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- muscles bring about movement at a joint - muscles can only pull they cannot push so two muscles are needed to move a bone back and forth. - a pair of muscles like these are called antagonistic. - a muscle that contracts to cause extension of a joint is called an extensor - a flexor contracts to reverse the movement - the hip, knee and ankle joints are examples of synovial joints - the bones that move in the joint are separated by a cavity filled with synovial fluid. - the bones are held in position by ligaments that control and restrict movement. -tendons attach muscles to the bones - cartilage protects bones within joints.
- synovial fluid: acts as lubricant - synovial membrane: secretes synovial fluid - ligament: joins bone to bone and is strong and flexible - muscle - fibrous capsule: encloses joints - pad of cartilage: gives additional protection - cartilage: absorbs synovial fluid and acts as shock absorber - bone - tendon: joins muscle to bone At a joint there is:
- when the muscle contracts the dark band overlaps the intermediate band shortening the length of the muscle and the sarcomere. - there only myosin filaments occur there is a intermediate-coloured band. - where both actin and myosin filaments occur there is a dark band. - where actin filaments appear on their own there is a light band on the sarcomere. - contractions are made by the sliding of these protein filaments within the muscle sarcomeres. - the sarcomere is made up of two types of protein, mainly actin, and thicker ones made from the protein myosin. - these are made up of contractile units called sarcomeres - each muscle fibre is made up of myofibrils
- This hydrolysis causes a change in the shape of the myosin head. It returns to its upright position.The cycle starts again. - An ATPase molecule on the myosin head hydrolyses the ATP, forming ATP and Pi.
Carbohydrate oxidation
In low intensity exercise enough oxygen is supplied to cells to enable ATP to be regenerated through aerobic respiration of fuels. C6H12O6 + 6O2 -> 6CO2 + 6H2O + energy released - in aerobic respiration the hydrogen stored in glucose is brought together with oxygen to form water again. - there is a release of energy that can be used to generate ATP. - glucose and oxygen are not brought together directly because this would release large amounts of energy too quickly and could damage the cell. - glucose is split apart in a series of small steps. Carbon dioxide is released as a waste product. - hydrogen from the glucose is reacted with oxygen to release large amounts of energy as water s formed.
ATP in water -> ADP in water + hydrated Pi + energy transferred when removed the phosphate group becomes hydrated, a lot of energy is released as bonds form between the water and phosphate. - when one phosphate group is removed from the ATP by hydrolysis, ADP forms. - ATP is created from ADP and inorganic phosphate (Pi) - cells use the molecule ATP as an energy carrier molecule. - a series of enzyme-controlled reactions, known as respiration is linked to ATP synthesis. Releasing energy: The minimum energy requirement of the body at rest to fuel basic metabolic processes is called your BMI.
Releasing energy
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- the hydrogens are taken up by hydrogen acceptors (FAD and NAD which then become reduced FAD and reduced NAD)
Glycolysis
The initial stages of carbohydrate breakdown occur in the cytoplasm, including the sarcoplasm of muscle cells. - two phosphate groups are added to glucose from two ATP molecules, this increases its reactivity. It can now split into two molecules of 3-carbon (3C) compounds. - each intermediate 3C sugar is oxidised producing a 3-carbon compound, pyruvate. - two hydrogen atoms atoms are removed during the reaction and taken up by the coenzyme NAD, a non-protein organic molecule. - phosphate from the intermediate compounds is transferred to ADP, creating ATP. - this is called substrate level phosphorylation, because energy for the formation of ATP comes from the substrates ( the intermediate compounds.) - two ATP's are made, two pairs of hydrogen atoms and two molecules of 3-carbon pyruvate.
- each glucose provides two pyruvates so the cycle turns twice per glucose. The 2 carbon molecule made combines with coenzyme A to form acetyl coenzyme A (or acetyl CoA) the two hydrogens released are involved in ATP formation. The coenzyme A carries the 2C acetyl groups to the Krebs cycle. - dehydrogenated (two hydrogens are removed and taken up by the coenzyme NAD) -decarboxylated (carbon dioxide is released as a waste product) pyruvate is: If oxygen is available the 3C pyruvate created at the end of glycolysis passes into the mitochondria. There it is completely oxidised, forming carbon dioxide and water.
- as the hydrogen ions pass through the channel ATP synthesis is catalysed by ATPase in each stalked particle - the hydrogen ions diffuse down the electrochemical gradient through hollow protein channels in stalked particles on the membrane - making the intermembrane space more positive than the matrix - this creates a steep electrochemical gradient across the inner membrane - this energy is used to move hydrogen ions from the matrix, across the inner mitochondrial membrane, and into the intermembrane space. - energy is released as electrons pass along the electron transport chain how the electron transport chain leads to ATP synthesis:
Rate of respiration
n small organisms the rate of respiration can be determined by measuring the uptake of oxygen using a respirometer. - respiration is a series of enzyme-controlled reactions - it is affected by enzyme concentration, substrate concentration, temperature and pH. - the concentration also has a role in the control of respiration. - ATP inhibits the enzyme in the first step of glycolysis. The enzyme responsible for glucose phosphorylation can exist in two forms: - in the presence of ATP the enzyme has a shape that makes it inactive so it cannot catalyse the reaction. - as ATP is broken down the enzyme becomes an active form and catalyses the phosphorylation of glucose. - this is end point inhibition: the end product inhibits an early step in the metabolic pathway which controls the whole precess.
- the net yield is just 2 ATP molecules per glucose molecule. - anaerobic respiration partially breaks down glucose to make a small amount of ATP. - the pyruvate created during glycolysis is reduced to lactate and the oxidised form of NAD is regenerated. - it is possible to oxidise the reduced NAD without oxygen. - most respiration reactions cannot continue. - The reduced NAD created during glycolysis, the link reaction and the krebs cycle is not oxidised. - without oxygen to accept the hydrogen ions and electrons the electron transport chain does not work: In exercise oxygen demand in the cells exceeds supply:
Anaerobic respiration
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- the substrate may no longer bind to the enzymes active site. - the attraction between charged groups on the substrate and in the active site will be affected. - as hydrogen ions from the lactic acid accumulate in the cytoplasm they neutralise the negatively charged groups in the active site of the enzyme. - enzymes function best over a narrow pH range. - lactate forms lactic acid in solution so as lactate accumulates the pH of the cell falls inhibiting the enzymes that catalyse the glycolysis reactions. - it builds up in the muscles and must be disposed of The end product of anaerobic respiration is lactate:
- this is known as the ATP/PC system its is used for regeneration of ATP. - the reactions do not require oxygen and provide energy for 6-10 seconds of intense exercise. - creatine phosphate breakdown starts as soon as exercise starts. - This energy can be used to regenerate ATP from ADP and phosphate, the phosphate is given by the creatine phosphate. - this is a substance stored in muscles that can be hydrolysed to release energy. - at the start of exercise immediate regeneration of ATP is achieved using creatine phosphate (PC)
Stroke volume
Is the volume of blood pumped out of the left ventricle each time the ventricle contracts. - how much blood the heart pumps out with each contraction is determined by how much blood is filling the heart, this is the volume of blood returning to the heart from the body. - during exercise there is greater muscle contraction so more blood returns to the heart this is called venous return. - in diastole during exercise the heart fills with a larger volume of blood. - the heart muscle is stretched to a greater extent, this increases stroke volume and cardiac output.
- being able to go for long periods of strenuous exercise depends on maintaining a constant supply of ATP, and this depends on aerobic capacity: ability to take in/transport/use oxygen.
Peak performance
- resulting from thickening of the muscle cell walls. - this is because increase in size of the heart - Endurance training produces a lower resting heart rate - It will expel more blood with one beat and so does not have to beat as frequently to keep the circulation of blood constant. - A larger heart usually has a lower resting hear rate. differences in resting heart rate are caused by:
Heart rate
- but it is also used to detect heart problems only when the heart is working hard. - an ECG is usually performed when the patient is at rest. - there is a small electrical current that can be detected on the skins surface. - when there is a change in polarisation of the cardiac muscle. - electrodes are attached to the person's chest and limbs to record the electrical currents produced during the cardiac cycle. - it is the most common test to check for problems with the heart. - the electrical activity can be detected and displayed on an electrocardiogram (ECG).
-hypertrophic cardiomyopathy: is an inherited condition in which gene mutations cause abnormally thick walls in the left ventricle.
- and arrhythmias is caused which is irregular beatings of the heart caused by electrical disturbances. an ECG can provide information about: - this causes the normal electrical activity and rhythm of the heart to be disrupted. - during a period of ischaemia the heart muscle does not receive blood due to atherosclerosis causing blockage of the coronary arteries. - a heart rate of more than 100bpm is known as tachycardia. - a heart rate of less than 60bpm is known as bradycardia.
ECG
- adrenaline causes an anticipatory increase in hear rate before the start of a race. - this maximises blood low to the active muscles. - it also causes constriction of arterioles going to the digestive system and other non-essential organs. - adrenaline also causes dilation of the arterioles supplying skeletal muscles - it has direct on the SAN increasing the heart rate to prepare the body for physical demands. - adrenaline has an effect on the hear rate similar to stimulation by the sympathetic nerve. - fear, excitement and shock cause a release of the hormone adrenaline into the blood from the adrenal glands located above the kidneys.
- the volume of air taken into the lungs in one minute is the minute ventilation. This is calculated by:
Inhalation
- the ventilation centre sends nerve impulses every 2-3 seconds to the external intercostal muscles and diaphragm muscles. both sets of muscles contract using inhalation. - when inhaling the external intercostals and diaphragm muscles are also used.
Exhalation
- as the lungs inflate stretch receptors in the bronchioles are stimulated. - the stretch receptors send inhibitory impulses back to the ventilation centre. - impulses to the muscles stop and the muscles relax stopping inhalation and allowing exhalation. - exhalation is caused by the elastic recoil of the lungs and gravity helping to lower the ribs. - the internal intercostal muscles only contract during deep exhalation.
- the maximum volume of air we can inhale and exhale is out vital capacity (most people 3-4 dm3).
- the volume of air we breathe in and out at each breath is our tidal volume (at rest around 0.5 dm3).
Lung volumes
- the various chemoreceptors sensitive to CO2 levels and to changes in blood temperature increase the depth and rate of breathing via the ventilation centre. - ventilation is also increased in response to impulses reaching the ventilation centre from stretch receptors in tendons and muscles involved in movement. - impulses from the motor cortex have a direct effect on the ventilation centre in the medulla increasing ventilation sharply.
- slow twitch fibres are associated with numerous capillaries to ensure a good oxygen supply. - it acts as an oxygen carrier within muscle cells - it has a high affinity for oxygen, and only releases it when the concentration of oxygen in the cells falls very low. - they also contain large amounts of the dark red pigment myoglobin. - they also have a little sarcoplasmic reticulum and a low glycogen content. - they have many mitochondria and high concentrations of respiratory enzymes to carry out the aerobic reactions. - they can cope with long periods of exercise to do this they carry out a lot of aerobic respiration - slow twitch fibres are specialised for slower sustained contraction
- they hypothalamus detects changes and turns on effectors when needed to return to norm temp. - the system involves receptors that detect changes in the blood temperature. these receptors are located in the hypothalamus.
Homeostasis
- homeostasis is the maintenance of a stable internal environment. - this is partly achieved by maintaining stable conditions within the blood. - in the blood the concentration of glucose, ions, carbon dioxide, water potential, pH and temperature of the blood also needs to be kept within narrow limits. - each condition that is controlled has a norm value or a set point that the homeostatic mechanisms are trying to maintain. - receptors are used to detect changes from the norm. - these receptors are connected to a control mechanism which turns on or off effectors to bring conditions back to the norm.
- in humans temperature is maintained by a negative feedback system. - At lower temperatures the reactions would occur too slowly for the body to remain active, and at higher temps the enzymes could denature. - our body stays at around 37 degrees, this allows enzyme-controlled reactions to occur at a reasonable rate. - thermoregulation is the control of body temperature.
Temperature control
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- skeletal muscles to contract in shivering - liver to raise metabolic rate - hair erector muscles to contract
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- this is known as vasodilation. - blood flows closer to the surface so more energy is lost. - blood flows through the arterioles making them dilate. - in warm conditions the shut vessel constricts and muscles in the walls of the arterioles relax. - constriction of the arterioles and shunts is controlled by the hypothalamus. when warm:
- energy loss by conduction involves direct contact between objects, and energy transfer from one to the other.
Conduction:
- our bodies are usually warmer than the surrounding environment so we radiate energy. - energy can be radiated from one object to another through air, or through a vacuum, as electromagnetic radiation.
Radiation :
- some scientists believe there is a U-shaped relationship between risk of infection and amount of exercise.
- two main factors that can contribute to higher infection rates: - upper respiratory tract infections (sore throat and flu-like symptoms) are most common. - athletes engaged in heavy training programmes seem more prone to infection than normal.
Moderate exercise:
- increases the number of a lymphocyte called natural killer cells. - they are found in the blood and lymph - they are not like B and T cells because they do not use specific antigen recognition. - they provide non-specific immunity against cells invaded by viruses and cancerous cells. - they are sctivated by cytokines and interferons and they target cells that are non self - they release the protein perforin which makes pores in the targeted cell membrane.
- both of these hormones are known to suppress the immune system. - physical exercise and psychological stress cause secretion of hormones such as adrenaline and cortisol. - this then reduces the amount of antibody being produced. - the decrease in T helper cells reduces the amount of cytokines available to activate lymphocytes. - after vigorous exercise the number of some cells in the immune system falls: Vigorous exercise:
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- is an artificial body part used by someone with a disability to enable him or her to regain near to normal function. Prostheses: - damage to the cruciate ligaments in the knee can be tackled particulary well with keyhole surgery. - keyhole surgery on joints is known as arthroscopy. - it is possible to repair damaged joints or to remove diseased organs through small holes. - using fibre optics or minute video cameras Keyhole surgery:
- the vesicles fuse with the cell surface membrane releasing their content by exocytosis.
- most are produced either in an inactive form or packaged within secretory vesicles by the golgi apparatus.
- hormones are chemical messengers that are released directly into the blood from endocrine glands.
Hormones
- causes reabsoption of water in kidneys - controles testes and ovaries - antidiuretic hormone - follicle-stimulating hormone
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Hormones continued
glands and hormones: Ovary: hormone - oestrogen function - promotes development of ovaries - promotes female secondary sexual characteristics testis: hormone - testosterone function - promotes development of male secondary sexual characteristics - each hormone affects only specific target cells modifying their activity - hormones are carried around by the blood stream - they either entr the target cells or they bind to complimentary receptor molecules on the outside of the cell membranes.
Pancreas: hormone - insulin Adrenal gland: hormone - arenaline Thyroid gland: hormone - thyroxine
Hormones continued
function - lowers blood glucose concentration function - raises basal metabolic rate function - raises basal metaboic rate - prepares the body for action - dilates blood vessels
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- the hormone- receptor complex functions as a transcription factor, switching enzyme synthesis on or off. - steroid hormones are formed from lipids and have complex ring structures. - the second messenger brings about chemical changes in the cell by affecting gene transcription - this receptor activates another molecule in the cytoplasm called a second messenger - they bind to a receptor on the cell membrane - even though they are relatively small molecules they can not pass through cell membranes easily because they are charged - peptide hormones are protein chains
- some side effects include diarrhoea, nausea, vomiting, high blood pressure, kidney damage and muscle cramps.
Testosterone:
- is a steroid hormone - produced in the testes by males and in the adrenal glands in males and females - testosterone is in a group of male hormones called androgens - it causes the development of the male sexual organs - testosterone binds to androgen receptors
- it is also synthesised in the body from the amino acids glycine and arginine - once ingested it is absorbed and unchanged and carried in the blood to tissues - it is naturally found in meat and fish - it is amino acid derived - it is considered to be a nutrition supplement - is not banned Creatine:
Nervous system
CNS motor nerves - carrying the motor commands from the CNS to the effectors
sensory nerves - carrying sensory information from the receptors to the Brain spinal cord
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Neurones
There are two types of main extensions from the cell body of a neurone: dendrites that conduct impulses towards the cell body the axon which transmits impulses away from the cell body Motor neurone: cell body is at the end of the neurone its situated within the CNS it conducts impulses from the CNS to effectors (muscles or glands) they are also known as effector neurones
sensory neurones: cell body is attached to the middle of the axon they carry impulses from sensory cells to the CNS
Neurones continued
is a fatty insulating layer around the axon made of schwann cells wrapped around the axon it effects how fast nerve impulses pass along the axon
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the cell body is in the middle of the axon they are found mostly within the CNS they can have a large number of connections with other nerve cells they are also known as connector neurones and as interneurones
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Reflex arcs
nerve impulses follow routes or pathways through the nervous system. These pathways are called reflex arcs and are responsible for our reflexes. An example is a reflex arc allowing withdrawal of the arm: Receptors detect a stimulus and generate a nerve impulse sensory neurones conduct a nerve impulse to the CNS along a sensory pathway sensory neurones enter the spinal cord through the dorsal route sensory neurone forms a synapse with a relay neurone relay neurone forms a synapse with a motor neurone that leaves the spinal cord through the ventral route motor neurone carries impulses to an effector which produces a response in this case the bicep contracts to raise the arm away from the flame
Pupil dilated: Pupil constricted: How do the muscles of the iris respond to light?:
radial muscles contract circular muscles relax radial muscles relax circular muscles contract
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the iris controls the size of the pupil it contains a pair of antagonistic muscles; radical and circular muscles these are both controlled by the autonomic nervous system the radical muscles are controlled by sympathetic reflex the circular by parasympathetic reflex
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the uneven distribution of ions across the cell surface membrane is achieves by the action of sodium-potassium pumps they carry Na+ out of the cell and carry K+ into the cell these pumps act against the concentration gradients and are driven by energy supplied by hydrolysis of ATP the organic anions are large and stay within the cell so chloride ions move out of the cell to help balance the charge all cells have a potential difference across their surface membrane the inside of the axon is more negative then he outside so the membrane is said to be polarised the value of -70 mV is known as resting potential
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- the large change in voltage across the membrane is known as an action potential - this is known as repolarisation - it then returns to its resting potential so more impulses can be conducted - the potential difference becomes +40 mV for a very short time - this is known as depolarisation - this makes the inside of the axon positive and the outside negative - the potential difference across the membrane is locally reversed - if an electrical current above the threshold level is applied to the membrane it causes a massive change in the potential difference
the membrane is now very permeable to K+ ions and more ions move out making the potential difference more negative than the normal resting potential, this is called hyperpolarisation of the membrane the resting potential is back by closing K+ channels and opening Na+ the voltage-dependent Na+ channels close and the permeability of the membrane to Na+ ions decreases voltage-dependent K+ channels open due to the depolarisation of the membrane because of this K+ channels open due to the depolarisation of the membrane K+ ions move out of the axon down the electrochemical gradient because they are attracted by the negative charge outside of the cell as K+ ions move out of the cell the inside of the cell becomes more negative than the outside
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Speed of conduction
- the speed of nervous conduction is in part determined by the diameter of the axon - in general the wider the diameter the faster the impulse travels - the myelin sheath acts as an electrical insulator along the axon - it prevents any flow of ions across the membrane - gaps known as nodes of Ranvier occur in the myelin sheath at regular intervals - in these gaps is the only place where depolarisation can occur - the impulse jumps from gap to gap making depolarisaion quicker - this is called saltatory conduction
- these synaptic vesicles contain a chemical called a neurotransmitter - in the cytoplasm at the end of the presynaptic neurone there are synaptic vesicles - a nerve impulse cannot jump across the gap - the synaptic cleft separates the presynaptic membrane which the impulse arrives at from the postsynaptic membrane of the other cell - the cells do not touch there is a gap known as a synaptic celft - where two neurones meet is known as a synapse
Neurotransmitter release:
There are three stages leading to the nerve impulse passing along the postsynaptic neurone:
Nerve impulses
this causes their contents to be released into the synaptic cleft by exocytosis the increased Ca2+ concentration causes synaptic vesicles containing acetylcholine to fuse with the presynaptic membrane Ca2+ ion concentration is greater outside the cell so they diffuse into the cell the presynaptic membrane is depolarised by an action potential, channels in the membrane open increasing permeability to Ca2+ ions neurotransmitter release stimulation of the postsynaptic membrane inactivation of the neurotransmitter
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- is an action potential is made or not depends on the balance of the synapses - a postsynaptic cell has many inhibitory and excitatory synapses - others are inhibitory and make it less likely that depolarisation will occur - some synapses help stimulate an action potential Two factors that affect the likelihood that a postsynaptic membrane will depolarise: Synapses have two roles:
the type of synapse the number of impulses received control of nerve pathways allowing flexibility of response integration of information from different neurones allowing a coordinated response
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Inhibitory synapses
- inhibitory synapses make it less liely that an action potential will result in the postsynaptic cell - the neurotransmitters from these synapses opens channels for Cl- ions and K+ ions in the postsynaptic membrane - these ions then move through the channels down their diffusion gradients. -Cl- ions move into the cell carrying negative charge and K+ ions will move out carrying a positive charge - this results in a greater potential difference across the membrane as the inside becomes more negative than usual (-90 mV) - this makes depolarisaion less likely as more excitatory synapses will be needed to depolarise the membrane
- their combined release of neurotransmitter generates an action potential in the postsynaptic membrane. - in this case several impulses arrive at a synapse having traveled along a single neurone one after the other. - here the impulses are from different synapses, usually from different neurones. There are two types of summation: - more than one of these is needed to provide sufficient depolarisation each impulse adds to the effect of another this is called summation - Excitatory synapses make the postsynaptic membrane more permeable to Na+ ions
Excitatory synapses
Coordination in plants
- plants use chemicals to coordinate growth these chemicals can be called plant growth regulators or plant growth substances - plants have phototropism (bending of plants towards a light source) - there is a chemical in the tip that travels down the coleoptile (a plant) it was found that this chemical is an auxin called indoleacetic acid - when the tip of a plant is removed and placed on some agar jelly and then placed back on top of the plant, it started to grow again showing the chemical had diffused through the agar jelly - auxins are synthesised in actively growing plant tissues (known as meristems) such as shoot tips etc - they bind with receptors on the plasma membranes in the zone of shoot elongation - by doing this the auxins produce second messenger signal molecules that bring about changes in gene expression - an increased potentail difference across the membrane enhances uptake of ions into the cell - this causes uptake of water by osmosis causing cell elongation
Mechanoreceptors: Chemoreceptors: Different types of receptors - some types of receptor cells are grouped together into sense organs - stimuli are detected by receptor cells that send electrical impulses to the central nervous system.
Receptors
stimulated by - forces that stretch, compress or move the sensor examples or role - balance, touch and healing stimulated - by chemicals examples of role - taste,smell and regulation of chemical concentrations in the blood.
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Receptors continued
Photoreceptors:
stimulated by - heat or cold examples of role - temperature control and awareness of changes in the surrounding temperature
- all of the receptors except for photoreceptors work in the same way - at rest the cell surface membrane has a negative resting potential, stimulation of the receptor causes depolarisation - when the depolarisation goes above the threshold level it triggers an action potential - it is either relayed across the synapse using neurotransmitters or passed directly down the axon of the sensory nerve
ciliary muscle - alters thickness of lens for focusing choroid - black layer prevents internal reflection of light vitreous humour - transparent jelly retina - contains light-sensitive cells yellow spot (fovea) - most sensitive part of the retina located in the macula the central area of the retina blind spot - no light-sensitive cells where optic nerve leaves the eye sclera - protective layer iris - controls amount of light entering the eye lens - focuses light on retina cornea - bends light Conjunctiva - protects the cornea
Photoreceptors
- the human retina contains two types of photoreceptor cells sensitive to light, these are rods and cones -cones allow colour vision in bright light - rods only give black and white vision but work in dim light and bright light - in the centre of the retina there are only cones but over the remainder of the retina rods outnumber cones - the rods and cones synapse with bipolar neurone cells - which in turn synapse with ganglion neurones - whose axons together make up the optic nerve - light hitting the retina has to pass through the layers of neurones before reaching the rods and cones
here i drew a picture of the structure of rods and cones within the retina because i could not find an appropriate one from the internet. - the rhodopsin molecules are located in the membranes of these vesicles - rods contain an outer and inner segment these contain the many layers of flattened vesicles - in rods the molecule is a purplish migment called rhodopsin - in both rods and cones a photochemical pigment absorbs the light resulting in a chemical change
- the neurotransmitter binds to the bipolar cell stopping it depolarising - the rods release this neurotransmitter continuously - this slight depolarisation triggers the release of a neurotransmitter thought to be glutamate from the rod cells - the potential difference across the membrane is about -40 mV - this movement of Na+ produces a slight depolarisation of the cell - the sodium ions move down the concentration gradient into they inner segment where pumps transport them back out of the cell - sodium ions flow into the outer segment through non-specific cation channels
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Dark:
Pr - phytochrome red; absorbs red light Pfr - phytochrome far-red; absorbs far-red light
- these two isomers are photoreversible but plants synthesise phytochromes in the Pr form - absorption of red light converts Pr into Pft, absorption of far red light converts Pfr back into Pr - in sunlight Pr is converted into Pfr and Pfr is converted into Pr - the former reaction dominates in sunlight because more red than far-red light is absorbed - therefore Pfr accumulates in the light - and in the dark any Pfr present is slowly converted to Pr
- when exposed to far-red light Pfr is converted back to Pr inhibiting germination - because of this the seeds do not germinate because there is no presence of Pfr - when they are kept in the dark no Pr is converted to Pfr - when lettuce seeds are exposed to red light Pr is converted to Pfr stimulating responses that lead to germination - the findings they produced where that red light is effective at triggering germination, while farred light seems to inhibit germination - ones that do not germinate in the dark and only germinate when close enough to the soil surface - they used seeds that have thin seed coats and few food reserves - phytochromes were discovered through germination experiments
- short-day plants: - long-day plant: - summer nights may not be long enough though so some Pfr may still be present in the morning - long nights give time for Pfr to convert back to Pr so that all phytochrome will be Pr - the ratio of Pr to Pfr in a plant enables it to determine the length of day and night - the photoperiod is the environmental cue that determines the of flowering
tend to flower in spring or autumn when the period of uninterrupted darkness is greater than 12 hours they need long hours of drakness in order to convert all Pfr present back into Pr Pfr inhibits flowering in shot-day plants only flower when day length exceeds a critical value flower when the period of uninterrupted darkness is less them 12 hours they need Pfr to stimulate flowering
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- the two cerebral hemispheres are connected by a broad band of white matter (nerve axons) called the corpus callosum. - each hemisphere is composed of four regions called: - the cortex is the largest region of the brain, and is divided into left and right cerebral hemispheres - this outer layer of the brain is known as the grey matter - the top of the brain is called the cortex it is made of mainly nerve cell bodies, synapses and dendrites The cerebral hemispheres:
The brain
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The thalamus - responsible for routing all the incoming sensory information to the correct part of the brain, via the axons of the white matter. The structures lying directly below the corpus callosum are: And the cerebellum. - concerned with processing auditory information, i.e. hearing, sound recognition and speech (left temporal lobe). it is also involved in memory. Temporal lobe: - concerned with processing information from the eyes, including vision, colour, shape recognition and perspective Occipital lobe (visual cortex):
Corpus callosum - the brain stem is situated at the top of the spinal column and it extends from the midbrain to the medulla oblongata
white matter made mainly of axons and it has white myelin sheaths it provides connections between the cortex and the brain and the structures below it also forms connections between the two hemispheres of the cortex
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- brain structure and functioning is affected by both nature and nurture - the structure of the brain remains flexible even in later life and can respond to changes in the environment - this change is known as neural plasticity - some patients can recover some abilities after a stroke showing the potential of neurones to change in structure and function - lesions in small cortical area in the in the left frontal lobe were responsible for deficits in language production - brain damage caused by a stroke can cause problems with speaking, understanding speech, reading and writing
Brain imaging
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI):
- uses a magnetic field and radio waves to detect soft tissues - when placed in a magnetic field the nuclei of atoms line up with the direction of the magnetic fiels - in an MRI scanner the magnetic field runs down the centre of the tube in which the patient lies - another magnetic field is superimposed on this which comes from the magnetic component of high frequency radio waves - the combined fields cause the direction and frequency of spin of the hydrogen nuclei to change taking energy from the radio waves - when the radio waves are turned off the hydrogen nuclei return to their original alignment and release the energy they absorbed - this energy is detected and a signal is sent to a computer which analyses it to produce an image - it is used in the diagnosis of tumors, strokes, brain injuries and infections of the brain and spine
- they do not use harmful x-rays they look at the structures in the brain and can detect brain disease and monitor the tissue of the brain over the course of an illness - they only give frozen pictures - the x-rays are detected and are used to produce an image of a thin slice of the brain on a computer screen in which the different sort tissues can be distinguished - each narrow beam is reduced in strength depending on the density of the tissue in its path - use narrow-beam X-rays rotated around the patient to pass through the tissue from different angles CT scans: (Computerised Axial Tomography)
Brain imaging
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Brain imaging
Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI): - fMRI is used to look at the functions of the different areas of the brain by following the uptake of oxygen in active brain areas it works because the deoxyhaemoglobin absorbs the radio wave signal where as oxyhaemoglobin does not - increased neural activity requires an increased demand for oxygen and because of this increase in blood flow - there is a large increase in oxyhaemoglobin levels in the enhanced blood flow so less signal is absorbed - the less radio signal there is absorbed the higher the level of activity in a particular area - active areas of the brain 'light up'
- audio signals also arrive at the midbrain so we can quickly turn our eyes in the direction of a visual or auditory stimulus - here they connect to motor neurones involved in controlling the pupil reflex and movement of the eye - before reaching the thalamus some of the neurones in each optic nerve branch off to the midbrain - and then impulses are then sent along other neurones to the primary visual cortex where the information is then processed - it extends to part of the thalamus - the axons of the ganglion cells that make up the optic nerve pass out of the eye and extend to several parts of the brain
- neurones must make the correct connections in order for a function such as vision to work properly
Axon growth
- axons of the neurons from the retina grow to the thalamus where they form synapses with neurones in the thalamus - axons from these thalamus neurons grow towards the visual cortex in the occipital lobe - the visual cortex is made of columns of cells, axons from the thalamus synapse within these columns of cells - columns of cells receive stimulation from the same area of the retina in the left and right eye - it used to be thought that these column of cells in the visual cortex were formed during a critical period for visual development, it is now found not to be the case - periods of time during postnatal development have been identified when the nervous system must obtain specific experiences to develop properly - these are known as critical periods, critical windows or sensitive periods
- axons lengthen and synapse with the cell bodies of other neurones - once neurones have stopped dividing the immature neurones migrate to their final position and start to wire themselves - this increase in brain size is due to the elongation of axons, myelination and the development of synapses - there is no large increase in the number of brain cells after birth but there is a large increase in brain size - by the 21st day the neural tube has formed the front part of the neural tube goes on to develop into the brain where the rest of it develops into the spinal cord - the human nervous system begins to develop after conception
Visual development
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- deprivation in adults had no effect - retinal cells in the deprived eye did respond to the light stimuli but the cells in the visual cortex did not respond to any visual input from the deprived eye - after 6 months the eye was exposed to light and it was clear that the monkey was blind in the light-deprived eye - they raised monkeys from birth to six months depriving them of any light stimulus in one eye, this is known as monocular deprivation Hubel and Wiesel: - when they were returned to the normal world both groups had difficulty with object discrimination and pattern recognition - in one study one group of newborn monkeys were raised in the dark for 3 to six months and another exposed to light but not to patterns
Explanation:
- columns with axons from the light-deprived eye are narrower than those receiving light stimulation - dendrites and synapses from the light-stimulated eye take up more territory in the visual cortex - this suggests that light stimulation is needed for the refinement of the columns and full development of the visual cortex - axons compete for target cells in the visual cortex - every time a neurone fires onto a target cell the synapses of another neurone sharing the target cell are weakened and they release less neurotransmitter
- visual perception involves knowledge and experience as the brain interprets the sensory information received from the retina - others called complex cells respond to edges, slits or bars of light that move, others to the angle of the edge and others to contours, movement or orientation - some neurones called simple cells respond to bard of light - individual neurones in the columns of cells respond in different ways to the information from the retina and to different characteristics of the object being viewed - neurones in the visual cortex are alve to respond to the information from the retina
Cross-cultural studies
- people from different cultures may not share the same beliefs and they may show different behaviours Carpentered world hypothesis: - those who live in a world dominated by straight lines and right angles perceive depth cues very differently from those who live in a 'circular culture' - when surrounded by buildings with right angle corners unconsciously from an early age tend to interpret images with acute and obtuse angles as right angles - people who live in 'circular culture' with few straight lines or right angle corners - they have have little experience of interpreting acute and obtuse angles on the retina as representations of right angles - studies show them to be rarely fooled by optical illusions
- for example when a car drives away we perceive it as moving further away not getting smaller - overlaps of objects and changes of colour also help in judging depth the images - for far objects the images on our two retinas are very similar, so visual cues and past experiences are used with interpreting
Distant objects:
- this is called stereoscopic vision and allows relative position of objects to be perceived - the cells in the visual cortex let us compare the view from one eye with that from the other - the visual field is seen from two different angles - for close objects we depend on the presence of cells in the visual cortex that obtain information from both eyes at once
Close objects:
Depth perception
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- in the brain every neurone connects with many other neurones to make up a complex network How memories are stored: - different types of memory are controlled by different parts of the brain - memory is located in different parts of the cortex with different sites for short and long-term memory - it also changes when changes in the synapses that underpin learning and memory changes - the nervous system changes with changes occurring in our network of neurones, often by the modification of synapses
- if the siphon is touched the gill is withdrawn into the cavity, this is a protective reflex action - water is expelled through a siphon tube at one end on the cavity - the sea slug breathes through a gill located in a cavity on the upper side of its body - sea slugs behaviour can be modified by learning and the effects on neurones and synapses studied - sea slugs also have large accessible neurones so those involved in particular behaviors can be identified - but sea slugs have less neurones so their neurobiology is much simpler than that of humans - there are no fundamental differences between the nerve cells and synapses of humans and animals such as sea slugs
sensitisation: (a shock to the tail enhances the gill withdrawal due to the water jet) -in sea slugs if a predator attacks it becomes sensitised to other changes in its environment and responds strongly to them - sensitisation is the opposite of habituation, it happens when an animal develops an enhanced response to a stimulus What is happening during sensitisation?:
Sensitisation
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impulse due to electric shock to tail serotonin released greater calcium ion uptake impulse passes along sensory neurone more neurotransmitter released greater depolarisation higher frequency of action potentials enhanced gill withdrawal response
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- the main symptoms of the disease are: - Parkinson's patient motor cortexes receive little dopamine and there is a loss of control of muscular movements - these neurones normally release dopamine in the motor cortex - dopamine is a neurotransmitter secreted by neurones, included many located in part of the midbrain
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stiffness of muscles tremor of the muscles slowness of movement poor balance walking problems depression difficulties with speech and breathing
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Depression
- neurones that secrete serotonin are stimulated in the brain stem. a lack of serotonin has been linked to depression. - Their axons extend to the cortex, the cerebellum and the spinal cord, targetinga a huge area of the brain. - depression is a multifactorial condition; several genes my be involved but so my environmental factors. - a gene called 5-HTT is known to influence our susceptibility to depression, people with the 'short' version of the 5-HTT gene are more likely to develop depression after a stressful life event. - when someone is depressed, fewer never impulses than normal are transmitted abound the brain, which may cause low levels of neurotransmitters to be produced. - serotonin binding sites are more numerous than normal when depressed to make up for the low levels of the molecule. Drug treatment for depression:(SSRI and Prozac) - the drugs inhibit the reuptake of serotonin from synaptic clefts - this type of drug is called a Serotonin Reuptake Inhibitor (SSRI) so it blocks the only uptake of serotonin.
- long-term effects include changes in behaviour and brain structure - short-term effects include changes in behaviour and brain chemistry, sweating, dry mouth, increased heart rate, fatigue, muscle spasms and hypothermia. - there are five different stages in synaptic transmission that can be affected by drugs: - effects thinking, mood and memory and can also cause anxiety and altered perceptions. Its most desirable effect is that it provides feelings of emotional warmth and empathy. The effect of ecstasy:
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neurotransmitter synthesis and storage neurotransmitter release neurotransmitter-receptor binding neurotransmitter reuptake neurotransmitter breakdown
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Better treatments
- the deciphering of the base sequence in the human genome as part of the Human Genome Project (HGP) means we are now getting a better understanding of the way genes control our phenotype - a genome is all the DNA of a organism (or species), including the genes that carry the information for making the proteins required by the organism (or species) - these proteins help determine all the characteristics of the organism from individual biochemical pathways to its overall appearance - In 1977 Fred Sanger the first DNA sequencing process - DNA is used as a template to replicate a set of DNA fragments, each differing in lenth by one base - the fragments are are separated according to size using gel electrophoresis and the base at the end of each fragment is identified - this allows the sequence of bases in the whole DNA chain to be determined
- there is growing evidence of long-term effects including insomnia, depression and other psychological problems - these higher levels of serotonin bring about the mood changes seen in users of the drug - the drug may also cause the transporting molecules to work in reverse, further increasing the amount of serotonin outside the cell - this prevents its removal from the synaptic cleft - it does this by binding to molecules in the presynaptic membrane that are responsible for transporting the serotonin back into the cytoplasm - ecstasy increases the concentration of serotonin in the synaptic cleft How ecstasy affects synapses:
- restricted availability of many medical treatments will add considerably to the problems faced by the health services in deciding who is eligible for the treatments
- many medical treatments made possible through the development of genetic technologies will initially be very expensive - making and keeping records of individual genotypes raises acute problems of confidentiality - who should decide about the use of generic predisposition tests, and on whom should they be used? - testing for generic predisposition has many implications Issues with the Human Genome Project:
The steps in using bacteria to produce human insulin: - a vaccine was then produced using this to protect against hepatitis B - an example of how bacteria can be used for modifying organisms is to produce the human protein insulin
Modifying organisms
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a plasmid is extracted from a bacterial cell the extracted plasmid is then cut with restriction enzyme an isolated human gene is spliced into the plasmid the modified plasmid is then put back into the bacterial cells the cells then multiply in a fermenter the bacterium then produces human insulin the bacterial cells are destroyed and the insulin protein is extracted and purified
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- tracey was the first transgenic sheep, her DNA contained the human gene for the protein AAT - AAT is normally made by our liver cells and inhibits the enzyme elastase. elastase is released from neutophils, the white blood cells that fight infection. - protease digests damaged or aging lung cells, foreign particles and bacteria. ATT prevents elastase attacking normal tissue. - the inherited disease A1AD mutates the gene coding for ATT. A lack of ATT can cause lung disease such as emphysema, as the elastase attacks normal lung tissue
- the plantlets are then separated and grown into full size plants to produce transgenic plants - the genetically modified plant cells can then be cultured in agar with nutrients and plant growth substances to produce new plants (sucrose, amino acids, inorganic ions and plant growth substances) - the only cells to survive are the ones that have successfully incorporated the new genes and are resistant - the plant cells are then incubated with the antibiotic which kills of any unsuccessful cells that have not taken up the new genes - this is generally done by incorporating a gene for antibiotic resistance, often called a marker gene, along with the new desired gene - scientists need a method of screening to find out which plant cells actually have the new gene
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