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Modeling and Control of Photovoltaic Systems for
Microgrids

DISSERTATION

Presented in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree Doctor of Philosophy
in the Graduate School of The Ohio State University

By
Ayedh H A S Alqahtani
Graduate Program in Electrical and Computer Engineering

The Ohio State University
2013

Dissertation Committee:
Prof. Vadim I. Utkin, Advisor
Prof. Longya Xu
Prof. Donald G. Kasten

Copyright by
Ayedh H A S Alqahtani
2013

ii

Abstract

The aim of this dissertation is to conduct performance analysis for the modeling
and control practices of photovoltaic (PV) systems. Different modeling techniques of PV
systems are considered. The current existing modeling techniques are examined with
further study, and the desired operating characteristics are achieved through the proposal
of a simplified and accurate modeling process that estimates the PV model parameters for
a PV module. This is done by taking a new approach that replaces the typical modeling
practice in the literature. The main objective of this new approach is to avoid the need for
complex calculation and tedious combination of equations to extract the PV system
model parameters. The PV system behavior is studied under different environmental
conditions.
In addition, most PV system models in the literature have internal parameters that
are not provided by the manufacturers. These parameters are not given in the PV module
data sheet and require numerical methods for their determination due to the nonlinear
nature of the PV systems output characteristics. This research presents an improved and
comprehensive PV system characterization method that relies only on the values
provided by the manufacturer. New improvements and modifications to some of the
existing PV models are also presented.
A control design strategy for control of the power generated by PV systems is
suggested to provide effective energy extraction. The controller design ensures tracking
of the maximum power point (MPP) for the PV system using a sliding mode control
method of self-optimization. It offers fast and accurate convergence to the MPP in steady
state and during varying weather conditions.
Published research results and discussion are provided. The simulation in this
research proposal is carried out using a Matlab/Simulink environment. Experimental
iii

verification of the simulated results are included to demonstrate the validity of the
proposed controller design.

iv

To my mother, Nora Ali.

v

Acknowledgments

First and foremost, I wish to express my gratitude and thanks to my advisor, Prof.
Vadim Utkin. His astute mentorship, patience, inspired guidance, and unwavering
support is deeply appreciated. He implanted in me the ability to look at complex
problems with simplicity, and taught me how to be happy when I felt so desperate. I am
indebted to him for teaching me to approach research with maturity. He has a unique
aptitude to see the big picture, link concepts, and scrutinize results. I have never seen a
professor who treats his students with kindness and gentleness as he does.
My thanks also go to my committee members, Prof. Longya Xu and Prof. Donald
Kasten, for their support and helpful advice throughout my Ph.D. study. I am thankful to
Prof. Stephen Sebo and Prof. Jin Wang; I am extremely fortunate to have taken their
exceptional course: High Voltage Engineering and Laboratory.
I am grateful to many who have had a part: Shoghig Sahakyan, PAAET director
from Kuwait Embassy, who, at the most difficult times, with her swift assistance and
warm-hearted support, has been always prompt; to Muthanna Abuhamdeh, for the
constant exchange of information and fruitful discussion over the past five years; to
Carlos Osorio from MathWorks, for his helpful MATLAB answers; to Prof. Fusun
Ozguner, the ECE department graduate studies chair, for addressing all the problems I
had during my Ph.D. study; to Patricia Toothman, the graduate academic counselor in the
vi

ECE department, for her unceasing warm support; to my wife Khuloud: I could not have
asked for more; thank you for putting up with me.

vii

Vita

May 2000 ......................................................B.Sc. Electrical Engineering, University of
North Carolina at Charlotte, USA
October 2000 May 2004 ............................Laboratory Engineer, Kuwait University,
Kuwait
May 2004 ......................................................M.Sc. Electrical Engineering, Kuwait
University, Kuwait
December 2005 .............................................M.Sc. Electrical Engineering, University of
Southern California, USA
December 2005 December 2008 ................Faculty Member, Public Authority for
Applied Education & Training, Kuwait
viii

Publications

A. Alqahtani, "A simplified and accurate photovoltaic module parameters extraction
approach using Matlab," 2012 IEEE International Symposium on Industrial Electronics
(ISIE), vol., no., pp.1748-1753, 28-31 May 2012.

A. Alqahtani, M. Abuhamdeh, and Y. Alsmadi, "A simplified and comprehensive
approach to characterize photovoltaic system performance," Energytech, 2012 IEEE,
vol., no., pp.1-6, 29-31 May 2012.

A. Alqahtani, and V. Utkin, "Self-optimization of photovoltaic system power generation
based on sliding mode control," IECON 2012 - 38th Annual Conference on IEEE
Industrial Electronics Society, vol., no., 25-28 October 2012.

A. Alqahtani, and V. Utkin, "Control of photovoltaic system power generation using
sliding mode control," International Conference on Power System Technology
(POWERCON 2012), November 2012.

A. Alqahtani, M. Abuhamdeh, Y. Alsmadi, and V. Utkin "Photovoltaic power
optimization using sliding mode control with two axis tracking system," Energytech,
2013 IEEE, vol., no., pp.1-6, 21-23 May 2013.

A. Alqahtani, R. Giral, E. Vidal-Idiarte, L. Martinez-Salamero, and Vadim Utkin Self-
optimization of photovoltaic system power generation based on sliding mode control for
microgrids," IEEE Transaction on Control Systems Technology,, vol., no., pp., 05 Sep.
2013. Submitted.

Fields of Study

Major Field: Electrical and Computer Engineering

ix

Table of Contents

Abstract ............................................................................................................................... ii
Dedication .......................................................................................................................... iv
Acknowledgments............................................................................................................... v
Vita .................................................................................................................................... vii
Publications ...................................................................................................................... viii
List of Tables .................................................................................................................... xii
List of Figures .................................................................................................................. xiii
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION ...................................................................................... 1
1.1 Background .......................................................................................................... 1
1.2. How PV Cells Work ............................................................................................. 2
1.3 PV Cells, Modules, and Arrays ............................................................................ 5
1.4 Types of PV Systems ........................................................................................... 8
1.4.1 Stand-alone PV Systems ............................................................................... 8
1.4.2 Hybrid PV Systems ....................................................................................... 9
1.4.3 Grid-connected PV Systems ....................................................................... 10
1.5 Advantages and Disadvantages of PV Systems ................................................. 11
1.5.1 Advantages of PV Systems............................................................................... 12
1.5.2 Disadvantages of PV Systems .......................................................................... 12
CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW ......................................................................... 13
2.1 Problem Definition ............................................................................................. 13
2.2 Relevant Research .............................................................................................. 14
x

2.3 Summary ............................................................................................................ 19

CHAPTER 3: MODELING AND PARAMETER EXTRACTION OF PV SYSTEMS 20
3.1 PV System Parameter Extraction ....................................................................... 20
3.1.1 Parameter-extraction Procedures ................................................................ 23
3.1.2 Initialization ................................................................................................ 23
3.1.3 Optimization Algorithm .............................................................................. 24
3.1.4 Case Study .................................................................................................. 26
3.2 Modeling PV Array ............................................................................................ 30
3.3 Temperature Impact ........................................................................................... 33
3.4 Irradiance Impact ................................................................................................ 36
CHAPTER 4: ANALYTICAL MODEL FOR PV SYSTEMS ....................................... 39
4.1 PV System Analytical Model ............................................................................. 39
4.2 Analytical Model Extension ............................................................................... 40
4.3 Further Addition to the Analytical Model .......................................................... 41
4.3.1 Temperature Dependence ........................................................................... 41
4.3.2 Irradiance Dependence ................................................................................ 42
4.4 PV Module Analytical Model Results ............................................................... 43
4.5 PV Array Analytical Model Results ................................................................... 49
CHAPTER 5: PV SYSTEM POWER GENERATION CONTROL ............................... 53
5.1 PV System Power Control ................................................................................. 53
5.2 Self-optimization Sliding Mode Control ............................................................ 54
5.3 Control Design Strategy ..................................................................................... 61
5.3.1 Adapted PV System .................................................................................... 63
5.3.2 Control Algorithm ....................................................................................... 65
5.3.3 DC/DC Boost Converter ............................................................................. 68
5.3.4 Results and Discussion ............................................................................... 68
5.4 Experimental Verification .................................................................................. 73
CHAPTER 6: PV SYSTEM POWER GENERATION CONTROL CASE STUDY .. 76
6.1 The PV System Characteristic ............................................................................ 77
6.2 Preliminary Simulation ...................................................................................... 79
6.3 Experimental Results.......................................................................................... 82
xi

CHAPTER 7: MECHANICAL TRACKING OF PV SYSTEM POWER ...................... 86
7.1 PV System Physical Tracking ............................................................................ 87
7.2 Suggested Physical Control Strategy ................................................................. 89
7.2.1 Mechanical Control Algorithm ................................................................... 94
7.2.2 PV Module Mechanical Tracker Realization .............................................. 99
7.3 Results and Discussion ..................................................................................... 100
CHAPTER 8: CONCLUSION AND FUTURE WORK ............................................... 103
8.1 Conclusion ........................................................................................................ 103
8.2 Future Work ..................................................................................................... 105
REFERENCES ............................................................................................................... 106
APPENDIX A: Data sheets information ......................................................................... 112
APPENDIX B: Simulation Testbed ................................................................................ 125

xii

List of Tables

Table 3.1 BP MSX60 PV Module Electrical Characteristics under STC ( 25C, AM 1.5,
and 1000 W/m
2
). ............................................................................................................... 26
Table 3.2 Comparison between values found in [3] and values using proposed simplified
method in this study for the KC200GT PV modules under STC. .................................... 30
Table 3.3 Array data sheet related to modules under STC. ............................................. 32

Table 4.1 BP MSX60 PV Module Electrical Characteristics under STC. ....................... 43
Table 4.2 PV-MF170EB3 PV Module Electrical Characteristics under STC. ................ 50

Table 5.1 Mitsubishi PV-MF170EB3 PV Module Electrical Characteristics under STC.
........................................................................................................................................... 63

Table 6.1 BP585 Solar Photovoltaic Module Electrical Characteristics at 25 C, AM 1.5,
and 1000 W/m
2
................................................................................................................. 77

Table 7.1 Mitsubishi PV Module Electrical Characteristics at 25 C, AM1.5, and
1000W/m
2
. ........................................................................................................................ 90

xiii

List of Figures

Figure 1.1 Principle of the operation of PV cell [2]. ......................................................... 2
Figure 1.2 I-V and P-V characteristics for a PV device. .................................................... 3
Figure 1.3 Equivalent circuit model for a PV device. ........................................................ 4
Figure 1.4 Generic PV array structure. .............................................................................. 6
Figure 1.5 I-V curve for three PV modules connected in series. ....................................... 7
Figure 1.6 I-V curve for three PV modules connected in parallel. .................................... 7
Figure 1.7 Stand-alone PV system. .................................................................................... 8
Figure 1.8 Hybrid PV system............................................................................................. 9
Figure 1.9 Grid-connected PV system. ............................................................................ 10
Figure 1.10 Timeline of PV cell energy conversion efficiencies [7]. .............................. 11
Figure 2.1 PV module equivalent circuit (a) ideal model, (b) single-diode model, (c)
double-diode model. ......................................................................................................... 15
Figure 2.2 A typical I-V curve for a PV module. ............................................................. 18
Figure 2.3 A typical P-V curve for a PV module. ............................................................ 18
Figure 3.1 A typical P-V curve for a PV module. ............................................................. 22
Figure 3.2 Flowchart for determination of the PV models five parameters. .................. 25
Figure 3.3 I-V characteristic for the BP MSX60 PV module under STC. ....................... 27
Figure 3.4 P-V characteristic for the BP MSX60 PV module under STC. ...................... 27
Figure 3.5 Absolute errors of the model data regarding the experimental data for the BP
MSX60 PV module under STC. ....................................................................................... 28
Figure 3.6 I-V characteristic for the KC200GT PV module under STC. ......................... 29
Figure 3.7 P-V characteristic for the KC200GT PV module under STC. ........................ 29
Figure 3.8 PV array equivalent circuit. ............................................................................ 30
xiv

Figure 3.9 I-V characteristic for the designed PV array under STC. ............................... 32
Figure 3.10 P-V characteristic for the designed PV array under STC. ............................ 33
Figure 3.11 I-V characteristics for the BP MSX60 PV module at various temperatures.
Modeled (line) and experimental (circles). ....................................................................... 34
Figure 3.12 P-V characteristics for the BP MSX60 PV module at various temperatures.
Modeled (line) and experimental (circles). ....................................................................... 35
Figure 3.13 I-V-T three-dimensional characteristic for the BP MSX60 PV module at
various temperatures and constant level of irradiance at 1000 W/m
2
. .............................. 36
Figure 3.14 I-V characteristics for the BP MSX60 PV module at various irradiances. ... 37
Figure 3.15 P-V characteristics for the BP MSX60 PV module at various irradiances. .. 37
Figure 3.16 Predicted P-I-V characteristics for the BP MSX60 PV module at various
irradiances and constant temperature 25C. ...................................................................... 38
Figure 4.1 Modeled and experimental I-V characteristic for the BP MSX60 PV module
under STC. ........................................................................................................................ 44
Figure 4.2 Modeled and experimental P-V characteristic for the BP MSX60 PV module
under STC. ........................................................................................................................ 44
Figure 4.3 Absolute errors of the modeled data with respect to the experimental data for
the BP MSX60 PV module under STC. ............................................................................ 45
Figure 4.4 Modeled (line) and experimental (circles) I-V characteristics for the BP
MSX60 PV module at various temperatures. ................................................................... 45
Figure 4.5 Modeled (line) and experimental (circles) P-V characteristics for the BP
MSX60 PV module at various temperatures. ................................................................... 46
Figure 4.6 I-V-T three dimensional characteristic for BP MSX60 PV module at various
temperatures and constant level of irradiance 1000W/m
2
. ............................................... 47
Figure 4.7 Predicted I-V characteristics for the BP MSX60 PV module at various
irradiances. ........................................................................................................................ 48
Figure 4.8 Predicted P-V characteristics for the BP MSX60 PV module at various
irradiances. ........................................................................................................................ 48
xv

irradiances. ........................................................................................................................ 49
Figure 4.10 Predicted P-V characteristic for the designed PV array under STC. ............ 50
Figure 4.11 Predicted I-V characteristics for the designed PV array at various
temperatures. ..................................................................................................................... 51
Figure 4.12 Predicted P-V characteristics for the designed PV array at various
temperatures. ..................................................................................................................... 51
Figure 4.13 Predicted I-V characteristics for the designed PV array at various irradiances.
........................................................................................................................................... 52
irradiances. ........................................................................................................................ 52
Figure 5.1 PV system, DC/DC converter, and MPPT control. ........................................ 54
Figure 5.2 Optimization system. ...................................................................................... 54
Figure 5.3 Self-optimization control scheme. .................................................................. 56
Figure 5.4 Control input u. ............................................................................................... 57
Figure 5.5 Relay control function v. ................................................................................ 60
Figure 5.6 PV system, DC/DC boost converter, and the MPPT controller. .................... 62
Figure 5.7 Block diagram for the controller design. ........................................................ 62
Figure 5.8 I-V characteristic for the PV-MF170EB3 module by Mitsubishi Electric at
various irradiances. ........................................................................................................... 64
Figure 5.9 P-V characteristic for the PV-MF170EB3 module by Mitsubishi Electric at
Figure 5.10 The functions u and v used in the control algorithm. ................................ 67
Figure 5.11 The PV system power, voltage, and current time response under the STC
where the irradiance is 1000W/m
2
. ................................................................................... 69
Figure 5.12 The PV system power, voltage, and current time response under irradiance
change from 1000W/m
2
to 400W/m
2
. ............................................................................... 71
change from 1000W/m
2
to 600W/m
2
at 0.5s and back to 1000W/m
2
at 1s. ..................... 72
xvi

Figure 5.14 Experimental setup for the PV system, DC/DC converter, and MPPT
controller. .......................................................................................................................... 73
Figure 5.15 Diagram for the hardware arrangement. ....................................................... 74
Figure 5.16 Power under steady state condition. ............................................................. 74
Figure 5.17 Power under varying weather conditions. .................................................... 75
Figure 6.1 BP585 PV array (installed on the roof of the Electrical Engineering
Laboratory at the Rovira i Virgili University in Tarragona, Spain). ................................ 76
Figure 6.2 I-V characteristic for the BP585 modules at various irradiances. .................. 78
Figure 6.3 P-V characteristic for the BP585 modules at various irradiances. ................. 78
Figure 6.4 PV output power time response using the proposed MPP tracking control
assuming steady state under STC for the BP585 modules. .............................................. 80
under irradiance change from 1000 W/m
2
to 400 W/m
2
for the BP585 modules. ............ 81
Figure 6.6 Hardware arrangement for the entire PV system. .......................................... 83
Figure 6.7 Experimental results for the BP585 modules from lower to higher irradiance.
........................................................................................................................................... 84
Figure 6.8 Experimental results for the BP585 modules from higher to lower irradiance.
........................................................................................................................................... 84
Figure 6.9 Experimental results for the BP585 modules from lower to higher irradiance
after modifying the control algorithm for improved transition. ........................................ 85
Figure 6.10 Experimental results for the BP585 modules from higher to lower irradiance
after modifying the control algorithm for improved transition. ........................................ 85
Figure 7.1 Diagram of a PV systems major components with electrical and mechanical
MPPT. ............................................................................................................................... 86
Figure 7.2 Variation of Sun path during the day and seasons. ........................................ 88
Figure 7.3 Diagram of PV system Azimuth angle () and Elevation angle (). .............. 88
Figure 7.4 PV system, DC/DC converter, electrical MPPT, and the proposed mechanical
sliding mode controller. .................................................................................................... 90
xvii

Figure 7.6 PV-MF170EB3 module power profile with respect to the azimuth angle. .... 92
Figure 7.7 PV-MF170EB3 module power profile with respect to the elevation angle. .. 92
Figure 7.8 Power output for various combinations of azimuth and elevation angles. ..... 93
Figure 7.9 Block diagram for the controller design for both Azimuth and Elevation
angles. ............................................................................................................................... 94
Figure 7.10 The functions u and v used in the control algorithm. ................................... 96
Figure 7.11 View of the PV module tracker mechanism (vertical and horizontal). ........ 99
Figure 7.12 Power, optimization variable (azimuth angle: ), and control input u. ...... 101
Figure 7.13 Power, optimization variable (elevation angle: ), and control input u. .... 102
Figure B.1 PV system, DC/DC converter, and the MPPT controller. ........................... 126
Figure B.2 The MPPT controller. .................................................................................. 127
1

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background
The energy crises of the 1970s, along with rising environmental concerns, gave
birth to an urgent need for new energy sources that was met with a great deal of
enthusiasm. These new energy options were known initially as alternative energy and
then, more recently, as renewables. They are based neither on fossil fuels nor on
nuclear power. They include a wide range of energy sourceswind, solar, hydropower,
tidal power, etc. During the 1980s, the hopes for these new energy sources were slowly
dulled by the realities of falling costs of conventional energy, their own challenging
economics, technological immaturity, and the disappointment in deployment [1].
Solar cells, also called photovoltaic (PV) cells by some scientists, are one form of
renewable energy. The first PV cells were manufactured in the late 1950s, and were
mainly developed to provide electrical power for satellites. Recently, substantial efforts
have been made to apply PV systems on residential and commercial buildings, for both
stand-alone and grid-connected users. PV systems have proven they can generate power
to small electronic devices (e.g. calculators, watches, radios, and battery-charging
applications) all the way up to utility-scale PV power plants. The industry production of
PV modules and related products is growing at a rising rate. Major projects and national
2

laboratories around the world are rapidly accelerating PV systems manufacturing
capacity and commercialization.

1.2. How PV Cells Work
Figure 1.1 shows that when a p-n junction is exposed to sunlight, the electrons
flow from the n-side contact, through the load, and back to the p-side, where they
recombine with holes. This forms a voltage that can be exploited to deliver current to a
load.

P-type
N-type
Electrical Contacts
Bottom Contacts
Photons
Load
-
V
+
Electrons
I

Figure 1.1 Principle of the operation of PV cell [2].

PV cells are made of special materials called semiconductors. Semiconductors are
useful because their performance can be manipulated by the addition of impurity
elements. This process is known as doping. Silicon is the most commonly used
semiconductor material to create a p-n junction. It is the same material used for diodes
3

and transistors, and it is extremely plentiful; it is the second most abundant element after
oxygen. Silicon makes up 27.7 percent of the Earths crust.
A PV cell can be considered as a constant current source as well as a voltage
source, which makes it a nonlinear device. The current and voltage output characteristics
of a PV device are shown in Figure 1.2. Depending on the movement of the operating
point along the curve, the current and voltage can be changed electrically to the desired
value.

Figure 1.2 I-V and P-V characteristics for a PV device.

When the current is zero (no load), the voltage is called the open-circuit voltage
V
OC
. As the current increases due to a decreasing load resistance, the voltage decreases
4

slightly, up to the maximum power point (MPP), which occurs at the knee of the I-V
curve. At MPP, the voltage is called V
MP
and the current is called I
MP
. Next, the voltage
drops significantly with a slight increase in current, where the current is approaching a
load resistance of zero (short-circuit). The voltage is zero in this case and the current is
called the short-circuit current I
SC
.
The P-V curve is complementary to the I-V curve. The power available from a PV
device at any operating point along the I-V curve is the product of the current and voltage
at that point and is expressed in watts. To operate at any particular operating point of the
I-V curve, one needs to connect the necessary load resistance to the PV device. However,
when a PV system is directly connected to a load, the operating point is seldom the MPP.
A power converter (power conditioning and control) is needed to adjust the energy flow
from the PV to the load or battery. This type of power conditioning and control is called
maximum power point tracking (MPPT).

Figure 1.3 Equivalent circuit model for a PV cell.
5

Figure 1.3 shows the equivalent electrical circuit model to describe the behavior
of a PV cell. The current source is used to represent the incident solar irradiance and the
diode to characterize the polarization phenomena. The ideal PV model in the figure does
not include the parasitic resistances accounting for the cells power loss. This model is
named the single-diode model and it is the traditional PV model known as the five-
parameter model. R
p
is introduced in the practical model to absorb the leakage around the
edge of the PV cell. R
s
involves the contact resistance between the metallic contacts,
semiconductors, and the resistance of the semiconductor material of the PV cell. In
Figure 1.3, I
ph
is the photovolatic current, I
d
is the diode current, I is the PV device output
current, and V is the PV device output voltage.

1.3 PV Cells, Modules, and Arrays
A PV system directly converts sunlight into electricity, and the basic device of a
PV system is the PV cell [3]. The basic building block for PV systems is a PV module
consisting of a number of pre-wired cells in series. Modules are then connected in series
to increase the voltage and in parallel to increase the current; the product is power. A PV
array is formed by series and parallel combinations of PV modules [4]. The power
available at the terminal of a PV system can provide electricity to either small loads, such
as calculators, or utility-scale PV systems in the range of 10 MW and more. Figure 1.4
shows a generic PV array structure.

6

Figure 1.4 Generic PV array structure.

For modules connected in series to create higher voltage, at any current value the
voltages are additive, while the current remains constant as suggested in Figure 1.5,
whereas, for modules connected in parallel, the voltage remains constant, and the current
increases as suggested in Figure 1.6. Depending on the application, several PV modules
are interconnected in order to achieve higher power. The performance of a PV system is
normally evaluated under the standard test condition (STC), which uses an average solar
spectrum (air mass) at AM1.5, an irradiance (solar intensity) normalized to 1000 W/m
2
,
and a cell temperature of 25 C [5]. Special testing equipment is needed to guarantee the
requirement of temperature and irradiance for STC. Under real-world operating
conditions that involve varying irradiances as well as significant temperature changes, all
commercial modules behave quite differently according to the location, time of the day,
and season of the year [6].
7

Figure 1.5 I-V curve for three PV modules connected in series.

Figure 1.6 I-V curve for three PV modules connected in parallel.

8

1.4 Types of PV Systems
PV systems can be categorized as:
1) Stand-alone PV systems.
2) Hybrid PV systems.
3) Grid-connected PV systems.
1.4.1 Stand-alone PV Systems
A stand-alone PV system is connected to the DC loads via a power conditioning
unit and to the AC loads through an inverter. An energy storage system such as a battery
bank is essential in this kind of configuration since this type of PV system has no access
to a utility grid. The storage system ensures energy storage when an excess is available
and provides it when it is required. Figure 1.7 shows a diagram of a stand-alone PV
system, with battery storage, that powers both DC and AC loads.

Figure 1.7 Stand-alone PV system.

9

1.4.2 Hybrid PV Systems
Remote area users distant from utility grids often depend on diesel generators,
operating continuously, or for designated hours, to supply power. Hybrid PV systems
combine multiple sources of energy with storage technology to create power generation
systems. The components of this type of system are usually a PV array with energy
storage (typically a rechargeable battery) and a fossil fuel engine generator (Genset). The
genset could be replaced by a natural gas genset or any renewable energy source such as
wind turbines. Applications for hybrid PV systems range from supplying power to remote
huts for lighting and essential electrical appliances, to village electrification for remote
communities. See Figure 1.8.

PV System
Storage System
Power
Conditioning
DC
Load
Rectifier
Inverter
AC
Load

Figure 1.8 Hybrid PV system.

10

1.4.3 Grid-connected PV Systems
Figure 1.9 depicts the main components associated with grid-connected PV
systems. The inverters in these types of PV systems must be synchronized with the grids
voltage and frequency to safely operate. The PV grid-connected systems may be without
batteries; however, for optimum reliability the system could include battery storage as a
backup. A standby backup can deal with lasting power failures due to tornadoes,
hurricanes, ice storms, or any other serious weather conditions. Surplus energy from the
PV array can be injected into the grid for net metering and renewable energy incentives.
Many utility companies are encouraging this scheme in many parts of the world. It is
worth mentioning that the interaction between the customer and the utility company
should encompass a predefined agreement detailing safety standards to be followed
during the connection.

Figure 1.9 Grid-connected PV system.

11

1.5 Advantages and Disadvantages of PV Systems
As more consumers take advantage of renewables (green energy) in general, and
PV systems in particular, the question of whether PV systems are worth the investment
needs to be answered. According to the latest PV best research cell efficiencies chart
from the National Center for Photovoltaics at the National Renewable Energy Laboratory
(NREL), the best efficiency on record is around 44 percent. The chart demonstrates the
best laboratory efficiencies obtained for various technologies on small cells; larger
commercial PV systems efficiencies are certainly significantly lower. See Figure 1.10.

Figure 1.10 Timeline of PV cell energy conversion efficiencies [7].

12

1.5.1 Advantages of PV Systems
- PV energy is one of the most abundant, non-polluting, and renewable
source of energy.
- PV modules have long lifespans (up to 25 years).
- PV systems do not incorporate moving mechanical parts and involve no
disturbance.
- The operating and maintenance cost is relatively low.
- PV systems are cost effective for electrification in remote areas where the
cost of grid extension is prohibitive.
- When connected with the grid, PV system power can uniquely contribute
to the peak energy demand since PV system peak power generation
coincides with the peak demand during daytime and summer season.
- PV system price and deployment, along with the installation apparatuses,
have undergone a remarkable decrease in the recent past. This is due to
support from governments in the form of tax incentives.
1.5.2 Disadvantages of PV Systems
- Although the technology is improving to enhance PV system efficiency
and performance, the efficiency levels are still relatively limited compared
to other renewable energy sources.
- PV systems are extremely dependent on weather conditions. In addition, a
fluctuation in environmental conditions, such as cloud shading,
considerably affects the PV efficiency.
13

CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW

The traditional central power stations with their pollution-related problems will
likely be replaced with cleaner and smaller power plants closer to the loads. These
smaller power plants may be realized via microgrid power systems. A microgrid power
system can be defined as a system with at least one distributed generation source and
associated loads with storage systems, and should be able to operate in grid-connected
and island modes [8][12]. Microgrids integrate renewable resources on the distribution
level close to customers. Utilizing microgrids includes, but is not limited to, service
reliability improvement, more environmentally friendly impact with a lower carbon
footprint, and more manageable energy generation and distribution [13][15]. The
advancement in PV module manufacturing technology, as well as the relative increase in
their efficiency, has resulted in a recent growing demand for PV power generator
installations [16].

2.1 Problem Definition
PV models in the literature comprise a set of transcendental equations that add
complexity to PV system modeling and simulation. Therefore, the growing demand for
PV modules requires the development of reliable and simplified methods for accurate
extraction of the modules internal parameters. Not all the modules parameters are
provided by the manufacturers; thus, evaluation of these parameters with robust
14

estimation methods is crucial in order to predict the behavior of any PV module
accurately. This work attempts to introduce a comprehensive and improved methodology
for PV system characterization, relying only on the values given by the manufacturer.
The methodology serves as a complete guide for PV system designers and researchers for
the prediction of PV system performance over a wide range of temperatures and solar
irradiances.
In addition, a design strategy for control of the power generated by PV systems is
investigated for effective energy extraction. Most of the existing conventional control
methods currently used to track the PV MPP have drawbacks. These drawbacks may be
summarized as:
a) Slow convergence to the MPP because of periodic measuring and evaluating of
gradient.
b) Oscillation around the MPP, which causes power losses and low accuracy.
c) When irradiance changes quickly, the operating point moves away from the
MPP on cloudy days.

2.2 Relevant Research
Over the years, studies in the literature have presented many PV system models
that describe the behavior of the PV system. Some models are mathematical models
based on the theoretical equations that describe the function of the PV system using
equivalent circuits [17][22]. Other models are empirically based and acquire their
accuracy from the fact that the individual equations used in the models are derived from
15

individual PV system characteristics, such as the one developed at the Sandia National
Laboratories [23].

Figure 2.1 PV module equivalent circuit (a) ideal model, (b) single-diode model, (c)
double-diode model.

Figure 2.1 (a)(c) shows the equivalent electrical circuit models that describe the
behavior of a PV module. The current source is used to represent the incident solar
irradiance and the diode to characterize the polarization phenomena. The ideal model in
Figure 2.1 (a) does not include the parasitic resistances accounting for the cells power
loss. The single-diode model in Figure 2.1 (b) is the traditional PV model known as the
16

five-parameter model. The double-diode model in Figure 2.1 (c) as reported in [18], [19],
and [20] is known to have better accuracy because it takes into account some
semiconductor physical phenomena, such as charge diffusion and recombination in the
space-charge layer. In [21], a three-diode equivalent circuit model is proposed that
considers more physical factors to extract additional electrical properties of the PV
device. The mathematical equations describing the cases shown in Figure 2.1(a), (b), and
(c) are given by the following, respectively:

1
s T
D
V
N AV
ph sat
I
I I I e
| |
= |
|
\ .

(2.1)

1
s
s T
V IR
N V A s
ph sat
p
V I
I
R
I I
R
e
+
| |
+
| =
|
\ .

(2.2)

1 2
2
1 1
s s
s T s T
V IR V IR
N V N V s
ph sat sat
p
V IR
I I I e I e
R
+ +
| | | |
+
| | =
| |
\ . \ .

(2.3)

where
I : PV module terminal current (A)
ph
I : Photogenerated current (A)
V : PV module terminal voltage (V)
17

s
R : Equivalent series resistance ()
p
R : Equivalent parallel resistance ()
sat
I : Diode saturation current (A)
A: Diode ideality factor (1 2 A > > )
s
N : Number of cells connected in series
T
V : Diode thermal voltage =
kT
q

k : Boltzmanns constant (1.3806503 e-23 J/K)
T : Temperature (
o
K)
q: Charge of electron (1.60217646 e-19 C)

Because of its simplicity, the single-diode model is adapted in this research. As
reported in [3] and [22], this model provides a good compromise between accuracy and
simplicity for PV system modeling. A typical current-voltage (I-V) characteristic of a PV
module for a certain irradiation (G) and cell temperature (T) is shown in Figure 2.2. The
PV module can be characterized by the following essential operating points:
- Short-circuit current (
sc
I ): the maximum value of the current generated by the
PV module when the PV module terminal is shorted ( 0 V = ). The assumption
sc ph
I I ~ is generally used in the modeling of any PV device.
- Open-circuit voltage (
oc
V ): the voltage across the PV module terminal when
the leads are left open ( 0 I = ).
18

- Maximum power point (MPP): the point at the knee of the I-V curve and the
maximum of the P-V curve. See Figure 2.3.

Figure 2.2 A typical I-V curve for a PV module.

Figure 2.3 A typical P-V curve for a PV module.

19

On the other hand, concerning controlling the power generated by PV systems,
the literature covering MPP tracking is extremely wide. Esram et al. [24] provided a
review paper that contains most MPP tracking techniques with a comprehensive
comparative analysis.
Most conventional methods listed in the paper depend on searching for MPP
based on periodic measuring, or estimating the gradient. The sliding mode control
approach mentioned in this paper is implemented assuming that the exact model is
available and the gradient is estimated, which is not realistic in some applications. Some
authors proposed modified approaches of the existing conventional controlling methods.
For example, the authors in [25] introduced a modified hill-climbing method to track the
MPP using a fuzzy-logic controller, while [26] presented an improved particle swarm
optimization (PSO) technique. The existing control methods will be revisited in greater
detail in chapter 5.

2.3 Summary
The nonlinear nature of the PV system output makes the modeling of PV systems a
challenge. Dealing with transcendental equations during the modeling and simulation
processes of PV systems adds further complexity to the process. These issues associated
with modeling the PV systems and the shortcomings related to controlling the output
power extracted from the PV are addressed in the subsequent chapters.

20

CHAPTER 3: MODELING AND PARAMETER EXTRACTION OF PV SYSTEMS

This chapter presents a novel approach for accurate extraction of the PV module
single-diode models five parameters: I
ph
, I
sat
, A, R
s
, and R
p
. The parameter extraction
approach is simplified and unlike the approaches described in the previous literature, it
does not require any complex calculations or tedious combination of other equations to
extract the five parameters for a PV module. The presented methodology is also extended
to design a PV array. The PV module behavior at different temperature and irradiance is
also forecasted.

3.1 PV System Parameter Extraction
Consider the five-parameters model equation in Eq.(2.2). Unfortunately, this
model equation is, by itself, a transcendental equation for which there is no explicit
solution for either the voltage, or the current of the PV module. To find a solution to a
transcendental equation, one must use graphical or numerical methods. Transcendental
equations also require the use of implicit differentiation, which makes it harder to
perform this type of modeling task. Thus, the following modeling procedures are
developed.
Eq.(2.2) will be evaluated at the short-circuit operating point when V = 0. This
leads to the following:
21

1
sc s
s T
I R
N AV sc s
sc ph sat
p
I R
I I I e
R
| |
| =
|
\ .

(3.1)

At the open-circuit operating point, V = V
oc
and I = 0.

0 1
oc
s T
V
N AV oc
ph sat
p
V
I I e
R
| |
| =
|
\ .

(3.2)

At the MPP, V = V
mp
and I = I
mp
.

1
mp mp s
s T
V I R
mp mp s N AV
mp ph sat
p
V I R
I I I e
R
+
| |
+
|
=
|
\ .

(3.3)

At the MPP, the derivative of the power with respect to voltage is zero as depicted in
Figure 3.1. Using this fact, it can be deduced that

( )
0
mp
mp
V
I
d IV
dP dP dV dI dI
I V I V
dV dV dV dV dV dV
= = = + = + =
(3.4)

22

0
dP
dV
=

Figure 3.1 A typical P-V curve for a PV module.

So far, we have four equations but we have five unknowns, viz., , , ,
ph sat s
I I A R
and
p
R . The fifth equation can be obtained by using the widely accepted assumption that
sc ph
I I ~ . This approximation is based on the fact that for a good PV module,
p
R is very
high and
s
R is very low. See Eq.(3.5).

1
sc s
s T
sc
I R
N A
ph s
V sc
ph
s
a
p
t
I I e
R
I
I R
I
| |
| = ~
|
\ .

(3.5)

23

3.1.1 Parameter-extraction Procedures
The parameter-extraction process takes into consideration the equivalent circuit of
the model and identifies all of its parameters [27]. Eqs.(3.1)(3.5) are used to extract the
unknown but key parameters, , , ,
ph sat s
I I A R and
p
R . These unknowns are not given by
the module data sheet. Eq.(3.4), which involves lengthy differentiation, is simplified and
prearranged using the MATLAB Symbolic Math toolbox. All the unknowns are then
found using an optimization algorithm that solves the system of nonlinear equations with
the fsolve command.

3.1.2 Initialization
When nonlinear optimization algorithms are used to solve mathematical programs,
initialization is often required [28]. The determination of the initial values for the five
unknowns is not a trivial task because inappropriate selection of initial values will result
in non-convergence of the algorithm. Thus, an educated guess for the initial values
should be as follows:
- For
ph
I , it has been shown in [29] that this can be approximated as
sc
I .
- For
sat
I , the initial guess is made using the nominal saturation current as
demonstrated by [3] using the following equation
1
oc
s T
sc
sat V
N AV
I
I
e
(
(
=
(
(

.
24

- For A, the diode ideality factor, many authors have discussed ways to choose
the correct value for this constant, but it is usually selected as (1 A s s 1.5)
according to [3], [30], and [31]
- For R
p
, the initial value may be found by evaluating the model at the open-
circuit condition in Eq.(3.2).
- For R
s
, the initial value can be obtained by using Eq.(3.1) and assuming the
parallel resistance is very high.

3.1.3 Optimization Algorithm
Three optimization algorithms have been chosen for their robustness and iterative
efficiency. The first one is trust-region-dogleg because it is one of few algorithms that is
designed to solve nonlinear equations [32][33]. The MATLAB script subsequently
works with other algorithms in order to find an algorithm that works best for the problem.
Once the function converges to a solution, it produces the values for the five unknowns.
A detailed flowchart for this parameter-extraction method is depicted in Figure 3.2.

25

Figure 3.2 Flowchart for determining the PV models five parameters.

26

3.1.4 Case Study
A case study is carried out to find the five parameters of the BP MSX60 PV
module [34]. The five parameters are extracted using the electrical specifications
provided by the data sheet information. The parameter extraction is conducted for the
electrical performance under the STC. This method could be extended under varying
environmental conditions by using the temperature coefficients of the open-circuit
voltage and short-circuit current included in the data sheet.

Table 3.1 BP MSX60 PV Module Electrical Characteristics under STC ( 25C, AM 1.5,
and 1000 W/m
2
).
Data Sheet
Specification
Extracted
Parameters
I
sc
3.8 A I
ph
3.8021 A
V
oc
21.1 V I
sat
10.22e-8 A
I
mp
3.5 A A 1.3094
V
mp
17.1 V R
s
0.214
N
s
36 R
p
389.02

Table 3.1 lists the values from the data sheet and the extracted parameters using
the procedure presented in sections 3.1.1 through 3.1.3. The results show that
sc ph
I I ~ as
explained in the previous sections. Additionally, the value of the series resistance is small
and the parallel resistance is large for a good PV device. The diode ideality factor A is in
the expected range 1 A s s 1.5. This method is clearly more convenient and accurate
because it does not involve model adjustment at the three operating points, as in [3]. In
27

addition, using this method, one does not depend on the experimental I-V curve to
determine R
p
. Figure 3.3 and Figure 3.4 show that the I-V and P-V characteristics match
the experimental data for the BP MSX60 PV module.

Figure 3.3 I-V characteristic for the BP MSX60 PV module under STC.

Figure 3.4 P-V characteristic for the BP MSX60 PV module under STC.

0 5 10 15 20 25
0
0.5
1
1.5
2
2.5
3
3.5
4
4.5
Voltage (V)
C
u
r
r
e
n
t

(
A
)

Proposed Method
Exp. Data
0 5 10 15 20 25
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
Voltage (V)
P
o
w
e
r

(
W
)

Proposed Method
Exp. Data
28

Figure 3.3 and Figure 3.4 are plotted using MATLAB, solving Eq.(2.2) for the
intervals I e[0 , I
sc
] and V e[0 , V
oc
]. As mentioned earlier, Eq.(2.2) is a transcendental
equation and does not have a direct solution because I = f (V, I) and V = f (V, I). A
numerical solution is acquired by solving the function g (V, I) = I f (V, I) = 0 for a set
of V values and then obtaining the corresponding I values. In Figure 3.5, the absolute
errors of the model data with respect to the experimental data are calculated, showing the
difference between the measured and modeled data graphically.

Figure 3.5 Absolute errors of the model data with respect to the experimental data for the
BP MSX60 PV module under STC.

The validity of the proposed method was tested further by comparing it on the
KC200GT PV module with the technique proposed by [3]. Figure 3.6 and Figure 3.7
illustrate an excellent matching between the model data using the method in this study
and the experimental data. The extracted parameters found by [3] were then compared
0 5 10 15 20 25
0
0.05
0.1
0.15
0.2
0.25
0.3
0.35
A
b
s
o
l
u
t
e

e
r
r
o
r

(
A
)
Voltage (V)
Absolute errors for BP MSX60 PV module
29

with the extracted parameters using the simplified proposed method in this research, and
they appear comparable. See Table 3.2.

Figure 3.6 I-V characteristic for the KC200GT PV module under STC.

Figure 3.7 P-V characteristic for the KC200GT PV module under STC.

0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
Voltage (V)
C
u
r
r
e
n
t

(
A
)

Proposed Method
Exp. Data
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
160
180
200
Voltage (V)
P
o
w
e
r

(
W
)

Proposed Method
Exp. Data
30

Table 3.2 Comparison between values found in [3] and values found using the simplified
method proposed in this study for the KC200GT PV modules under STC.
Extracted Parameters
Proposed by [3]
Extracted Parameters
Using Proposed Method
I
ph
8.214 A I
ph
8.213 A
I
sat
9.825e-8 A I
sat
10.89e-8 A
A 1.3 A 1.3074
R
s
0.221 R
s
0.228
R
p
415.405 R
p
420.88

Figure 3.8 PV array equivalent circuit.
N
s
: cells connected in series; N
p
: cells connected in parallel.

3.2 Modeling PV Array
PV modules are generally composed of cells connected in series. These modules
are connected in series to increase voltage and in parallel to increase current. It is
important in PV system design to decide how many modules should be connected in
series and in parallel in order to deliver the energy required. Figure 3.8 shows the
31

equivalent circuit for a PV array arranged in N
p
for the number of modules connected in
parallel and N
s
for the number of modules connected in series. The modified single-diode
mathematical equation for the arrays current and voltage becomes

1
1
s
T s p
IR V
AV N N
p
s
p ph p sat
p s p
N
IR V
I N I N I e
R N N
| |
| +
|
\ .
| |
| |
|
= + |
| |
|
\ .
\ .

(3.6)

According to [35], N
p
I
ph
corresponds to the short-circuit current of the PV array.
Assuming matching characteristics of each module under identical operating conditions,
as demonstrated in [36], the array parameters can be estimated from data sheet values of
the module and from the number of modules in series-parallel combination in the array. If
the number of modules connected in series in a string is N
ss
and the number of strings
connected in parallel to form an array is N
pp
, then the specifications of the array will be as
shown in Table 3.3. Utilizing Table 3.3 and the data sheet information given in Table 3.1,
one can find the five parameters for an array using the method introduced earlier in
section 3.1. Hence, Figure 3.9 and Figure 3.10 can be generated to represent the I-V and
P-V characteristics for PV array, assuming N
ss
=15 and N
pp
=2. The modules used to
design this array are the BP MSX60 PV modules. The series connection increased the
open-circuit voltage by a factor of fifteen, whereas the parallel connection increased the
short-circuit current by a factor of two.

32

Table 3.3 Array data sheet related to modules.
Module Data Sheet
Values
Equivalent Array
Values
I
sc
I
sc
N
pp

V
oc
V
oc
N
ss

I
mp
I
mp
N
pp

V
mp
V
mp
N
ss

N
s
N
s
N
ss

I
ph
I
ph
N
pp

I
sat
I
sat
N
pp

A A
R
s
R
s
N
ss
/ N
pp

R
p
R
p
N
ss
/ N
pp

Figure 3.9 I-V characteristic for the designed PV array under STC.

0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
Voltage (V)
C
u
r
r
e
n
t

(
A
)
Designed PV array
15 modules in series
02 strings in parallel
Module: BP MSX60
33

Figure 3.10 P-V characteristic for the designed PV array under STC.

3.3 Temperature Impact
In a PV system, high operating temperatures significantly reduce the voltage
output. On the other hand, the current increases with the temperature, but only slightly, so
the net result is a decrease in power and efficiency [37]. Exposing the modules to high
temperatures for prolonged periods may cause early degradation of the module
encapsulation. PV systems generally perform the best on normal, clear days rather than
hot days. Prediction of the PV module I-V and P-V characteristics for temperatures other
than under the STC requires one to have the temperature coefficients (K
V
and K
I
) from
the data sheet for the module being used. A change in temperature has an effect on the
performance of the PV module according to the following equations [2][3], and [37]
[38],

0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350
0
200
400
600
800
1000
1200
1400
1600
1800
2000
Voltage (V)
P
o
w
e
r

(
W
)
Designed PV array
15 modules in series
02 strings in parallel
Module: BP MSX60
34

( ) ( ) ( )
oc oc stc v stc
V T V T K T T = +
(3.7)

( ) ( ) ( )
mp mp stc V stc
V T V T K T T = +
(3.8)

( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
1
sc sc stc I stc
I T I T K T T = +
(3.9)

( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
1
mp mp stc I stc
I T I T K T T = +
(3.10)

Figure 3.11 and Figure 3.12 demonstrate the results of the generated curves at
different temperature values related to the data under STC (T = 25C). K
I
and K
V
are
obtained from the BP MSX60 PV module data sheet as (0.065 0.015) %/C and (80
10) mV/C, respectively. See Appendix A.

Figure 3.11 I-V characteristics for the BP MSX60 PV module at various temperatures.
Modeled (line) and experimental (circles).

0 5 10 15 20 25
0
0.5
1
1.5
2
2.5
3
3.5
4
4.5
Voltage (V)
C
u
r
r
e
n
t

(
A
)
25C
50C
75C
0C
35

Figure 3.12 P-V characteristics for the BP MSX60 PV module at various temperatures.
Modeled (line) and experimental (circles).

The curves representing current and voltage for a PV module with temperature are
in reality three-dimensional curves. For this reason, a MATLAB script is developed to
create a surface fit for the BP MSX60 module data (I-V-T). The nearest neighbor
interpolation method for the module curves with four temperature values can be used to
create a surface that not only represents the points with the four different temperatures
but also characterizes all the points in between. See Figure 3.13.

0 5 10 15 20 25
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
Voltage (V)
P
o
w
e
r

(
W
)
25C
50C
75C
0C
36

Figure 3.13 I-V-T three-dimensional characteristic for the BP MSX60 PV module under
various temperatures and constant level of irradiance at 1000 W/m
2
.

3.4 Irradiance Impact
It is documented [2] that short-circuit current I
sc
is directly proportional to the
solar insolation G (irradiance). This relationship may be described as

( ) ( )
sc sc stc
stc
G
I G I G
G
| |
=
|
\ .

(3.11)

Cutting the irradiance G in half, for instance, leads to a drop in I
sc
by half.
Decreasing irradiance also reduces V
oc
, but it does so following a logarithmic relationship
that results in a relatively modest change of V
oc
. This relationship may be described as

( ) ( ) ( ) /
oc oc stc s T stc
V G V G N V ln G G = +
(3.12)

0
5
10
15
20
0
20
40
60
0
1
2
3
4
Temperature(C)
Voltage(V)
C
u
r
r
e
n
t
(
A
)
37

Figure 3.14 and Figure 3.15 depict the results of the generated curves at different
irradiance values related to the data under STC (1000 W/m
2
). Figure 3.16 also provides a
better view of the significant decrease of the PV module MPP when the current decreases
because of the irradiance drop.

Figure 3.14 I-V characteristics for the BP MSX60 PV module at various irradiances.

Figure 3.15 P-V characteristics for the BP MSX60 PV module at various irradiances.

0 5 10 15 20 25
0
0.5
1
1.5
2
2.5
3
3.5
4
4.5
Voltage (V)
C
u
r
r
e
n
t

(
A
)
1000 W/m
2
800 W/m
2
600 W/m
2
400 W/m
2
200 W/m
2
0 5 10 15 20 25
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
Voltage (V)
P
o
w
e
r

(
W
)
1000 W/m
2
800 W/m
2
600 W/m
2
400 W/m
2
200 W/m
2
38

Figure 3.16 Predicted P-I-V characteristics for the BP MSX60 PV module under various
irradiances and constant temperature 25C.

0
5
10
15
20
25
0
1
2
3
4
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
Voltage (V)
200 W/m
2
400 W/m
2
600 W/m
2
800 W/m
2
1000 W/m
2
Current (A)
P
o
w
e
r

(
W
)
MPP
39

CHAPTER 4: ANALYTICAL MODEL FOR PV SYSTEMS

Modeling in engineering is basically an appropriate simplification of reality to
solve physical problems. It can be divided into two essential parts: physical/empirical
modeling and theoretical/analytical modeling. Analytical expressions of the I-V curve for
a PV system can be derived from the PV module described in section 2.2. Among the
models reported in literature is the analytical model in [39]. The equation in this
analytical model is altered so that the computer can derive its own curve-fitting constants
from the experimental PV system test data input.

4.1 PV System Analytical Model
The analytical model given in [39] is represented by the equation:

1
2
1 1
oc
V
C V
sc
I I C e
| |
| |
| = |
| |
\ .
\ .

(4.1)
where
1
1 2
1
1
1
mp
oc
mp
V
mp oc C V
mp sc
sc
V
I V
C C e
I I
ln
I
| |
|
| |
\ .
= =
|
| |
\ .
|
\ .

(4.2)

40

The model equation given by Eq.(4.1) can be utilized to model only the PV
module, which is generally the building block of any PV system. PV modules are
commercially available with data sheet information that has typical electrical
characteristics such as:
- Maximum power (P
max
)
- Maximum power voltage (V
mp
)
- Maximum power current (I
mp
)
- Open-circuit voltage (V
oc
)
- Short-circuit current (I
sc
)
- Temperature coefficient of the open-circuit voltage (K
V
)
- Temperature coefficient of the short-circuit current (K
I
)

4.2 Analytical Model Extension
The above electrical parameters are given for STC and can be used to generate the
current-voltage (I-V) and power-voltage (P-V) characteristics of any PV module under
STC. A general model that can describe the characteristics of a PV array is essential.
Consequently, Eq.(4.1) can be extended to represent a PV array with N
ss
modules
connected in series and N
pp
modules connected in parallel by the following modification:

1
2
1 1
ss oc
V
N C V
pp sc
I N I C e
| |
| |
| = |
| |
\ .
\ .

(4.3)

41

4.3 Further Addition to the Analytical Model
The characteristics of PV systems are generally desired under different
environmental conditions, with a wide range of temperature and irradiance that predicts
the performance of the PV system.

4.3.1 Temperature Dependence
As stated in chapter 3, in a PV system, when the temperature of a modules cells
warm up to above the STC temperature, the module operates less efficiently and the
voltage decreases. The I-V characteristic remains basically the same as module
temperature increases above 25C, but it does move towards the left, indicating both a
lower voltage and power output. However, even as the voltage and the total power drop,
the current is not changed notably. It is important to secure airflow under and over the
modules to maintain the module temperature as low as possible. The change in
temperature has an effect on the performance of the PV module according to the
following equations [2][3], and [37][38],

( ) ( ) ( )
oc oc stc v stc
V T V T K T T = +
(4.4)

( ) ( ) ( )
mp mp stc V stc
V T V T K T T = +
(4.5)

( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
1
sc sc stc I stc
I T I T K T T = +
(4.6)

( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
1
mp mp stc I stc
I T I T K T T = +
(4.7)

42

4.3.2 Irradiance Dependence
Irradiance varies each day, starting at 0 W/m
2
just before sunrise and increasing to
1000 W/m
2
at the best irradiance condition. The amount of irradiance striking a PV
module directly affects how much current the module can generate. Similar to the
relationship of voltage and temperature, this is a linear relationship that one can calculate
over various conditions. The voltage variation is much smaller because it depends
logarithmically on the irradiance. The impact of irradiance change on the PV module
current and voltage can be characterized by the following equations:

( ) ( )
sc sc stc
stc
G
I G I G
G
| |
=
|
\ .

(4.8)

( ) ( )
mp mp stc
stc
G
I G I G
G
| |
=
|
\ .

(4.9)

( ) ( )
oc oc stc s T
stc
G
V G V G N V log
G
| |
= +
|
\ .

(4.10)

( ) ( )
mp mp stc s T
stc
G
V G V G N V log
G
| |
= +
|
\ .

(4.11)

where N
s
is the number of cells connected in series forming the PV module, and V
T
is the
thermal voltage constant, which is approximated as 25.85 mV.

43

4.4 PV Module Analytical Model Results
A simulation was carried out employing the proposed comprehensive approach
characterizing any PV system using Eq.(4.1) and Eq.(4.2). The module selected for the
simulation is the BP MSX60 solar module [34], with the module data sheet specification
listed in Table 4.1. Figure 4.1 and Figure 4.2 show that the model matches well with the
experimental data obtained from the manufacturer. In Figure 4.3, the absolute error of the
model with respect to the experimental data is calculated, and it shows the difference
between the measured and the modeled data. Using the temperature coefficient of the
short-circuit current and the temperature coefficient of the open-circuit voltage given in
the data sheet, Figure 4.4 and Figure 4.5 illustrate the generated curves at different
temperature values (0
o
C, 50
o
C, and 75
o
C) related to the temperature under STC
(T=25
o
C).

Table 4.1 BP MSX60 PV Module Electrical Characteristics under STC.
Data sheet Specification
I
sc
3.8A
V
oc
21.1V
I
mp
3.5A
V
mp
17.1V
N
s
36
Temp. Coeff. of I
sc
, K
I
(0.0650.015)%/ C
Temp. Coeff. of V
oc
, K
V
-(8010)mV/ C

44

Figure 4.1 Modeled and experimental I-V characteristic for the BP MSX60 PV module
under STC.

Figure 4.2 Modeled and experimental P-V characteristic for the BP MSX60 PV module
under STC.

0 5 10 15 20 25
0
0.5
1
1.5
2
2.5
3
3.5
4
4.5
Voltage(V)
C
u
r
r
e
n
t
(
A
)
BP MSX60 PV solar module

Modeled
Experimental
0 5 10 15 20 25
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
Voltage(V)
P
o
w
e
r
(
W
)
BP MSX60 PV solar module

Modeled
Experimental
45

Figure 4.3 Absolute errors of the modeled data with respect to the experimental data for
the BP MSX60 PV module under STC.

Figure 4.4 Modeled (line) and experimental (circles) I-V characteristics for the BP
MSX60 PV module at various temperatures.

0 5 10 15 20 25
0
0.05
0.1
0.15
0.2
0.25
0.3
0.35
A
b
s
o
l
u
t
e

e
r
r
o
r

(
A
)
Voltage(V)
Absolute errors for BP MSX60 PV module
0 5 10 15 20 25
0
0.5
1
1.5
2
2.5
3
3.5
4
4.5
Voltage(V)
C
u
r
r
e
n
t
(
A
)
25C
50C
75C
0C
46

Figure 4.5 Modeled (line) and experimental (circles) P-V characteristics for the BP
MSX60 PV module at various temperatures.

A MATLAB script is used to create a surface fit for the BP MSX60 solar module
experimental data (I,V,T). The curves representing current and voltage for any PV
cell/module/array with temperature are, in reality, three-dimensional curves. As shown in
Figure 4.6, a cubic interpolation for the I-V curves with four temperature values creates a
surface and mathematical equation that represent not only the points with the four
different temperature values, but also all points in between.

0 5 10 15 20 25
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
Voltage(V)
P
o
w
e
r
(
W
)
25C
50C
75C
0C
47

Figure 4.6 I-V-T three dimensional characteristic for BP MSX60 PV module at various
temperatures and constant level of irradiance 1000W/m
2
.

Forecasting the PV module behavior at irradiance G other than the STC
(1000W/m
2
) requires that the temperature be fixed at 25C and the set of equations in
Eq.(4.84.11) can then be used to generate the curves representing the I-V and P-V
characteristics of the PV module at different irradiance levels. Figure 4.7 and Figure 4.8
demonstrate the irradiance impact on the I-V and P-V characteristics of the selected
module. The generated curves are plotted at different irradiance values (800W/m
2
,
600W/m
2
, 400W/m
2
, and 200W/m
2
) related to the irradiance under STC (G=1000W/m
2
).
As mentioned earlier, decreasing irradiance reduces V
oc
, but it does so following a
logarithmic relationship that results in a relatively modest change of V
oc
. Figure 4.9
shows that the PV module maximum power point is decreasing significantly when
current decreases due to the irradiance drop.
0
5
10
15
20
0
20
40
60
0
1
2
3
4
Temperature(C)
Voltage(V)
C
u
r
r
e
n
t
(
A
)
48

Figure 4.7 Predicted I-V characteristics for the BP MSX60 PV module at various
irradiances.

Figure 4.8 Predicted P-V characteristics for the BP MSX60 PV module at various
irradiances.
0 5 10 15 20 25
0
0.5
1
1.5
2
2.5
3
3.5
4
4.5
Voltage(V)
C
u
r
r
e
n
t
(
A
)
1000 W/m
2
800 W/m
2
600 W/m
2
400 W/m
2
200 W/m
2
0 5 10 15 20 25
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
Voltage(V)
P
o
w
e
r
(
W
)
1000 W/m
2
800 W/m
2
600 W/m
2
400 W/m
2
200 W/m
2
49

irradiances.

4.5 PV Array Analytical Model Results
The design of an array for a power smart building that requires an aggregate
continuous rating of 18-kW, for instance, will need 15 modules wired in series as a string.
With 7 strings combined in parallel, the array will generally be able to produce 18-kW if
a module PV-MF170EB3 [40] with the data sheet specifications listed in Table 4.2 is
used. Utilizing Eq.(4.3) with N
ss
=15 and N
pp
=7, Figure 4.10 demonstrates the predicted
P-V characteristics of the PV array under STC.

0
5
10
15
20
25
0
1
2
3
4
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
Voltage(V)
200 W/m
2
400 W/m
2
600 W/m
2
800 W/m
2
1000 W/m
2
Current(A)
P
o
w
e
r
(
W
)
MPP
50

Table 4.2 PV-MF170EB3 PV Module Electrical Characteristics under STC.
Data sheet Specification
I
sc
7.38A
V
oc
30.7V
I
mp
6.93A
V
mp
24.6V
N
s
50
Temp. Coeff. of I
sc
, K
I
0.057%/ C
Temp. Coeff. of V
oc
, K
V
-0.346%/ C

Figure 4.10 Predicted P-V characteristic for the designed PV array under STC.

The temperature and irradiance impact on the designed PV array can be evaluated
by applying the approach with the BP MSX60 solar module, considering the new data
sheet specification in Table 4.2 for the module PV-MF170EB3. Figure 4.11 and Figure
4.12 represent the forecasted temperature effect on the designed PV array with the
generated curves at different temperature values (0
o
C, 50
o
C, 75
o
C, and 100
o
C) related to
the temperature under STC (T=25
o
C). In Figure 4.13 and Figure 4.14, the irradiance
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500
0
2000
4000
6000
8000
10000
12000
14000
16000
18000
Voltage(V)
P
o
w
e
r
(
W
)
Designed Array
15 Modules in series
7 Strings in parallel
Module: MF170EB3 170 Watt
51

effect is also shown for irradiance change (800W/m
2
, 600W/m
2
, 400W/m
2
, and
200W/m
2
) related to the irradiance under STC (G=1000W/m
2
) for the designed PV array.

Figure 4.11 Predicted I-V characteristics for the designed PV array at various
temperatures.

temperatures.

0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
55
Voltage(V)
C
u
r
r
e
n
t
(
A
)
25C
50C
75C
100C
0C
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
1.2
1.4
1.6
1.8
2
x 10
4
Voltage(V)
P
o
w
e
r
(
W
)
25C
50C
75C
100C
0C
52

Figure 4.13 Predicted I-V characteristics for the designed PV array at various irradiances.

irradiances.

0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
Voltage(V)
C
u
r
r
e
n
t
(
A
)
1000 W/m
2
800 W/m
2
600 W/m
2
400 W/m
2
200 W/m
2
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
1.2
1.4
1.6
1.8
2
x 10
4
Voltage(V)
P
o
w
e
r
(
W
)
1000 W/m
2
800 W/m
2
600 W/m
2
400 W/m
2
200 W/m
2
53

CHAPTER 5: PV SYSTEM POWER GENERATION CONTROL

PV systems generally suffer from low efficiency and high cost. To deal with this
shortcoming, a maximum power point tracking system, frequently referred to as MPPT,
is used electronically in a manner that steers the PV modules operating point to deliver
the maximum available power. Generally, when a PV system is connected directly to a
DC load that needs power, the PV system must be oversized to guarantee a sufficient
power supply. This obviously leads to an oversized and expensive PV system. Thus, the
PV system needs to be operated continuously at its MPP for optimum operation.

5.1 PV System Power Control
Figure 5.1 depicts a diagram of a PV system, DC/DC converter, and MPPT to
track the MPP of the PV system using controlling algorithm. Depending on the
application, the DC/DC converter could be a buck converter, boost converter, or buck-
boost converter. Several control algorithms have been proposed in different publications.
Perturbation and observation (P&O) or the hill climbing algorithm is the most commonly
employed method in commercial PV MPPTs [41][45]. Among other control
mechanisms for MPPT are fuzzy logic [46][50], neural network [51][55], and
incremental conductance (IncCond) control [56][60].

54

Figure 5.1 PV system, DC/DC converter, and MPPT control.

Figure 5.2 Optimization system.

5.2 Self-optimization Sliding Mode Control
Generally, an optimization system consists of a controller generating a control
input u, which is fed to an integrator. Figure 5.2 shows the block diagram for this system.
The problem is to organize a search that will minimize/maximize the plant output. As a
result, the search proceeds, following the optimization procedure. The essence of the
55

procedure approach is as follows. The output of the plant is compared with a certain
setpoint, which is a monotonically increasing time function. The plant input is derived
from the difference between the output and the setpoint, and it should make this
difference vanish. Accordingly, the plant output, which tracks the monotonically
increasing input, reaches its maximum. The specific feature inherent in the design of this
type of tracking system is that the local plant gain is unknown and varies both in
magnitude and in sign. In physical terms, the controller, without any clue to this gain,
should insure that the plant input changes so that it is certain to increase; this is done by
tracking the setpoint no matter in what part of the extremal curve the plant is at a
particular moment in time. The problem of tracking the local gain without measurement,
formulated in this way, is solved by deliberate introduction of motion in sliding mode.
Note that obtaining data on the local gain implies essentially a measurement of the
gradient of the function to be maximized (or some of its projections), which is normally
required in self-optimization systems.
An important feature is that the measurement itself, in most cases, requires
introduction of special hardware, which causes probe signals at the plant input, and then
analyzing the response to them at the output [61]. Let us take up the simplest problem of
optimization for a static plant, described by the equation

( ) y f x =
(5.1)

56

where x and y are input and output signals, respectively, and the function, ( ) f x , is
differentiable and reaches a maximum at a certain unknown value of the input
o
x and
0
df
dx
= with
o
x x = . A system should be developed in which the output y tracks some
monotonically increasing function and thus approaches the extremum.
The purpose of the control is to make the difference ( ) ( ) g t y t c = vanish,
where ( ) g t is a monotonically increasing function, as shown in Figure 5.3. The motion
within the system is described by the equations

c

Figure 5.3 Self-optimization control scheme.

( )
( )
1 2
,
,
o
y f x g v
x u u u sign s s
= = +

`
= =

)

(5.2)

where and
o
u are constant;
o
u > 0, > 0,
1
s c = ,
2
s c o = + , o is a small positive
value. The purpose of the additional signal v will be described below.
57

Normally, in relay systems, the control function is of the form ( )
o
u u sign c = , but
the use of this type of control in our tracking system in one branch of the extremal-type
curve will result in negative feedback and in the other, in positive feedback.
Consequently, in such systems (provided, of course, that the gradient value is not
measured), the quantity y to be optimized cannot follow the setpoint ( ) g t . Let us show
that this problem can be solved by using the control in Eq.(5.2), which is a relay function
of two arguments. See Figure 5.4.

c
o
2
0 s =
1
0 s =
o
u +
o
u

Figure 5.4 Control input u.

Let the initial conditions be such that ( ) ( )
1 2 o o
s t s t < 0 , and
o
df
u
dx
> . In
addition, assume for a moment that the function v is equal to zero. Let us consider the
58

behavior of the system under these initial conditions by using the equation of motion with
respect to the error coordinate; by virtue of Eq.(5.1) and Eq.(5.2), this equation is of the
form:

( )
1 2 o
df
u sign s s
dx
c = (5.3)

Since
1 2
s s c = = under the initial conditions ( ) ( )
1 2 o o
s t s t < 0 for one function,
1
s
or
2
s , the inequality
1 1
s s < 0 or
2 2
s s < 0 holds. Therefore,
1
s (or
2
s ) will change its sign
and so will the derivative
1
s (or
2
s ). In other words, the inequality
1 1
s s < 0 (or
2 2
s s < 0)
holds in the vicinity of the point
1
0 s = (or
2
0 s = ).
Now, let us suppose that the condition
o
df
u
dx
> is not valid only in a certain
vicinity of the extremum. Then, because either y g = or y g o = + , and since g is a
monotonically increasing function ( g = < 0), the plant output will reach this vicinity in
a finite time period. Now we select the signal v that, first, insures the initial conditions of
the type ( ) ( )
1 2 o o
s t s t < 0 in the system and, second, makes it possible to stabilize the
system motion in the vicinity of the extremum.
The need to solving these problems is dictated by the fact that the above reasoning
applies only to initial conditions of the type ( ) ( )
1 2 o o
s t s t < 0, and once the extremum
vicinity is reached, there is no point in further decrease of ( ) g t . Therefore, the function
v should be selected with a magnitude large enough, positive with
1
s < 0,
2
s < 0, negative
59

with
1
s > 0,
2
s > 0, and equal to zero with
1 2
s s < 0. Then caused by the fast change of
the setpoint g, the initial conditions will appear in the system. Since the integrator
generating the setpoint ( ) g t is an element of the controller, this quantity may be varied
as fast as described and further discussion will assume that the initial conditions appear in
the system instantaneously.
A sliding mode starts in the system, which brings the system to the extremum
with v = 0. During this motion, either
1
s or
2
s is of a constant sign, while the other is a
variable sign varying at a high frequency and magnitude. With the law for variation of the
function v and with the identity of the signs of
1
s and
2
s during sliding mode, v is
nonzero, the function g at these times is not equal to , and the setpoint ( ) g t may be
found to be a function other than a monotonically increasing one. This phenomenon may
be eliminated if the switches implementing the function v have symmetrical hysteresis
loops whose width exceeds the double amplitude of oscillation of the
1
s or
2
s in sliding
mode. In this case, the function v is of the form

( )( )
1 2
1 2
1 2
0 0
0 0
0 0
with ,
with
with , , ,
M s s
v s s
M s s M const M
A > >
= + A A <
< + A < =

(5.4)

where 2A is the width of the hysteresis loop in Figure 5.5. Over the interval
1
s < A and
2
s < A , v maintains the value it had before the describing point reached the intervals.
With this way of generating the function v , the describing point at the initial time is
60

tossed in the region ( )( )
1 2
0 s s + A A < rather than into the region ; then, as before, the
sliding mode takes the plant output into a certain domain E containing an extremum, and
where the condition
o
df
u
dx
> is not met, or
o
df
u
dx
< .

c
o
2
0 s =
1
0 s =
M
M +
2A
2A

Figure 5.5 Relay control function v.

The condition
o
df
u
dx
> identifies a domain where the rate of motion to the
extremum is constant. As for the motion in the domain E given by
o
df
u
dx
< , it can be
proved that once in this domain the quantity y to be optimized continues increasing in
oscillating mode with the rate of this motion gradually falling, and at the end of the
transient process the maximal value of y does not exceed
min
y + A .
61

Let us take up the motion of the system in the domain E. For v = 0, the equality
0
o
df
u
dx
c = < holds. Consequently, no matter whether it was
1
s or
2
s that was zero
during motion in sliding mode, the describing point reaches the point
2
s = A in further
motion; then, according to Eq.(5.4), the signal v instantaneously restores the condition
2
s = +A and oscillation starts. While moving in the interval
2
0 s s s A , the plant output
y decreases with 0
df
dx
< and increase with 0
df
dx
> .
In summary, the method of solution described here relies on a system that is
capable of controlling a plant with sign-varying and unknown gain. The derivative of the
function to be maximized acts as this gain, steering the plant output to a maximal possible
point.

5.3 Control Design Strategy
After detailing the essence of the sliding mode control method of self-optimizing,
one needs to design a strategy to apply the described control method to a PV system.
Figure 5.6 shows the PV system, DC/DC boost converter, and the sliding mode controller
for tracking the MPP of the PV system using the method of self-optimization. In Figure
5.7, the block diagram for the controller is given with the duty ratio as a control input and
the PV system output power as the plant output.

62

Figure 5.6 PV system, DC/DC boost converter, and the MPPT controller.

c

Figure 5.7 Block diagram for the controller design.

63

5.3.1 Adapted PV System
The PV system selected to realize the sliding mode controller is the PV-
MF170EB3 module by Mitsubishi Electric Corporation studied in chapter 4. Table 5.1
provides the module electrical characteristics provided by the manufacturer data sheet
and the internal parameters used for the simulation employing the modeling methodology
presented in chapter 3. Figure 5.8 and Figure 5.9 illustrate the I-V and P-V profiles of the
selected PV module at different irradiances.

Table 5.1 Mitsubishi PV-MF170EB3 PV Module Electrical Characteristics under STC.

Data sheet
Specification
Internal
Parameters
I
sc
7.38A I
ph
7.378A
V
oc
30.6V I
sat
8.58e-8A
I
mp
6.93A A 1.3
V
mp
24.6V R
s
0.211
N
s
50 R
p
10.57k

64

Figure 5.8 I-V characteristic for the PV-MF170EB3 module by Mitsubishi Electric at
various irradiances.


0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
Voltage(V)
C
u
r
r
e
n
t
(
A
)
1000W/m
2
800W/m
2
600W/m
2
400W/m
2
200W/m
2
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
160
180
Voltage(V)
P
o
w
e
r
(
W
)
1000W/m
2
800W/m
2
600W/m
2
400W/m
2
200W/m
2
65

5.3.2 Control Algorithm
Since the plant output in Figure 5.7 must increase, let it be modeled by a
monotone increasing time function; the task of the control system is then to track this
reference input [62]. The control algorithm relies upon the following approach:
- Generate a reference signal g , monotonously increasing, ( )
1 2
, g M v s s = + and
> 0.
- ( ) ( )
1 2
, v s s v c = with g P c = ,
1
s c = ,
2
s c o = + and o > A .
- Determine D
, such that the performance P follows the reference g to increase

towards its maximum.
- D u =
and ( )
1 2 o
u u sign s s = .
- Tracking error: ( )
1 2 1 2
, ( )
o
dP
g P M v s s u sign s s
dD
c = = +
is the tracking error.

- With M >
o
dP
u
dD
+ , the function ( )
1 2
, M v s s enforces g into a manifold where
v = 0.
- If c < -o - A or c > A , for either case
1 2 1 2
( )
o
dP
s s u sign s s M v
dD
= = + + has
the opposite sign to
1
s and
2
s .
- Without the loss of generality, assume o > 2 A . In finite time, o c A < < A will
be enforced, and the function v becomes zero.
- With v = 0, the reference signal is given by g = .
- In the domain { } o c A < < A ,
1
0 s < and
2
0 s > :
66

If 0
dP
dD
>
then: ( )
1 1 2
, 0
o o
dP dP
s u sign s s u
dD dD
= + = + > , and
1
s is steered to zero in
finite time under the condition
o
dP
u
dD
> .
If 0
dP
dD
<
then:
2 1
0
o
dP
s s u
dD
= = + < and
2
s is steered to zero in finite time under the
condition
o
dP
u
dD
> .
In sliding mode, either 0 P g = or P g o = , the output P follows the
reference g to increase. When the sliding condition
o
dP
u
dD
> does not hold, P
continues to increase while oscillating. After the transient settles, the maximum value of
P does not exceed
max
P + A.
The functions u and v are plotted in Figure 5.10. The parameters
o
u , o , and M
are positive constants. is positive value that is constant or varying depending on the
particular search technique. The hysteresis width 2A should not exceed o , and the
inequality
o
dP
M u
dD
> + should be satisfied for M . Generally, suitable selection of
the controller parameters is a tuning process. However, the mentioned guidelines are
extremely valuable for effective calibration of the controller.
67

Figure 5.10 The functions u and v used in the control algorithm.

68

5.3.3 DC/DC Boost Converter
The DC/DC converter in Figure 5.6 is designed such that a dc link (battery)
maintains a roughly constant voltage of 48V at the output of the converter. The DC/DC
boost converter parameters are designed based on the values of the input voltage from the
PV module, 5% input ripple current, and switching frequency of 10kHz. The dc voltage
transfer function for the boost converter can be modeled by the static relation [63]:

( ) 1
PV o
V V D =
(5.5)

where
PV
V is the voltage across the PV module that is changing with the irradiance
variation,
o
V is the output constant voltage to model a battery, and D is the duty ratio,
which serves as a control input. The controller algorithm adjusts the DC/DC converter
duty ratio to steer the operating point to the maximum output power delivered from the
PV module.

5.3.4 Results and Discussion
The MPP tracking control approach is demonstrated by carrying out a simulation
using Matlab/Simulink environment. At first, the control algorithm is implemented
assuming a steady state under STC. Another simulation is then performed with solar
intensity changes at different values of irradiances. Figure 5.11 shows that under STC,
the controller indeed achieves the MPP at (1000W/m
2
) corresponding to the peak value
69

given in the PV module power profile in Figure 5.9. The voltage and current at MPP are
also provided in the Figure.

Figure 5.11 The PV system power, voltage, and current time response under the STC
where the irradiance is 1000W/m
2
.

0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
160
180
Time (second)
P
o
w
e
r
(
W
)
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
24
26
28
30
32
Time (second)
V
o
l
t
a
g
e
(
V
)
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
0
2
4
6
8
Time (second)
C
u
r
r
e
n
t
(
A
)
70

In the second simulation, when the irradiance is changed, Figure 5.12 illustrates
that the MPP controller maintains the power at its maximum with different irradiance
values, and its response time is relatively fast. Instantly, after the irradiance change at
time 1 second, from 1000W/m
2
to 400W/m
2
, the controller was able to keep track of the
maximum power by sensing the new MPP and re-optimizing again with 400W/m
2

irradiance. This situation models a transient effect of a cloud blocking the incident
irradiance from the PV system.
The instantaneous irradiance change imposed on the PV system in this simulation
may be much faster than a real world scenario, but it gives an idea of the time it takes for
the controller to respond to a change in the irradiance.
For further verification, additional irradiance levels are applied on the PV system
for extra testing. The irradiance levels applied are 1000W/m
2
to 600W/m
2
at 0.5 second
and then from 600W/m
2
to 1000W/m
2
at 1 second. From Figure 5.13, the MPP tracking
successfully scans for the MPP in a relatively short time under varying weather condition
with fast convergence.

71

change from 1000W/m
2
to 400W/m
2
.

0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
160
180
Time (second)
P
o
w
e
r
(
W
)
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2
10
15
20
25
30
Time (second)
V
o
l
t
a
g
e
(
V
)
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2
0
2
4
6
8
Time (second)
C
u
r
r
e
n
t
(
A
)
72

change from 1000W/m
2
to 600W/m
2
at 0.5s and back to 1000W/m
2
at 1s.

0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
160
180
Time (second)
P
o
w
e
r
(
W
)
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2
10
15
20
25
30
Time (second)
V
o
l
t
a
g
e
(
V
)
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2
0
2
4
6
8
Time (second)
C
u
r
r
e
n
t
(
A
)
73

5.4 Experimental Verification
The configuration shown in Figure 5.14 is utilized to verify the performance of
the self-optimizing sliding mode control approach. Figure 5.15 depicts the hardware
arrangement diagram. The PV source used in the experiment is the Agilent E4360
Modular Solar Array Simulators. An Infineon TriCore TC1796 is employed to realize the
proposed controller.
The experimental setup is examined under steady state, and then under stepped
operating conditions. Figure 5.16 shows the result of the implemented sliding mode
control approach under steady state. Different I-V curves are programmed into the PV
simulator to test the experimental system under different weather conditions. Figure 5.17
illustrates the result under varying weather conditions.

Figure 5.14 Experimental setup for the PV system, DC/DC converter, and MPPT
controller.
74

L
C
ADC
TriCore TC1796
R
L
Modular PV
Array Simulators
Boost Converter DC Link
Voltage and Current
Measurements

Figure 5.15 Diagram for the hardware arrangement.

Figure 5.16 Power under steady state condition.

75

Figure 5.17 Power under varying weather conditions.

P
V
b
th

CHAPTER
This C
V modules i
Virgili Unive
ecause an A
he previous c

Figure 6
L
R 6: PV SYS
Chapter is co
installed on
ersity in Ta
Agilent E436
chapter.
6.1 BP585 P
Laboratory at
STEM POW
omplementa
the roof of t
arragona, Sp
60 Modular
PV array (ins
t the Rovira

76
WER GENER
ary to Chapte
the Electrica
pain. This
Solar Array
stalled on th
i Virgili Uni
RATION CO
er 5 and it a
al Engineerin
is different
y Simulators
he roof of the
iversity in T
ONTROL C
addresses a c
ng Laborato
from the p
was used a
e Electrical E
Tarragona, Sp
CASE STUD
case study o
ry at the Ro
previous ch
as a PV sour

Engineering
pain).
DY
f real
ovira i
hapter
rce in
77

6.1 The PV System Characteristic
The PV system in Figure 6.1 consists of two BP585 PV modules connected in
parallel (see Appendix A). Table 6.1 lists the module electrical characteristics provided
by the manufacturer data sheet. Figure 6.2 and Figure 6.3 illustrate the I-V and P-V
characteristics of the PV modules at different irradiances. Using the available information
from Table I, Figure 6.2 and Figure 6.3 are generated using MATLAB, by solving
Eq.(2.2) for I e[0 , I
sc
] and V e[0 , V
oc
]. As previously detailed in Chapter 3, Eq.(2.2) is
a transcendental equation and does not have a direct solution because I = f (V, I) and V =
f (V, I). A numerical solution is acquired by solving the function g (V, I) = I f (V, I) = 0
for a set of V values and then obtaining the corresponding I values.

Table 6.1 BP585 Solar Photovoltaic Module Electrical Characteristics at 25 C, AM 1.5,
and 1000 W/m
2

Data sheet specifications
I
sc
5.0A
V
oc
22.1V
I
mp
4.72A
V
mp
18V
N
s
36
Dimensions 47.621.11.97
Weight 17 lb (7.7 kg)

78

Figure 6.2 I-V characteristic for the BP585 modules at various irradiances.

Figure 6.3 P-V characteristic for the BP585 modules at various irradiances.

0 5 10 15 20 25
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
Voltage (V)
C
u
r
r
e
n
t

(
A
)
1000 W/m
2
800 W/m
2
600 W/m
2
400 W/m
2
200 W/m
2
0 5 10 15 20 25
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
160
180
Voltage (V)
P
o
w
e
r

(
W
)
1000 W/m
2
800 W/m
2
600 W/m
2
400 W/m
2
200 W/m
2
79

6.2 Preliminary Simulation
The same methodology presented previously in Chapter 5, and the same control
algorithm, DC/DC Boost converter, and a constant voltage at the DC-link terminal were
used to obtain preliminary simulation results before implementing the set-up
experimentally. At first, the control algorithm is implemented assuming steady state
under STC. Another simulation is then performed with solar intensity changes at different
values of irradiances. Figure 6.4 shows that under STC, the controller indeed achieves the
MPP at (1000W/m
2
) corresponding to the peak value given in the PV modules power
profile in Figure 6.3.
In the second simulation, when the irradiance is changed, Figure 6.5 illustrates
that the MPP controller maintains the power at its maximum with different irradiance
values, and its response time is relatively fast. Instantly, after the irradiance change at
time 1 second, from 1000W/m
2
to 400W/m
2
, the controller was able to keep track of the
maximum power by sensing the new MPP and re-optimizing again with 400W/m
2

irradiance. The instantaneous irradiance change imposed on the PV system in this
simulation may be much faster than a real world scenario, but it gives an idea of the time
it takes for the controller to respond to a change in the irradiance. It is worth noting that
during the sudden irradiance change in Figure 6.5, the power goes to zero in the transient
due to computational issue in the simulation. This should not appear in the experimental
results when dealing with real PV systems, as will be shown in the following section.

80

assuming steady state under STC for the BP585 modules.

0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
160
180
Time (second)
P
o
w
e
r
(
W
)
81

under irradiance change from 1000 W/m
2
to 400 W/m
2
for the BP585 modules.

0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
160
180
Time (second)
P
o
w
e
r
(
W
)
82

6.3 Experimental Results
The performance of the proposed self-optimization sliding mode controller is
verified experimentally with the hardware configuration shown in Figure 6.6. The system
consists of two BP585 PV modules connected in parallel and installed on the roof of the
laboratory. Since there are long wires between the boost converter and the PV system; up
to 40 meters, the parasitic inductance of the wires is significant and is most likely prone
to resonate with the high Q-factor capacitors. Accordingly, an L-C input filter is
introduced. The L-C filter adds some electrolytic capacitors with large Equivalent Series
Resistance (ESR), which reduces the effects of the switching ripple while measuring the
voltage and current. It also reduces the conducted EMI (electromagnetic interference),
and it must be damped to prevent harmful resonances at the input.
The dc-to-dc boost converter with 100kHz switching frequency comprises a
toroidal inductor and input and output filtering capacitors. These capacitors are high Q-
factor in charge of filtering the switching ripple components of the input and output
currents. An interface board is located before the Texas Instrument (TMS320F28335)
microcontroller to accommodate the PV current and voltage levels to 3 V range of the
microcontroller analog-to-digital converters. Additionally, it adds low-pass filtering
(1kHz) to reduce switching noise. The Texas Instrument TMS320F28335 is used to
realize the proposed controller. The DC-Link is a programmable electronic load
configured in constant voltage mode.

83

Figure 6.6 Hardware arrangement for the entire PV system.

The experimental set-up is tested under steady state and stepped operating
conditions. Figure 6.7 and Figure 6.8 show the results of the proposed MPP tracking
controller. The results show the self-optimization sliding mode controller indeed was able
to maintain the MPP in a relatively short time, with a small oscillation in steady state, in
the course of an irradiance change from lower to higher and vice versa.
Figure 6.9 and Figure 6.10 are obtained after a slight modification to the v
function in the control algorithm to improve the controller performance during the
transient from different irradiance levels. As can be seen from the two figures, the MPP
transition from one irradiance level to another is clearly improved, with a nearly abrupt
and smooth transition. This confirms the effectiveness of the proposed MPPT controller
over most of the known conventional controlling methods.

F

F

Figure 6.7 E
Figure 6.8 E
Experimental
Experimental
l results for t
l results for t

84
the BP585 m

the BP585 m
modules from
modules from

m lower to hi

m higher to l
igher irradia
lower irradia
ance.
ance.

F
F

Figure 6.9 E
Figure 6.10
Experimenta
after modif
Experimenta
after modif
al results for
fying the con
al results for
fying the con

85

the BP585 m
ntrol algorith

r the BP585
ntrol algorith
modules from
hm for impro
modules fro
hm for impro

m lower to h
oved transiti

om higher to
oved transiti
higher irradia
on.
lower irradi
on.
ance
iance
86

CHAPTER 7: MECHANICAL TRACKING OF PV SYSTEM POWER

Many publications have appeared that cover the subject of MPPT. However,
mechanical tracking is rarely mentioned along with the MPPT. Mechanical tracking of
PV systems involves aligning the PV modules perpendicular to the sun throughout the
day in order to receive maximum solar radiation. MPPT may be supplemented with a
mechanical tracking system, and the two should not be confused. See Figure 7.1.

Figure 7.1 Diagram of a PV systems major components with electrical and mechanical
MPPT.

87

7.1 PV System Physical Tracking
According to [64], the physical tracking can be done manually or automatically.
In manual tracking, the PV module orientation is manually changed at the beginning of
each season to a predetermined angle. In the case of automatic tracking, the PV module is
mounted on a single-axis or two-axis tracking mechanism, and is controlled to follow the
sun trajectory throughout the day. Employing this type of control mechanism may
increase PV efficiency 20 to 50 percent over those PV modules that do not perform
physical sun tracking [65]. The control mechanisms can be categorized into three
different types: passive, optical, and astronomical methods.
In passive tracking, the method uses compressed gas fluid that is driven to one
side or the other, causing the module to move toward the sun due to an imbalance [66]
[67]. The optical method utilizes feedback photo-sensors, current, voltage, and auxiliary
cells to determine the module reference position [68][69]. The astronomical method is
based on the geographic location, date, and time of year [70][71]. Figure 7.2 depicts the
sun path for a PV module facing south. Figure 7.3 shows the azimuth and elevation angle
trajectory.
At solar noon, the sun is always directly south in the northern hemisphere and
directly north in the southern hemisphere [72]. The azimuth angle () is the campus
direction from which the sun is coming. The elevation angle () is the angular height of
the sun in the sky measured from the horizon.

88

Figure 7.2 Variation of the suns path during the day and seasons.

Figure 7.3 Diagram of a PV systems Azimuth angle () and Elevation angle ().

89

The authors in [70], [73][74] classified sun tracking systems based on the motor
control realization: a closed-loop, or open-loop control system. All of the above
references rely on complex astronomical equations to find the suns angles. They tend to
use a solar tracker, which orients itself along the direction of the sunlight. The power
generated from PV modules depends heavily on the suns irradiance; however, total
irradiance on any inclined surface is the sum of direct irradiance, isotropic sky diffuse
irradiance, and ground reflection.
The aim of this chapter is to propose a different methodology that adjusts the
tracker based on measuring the output power. The proposed controller architecture
maintains the power at an optimum value, by arranging the PV module to the
corresponding azimuth and elevation optimal angles.

7.2 Suggested Physical Control Strategy
Figure 7.4 shows the PV system, DC/DC converter, and the proposed sliding
mode controller for tracking the maximum power by modifying the azimuth angle () and
the elevation angle () accordingly until the power value is optimal. The PV system in the
figure is the PV-MF170EB3 module by Mitsubishi Electric Corporation [75]. Table 7.1
provides the module electrical characteristics provided by the manufacturers data sheet.
The cell type used in the module is polycrystalline silicon (150mm square).

90

Axis of
rotation
Axis of
rotation
DC/DC
Power
Converter
MPPT
Control
Battery
Angles SMC
Self-optimization
Control
Power
o |

Figure 7.4 PV system, DC/DC converter, electrical MPPT, and the proposed mechanical
sliding mode controller.

Table 7.1 Mitsubishi PV Module Electrical Characteristics at 25 C, AM1.5, and
1000W/m
2
.

Data sheet specifications
I
sc
7.38A
V
oc
30.6V
I
mp
6.93A
V
mp
24.6V
N
s
50
Dimensions 6231.51.8
Weight 34.2 lb (15.5 kg)

91

Figure 7.5 demonstrates the P-V characteristic of the PV-MF170EB3 module by
Mitsubishi Electric at various irradiances. In Figure 7.6 and Figure 7.7, the power profiles
with respect to the azimuth and elevation angles are obtained. The two figures are
generated by conducting a simple calculation on a free software System Advisor Model
(SAM) developed by the National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL). SAM is
designed to execute performance and financial models to facilitate decision making for
those involved in the renewable energy industry, such as technology developers, project
engineers, and researchers.


0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
160
180
Voltage(V)
P
o
w
e
r
(
W
)
1000W/m
2
800W/m
2
600W/m
2
400W/m
2
200W/m
2
92

Figure 7.6 PV-MF170EB3 module power profile with respect to the azimuth angle.

Figure 7.7 PV-MF170EB3 module power profile with respect to the elevation angle.

-100 -80 -60 -40 -20 0 20 40 60 80 100
110
120
130
140
150
160
170
180
Azimuth Angle (degree)
P
o
w
e
r

(
W
)
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
110
120
130
140
150
160
170
180
Elevation Angle (degree)
P
o
w
e
r

(
W
)
93

The curves representing the azimuth angle () and the elevation angle () for any
PV module with power are, in reality, three-dimensional curves. Accordingly, Figure 7.8
was produced using cubic interpolation for the power curves with different angle values.
The surface fit in the figure represents not only the available points, but also all the points
in between.

Figure 7.8 Power output for various combinations of azimuth and elevation angles.

-60
-40
-20
0
20
40
60
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
130
140
150
160
170

A
z
im
u
t
h

A
n
g
le
in
d
e
g
re
e

(
o
)
E
l
e
v
a
t
i
o
n

A
n
g
l
e

i
n

d
e
g
r
e
e

(
|
)

P
o
w
e
r

(
W
)
94

7.2.1 Mechanical Control Algorithm
The PV module output power is maximized by using a sliding mode control
method of self-optimization. Figure 7.9 depicts the block diagram for the controller
design. Since the plant output must increase, let it be modeled by a monotone increasing
time function. The task of the control system is to track this reference input. Assuming
the plant input is x and the output is y = f(x), the control algorithm relies upon the
following approach:

|
o
-60
-40
-20
0
20
40
60
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
130
140
150
160
170

Azimuth Angle o(degree)
Elevation Angle |(degree)

P
o
w
e
r (W
)

Figure 7.9 Block diagram for the controller design for both Azimuth and Elevation
angles.

Generate a reference signal g , monotonously increasing, and > 0.
( ) ( )
1 2
, v s s v c = with g y c = ,
1
s c = ,
2
s c o = + and o > A .
Determine x , such that the performance of y follows the reference g to increase
towards its maximum.
x u = and ( )
1 2 o
u U sign s s = .
Tracking error: ( )
1 2
,
o
dy
g y M v s s U
dx
c = = + is the tracking error.
95

With M >
o
dy
U
dx
+ , the function ( )
1 2
, M v s s enforces g into a manifold where
v = 0.
If c < -o - A or c > A , for either case
1 2 o
dy
s s U M v
dx
= = + + has the
opposite sign to
1
s and
2
s .
Without the loss of generality, assume o > 2 A . In finite time, o c A < < A will
be enforced, and the function v becomes zero.
With v = 0, the reference signal is given by g = .
In the domain { } o c A < < A ,
1
0 s < and
2
0 s > :
If 0
dy
dx
>
then:
( )
1 1 2
,
0
o
o
dy
s U sign s s
dx
dy
U
dx
= +
= + >

and
1
s is steered to zero in finite time under the condition
o
dy
U
dx
> .
In the domain { } o c A < < A ,
1
0 s < and
2
0 s > :
If 0
dy
dx
<
then:
2 1
0
o
dy
s s U
dx
= = + <
and
2
s is steered to zero in finite time under the condition
o
dy
U
dx
> .
96

In sliding mode, either 0 y g = or y g o = , the output y follows the
reference g to increase. When the sliding condition
o
dy
U
dx
> does not hold, y
continues to increase while oscillating. After the transient settles, the maximum value of
y does not exceed
max
y + A.

Figure 7.10 The functions u and v used in the control algorithm.

97

The functions u and v are plotted in Figure 7.10. The parameters
o
u , o , and M
are positive constants. is positive value that is constant or varying, depending on the
particular search technique. The hysteresis width, 2A , should not exceed o , and the
inequality
o
dP
M u
dD
> + should be satisfied for M . Generally, suitable selection of
the controller parameters is a tuning process. However, the mentioned guidelines are
extremely valuable for effective calibration of the controller.
The above algorithm is for one-dimensional optimization of a plant. For a
multidimensional plant, where the input x is an n-dimensional vector with components
x
1
,,x
n
, and where it is required to maximize the scalar output y = f(x), the motion of this
system is described by the equation:
x ku = (7.1)

where k is a piecewise constant vector (k
1
,,k
n
), and the scalar control u depends on the
method of one-dimensional optimization. With respect to the output, the equation of the
system motion is as follows:
( ) y grad f k u =
(7.2)

where grad f is a row vector with elements
i
df
dx
. With a constant vector k, the describing
point moves from any initial position along a straight line parallel to that vector until it
reaches the directional extremum on that straight line at the point ( ) 0 grad f k = . When
the directional extremum is reached, the direction of the search should be changed by
98

changing the vector k. If the motion to the extremum proceeds in sliding mode then the
data on that moment can be obtained by measuring u
av
equal to u
eq
. The value of u
eq
is the
solution of the equation 0 c = with respect to u.
( ) 1 .
avg
o
o
u signu
grad f k u
u
c
| |
=
|
\ .

(7.3)

Finding |u
eq
| bearing in mind that in sliding mode
avg eq
u u = :
( ) .
o o
eq
o o eq
u
u
u grad f k signu

(7.4)

1
.
eq
o
o
eq
u
u
u
grad f k
| |
|
|
\ .
=
(7.5)

As in the one-dimensional case, the value of
eq
u stays between zero and
o
u . From this
condition and Eq.(7.5), it follows that sign ( ) .
eq
u sign grad f k = or equation Eq.(7.4) is
of the form
.
o
eq o
o o
u u
u grad f k
=
+

(7.6)

This relation implies that while approaching the directional extremum (or the point
. 0 grad f k = ),
eq
u approaches
o
u . These data can be made use of by measuring
avg
u
equal to
eq
u and changing the direction of search when
o eq o
u u o s .
o
o is a certain
small positive number. The laws of changing k can be very different. Thus, in using the
99

Gauss-Seidel procedure for example, one of the components is made successively
nonzero and the others, zero, or the values of the components of k are selected randomly.
We leave aside convergence which is distantly related to the operation of search
algorithms suggested here and depends mainly on the form of functions to be optimized.

7.2.2 PV Module Mechanical Tracker Realization
Implementation of the mechanical controller requires a two-axis tracker with a
mounted 170-W PV module. The tracker should have a rotary mechanism with a DC
motor and a worm gear drive that rotates the PV module about the vertical axis [76].
Another DC motor is required for the horizontal axis. The PV module azimuth and
elevation angles are adjusted by the motors to follow optimum power. The control system
for steering the angles can be treated as two independent systems, one for the azimuth
angle, and one for the elevation angle. This is because the interaction effects are usually
small [77]. See Figure 7.11.

Figure 7.11 View of the PV module tracker mechanism (vertical and horizontal).
100

7.3 Results and Discussion
The proposed tracking control approach is demonstrated by carrying out a
simulation using Matlab/Simulink environment. At first, the control algorithm is applied
to the azimuth angle with the power profile shown in Figure 7.6. Another simulation is
then performed with the elevation angle with the power profile in Figure 7.7.
The simulation result in Figure 7.12 indicates that the controller indeed converges
to the optimum power
*
P ~ 170 W within six seconds. This point is obtained by steering
the azimuth angle to the corresponding optimum angle
*
o ~ 0 degree. The corresponding
control input is also shown.
Similarly, the second simulation is performed for the elevation angle. Figure 7.13
illustrates the case where the power steadily converges towards the expected optimum
power, and then oscillates within a neighborhood of the optimum point. The
corresponding optimum elevation angle is
*
| ~ 30 degrees. The results of the simulations
revealed that the controller was able to enforce the tracking system to enter a
neighborhood of the equilibrium within a relatively short time, corresponding to optimum
performance values. The control methodology in this chapter also showed that the use of
complex astronomical equations to find the sun angles could be avoided.

101

Figure 7.12 Power, optimization variable (azimuth angle: ), and control input u.

0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
130
140
150
160
170
180
Time (second)
P
o
w
e
r
(
W
)
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
-100
-50
0
50
Time (second)
A
z
i
m
u
t
h

A
n
g
l
e

(
d
e
g
r
e
e
)
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
-20
-10
0
10
20
Time (second)
C
o
n
t
r
o
l

i
n
p
u
t
,

u
102

Figure 7.13 Power, optimization variable (elevation angle: ), and control input u.

0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
140
150
160
170
180
Time (second)
P
o
w
e
r
(
W
)
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
0
10
20
30
40
Time (second)
E
l
e
v
a
t
i
o
n

A
n
g
l
e

(
d
e
g
r
e
e
)
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
-10
-5
0
5
10
Time (second)
C
o
n
t
r
o
l

i
n
p
u
t
,

u
103

CHAPTER 8: CONCLUSION AND FUTURE WORK

8.1 Conclusion
Renewables around the world are going through a rebirth. The many requirements
of the present-day old-fashioned grid infrastructure necessitate breathing new life into the
field of renewable energy. Energy security and environment protection are only two of
several concerns associated with current power generation sources.
Renewables are destined to grow, and grow fast. They are part of an expanding
global business that is seeking to keep up with the worlds urgent demand for energy. As
the cost of renewables and solar PV systems decrease, more PV systems will be
employed worldwide. PV systems will expand on rooftops and in distributed generation
stations, and they will be seen more in the near future in numerous electrical applications.
Modeling the dynamical properties of these PV systems is an important step in
studying and analyzing them. The model should accurately reflect the dynamical
behavior of the PV system under all environmental conditions. Controlling the power
generated by PV systems, and ensuring the operating point is kept at its MPP despite the
fluctuation in irradiance and temperature, are also essential.
This dissertation introduces a new comprehensive approach to model the behavior
of PV systems. This approach was able to forecast the behavior of PV systems under STC
104

and under varying environmental conditions. Modeled data with real PV systems data
were compared and they exhibited excellent matches with satisfactory absolute errors.
The simulation was first employed on commercially available PV modules and then
extended to design a PV array for a power smart building.
Concerning controlling the power generated by PV systems, a self-optimization
controller was designed based on sliding mode control to continuously track the MPP
outputted by PV systems. The control approach was implemented under steady state and
under rapidly changing conditions. A Matlab/Simulink model of the PV system
connected to a DC/DC boost converter was used to verify the outcome of the proposed
MPP tracking controller. The results of the simulation illustrated a fast converging speed
to the MPP of the PV systems under STC, and during varying weather conditions. The
designed control law was not only easy to implement but it also did not require exact
modeling of the entire system.
Practical experimental verification of the simulation study illustrated a fast
converging speed to the MPP. The controller exhibits little oscillation during steady state
and no divergence from the MPP in the case of rapid varying weather condition. The PV
source used in the experimental set-up was a PV system emulator developed by Agilent
Technologies. Real PV modules were then utilized to demonstrate the validity of the
proposed controller design.
Finally, the problem of adjusting PV modules position to maximize the incident
irradiation, and hence the power, was examined. A two-axis rotation control mechanism
was introduced that mechanically track the PV modules maximum power based on the
105

suns azimuth and elevation angles. The results of the simulation study revealed that the
controller was able to enforce the tracking system to reach a neighborhood of the
equilibrium within a relatively short time, corresponding to optimum performance values.

8.2 Future Work
The findings and methods presented in this dissertation can be used to perform
future research, as follows:
- Investigate and modify accordingly the performance of the controller in
this research with partial shading conditions, where the power profile of
the PV system has more than one MPPs.
- Apply the controller scheme presented in this study utilizing transformer-
less single-stage conversion for tracking the MPP and interfacing the PV
system to the grid.
- Implement the sliding mode control algorithm experimentally to
mechanically track the PV MPP by adjusting the PV system orientation
based on the output power measurement.

106

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112

APPENDIX A: Data sheets information

The Photovoltaic modules data sheets used in this dissertation are included as follows:
BP MSX60 multicrystalline photovoltaic module.
KC200GT multicrystalline photovoltaic module.
PV-MF170EB3 polycrystalline photovoltaic module.
BP 585 multicrystalline photovoltaic module.

113

114

115

116

117

118

119

120

121

122

123

124

125

APPENDIX B: Simulation Testbed

The simulation testbed for the PV system, DC/DC converter, and the MPPT controller. It
is implemented in Matlab/Simulink.

The complete system (Figure B.1).
The MPPT controller (Figure B.2).

126

Figure B.1 PV system, DC/DC converter, and the MPPT controller.

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V
o
c
=
3
0
.6
V
Im
p
=
6
.9
3
A
V
m
p
=
2
4
.6
V
N
s
=
5
0

Ir
r
a
d
ia
n
c
e
( W
/ m
^
2
)
B
o
o
s
t C
o
n
v
e
r
te
r

A
B
C
D
E
F
G
H
I
J
v
+-v
p
v
D
is
c
re
te
,
T
s
=
1
e
-0
0
6
s
.
p
o
w
e
rg
u
i
i
+
-
ip
v
g
a
tin
g
s
ig
n
a
l
d
V
o
V
s
c
o
p
e
Ip
v
T
o
W
o
rk
s
p
a
c
e
2
V
p
v
T
o
W
o
rk
s
p
a
c
e
1
P
p
v
T
o
W
o
rk
s
p
a
c
e
S
te
p
S
ig
n
a
l 2
S
ig
n
a
l B
u
ild
e
r
P
d
S
M
C
m
e
th
o
d
o
f s
e
lf-o
p
tim
iz
a
tio
n
d
g
P
W
M
m
o
d
u
la
to
r
P
V
m
o
d
e
l
P
s
c
o
p
e
L
g
1
2
Id
e
a
l S
w
itc
h
I s
c
o
p
e
[g
]
D
2
D
1
1
0
0
0
C
o
n
s
ta
n
t
[ip
v
]
[v
p
v
]
[v
p
v
]
[ip
v
]
[ip
v
]
[v
p
v
]
[g
]
[v
p
v
]

[ip
v
]

127

Figure B.2 The MPPT controller.

S
e
l
e
c
t

r
h
o
,

M
,

D
e
l
t
a
,

u
0
.
I
n
i
t
i
a
l
i
z
e

x

i
n
s
i
d
e

t
h
e

i
n
t
e
g
r
a
t
o
r
g
v
d
d
o
t
1d
u
r
h
o
r
h
o
s
1
s
2
vu
S
w
i
t
c
h
i
n
g

E
l
e
m
e
n
t
e
p
s
il
o
n
s
1
s
2
S
l
i
d
i
n
g

S
u
r
f
a
c
e
s
1s
I
n
t
e
g
r
a
t
o
r
1
1s
I
n
t
e
g
r
a
t
o
r
A
d
d
1
A
d
d
1P

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I

, such that the performance P follows the reference g to increase

is the tracking error.

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