LECTURE 3

5.7 MOMENTUM EQUATION

A dynamic equation describing fluid motion may be obtained by applying Newtons
second law to a particle. To derive the differential form of the momentum equation, we
shall apply Newtons second law to an infinitesimal system of mass, dm.
ecall that Newtons second law for a finite system is given by
system
dt
P d
F

,
_

!".#a$
where the linear momentum,

P
, of the system is given by

system mass
dm V Psystem !".#b$
Then, for an infinitesimal system of mass, dm, Newtons second law can be written
system
dt
V d
dm F d

,
_

!5.#%$
&e recogni'e that the force term,

F d
, can be written in terms of the surface forces and
body forces acting on the element of fi(ed mass, dm. )ndeed, we will eventually have to
formulate

F d
. *or the moment we shall delay that and concentrate our efforts on
determining a suitable e(pression for ]
system
dt V d +

.
5,7.- A../0/AT)1N 1* A *02)3 4AT).0/
0et us remember first that we are dealing with an element of fi(ed mass, dm. As
discussed in 5ection -,".%, one may obtain the equation of motion for a particle by
applying Newtons second law to that particle. The disadvantage of this approach is that a
separate equation is required for each particle. Thus the boo66eeping for many particles
becomes a problem.
5,7.# A../0/AT)1N 1* A *02)3 4AT).0/ )N A 7/01.)T8 *)/03
A more general description of acceleration can be obtained by considering a particle
moving in a velocity field. The basic hypothesis of continuum fluid mechanics has led us
to a field description of fluid flow in which the properties of a flow field are defined by
continuous functions of the space coordinates and time. )n particular, the velocity field is
given by
( ) t z y x V V , , ,

. The field description is very powerful, since information for

the entire flow is given by one equation.
The problem, then, is to retain the field description for fluid properties and obtain
an e(pression for the acceleration of a fluid particle as it translates in a flow field. 5tated
simply, the problem is9
:iven the velocity field,
( ) t z y x V V , , ,

, find the acceleration of a fluid particle,

p a

.
.onsider a particle moving in a velocity field. At time, t, the particle is at the
position (, y, ' and has a velocity corresponding to the velocity at that point in space at
time t, that is,
( ) t z y x V V
t
p
, , ,

1
]
1
At time, t ; dt, the particle has move to a new position, with coordinates x + dx, y + dy,
z + dz, and has a velocity given by
( ) dt t dz z dy y dx x V V
dt t
p
+ + + +
1
]
1

+

, , ,
This is shown pictorially in *ig. 5.<.
Fig. 5.8 Motion of a particle in a flow fiel.
The particle velocity at time t !position

r
$ is given by
( ) t z y x V V p , , ,

. Then
p V d

, the change in the velocity of particle, in moving from location

r
to

r d
is given
by
dt
t
V
dz
z
V
dy
y
V
dx
x
V
V d
p p p
p

The total acceleration of the particle is given by

t
V
dt
dz
z
V
dt
dy
y
V
dt
dx
x
V
dt
V d
a d
p p p p
p

5ince
y
(
'
4article path
4article at
time, t
4article at
time, t;dt

r
dt r +

u
dt
dx
p
v
dt
dy
p
and w
dt
dz
p

then
t
V
dz
dz
w
dy
dy
v
dx
dx
u
dt
V d
a
p p p p
p

+ + +

To remind us that calculation of the acceleration of a fluid particle in a velocity field

requires a special derivative, it is given the symbol
Dt V D +

. Thus
t
V
z
V
w
y
V
v
x
V
u a
Dt
V D
p

!5.#"$
The derivative,
Dt V D +

, defined by /q 5.#", is commonly called the substantial

derivative to remind us that it is computed following a particle of =substance.>
)t often is called the material of particle derivative.
*rom /q. 5.#" we recogni'e that a fluid particle moving in a flow field may
undergo an acceleration for either of two reasons. )t may be accelerated because it is
converted into a region of higher !or lower$ velocity. *or e(ample, in the steady flow
through a no''le, in which, by definition, the velocity field is not a function of time, a
fluid particle will accelerate as it moves through the no''le. The particle is converted into
a region of higher velocity. )f a flow field is unsteady, a fluid particle will undergo an
acceleration, a =local> acceleration, because the velocity field is a function of time.
The physical significance of the terms in /q. 5.#" is
t
V
z
V
w
y
V
v
x
V
u
Dt
V D
a p

*or a two,dimensional flow, say
( ) t y x V V , ,

, /q. 5.#" reduce to

t
V
y
V
v
x
V
u
Dt
V D

*or a one,dimensional flow, say
( ) t x V V ,

, /q. 5.#" becomes

t
V
x
V
u
Dt
V D

*inally, for a steady flow in three dimension, /q. 5.#" becomes
z
V
w
y
V
v
x
V
u
Dt
V D

total
acceleration
of a particle
convective
acceleration
local
acceleration
which is not necessarily 'ero. Thus a fluid particle can undergo a convective acceleration
due to its motion, even in a steady velocity field.
/quation 5.#" is a vector equation. As with all vector equations, it may be written
in scalar component equations. elative to an (y' coordinate system, the scalar
components of /q. 5.#" are written9
t
u
z
u
w
y
u
v
x
u
u
Dt
Du
a
xp

!5.#5a$
t
v
z
v
w
y
v
v
x
v
u
Dt
Dv
a
yp

!5.#5b$
t
w
z
w
w
y
w
v
x
w
u
Dt
Dw
a
zp

!5.#5c$
/(ample 5.?
.onsider the one,dimensional steady, incompressible flow through the converging cannel
shown. The velocity field is given by
( ) [ ]i L x V V + -
-
+

. *ind the component of

acceleration, that is Du/Dt, for a particle moving in the flow field. )f we use the method of
description of particle mechanics, the position of the particle, located at ( @ A at time t @
A, will be a function of time,
( ) t f x
p

. 1btain the e(pression for f(t$ and then by ta6ing
the second derivative of the function with respect to time, obtain an e(pression for the (
component of the particle acceleration.
( ) [ ]i L x V V + -
-
+

Fin!
!a$ the ( component of the acceleration of the particle moving in the flow field.
!b$ *or the particle located at ( @ A at time t @ A, obtain an e(pression for its
!-$ position, (
p
, as a function of time.
!#$ B component of acceleration, a
(p
, as a function of time.
"ol#tion!
The acceleration of a particle moving in a velocity field is given by
y
(

V
(
-
@ A
(
#
@ 0
t
V
z
V
w
y
V
v
x
V
u
Dt
V D

The ( component of the acceleration is given by
t
u
z
u
w
y
u
v
x
u
u
Dt
Du

*or the flow field given,
v @ w @ A
,
_

+
L
x
V u -
-
therefore,

,
_

,
_

L
x
L
V
L
V
L
x
V
x
u
u
Dt
Du
- -
#
- -
-
)n the second part of this problem we ar"e interested in following a particular
particle, namely, the one located at ( @ A at time t @ A, as it flows through the channel.
The ( coordinate that locates this particle will be a function of time, (
p
@ f!t$.
*urthermore, u
p
= df/dt will be a function of time. The particle will have the velocity
corresponding to its location in the velocity field. At time, t @ A, the particle is at ( @ A,
and its velocity u
p
@ 7
-
. At some time later, time t @ t, the particle will reach the e(it, ( @
0 C at that time it will have a velocity u
p
@ #7
-.
To find the e(pression for (
p
@ f!t$, we write

,
_

,
_

+
L
f
V
L
x
V
dt
df
dt
dx
u
p
p
- -
- -
5eparating variables,
( )
dt V
L f
df
-
+ -

+
5ince at time t @ A, the particle in question was located at ( @ A, and at time t, this particle
is located at (
p
@ f, then
( )
dt V
L f
df
t f


+
A
-
A
+ -
t V
L
f
L
-
- ln
,
_

+
L
t V
L
f
-
- ln

,
_

+
To determine the acceleration of a particle at any point in the flow field, one merely
substitutes the present location of the particle into the above result.
L t V
e
L
f
+
-
- +
and [ ] -
+
-

L t V
e L f
Then the position of the particle, located at ( @ A at time t @ A, as a function of time is
given by
( ) [ ] -
+
-

L t V
p
e L t f x
The ( component of acceleration of this particle is given by
L t V p
xp
e
L
V
dt
f d
dt
x d
a
+
#
-
#
#
#
#
-

&e now have two different ways of e(pressing the acceleration of the particular particle,
that was located at ( @ A at time, t @ A. Note that although the low field is steady, when
we follow a particular particle, its position and acceleration !and velocity for that matter$
are functions of time.
&e chec6 to see that both e(pressions for the acceleration give identical results.
L t V
xp
e
L
V
a
+
#
- -

,
_

+
L
x
L
V
Dt
Du
a
xp
-
#
-
!a$ at time t @ A, (
p
@ A At time t @ A, the particle is at ( @ A
L
V
e
L
V
a
xp
#
- A
#
-
( )
L
V
L
V
Dt
Du
#
-
#
-
A - + !chec6.$
!b$ when
#
L
x
p

, time t @ t
-
At ( @ A.5 0
[ ] -
#
+
-

L t V
p
e L
L
x
( ) 5 . A -
#
-
+
L
V
Dt
Du
Therefore,
5 . -
+
-

L t V
e
, and
L
V
Dt
Du
#
-
5 . -
!chec6.$
L t V
xp
e
L
V
a
+
#
- -

( )
L
V
L
V
a
xp
#
-
#
-
5 . -
5 . -
!c$ when (
p
@ 0, time t @ t
#
, At ( @ 0
[ ] -
+
-

L t V
p
e L L x
( ) - -
#
-
+
L
V
Dt
Du
Therefore,
#
+
-

L t V
e
, and
L t V
xp
e
L
V
a
+
#
- -

L
V
Dt
Du
#
-
#
!chec6.$
( )
L
V
L
V
a
xp
#
-
#
-
#
#
5,7.% *1D20AT)1N 1* *1./5 A.T)N: 1N A *02)3 4AT).0/
Eaving obtained an e(pression for the acceleration of a fluid element of mass, dm,
moving in a velocity field, we can now write Newtons second law as the vector
equation
1
1
]
1

t
V
z
V
w
y
V
v
x
V
u dm
Dt
V D
dm F d
!5.#?$
)n terms of scalar component equations we write
1
]
1

t
u
z
u
w
y
u
v
x
u
u dm
Dt
Du
dm F d
x

!5.#7a$
1
]
1

t
v
z
v
w
y
v
v
x
v
u dm
Dt
Dv
dm F d
y

!5.#7b$
1
]
1

t
w
z
w
w
y
w
v
x
w
u dm
Dt
Dw
dm F d
z

!5.#7c$
&e need now to obtain a suitable formulation for the force,

F d
, or its components

x
F d
,

y
F d ,

z
F d
, acting on the element. ecall that the forces acting on a fluid
element may be classified as body forces and surface forcesC surface forces include both
normal forces and tangential !shear$ forces.
&e shall consider the ( component the ( component of the force acting on a
differential element of mass, dm, and volume,
dz dy dx d
. 1nly those stress that act
in the ( direction will give rise to surface forces in the ( direction. )f the stresses at the
center of the differential element are ta6en to be
xx

, yx

, and
zx

, then the stress

acting in the ( direction on each face of the element !obtained by a Taylor series
e(pansion about the center of the element$ are as shown in *ig. 5.F.
This problem illustrates the two different methods of describing the motion of
a particle.
'
y
(
#
dx
x
xx
xx

#
dy
y
yx
yx

#
dz
z
zx
zx

#
dx
x
xx
xx

#
dy
y
yx
yx

#
dz
z
zx
zx

To obtain the net surface in the ( direction,

x S
F d
, we must sum the forces in the (
direction. Thus
dxdy
dz
z
dxdy
dz
z
dxdz
dy
y
dxdz
dy
y
dydz
dx
x
dydz
dx
x
F d
zx
zx
zx
zx
yx
yx
yx
yx
xx
xx
xx
xx x S

,
_

,
_

+ +

,
_

,
_

+ +

,
_

,
_

# #

# #

# #

1n simplifying, we obtain

dz dy dx
z y x
F d
zx
yx
xx
x S

,
_

)f the body force per unit mass is designated as

z y x
! " i

+ + , then the component
of the body force in the ( direction,

x
F d
, is given by

d dm F d
x x x

.
Then the net force in the ( direction,

x
F d
, is given by

dz dy dx
z y x
F d F d F d
zx
yx
xx
x x x S x

,
_

+ +

!5.#<a$
1ne can derive similar e(pressions for the force components in the y and ' direction9

dz dy dx
z y x
F d F d F d
zy yy xy
y y y S y

,
_

+ +

!5.#<b$

dz dy dx
z y x
F d F d F d
zz
yz
xz
z z z S z

,
_

+ +

!5.#<c$
5,7." 3)**//NT)A0 D1D/NT2D /G2AT)1N
&e have now formulated e(pressions for the components

x
F d
,

y
F d ,

z
F d
, of the
force,

F d
, acting on the element of mass, dm. )f we substitute these e(pressions !/qs.
5.#<$ for the force component into /qs. 5.#7, we obtain the differential equations of
motion.

,
_

+
z
u
w
y
u
v
x
u
u
t
u
z y x

zx
yx
xx
x

!5.#Fa$

,
_

+
z
v
w
y
v
v
x
v
u
t
v
z y x

zy yy xy
y

!5.#Fb$

,
_

+
z
w
w
y
w
v
x
w
u
t
w
z y x

zz
yz
xz
z

!5.#Fc$
/quations 5.#F are the differential equations of motion for any fluid satisfying the
continuum assumption. Hefore the equations can be employed in the solution of the
problems, suitable e(pressions for the stresses must be obtained.
*or Newtonian fluids the stresses may be e(pressed in terms of velocity gradients
and fluid properties as follows9

,
_

y
u
x
v
yx xy

!5.%Aa$

,
_

z
v
y
w
zy yz

!5.%Ab$

,
_

x
w
z
u
xz zx

!5.%Ac$
x
u
V p
xx

+

#
%
#
!5.%Ad$
y
v
V p
xy

+

#
%
#
!5.%Ae$
z
w
V p
xz

+

#
%
#
!5.%Af$
where p is the local thermodynamic pressure.
)f these e(pressions are introduced into the differential equations of motion !/qs.
5. #F$, we obtain
1
]
1

,
_

+
1
]
1

,
_

+
1
]
1

,
_

z
u
x
w
z
x
v
y
u
y
V
x
u
x x
p

Dt
Du
x


%
#
#

!5.%-a$
1
]
1

,
_

+
1
]
1

,
_

+
1
]
1

,
_

y
w
z
v
z
V
y
v
y x
v
y
u
x y
p

Dt
Dv
y

%
#
#

!5.%-b$
1
]
1

,
_

+
1
]
1

,
_

+
1
]
1

,
_

V
z
w
z
y
w
z
v
y z
u
x
w
x z
p

Dt
Dw
z
%
#
#

!5.%-c$
These equations of motion are called the Navier,sto6es equations. The equations are
greatly simplified when applied to incompressible flows in which the variations in fluid
viscosity can be neglected. 2nder these conditions the equations reduce to

,
_

,
_

#
#
#
#
#
#

z
u
y
u
x
u
x
p

z
u
w
y
u
v
x
u
u
t
u
x

!5.%#a$

,
_

,
_

#
#
#
#
#
#

z
v
y
v
x
v
y
p

z
v
w
y
v
v
x
v
u
t
v
y

!5.%#b$

,
_

,
_

#
#
#
#
#
#

z
w
y
w
x
w
x
p

z
w
w
y
w
v
x
w
u
t
w
z

!5.%#c$
*or the case of frictionless flow !# @ A$ the equations of motion !/qs. 5.#F or /qs.
5.%#$ reduce to /ulers equation,
p
Dt
V D

Any questionsI