ART HISTORY

EGYPTIAN ART

EGYPT
The Arab Republic of Egypt is a transcontinental country. Meaning, it spans more than one continent. According to research, Egypt is one of the most populous countries in Africa and the Middle East. About half of Egypt's residents live in urban areas. Egypt also has one of the longest histories of any modern state, having been continuously inhabited since the 10th millennium !. The ancient civili"ation of Egypt #as considered one of the most advanced of its time. Egypt is rich in culture, #ith its ancient and famous monuments still alive, it$s no #onder #hy tourism plays a vital role in the country$s economy.

Egyptian Society
%tudies say that the Egyptian society is structured li&e a pyramid, #ith the 'haraoh on top, ruling all over the country. (e)t in line are the *overnment officials, #ith the (obles and priests. The %oldiers comes ne)t in po#er. After the %oldiers are the %cribes, ne)t are Merchants, the Artisans, +armers, and in the bottom of the pyramid lies the slaves and servants. The 'haraoh,-ing had a special status, #hich is e)pressed by his monuments. The tomb of a high official and of a poor farmer might have been different in si"e, but in theory they could display the same features. A royal tomb #as al#ays different. .n the (e# -ingdom &ing tombs #ere decorated #ith special te)ts /Amduat0, only rarely &no#n from contemporary private tombs . %ocial status is e)pressed very directly in art. The main person in a relief or painting is al#ays sho#n as the biggest figure. %ervants are sho#n as much smaller. The officials,the ruling class, it is clear evidence that the officials of the Ancient Egypt #ere often sons of, or at least related to the &ing. +armers occupy most part of the Egyptian population. There is little #ritten evidence about these people, and almost no rural settlement archaeology1 fortunately, funerary archaeology /their tombs0 can reveal to us a little more about these people.

Egyptian architecture
The architecture of ancient Egypt is one of the most influential throughout history. The diverse structures and great architectural monuments helped Egypt to put its name on the map. 2ne of the most famous architectural #or&s in Egypt is the Great Pyramid of Giza /also &no#n as the pyramid of -hufu0 and the Great Sphinx of Giza

Ancient Egyptian houses #ere made out of mud collected from the (ile River. .t #as placed in molds and left to dry in the hot sun to harden for use in construction. Many Egyptian to#ns have disappeared because they #ere situated near the cultivated area of the (ile 3alley and #ere flooded as the river bed slo#ly rose during the millennia, or the mud bric&s of #hich they #ere built #ere used by peasants as fertili"er. 2thers are inaccessible, ne# buildings having been erected on ancient ones. +ortunately, the dry, hot climate of Egypt preserved some mud bric& structures.

!ifferent type" of Pyramid"

Step Pyramid The first pyramid #as built at %a44ara in the 1st 5ynasty. The step pyramid ma&es us believe that they could be fore6runners to the first pyramid structure that #as built. These features include the use of compacted mud bric& layers that #ere placed in the same layout as those in the step pyramids of later dynasties. The first stone pyramid #as built at %a44ara by the son of -hase&hem#y, (et7ery&het, also &no#n as 57oser /8oser0. The step pyramid would originally have been covered in limestone that would reflect rays of sun on the land.

#ent pyramid 9ith the :th 5ynasty /;<=<6;:><0 came the ne# stage in pyramid construction #hen %neferu built several pyramids evolving from the step. ?is first attempt #as built at Meidum and loo&ed a little to#eres4ue as it basically consisted of a step pyramid that had the first fe# tiers filled in so that the #alls #ere smooth and geometric li&e those of a true pyramid. This #as the first step pyramid successfully built since that of 57oser, ho#ever, this pyramid #as fla#ed and partially collapsed.

True pyramid The third pyramid built by %neferu, &no#n as the @Red 'yramid, and it$s located at 5ahshur. This is the very first true pyramid. Aearning from his previous attempts %neferu #as able to build the structure so that its #alls #ere raised at a consistent angle from the base to the ape) at the same time as managing to support the #eight that #as bearing do#n upon it. .t #as $hufu, /son of %neferu, #ho built the *reat 'yramid on the *i"a plateau #hich is the largest pyramid constructed and one of the %even 9onders of the Ancient 9orld. The other t#o noticeable true pyramids on the *i"a 'lateau #ere built by the son of -hufu, -hafre, and -hafre$s son Men&aure. -hafra built his pyramid on higher ground than his father so, although it is actually smaller in si"e, it loo&s as if it the larger of the t#o. elo# is the pyramid of -hafre /center0 and it looks deceptively larger than that of

khufus Great Pyramid (right).

PHARAOH $HA%RA
-hafra #as one of the pharaohs of ancient Egypt. ?e ruled during the : th dynasty of the 2ld &ingdom. -hafra is the son of -hufu and the throne successor of 57edefre. 'haraoh -hafra #as the builder of the second largest pyramid of *i"a. %ome of the Egyptologists also credit him #ith the building of the *reat %phin), but this is highly disputed. ThereBs not much &no#n about -hafra, e)cept the historical reports of ?erodotus, #ho describes him as a cruel and heretic ruler, #ho &ept the Egyptian temples closed after -hufu had sealed them. There is no agreement on the date of his reign. %ome authors say it #as bet#een ;<<C ! and ;<D; !1 this dynasty is commonly dated ca. ;><0 !E;:C0 !. 9hile the Turin -ing Aist length for his reign is blan&, and Manetho's e)aggerates his reign as >> years, most scholars believe it #as bet#een ;: to ;> years, based upon the date of the 9ill of 'rince (e&ure #hich #as carved on the #alls of this 'rince's mastaba tomb. The #ill is dated anonymously to the Fear of the 1;th !ount and is assumed to belong to -hufu since (e&ure #as his son. -hafra's highest year date is the GFear of the 1Dth occurrenceG #hich is a painted date on the bac& of a casing stone belonging to mastaba * =><0. This #ould imply a reign of ;:E;< years for this &ing if the cattle count #as biannual during the +ourth 5ynasty.

Hierog&yph"
Egyptian hieroglyphs #ere a formal #riting system used by the ancient Egyptians. .t$s a combination of logographic and alphabetic elements. ?ieroglyphs consist of three &inds of glyphsH phonetic glyphs, including single6consonant characters that function li&e an alphabet1 logographs, representing morphemes1 and determinatives, #hich narro# do#n the meaning of logographic or phonetic #ords. ?ieroglyphs continued to be used under 'ersian rule /intermittent in the >th and <th centuries !E0, and after Ale)ander the *reat's con4uest of Egypt, during the ensuing Macedonian and Roman periods. .t appears that the misleading 4uality of comments from *ree& and Roman #riters about hieroglyphs came about, at least in part, as a response to the changed political situation. %ome believe that hieroglyphs may have functioned as a #ay to distinguish 'true Egyptians' from some of the foreign con4uerors. Another reason may be the refusal to tac&le a foreign culture on its o#n terms that characteri"ed *reco6Roman approaches to Egyptian culture generally. ?aving learned that hieroglyphs #ere sacred #riting, *reco6 Roman authors imagined the comple) but rational system as an allegorical, even magical, system transmitting secret, mystical &no#ledge. y the :th century, fe# Egyptians #ere capable of reading hieroglyphs, and the myth of allegorical hieroglyphs #as ascendant. Monumental use of hieroglyphs ceased after the closing of all non6!hristian temples in DI1 !E by the Roman Emperor Theodosius .1 the last &no#n inscription is from 'hilae, &no#n as The *raffito of Esmet6A&hom, from DI: !E.

'ogogram A &ogogram, or &ogograph, is a grapheme #hich represents a #ord or a morpheme /the smallest meaningful unit of language0. This stands in contrast to phonograms, #hich represent phonemes /speech sounds0 or combinations of phonemes, and determinatives, #hich mar& semantic categories. Aogograms are commonly &no#n also as GideogramsG. %trictly spea&ing, ho#ever, ideograms represent ideas directly rather than #ords and morphemes, and none of the logographic systems described here is truly ideographic.

%ince logograms are visual symbols representing #ords rather than the sounds or phonemes that ma&e up the #ord, it is relatively easier to remember or guess the meaning of logograms, #hile it might be relatively harder to remember or guess the sound of alphabetic #ritten #ords. Another feature of logograms is that a single logogram may be used by a plurality of languages to represent #ords #ith similar meanings.

(orpheme .n linguistics, a morpheme is the smallest grammatical unit in a language. The field of study dedicated to morphemes is called morphology. A morpheme is not identical to a #ord, and the principal difference bet#een the t#o is that a morpheme may or may not stand alone, #hereas a #ord, by definition, is freestanding. Every #ord comprises one or more morphemes.

EGYPTIAN (A$E)P The very first people to use cosmetics, at least that #e can tell from archaeological evidence, #ere the Ancient Egyptians, #ho #ere slathering their faces #ith great "eal as early as :,000 !. The Egyptians #ere &no#n for painting their lips either a vibrant shade of red or a &ind of bluey6blac& color. .t's 4uite possible that they used other colors as #ell, but these ones #e &no# about today. Ma&eup #as used not only for the sa&e of beauty, but also for the sa&e of magic and medicine. !olors varied #hen it came to eyeliner, but generally spea&ing green #as used during the time of the 2ld -ingdom #hereas blac& came into vogue during the (e# -ingdom era. The green eyeliner #as made of green malachite, #hich #as to be found in %inai or green copper ore. The blac& eyeliner #as made from a lead sulfide called galena and came from *ebel et68eit in the desert. Aater on, &ohl came to be used #hich #as a fun mi) of soot and galena. lush #as also applied during the time of the Ancient Egyptians and #as made from red ochre #hich #as clay that #as tinted naturally. Ma&ing blush involved pulling clay out of the ground, #ashing it thoroughly and then allo#ing it to dry in the sun. 9ashing the clay helped to separate the ochre from the sand and the ochre produced a beautiful effect #hen it graced the chee&s of the Egyptians. ?enna #as popular for both nails and hair and #as even used on the toes of 'haraohs before the time came for them to be mummified. 2nce the ma&eup #as prepared, a #and or stic& made of ivory, #ood or bone #ould have been used to apply it.

SAR*OPHAG)S A sarcophagus is a bo)6li&e funeral receptacle for a corpse. .t is commonly carved in stone, displayed above ground, and can also be buried. .t came from a *ree& #ord @sar)$, meaning @flesh$, and @phagein$ meaning @to eat$. 9hen combined, %arcophagus means Jflesh6eatingK. .n Ancient Egypt, a sarcophagus formed the outer layer of protection for a royal mummy, #ith several layers of coffins nested #ithin, and #as often carved out of alabaster. All #ere usually decorated #ith painted or carved representations of the deceased.

Ancient Egyptian Re&igion

Ancient Egyptian religion #as a comple) system of polytheistic beliefs and rituals #hich #ere an integral part of ancient Egyptian society. .t centered on the Egyptians' interaction #ith many deities #ho #ere believed to be present in, and in control of, the forces and elements of nature. The practices of Egyptian religion #ere efforts to provide for the gods and gain their favor. +ormal religious practice centered on the pharaoh, the &ing of Egypt. Although a human, the 'haraoh #as believed to be descended from the gods. ?e acted as the intermediary bet#een his people and the gods, and #as obligated to sustain the gods through rituals and offerings so that they could maintain order in the universe. The state dedicated enormous resources to Egyptian rituals and to the construction of the temples. The ancient Egyptian deities are the gods and goddesses #orshipped in ancient Egypt. .n different eras, various gods #ere said to hold the highest position in divine society, including the solar deity Ra, the mysterious god Amun, and the mother goddess .sis. The highest deity #as usually credited #ith the creation of the #orld and often connected #ith the life6giving po#er of the sun. %ome scholars have argued, based in part on Egyptian #ritings about these higher gods, that the Egyptians came to recogni"e a single divine po#er that lay behind all things and #as present in all the other deities. ut they never abandoned their original polytheistic vie# of the #orld, e)cept possibly during the era of Atenism in the 1:th century !, #hen official religion focused e)clusively on the impersonal sun god Aten.

THE #OO$ O% THE !EA!

Another translation #ould be G oo& of emerging forth into the AightG. The te)t consists of a number of magic spells intended to assist a dead person's 7ourney through the !uat, or under#orld, and into the afterlife. The #oo+ of the !ead #as part of a tradition of funerary te)ts #hich includes the earlier 'yramid Te)ts and !offin Te)ts, #hich #ere painted onto ob7ects, not papyrus. %ome of the spells included #ere dra#n from these older #or&s and date to the Drd millennium !E. 2ther spells #ere composed later in Egyptian history, dating to the Third .ntermediate 'eriod /11th to =th centuries !E0. A number of the spells #hich made up the oo& continued to be inscribed on tomb #alls and sarcophagi, as had al#ays been the spells from #hich they originated. The #oo+ of the !ead #as placed in the coffin or burial chamber of the deceased. The #oo+ of the !ead is made up of a number of individual te)ts and their accompanying illustrations. Most sub6te)ts begin #ith the #ord ro, #hich can mean mouth, speech, a chapter of a boo&, spell, utterance, or incantation. This ambiguity reflects the similarity in Egyptian thought bet#een ritual speech and magical po#er. .n the conte)t of the #oo+ of the !ead, it is typically translated as either GchapterG or GspellG. .n this article, the #ord GspellG is used. At present, some 1I; spells are &no#n, though no single manuscript contains them all. They served a range of purposes. %ome are intended to give the deceased mystical &no#ledge in the afterlife, or perhaps to identify them #ith the godsH for instance, %pell 1=, an obscure and lengthy description of the god Atum. 2thers are incantations to ensure the different elements of the dead person's being #ere preserved and reunited, and to give the deceased control over the #orld around him. %till others protect the deceased from various hostile forces, or guide him through the under#orld past various obstacles. +amously, t#o spells also deal #ith the 7udgment of the deceased in the 9eighing of the ?eart ritual.

()((I%I*ATION PRO*ESS Step ,- Announcement of !eath This first step #as to let the people &no# that someone had died. A messenger #as sent out to the streets to announce the death. This allo#ed people to get themselves ready for mourning period and ceremony. Step .- Em/a&ming the #ody The second step #as ta&ing the body to be embalmed. The embalmers #ere located in special tents or buildings. These buildings #ere called embalming #or&shops, and #ere maintained by teams of priests. 2ftentimes during the embalming, the priests #ould have to step outside to get a#ay from the horrible smell. Step 0- Remo1a& of #rain The first part of the body to be removed #as the brain. Egyptians did not &no# the purpose of the brain, so they thought it #as a #aste of space. To e)tract the brain, a hoo& #as inserted through the nose. The embalmers pulled out as much as they could, then put it in #ater to dissolve. %ome people thin& the #ater #as then thro#n out, but others thin& it #as ta&en #ith the mummy to the burial chamber. Step 2- Remo1a& of Interna& Organ" (e)t to be removed #ere the internal organsH the liver, the lungs, the stomach, and the intestines. A small slit #as made on the left side of the abdomen, then the embalmers reached in and pulled out the organs. Each of the organs #as individually mummified, then stored in little coffins called canopic 7ars. There #ere four canopic 7ars, one for each of the organs. These 7ars #ere protected by the four sons of ?orus. 2nce the internal organs #ere removed, the inside of the body #as #ashed out #ith palm oil, lotions, and preserving fluids. (e)t the body #as stuffed #ith linen, stra#, or other pac&ing material to &eep the general shape of the person. %ometimes the embalmers #ere careless and either stuffed too much or too little. This caused the mummy to loo& puffy or disfigured

Step 3- !rying Out Proce"" The body #as placed on a slab and covered #ith either nacron or natron salt. The slab #as tilted so that the #ater #ould run off into a basin. This removed moisture and prevented rotting. The body #as ta&en outside and let dry for about forty days. After the body #as completley dried out, the #rapping of the body began. Step 4- 5rapping of the #ody 9rapping the body #as a painsta&ing process. The body #as anointed #ith oils, and a gold peice #ith the Eye of ?orus #as placed over the slit in the abdomen. ?undreds of yards of linen #ere used to #rap the body, and each toe and finger #as #rapped separatley. !harms, amulets, and inscribed pieces of papyrus #ere placed bet#een each layer of bandage. Egyptians believed that these charms had magical properties that #ould protect and bring luc& to the body. The Eye of ?orus, the symbol of protection, #as used often. The #rapping process #ould be stopped every once in a #hile so that the priests could say certain prayers and #rite on the linen. A final shroud #as placed on the mummy to &eep all the #rappings together. Mummia #as added to the shroud to GglueG it all together. /That's #here the #ord GmummyG comes from.0 %ometimes false eyes #ere inserted and ma&e6up applied. Then a painted portrait mas& #as placed over the mummy's head so that dead person's soul /-a0 could recogni"e its o#ner. The mummy #as then placed into a painted, decorated coffin. Step 6- %ina& Proce""ion The last step of mummification #as the final procession. The final procession #as #here the family and friends of the deceased #al&ed through the to#n on their #ay to the burial place. Mourners #ere paid to cry so that the gods of the other #orld #ould see that the person #as #ell loved. The more people #ho cried, the more he #as loved, and the better chance he had of going to the after #orld. efore the mummy #as ta&en inside the tomb, a ceremony called the G2pening of the MouthG too& place.

Opening of the (outh The 2pening of the Mouth #as performed by priests outside the burial chamber. This #as one of the most important preparations. The family of the mummy recited spells #hile the priests used special instruments to touch different parts of the mummy's face. The Egyptians believed that the mummy #ould not be able to eat, see, hear, or move in the afterlife if this ceremony did not ta&e place. The mummy #as then laid in the burial chamber along #ith all of his belongings, the canopic 7ars, and the oo& of the 5ead. The oo& of the 5ead #as not actually a boo&, but a collection of over ;00 magic spells #ritten on papyrus. This boo& contained instructions on ho# to acheive eternal life. Then the tomb #as sealed. 5eighing of the Heart The most important tas& to achieve immortality #as not actually seen by anyone. This tas& #as called GThe 9eighing of the ?eart.G Egyptians believed that the most po#erful part of a person #as his heart. The heart #as never removed from the body, because it #as considered to be the center of a person's being. .n this ceremony, the gods of the under#orld 7udged the mummy's heart, or ho# #ell he behaved during his natural life. Maat, the goddess of truth, brought out her scale1 on one side #as the mummy's heart, and on the other #as the +eather of Truth. Anubis, the god of the under#orld, made the final 7udgement, and Thoth, the scribe god, recorded it all. .f the heart balanced the feather, the soul of the mummy #as granted immortality. .f the heart #as heavier than the feather /if the sins out#eighed the virtues0, the soul #as doomed to a horrible fate. The heart #as thro#n to a monster called Ammit, or 5evourer of the 5ead.

2 SONS O% HOR)S The four sons of ?orus #ere a group of four gods in Egyptian religion. They #ere the personifications of the four canopic 7ars, #hich accompanied the mummified bodies. 5uring the mummification process, the heart #as left inside the body, #hile the rest of the organs /namely the liver, lungs, intestines0 #ere removed, embalmed and stored, each organ in its o#n 7ar. The earliest reference to the sons of ?orus is found in the 'yramid Te)ts #here they are described as friends of the &ing, as they assist the &ing in his ascension to heaven in the eastern s&y by means of ladders. Their association #ith ?orus specifically goes bac& to the 2ld -ingdom #hen they #ere said not only to be his children but also his souls. As the &ing, or 'haraoh #as seen as a manifestation of, or especially protected by, ?orus, these part" of the deceased pharaoh, referred to as the 2siris, #ere seen as part" of ?orus, or rather, his chi&dren, an association that did not diminish #ith each successive pharaoh. %ince ?orus #as their father, so .sis, ?orus's original #ife in the early mythological phase, #as usually seen as their mother, though in the details of the funerary ritual each son, and therefore each canopic 7ar, #as protected by a particular goddess. Lust as the sons of ?orus protected the contents of a canopic 7ar, the &ing's organs, so they in turn #ere protected. As they #ere male in accordance #ith the principles of male,female duality their protectors #ere female. .msety, in human form, protects the liver and protected by .sis. ?api in baboon form, protects the lungs and protected by (ephthys. 5uamutef in 7ac&al form protects the stomach and protected by (eith. Mebehsenuef in ha#& form, protects the large intestines and protected by %er&et.

HOR)S Horu" is one of the oldest and most significant deities in ancient Egyptian religion, #ho #as #orshipped from at least the late 'redynastic period through to *reco6Roman times. 5ifferent forms of ?orus are recorded in history, and these are treated as distinct gods by Egypt specialists.These various forms may possibly be different perceptions of the same multi6layered deity in #hich certain attributes or syncretic relationships are emphasi"ed, not necessarily in opposition but complementary to one another, consistent #ith ho# the Ancient Egyptians vie#ed the multiple facets of reality. ?e #as most often depicted as a falcon, most li&ely a lanner or peregrine, or as a man #ith a falcon head. The earliest recorded form of ?orus is the patron deity of (e&hen in Npper Egypt, #ho is the first &no#n national god, specifically related to the &ing #ho in time came to be regarded as a manifestation of ?orus in life and 2siris in death. The most commonly encountered family relationship describes ?orus as the son of .sis and 2siris but in another tradition ?athor is regarded as his mother and sometimes as his #ife. ?orus served many functions in the Egyptian pantheon, most notably being the god of the sun, #ar and protection. .n early Egypt, ?orus #as the brother of .sis, 2siris, %et and (ephthys. As different cults formed, he became the son of .sis. .sis remained the sister of 2siris, %et, and (ephthys .

EYE O% HOR)S %ince ?orus #as said to be the s&y, he #as considered to also contain the sun and moon. .t became said that the sun #as his right eye and the moon his left, and that they traversed the s&y #hen he, a falcon, fle# across it. Aater, the reason that the moon #as not as bright as the sun #as e)plained by a tale, &no#n as the contestings of ?orus and %et, originating as a metaphor for the con4uest of Npper Egypt by Ao#er Egypt in about D000 !E. .n this tale, it #as said that %et, the patron of Npper Egypt, and ?orus, the patron of Ao#er Egypt, had battled for Egypt brutally, #ith neither side victorious, until eventually the gods sided #ith ?orus. The Eye of ?orus is an ancient Egyptian symbol of protection and royal po#er from deities, in this case from ?orus or Ra. The symbol is seen on images of ?orus' mother, .sis, and on other deities associated #ith her.

$ING NAR(ER Narmer #as an ancient Egyptian pharaoh of the Early 5ynastic 'eriod /c. D1st century !0. ?e is thought to be the successor to the 'rotodynastic pharaohs %corpion and,or -a, and he is considered by some to be the unifier of Egypt and founder of the +irst 5ynasty, and therefore the first pharaoh of unified Egypt. The identity of (armer is the sub7ect of ongoing debate, although mainstream Egyptological consensus identifies (armer #ith the +irst 5ynasty pharaoh Menes. Menes is also credited #ith the unification of Egypt, as the first pharaoh. This conclusion is based on the (armer 'alette #hich sho#s (armer as the unifier of Egypt and the t#o necropolis seals from Abydos that sho# him as the first &ing of the +irst 5ynasty /see discussion belo#0. THE NAR(ER PA'ETTE The Narmer Pa&ette, also &no#n as the Great Hiera+onpo&i" Pa&ette or the Pa&ette of Narmer, is a significant Egyptian archeological find, dating from about the D1st century !, containing some of the earliest hieroglyphic inscriptions ever found. .t is thought by some to depict the unification of Npper and Ao#er Egypt under the &ing (armer. 2n one side, the &ing is depicted #ith the bulbed 9hite !ro#n of Npper /southern0 Egypt, and the other side depicts the &ing #earing the level Red !ro#n of Ao#er /northern0 Egypt. Along #ith the %corpion Macehead and the (armer Maceheads, also found together in

the Main 5eposit at (e&hen, the (armer 'alette provides one of the earliest &no#n depictions of an Egyptian &ing. The 'alette sho#s many of the classic conventions of Ancient Egyptian art, #hich must already have been formali"ed by the time of the 'alette's creation. The Egyptologist ob rier has referred to the (armer 'alette as Gthe first historical document in the #orldG. 'alettes #ere typically used for grinding cosmetics, but this palette is too large and heavy /and elaborate0 to have been created for personal use and #as li&ely a ritual or votive ob7ect, specifically made for donation to, or use in, a temple. 2ne theory is that it #as used to grind cosmetics to adorn the statues of the gods.

HERO!OT)S ?e is the G+ather of ?istoryG, and #as the first historian &no#n to collect his materials systematically, test their accuracy to a certain e)tent, and arrange them in a #ell6constructed and vivid narrative. The Hi"torie"Ohis masterpiece and the only #or& he is &no#n to have producedOis a record of his Gin4uiryG /or PQRSTU hi"tor7a, a #ord that passed into Aatin and ac4uired its modern meaning of GhistoryG0, being an investigation of the origins of the *reco6'ersian 9ars and including a #ealth of geographical and ethnographical information. Although some of his stories #ere fanciful, he claimed he #as reporting only #hat had been told to him. Aittle is &no#n of his personal history.

THE !EATH (AS$ Mas&s of deceased persons are part of traditions in many countries. The most important process of the funeral ceremony in ancient Egypt #as the mummification of the body, #hich, after prayers and consecration, #as put into a sarcophagus enameled and decorated #ith gold and gems. A special element of the rite #as a sculpted mas&, put on the face of the deceased. This mas& #as believed to strengthen the spirit of the mummy and guard the soul from evil spirits on its #ay to the after#orld. The best &no#n mas& is that of Tutan&hamun. Made of gold and gems, the mas& conveys the highly styli"ed features of the ancient ruler. %uch mas&s #ere not, ho#ever, made from casts of the features1 rather, the mummification process itself preserved the features of the deceased.

*ANOPI* *HEST *anopic che"t" are cases used by Ancient Egyptians to contain the internal organs removed during the process of mummification. 2nce canopic 7ars began to be used, in the late +ourth 5ynasty, the 7ars #ere placed #ithin canopic chests. Although the first proven canopic burials date from the +ourth 5ynasty reign of %neferu, there is evidence to suggest that there #ere canopic installations at %a44ara dating from the %econd 5ynasty.

PAPYR)S Papyru .s a thic& paper6li&e material produced from the pith of the papyrus plant, *yperu" papyru", a #etland sedge that #as once abundant in the %udd of %outhern %udan along #ith the (ile 5elta of Egypt. 'apyrus is first &no#n to have been used in ancient Egypt /at least as far bac& as the +irst 5ynasty0, but it #as also used throughout the Mediterranean region and in -ingdom of -ush. Ancient Egyptians used this plant as a #riting material and for boats, mattresses, mats, rope, sandals, and bas&ets. !hemically, papyrus is composed of <=V cellulose, ;=V lignin, IV minerals, and =V #ater

%2NR!E%H

http: www.angelfire.com wi egypt mummy!.html https: en.wikipedia.org wiki "ook#of#the#$ead http: en.wikipedia.org wiki %ncient#&gyptian#religion http: en.wikipedia.org wiki 'arcophagus http: en.wikipedia.org wiki Papyrus http: voices.yahoo.com a(history(cosmetics(ancient(egypt()*+,--.*.html/cat01+ http: en.wikipedia.org wiki 2our#sons#of#3orus http: en.wikipedia.org wiki 4armer http: en.wikipedia.org wiki 5anopic#chest