW + GTXCW - FSLCD + GRXDW - BRXD
Interfering signal received power

PRXDint = PTXBint - BTXBint + GTXBint - DGTXBint - NFD - FSLBD + GRXDW - DGRXDint - BRXD

11 Interferences
Exercise
Exercise - Threshold degradation
Calculate the threshold degradation due to a

-95 dBm co-channel interference signal on the
following system.
Rx threshold = -72 dBm
C
= 23 dB
N

Blank Page

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Network Planning

1.2 Network Planning Method

- RADIO NETWORK PLANNING

3FL 42104 AAAA WBZZA Edition 2 - July 2005

- RADIO NETWORK PLANNING All rights reserved © 2005, Alcatel

3FL 42104 AAAA WBZZA Edition 2 - July 2005

“Power budget”: to be able to calculate the power budget

- RADIO NETWORK PLANNING All rights reserved © 2005, Alcatel

3FL 42104 AAAA WBZZA Edition 2 - July 2005

“Quality objectives of Digital Radio Links”: to be able to

- RADIO NETWORK PLANNING All rights reserved © 2005, Alcatel

3FL 42104 AAAA WBZZA Edition 2 - July 2005

3FL 42104 AAAA WBZZA Edition 2 - July 2005

3FL 42104 AAAA WBZZA Edition 2 - July 2005

- RADIO NETWORK PLANNING All rights reserved © 2005, Alcatel

3FL 42104 AAAA WBZZA Edition 2 - July 2005

- RADIO NETWORK PLANNING All rights reserved © 2005, Alcatel

3FL 42104 AAAA WBZZA Edition 2 - July 2005

- RADIO NETWORK PLANNING All rights reserved © 2005, Alcatel

3FL 42104 AAAA WBZZA Edition 2 - July 2005

- RADIO NETWORK PLANNING All rights reserved © 2005, Alcatel

3FL 42104 AAAA WBZZA Edition 2 - July 2005

PRx = PTx + GTx + GRx - Afsl -Aa - Af,Rx - Af,Tx - ABR - A - M

PRx : received power [dBm]

- RADIO NETWORK PLANNING All rights reserved © 2005, Alcatel

3FL 42104 AAAA WBZZA Edition 2 - July 2005

- RADIO NETWORK PLANNING All rights reserved © 2005, Alcatel

3FL 42104 AAAA WBZZA Edition 2 - July 2005

50 Antenna gain is 6 dB higher if:

- RADIO NETWORK PLANNING All rights reserved © 2005, Alcatel

3FL 42104 AAAA WBZZA Edition 2 - July 2005

Feeder loss (Af)

Branching loss (ABR)

Other losses (A)

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3FL 42104 AAAA WBZZA Edition 2 - July 2005

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3FL 42104 AAAA WBZZA Edition 2 - July 2005

Exercise 1 - Power budget

(EW64) Aa = negligable (EW64)

ABRTx= 0.5 dB ABRRx= 0.5 dB

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3FL 42104 AAAA WBZZA Edition 2 - July 2005

Exercise 2 - Antenna gain calculation

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3FL 42104 AAAA WBZZA Edition 2 - July 2005

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3FL 42104 AAAA WBZZA Edition 2 - July 2005

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3FL 42104 AAAA WBZZA Edition 2 - July 2005

A fixed terrestrial microwave link propagate through the lower

The troposphere contains all the “weather” and parameters such

A need obviously exists to be able to quantify the make up to the

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3FL 42104 AAAA WBZZA Edition 2 - July 2005

Under normal conditions (the so-called standard atmosphere)

For a standard atmosphere the resulting curvature is less than the

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3FL 42104 AAAA WBZZA Edition 2 - July 2005

n ranges from 1.0 to 1.00045 (typ. 1.0003)

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3FL 42104 AAAA WBZZA Edition 2 - July 2005

Atmosphere layered structure

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