Biology Module 1 A Local Ecosystem 1.

1. The distribution, diversity and numbers of plants and animals found in ecosystems are determined by biotic and abiotic factors ompare the abiotic characteristics of a!uatic and terrestrial environments

An a!uatic environment is one that consists in water. The abiotic characteristics of an aquatic environment include: o "iscosity This refers to the thickness of the medium in which the environment is located, and its ability to resist internal movement through it. For example in an aquatic environment, the medium is water. t is much more difficult to travel through water than it is through air. This is why many aquatic animals have streamlined bodies so that they can move through the water easily. Buoyancy This refers to the upward pressure !or thrust" that is applied on the organism by its medium. #uoyancy is determined by the density of the medium and determines the floating ability of an organism. $ater provides sufficient buoyancy for many organisms, eg, the %ellyfish. f a %ellyfish is taken out of water and placed on land it will disintegrate by spreading apart. Thus, the water provides enough buoyancy !pressure" in order to keep the shape of the %ellyfish. #ressure This is the downward force that is applied on an organism by its medium. n water, the pressure is dependant on the depth. &rganisms that live at the bottom of the ocean experience the effects of extreme pressure and they must have specific adaptations that enable them to survive in such harsh environments. Temperature "ariations 'sually in an aquatic environment there are minimal temperature variations to that compared with terrestrial environments. The temperature variations also depend on the si(e of the body of water) a large body of water will experience much less temperature variations than a smaller body of water. *lso, as depth increases the temperature of the water decreases. Availability of gases in water the availability of gases depends on factors such as temperature, depth and turbulence. +ot water holds much less oxygen than cold water. The availability of gases also depends on the rate of diffusion which is much slower in water than it is in air. *lso, as the depth of the water decreases the availability of the gases decreases. Availability of $ater n aquatic environments water availability can be a problem as osmosis occurs. &rganisms are suited to a particular type of water either fresh water or salt water. f the organism is placed in the wrong type of water they will die, thus water,availability is an issue. n this scenario, the salinity of the water is another factor.

Light penetration -ight is only able to penetrate about .//m in oceans and seas. Thus as the depth increases the light penetration decreases. -ight is essential for all aquatic plants, thus the plants need to have specific adaptations that allow them to retrieve enough sunlight to survive. The light penetration is also dependant upon $ater clarity. E%posure to natural forces 0ifferent aquatic environments are exposed to different natural forces such as tides, currents, waves etc. 1arine organisms must be adapted to survive in such conditions.

A terrestrial environment is one that consists on land. The characteristics of a terrestrial environment include: o Temperature There are much larger temperature variations on land rather than in water. -and organisms must therefore have adaptations to cope with such large temperature changes. Landscape position 2lope and aspect may affect temperature, water and light availability as well as impact on soil quality. 3un,off and erosion may also be prominent in particular landscapes. &ainfall and $ater availability $ater is not freely abundant in land. t must be sourced from the soil or consumed. &rganisms must have adaptations that allow them to survive using the amount of water available to them 'alinity 0ifferent soils have different salinity levels and only particular organisms thrive in certain salinity levels. 4lants must have adaptations that enable them to cope with the different levels of salinity. p( )acidity*al+alinity, 2oil p+ can vary. 0issolved salts play an important role in determining the p+ of the soil and some plants need to have a particular p+ to survive. 4lants need to have adaptations that allow them to cope with the p+ of the soil in their environment. Buoyancy *ir provides minimal buoyancy and therefore land organisms need to have a skeletal and muscle structures that enable them to support them. E%posure to natural forces $ind, rain, floods, droughts, monsoons, cyclones, storms etc are all part of the terrestrial environment and organisms need to be able to adapt to most if not all of these forces.

-dentify the factors determining the distribution and abundance of a species in each environment

.istribution refers to the region where an organism is found. Abundance refers to the number of individuals in the area and is usually described as a density. A!uatic / There are several abiotic factors that affect abundance and distribution of organisms in aquatic environments including: o #ressure "ariations ranging from low pressures in surface waters to extreme pressure in deep ocean trenches. Light penetration plants need adequate light for photosynthesis. This is true in both environments !aquatic and terrestrial". n water the light is only able to penetrate to a certain depth. $ater doesn5t absorb all light. *bout 6/7 is reflected off the surface. *t certain depths water absorbs different wavelengths !what we see as colours". $ater absorbs the wavelengths that a ma%ority of plants use for photosynthesis extremely quickly. This means that as the depth increases not only does the light penetration decrease, the quality of the light decreases as well. The salt concentration of the $ater 1arine organisms are suited to a specific type of water !ranging from the extremely salty 0ead 2ea to freshwater which has almost no salt" and if they were to be placed outside this they would die !due to osmosis" Temperature The range of temperature is important as well because organisms prefer to live in certain temperatures ranging from hot springs through warm tropical seas to free(ing *ntarctic oceans. 0as Availability This ranges from small amounts of gas available in warmer waters to plentiful amounts of gas in turbulent waters of oceans and cold streams

Terrestrial There are several abiotic factors that affect abundance and distribution of organisms in aquatic environments including: o o o Temperature 1ost organisms prefer to live between / 89 degrees 'oil composition 1any species only prefer specific soil types. &ainfall patterns 1any organisms will only live in areas where the rainfall is specific to their needs. f the organisms prefers high rainfall and humidity it will live in areas where these conditions are prominent. Altitude increasing altitude results in colder temperatures, reduced rainfall and decreased pressure which are specific factors that affect the abundance and distribution of the organism.

Availability of salts in the soil there must be specific salts for the plants. 4lants will only thrive if there are those specific salts available.

There are also other factors that affect distribution and abundance of both aquatic and terrestrial organisms including: o Availability of resources and Limiting factors * limiting factor is a single resource that determines the maximum population of a specific species in that area. n aquatic environments this could be factors such as food resources. The amount of food available will determine the abundance of the organism in that environment. ompetition :ompetition for resources from both the same species and other species for specific resources can alter the abundance and distribution of that aquatic organism in that particular environment. #redation This is when one organism consumes another. f a species has numerous predators in its environment, its abundance and distribution will fluctuate. Ability to mate This refers to the organisms ability to reproduce efficiently. f the organism reproduces extremely quickly its distribution and abundance are likely to rise dramatically whereas if it was the opposite the distribution and abundance will remain steady. hemical 1actors such as p+ of the soil .ynamic 1actors such as wind speed and patterns, wave action. These are natural factors that will affect the organism and its environment. describe the roles of photosynthesis and respiration in ecosystems

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#hotosynthesis is the process by which plants take carbon dioxide and water and with the use of sunlight convert it into glucose and oxygen. ;+<& = ;:&<
-ight

:;+.<&; = ;&<

4hotosynthesis is significant in any ecosystem because it produces the chemical energy needed for all ecosystems to survive. The ultimate source of all energy on >arth is the sun. 4lants use chlorophyll to capture some of the suns energy in photosynthesis. This is vital because this energy is then able to flow through the ecosystem for survival. Thus the ecosystem depends on plants conducting photosynthesis. The overall role of photosynthesis is to provide energy for all other organisms in the ecosystem. The plants conduct photosynthesis to store energy. The plant gets eaten by an animal and part of the stored energy !about ./7" is passed on to the animal and so on. n ecosystems there is no re,use of energy. t is either used by the living thing or lost as heat. #ecause of this, a continual input of energy is required to keep living systems functioning and that is the ultimate role of photosynthesis. &espiration takes place in the mitochondria of all living cells and results in the release of energy for organisms to use. ?lucose if broken down in the presence of oxygen to produce carbon dioxide and water and in doing so energy is released. >nergy in the form of *T4 !adenosine tri,phosphate" is released as heat from this

process and is used for cell functions such as growth, repair and maintenance. The role of respiration is to remove oxygen from the air, return carbon dioxide to the air and provide energy for the organism. Thus, organisms respire in order to carry out daily activities. The role of respiration is to used the stored energy within an organism to carry out its daily functions. $ithout respiration, an ecosystem wouldn5t function as none of the organisms would be able to use the energy they had stored which means they would die. identify uses of energy by organisms 1a%ority of the energy in an ecosystem is lost as heat which is beneficial to most organisms as the cells and en(ymes thrive under warm conditions. &rganisms use energy for many purposes including: o 2ynthesis of complex molecules such as proteins, lipids, carbohydrates and nucleic acids. ?rowth involving the division, elongation and differentiation of cells 3epair and maintenance of damaged or old cells *ctive transport of materials across cell membranes Functioning of special cells that need extra energy, such as nerves, muscles, liver etc. Transport of materials within organisms such as in the circulatory systems of animals &ther daily activities such as movement, making sound, producing heat and producing light !called bioluminescence".

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-dentify the general e!uation for aerobic cellular respiration and outline this as a summary of chain of biochemical reactions

*erobic cellular respiration is respiration that occurs under the presence of oxygen. 3espiration involves a series of chemical reactions. t is a controlled process, occurring as a sequence of about 9/ different chemical reactions, each one cataly(ed by a different en(yme. >nergy is released slowly in small amounts. The chemical energy is stored in the bonds of complex organic molecules and is released when these bonds are broken. The energy is transferred to the energy carrier molecule *T4. *T4 is the energy store of the cell. $hen the energy is available , *04 !adenosine" di,phosphate" collects it. $hen the energy is needed, *T4 supplies it. n fact, respiration can be thought of as the process by which *T4 molecules are made in a cell. *04 = 4 = glucose = oxygen many reactions carbon dioxide = water = *T4

6@*04 = 6@4 = :;+.<&; = ;&< 1any reactions ;+<& = ;:&< = 6@*T4

There are t$o stages of respiration2 2tage . , This occurs in the cytoplasm of the cell and results in the splitting of the ;, carbon sugar molecules into 6,carbon molecules !called pyruvates", and two molecules of *T4 are gained by the cell. This is anaerobic respiration. 2tage < , this occurs in the mitochondrion of the cell and it involves the use of oxygen. This results in the complete breakdown of the pyruvate into carbon dioxide and water. This breakdown is done by en(ymes. * total of 6; *T4 molecules are gained in this process. The energy is released gradually. This is aerobic respiration. &verall, 6@ molecules of *T4 were released. &nly 8/7 of the glucose is converted to *T4. The rest is lost as heat. There is also another type of respiration called A3AE&4BELL5LA& &E'#-&AT-43. n this type of respiration there is not a sufficient amount of oxygen present. *naerobic cellular respiration does not produce the high levels of *T4 has aerobic respiration does because there is no oxygen to assist the release of *T4 when glucose is converted to carbon dioxide and water. *naerobic cellular respiration releases only < *T4 molecules in total.

6. Each local a!uatic or terrestrial ecosystem is uni!ue E%amine trends in population estimates for some plant and animal species $ithin an ecosystem

Transects can be used to determine the distribution of an organism. Transects / * transect is a narrow strip that crosses the entire area being studied, from one side to the other. Transects provide an accurate and easy method of representing an area. 4lants are usually the sub%ects of transects, but the distribution of extremely slow or non,moving animals can still be calculated. There are two types of transects , plan sketch and profile sketch. * plan sketch is an aerial or surface view of a representative area within an ecosystem. * profile sketch is a side,on view of an area showing to scale the distribution of organisms along a line. There are numerous ways of estimating populations through the use of sampling techniques. These techniques are used if it is too difficult to count the exact number of species or if only a round estimate is sufficient. 7uadrats / t is much easier to calculate the abundance or population of plant species because they the stay in the one place. Auadrats are squares !the si(e of which depends on the organism , the larger the organism the larger the quadrat" which are randomly placed in the area that is being studied. The number of organisms within the quadrat is counted and this can be used to determine the percentage cover of the organism within that area. For example, if the abundance of grass was calculated to 987 of the total area. *nd it was known that approximately ./// blades of grass covered . square metre and the total area was ./ meters squared, the population of the grass could be estimated to be approximately 98//. apture/Mar+/&ecapture This is a method which involves catching a certain number of individuals of a particular species, marking or tagging them in some way. They are then released into the wild and then at a later time a group of the same species is caught and the number that were already tagged is recorded. This is then repeated numerous times. This method is appropriate for mobile organism where it is virtually impossible to count all individuals at one time. The formula used to estimate the population goes as follows: Bumber :aptured C Bumber 3ecaptured Bumber 1arked in the recapture 'ampling Techni!ue Transects Auadrat Advantages , 4rovides a quick, easy and inexpensive method for measuring species occurrence. , 1inimal 0isturbance to the environment , >asy and inexpensive .isadvantages , &nly suitable for plants or slow moving animals , 2pecies occurring in low numbers may be missed. , &nly suitable for plants or slow moving animals.

, 1inimal disturbance to the environment , :an also be used to determine distribution :apture, , 2imple method that provides an estimate , &nly suitable for mobile animals 1ark, of abundance for animals in large , Time consuming 3ecapture populations that are difficult to count. , :an be disturbing to the environment 4utline factors that affect numbers in predator and prey populations in the area studied * relationship in which one organism eats another is called predatorDprey relationship, or predation. These types of relationships often have a ma%or impact on the abundance of organisms. 4opulations of predator are dependant on the population of the prey and vice versa. For example, if the population of the prey were to drop significantly then the same trend could be seen in the predator population. &n the other hand, if the predator population were to drop significantly then a huge increase in prey may be observed. 2uch obvious relationships are seldom observed under natural conditions because many variables interact to influence the abundance of both predators and prey. n particular, where predators have a variety of food sources, such simple patterns are not observed. * number of other factors could influence predatorDprey populations as well: 2i(e of ecosystem The larger the ecosystem) the more resources *vailability of food for both the predator and the prey. 3eproduction for both the predator and the prey +uman activity and intervention could have an effect on either or both of the populations. identify e%amples of allelopathy, parasitism, mutualism and commensalism in an ecosystem and the role of organisms in each type of relationship Allelopathy This is the process by which plants are able to produce allelochemicals !also called biomolecules" which they release into the environment. These allelochemicals inhibit the growth of other plants in the area surrounding the plant, thus reducing competition for the plant, which increases the chances for the plants survival. Bot all plants have allelopathic tendencies. 2ince space is crucial to the survival of plants, those that are able to produce effective allelochemicals are extremely advantaged. 2ince the fewer the plants around, the more water the plant can absorb from the soil, and more soil for stability and more sunlight to absorb. E%amples of allelopathy2 1, Eucalyptus leaf litter >ucalyptus trees5 foliage are able to produce effective allelochemicals. $hen the leaves of the eucalyptus tree fall onto the 0iseases 1igration This could result in fluctuations in both populations :ompetition for resources for both the predator and the prey

ground, they decompose. 0uring the decomposition of the leaves, the allelochemicals !in the form of acid" are released into the soil and these inhibit the growth of other plants in that area. 6, 'orghum species )cereal grass, release a chemical in the root exudates that disrupts mitochondrial functions and inhibits photosynthesis. 'ymbiosis2 Term used for interactions in which two organisms live together in a close relationship that is beneficial to at least one of them. There are three types of symbiotic relationships: 1, #arasitism This is where one species benefits where as the other is harmed. * parasite obtains food and shelter from the host organism. They feed on the tissues or fluid of the host but do not usually kill it, as this would destroy the parasites food supply. >ctoparasites are those that live outside the body of the host, whereas endoparasites live internally. >xamples of 4arasitism: Tapeworms live attached to the lining of the digestive system of their host animal and absorb digested food without causing any serious harm, however, the animal does become weaker and slightly sick. Ticks and fleas feed off the blood of dogs. They are benefiting whereas the dog is being harmed and it tries to scratch them to get rid of them. FleasDticks may result in the dog becoming extremely ill and even death.

6, Mutualism this is where both the organisms in the relationship benefit. >xamples of 1utualism The relationship between the anemone and the clown fish !also known as the anemone fish". The clown fish attracts prey to the anemone and as the prey approaches they are stung by the tentacles of the anemone. This thus provided food for the anemone. The clown fish feeds on the remains of the prey and it receives protection from predators and also food. The anemone is able to obtain its feed this way as well as be cleaned by the clown fish. Thus it is mutualistic. 3ote2 the clown fish becomes immune to anemone5s sting by brushing itself on the tentacles. The Eant plant5 has a mutualistic relationship with a species of ant. The plant has a swollen bas in which the ants are able to build their colony. The ants carry corpses and excreta to parts of the chambers within the plant. This allows the plant to absorb the waste nutrients.

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ommensalism This is where one species benefits and the other is unaffected. >xamples of :ommensalism The relationship between the remora fish and the shark. The remora fish attaches itself to the shark and thus is able to get a free ride and feed from scraps from the shark5s food but appears not to benefit the shark.

#arnacles and whales. #arnacles attach themselves to the surface of the whale. They are able to be transported to diverse areas rich in food. The whale however is unaffected.

describe the role of decomposers in ecosystems

0ecomposers, or 2*43&4+FT>2, are organisms that obtain energy by breaking down the dead bodies of other organisms or their wastes !eg. faeces". 0ecomposers return nutrients into the soil so that they can be re,used. Their role is to recycle matter within an ecosystem. 0ecomposers include organisms such as fungi and bacteria. 0ecomposers are vital to the functioning of an ecosystem. They play a crucial role in recycling materials. 2ince to amount of matter on >arth is finite, the materials in dead bodies need to be released so that new organisms can use these materials for growth, repair and maintenance. 0ecomposers are consumers and are mainly bacteria or fungi. e%plain trophic interactions bet$een organisms in an ecosystem using food chains, food $ebs and pyramids of biomass and energy

* trophic interaction is one where one organism is consumed by another. A #roducer is also known as an autotroph A consumer is also known as a heterotroph 1ood hain s a single chain of feeding patterns. t shows a liner process in which organism is consequently consumed by another in increasing trophic order. 1ood 9eb This is the combination and interaction of numerous food chains and shows the interactions and feeding patterns of numerous organisms. t is non,linear and one organism can be in many different trophic levels depending on the chainDweb. * food web and a food chain also show the flow of energy and matter in an ecosystem. Biomass pyramid * biomass pyramid indicates the relative amount of matter in the organisms of a community. The total amount of mass in a community is called its biomass. n a self sustaining ecosystem, the biomass significantly decreases at each trophic level. The normal pattern of a biomass pyramid has a huge percentage of producers, a limited percentage of herbivores and a small percentage of carnivores. #iomass pyramids show the amount of matter at each trophic level. These when used with food webs are best used to describe the energy and matter transfer through a community. Energy pyramid >nergy pyramids show the amount of energy at each trophic level in a community. The lower the organism on a food chain the more energy it has available to it. >nergy pyramids indicate the relative amount of energy transferred from one trophic level to another. n a stable community, biomass and energy pyramids decrease rapidly as the trophic level increases. #iomass and energy pyramids can be used to predict and explain changes in a community.

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define the term adaptation and discuss the problems associated $ith inferring characteristics of organisms as adaptations for living in a particular habitat

Adaptation are inherited characteristics of organisms that increase the chance of survival of the species. *daptations are also often described as characteristics of organisms that are suited to the organisms5 habitats. *daptations can either be structural, behavioral or physiological. 2tructural adaptations are the physical characteristics !anatomy" of the organism to help it survive !eg. For a spider, its eight legs is an adaptation because it allows for agile, nimble movement". #ehavioral adaptation is the way an organism will act that increases its chance of survival. !e.g. $hen you wear a %umper because it is cold outside". * physiological adaptation is one that is related to the internal functioning of the organism !eg. * kangaroo will be able to produce two types of milk for it5s %oeys which are of different ages". t is sometimes difficult to infer that the characteristic of an organism is an adaptation to its particular habitat because: The organism may be observed outside the habitat in which it evolved, for example, in a suburban garden. The characteristic may provide no particular advantage in a particular habitat but has been inherited from ancestral organisms that inhabited different habitats. t may simply be difficult to be certain how a particular characteristic helps a species to survive.

identify some adaptations of living things to factors in their environment

*nimal adaptations 2pider: @ legs !structural adaptation" *bility to produce web !physiological adaptation" :rawl away from any points of bright light !behavioral adaptation"

4lant adaptations &ld man #anksias: +uge Flower, thick bark, extremely fine intricate roots !structural" 2eeds falling to the ground after a fire !physiological"

3ote2 *n ideal environment for a plant is usually the environment to which an organism is adapted even when the environment might seem harsh to us. :erophytes are plants that have adapted to dry environments by reducing the surface area of their leaves in order to minimi(e water loss.

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 identify and describe in detail adaptations of a plant and an animal from the local ecosystem Animal The +angaroo2 2tructural *daptations: The tail is able to support the body when they are standing still. *lso two hind legs are extremely strong and are able to support the weight of the kangaroo. This structural adaptation allows for the kangaroo to move quickly across land and also to rest it5s main muscles at regular intervals. The mother contains a pouch in which the %oey is able to feed as well as have protection. This structural adaptation allows for protection of young and also gives a efficient method of feeding young. #ig ears that have large surface area so it loses heat more rapidly. This structural adaptation allows for the kangaroos to quickly cool down.

#ehavioral *daptations: Gangaroos lick their forearms to lose heat as the evaporation of saliva draws heat from the surface. This behavioral adaptation allows for the kangaroo to cool down quickly. Gangaroos sit in the shade during the day to avoid the heat absorption from the sun 0ominant males regularly check hormonal patterns of his females. This behavioural adaptation allows for the males to reproduce efficiently and at the right times, ensuring survival of the species. 2iblings fight amongst each other to practice the fighting skills they need later on in their lives. The mothers hang around in groups to increase chances of detecting a predator 1ales fight with one another in order to assume the top spot in the mob. This behavioural adaptation ensures only the dominant characteristics will be passed on to future generations as only the dominant males are able to find mates regularly. Gangaroos run away if a predator is observed or if any unknown creature is seen.

4hysiological *daptations: Gangaroos do not sweat, so they are able to avoid losing water on hot days through sweating. This allows them to live in fairly arid conditions. 1others produce two types of milk in order to feed %oeys of different ages. 0ilation of the blood vessels, bringing them close to the surface of the skin to lose heat more rapidly !called vasodilation" $hen the %oey is still suckling inside the mother5s pouch, the mother is unable to release another embryo.

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#lant Mangroves 2tructural *daptations: 2ome mangroves species have aerial roots which are filled with spongy tissue and small holes that provide structural support and transfer oxygen from the air to the roots trapped below the ground in low,oxygen soil. The roots are also adapted to prevent the intake of a high amount of salt from the water. -eaves may possess glands that excrete salt, or they may will be able to store huge amounts of salt in their leaves. !also behavioural and physiological"

4hysiological *daptations: -eaves may possess glands that excrete salt, or they may will be able to store huge amounts of salt in their leaves and then at a later point drop those leaves into the soil. !*lso structural and behavioural" 1angrove seeds may be viviparous meaning they retain their seeds until they have germinated. $hen they are dropped into the water from the parent tree, the seed is able to remain dormant until it finds soil. &ther mangrove species may be able to produce seeds that are able to float, this allows for the tide to assist in dispersal, and also avoids overcrowding.

#ehavioural *daptations: 1angroves can also restrict the opening of their stomata !pores in the leaves which are responsible for regulating the exchange of gases and water during photosynthesis. This conserves fresh water within the leaves which is vital for survival in a saline environment. 1angroves are also able to reduce leaf exposure to the sun by turning the leaves side on. This reduces excess water loss through evaporation. -eaves may possess glands that excrete salt, or they may will be able to store huge amounts of salt in their leaves and then at a later point drop those leaves into the soil. !*lso structural and behavioural".

describe and e%plain the short/term and long/term conse!uences on the ecosystem of species competing for resources $hen in competition two organisms use one or more resources in common, such as food, shelter and mates. The competition is so the organism can acquire a limited factor in the environment. &rganisms may compete with members of their own species or members of other species. :ompetition between members of the same species is known as intraspecific competition. :ompetition between members of different species is called interspecific competition. 'sually interspecific competition is less intense than intraspecific.

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There are two types of competition: 3esource competition where the organisms utili(e a resource that is in short supply , nterference competition where the organisms harm each other while obtaining a resource, even if that is not in limited supply. 'hort/term conse!uences of competition2 f the competition is intraspecific then it will result in the reduction in abundance of that organism. f the competition is interspecific it will result in the reduction of abundance for at least one of the organisms *lso, if the competition is interspecific it will alter the distribution patterns of the organism which can result in a chain of consequences especially if the organism disappears from some areas where they are essential. This could greatly alter the natural chain and cause problems.

Long/term conse!uences of competition2 f the competition is intraspecific it could result in some organisms in the species starting to act in ways that are different to the normal. >g. Find a different source of food. This could eventually lead to the creation of a new species that is unable to reproduce with their ancestral species. f the competition is interspecific it could result in the extinction of one species from that area which could alter food chains especially if the extinct organism was the only food supply of other organisms. t could lead to a chain of terrible consequences. &n the other hand, other species might flourish due to this and this may improve the ecosystem.

identify the impact of humans in the ecosystem studied +umans impact ecosystems in many ways. +uman activities can change the biotic and abiotic features of the environment. They alter the factors which determine the abundance and distribution of species. They change the cycle of materials. They interrupt the flow of matter and energy in ecosystems. +umans have changed nearly half the world5s land surface and over half the accessible fresh water is used by humans. *boriginal *ustralians arrived many years ago and they had a drastic impact on the local *ustralian environment. For example the use of controlled burning as hunting and land management technique influenced the abundance and distribution of native plants with more fire,resistant varieties surviving and becoming more prolific. *lso the introduction of the dingo between ;/// and 6/// years ago was the next ma%or change. The dingo appears to have no natural predators and therefore became the most dominant species. Then >uropean settlers arrived. They started clearing the land for buildings and agriculture. :learing the land caused several disturbances such as removing habitat of many species. 1any organisms either migrated or became extinct. *lso clearing the land caused soil erosion which resulted in the removal of topsoil !which had the most nutrients" which affected plant growth. *lso erosion caused siltation of rivers.

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*lso foreign species were introduced !either accidentally or intentionally". 1any of these species became feral and feral animals often have more favorable features for survival than the native species and are better at competing for resources. For example the rabbit was introduced and this competes with the bilby for burrow space and the rabbit always wins. *lso the introduction of the prickly pear was disastrous as it caused widespread havoc across native ecosystems as well as agricultural systems. The altering of waterways. #uilding dams not only floods areas that were once terrestrial but also changes the flow patterns and temperatures in the river. For example HH7 of the water from the 2nowy river was diverted due to the introduction of the 2nowy 1ountains +ydro,>lectric 2cheme. :hanging water ways can result in rising salt levels in certain areas. &ften the changes occur cause species to leave the area or to become extinct. Furthermore the introduction of monocultures impacted on the distribution and abundance of species. * monoculture restricts the number of species that can live in that area.

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