Pumps - Cavitation - NSPH

Concept of Cavitation
Cavitation is a common occurrence but is the least understood of all pumping problems. Cavitation means different things to different people. Some say when a pump makes a rattling or knocking sound along with vibrations, it is cavitating. Some call it slippage as the pump discharge pressure slips and flow becomes erratic. When cavitating, the pump not only fails to serve its basic purpose of pumping the liquid but also may experience internal damage, leakage from the seal and casing, bearing failure, etc. In summary, cavitation is an abnormal condition that can result in loss of production, equipment damage and worst of all, personnel injury. The plant engineer s !ob is to quickly detect the signs of cavitation, correctly identify the type and cause of the cavitation and eliminate it. " good understanding of the concept is the key to troubleshooting any cavitation related pumping problem. Meaning of the Term "Cavitation" in the Context of the Centrifugal Pump
The term #cavitation comes from the $atin word cavus, which means a hollow space or a cavity. Webster s %ictionary defines the word #cavitation as the rapid formation and collapse of cavities in a flowing liquid in regions of very low pressure. &n any discussion on centrifugal pumps various terms like vapor pockets, gas pockets, holes, bubbles, etc. are used in place of the term cavities. These are one and the same thing and need not be confused. The term bubble shall be used hereafter in the discussion. In the context of centrifugal pumps, the term cavitation implies a dynamic process of formation of bubbles inside the liquid, their growth and subsequent collapse as the liquid flows through the pump. 'enerally, the bubbles that form inside the liquid are of two types( )apor bubbles or 'as bubbles. *. )apor bubbles are formed due to the vaporisation of a process liquid that is being pumped. The cavitation condition induced by formation and collapse of vapor bubbles is commonly referred to as )aporous Cavitation. +. 'as bubbles are formed due to the presence of dissolved gases in the liquid that is being pumped ,generally air but may be any gas in the system-. The cavitation condition induced by the formation and collapse of gas bubbles is commonly referred to as 'aseous Cavitation. .oth types of bubbles are formed at a point inside the pump where the local static pressure is less than the vapor pressure of the liquid ,vaporous cavitation- or saturation pressure of the gas ,gaseous cavitation-.

Vaporous cavitation is the most common form of cavitation found in process plants. 'enerally it occurs due to insufficiency of the available /0S1 or internal recirculation phenomenon. &t generally manifests itself in the form of reduced pump performance, excessive noise and vibrations and wear of pump parts. The extent of the cavitation damage can range from a relatively minor amount of pitting after years of service to catastrophic failure in a relatively short period of time. Gaseous cavitation occurs when any gas ,most commonly air- enters a centrifugal pump along with liquid. " centrifugal pump can handle air in the range of 2 3 by volume. &f the amount of air is increased to 43, the pump starts cavitating. The cavitation condition is also referred to as "ir binding. &t seldom causes damage to the impeller or casing. The main effect of gaseous cavitation is loss of capacity. The different types of cavitation, their specific symptoms and specific corrective actions shall be explored in the next part of the article. 1owever, in order to clearly identify the type of cavitation, let us first understand the mechanism of cavitation, i.e. how cavitation occurs. 5nless otherwise specified, the term cavitation shall refer to vaporous cavitation.

Important Definitions To enable a clear understanding of mechanism of cavitation, definitions of following important terms are explored. tatic pressure, !ynamic pressure, Total pressure, tatic pressure head, Velocity head, and Vapor pressure. Static Pressure, ps The static pressure in a fluid stream is the normal force per unit area on a solid boundary moving with the fluid. &t describes the difference between the pressure inside and outside a system, disregarding any motion in the system. 6or instance, when referring to an air duct, static pressure is the difference between the pressure inside the duct and outside the duct, disregarding any airflow inside the duct. &n energy terms, the static pressure is a measure of the potential energy of the fluid. Dynamic pressure, pd " moving fluid stream exerts a pressure higher than the static pressure due to the kinetic energy ,2 mv+of the fluid. This additional pressure is defined as the dynamic pressure. The dynamic pressure can be measured by converting the kinetic energy of the fluid stream into the potential energy. &n other words, it is pressure that would exist in a fluid stream that has been decelerated from its velocity #v to #7ero velocity. Total pressure, pt The sum of static pressure and dynamic pressure is defined as the total pressure. &t is a measure of total energy of the moving fluid stream. i.e. both potential and kinetic energy. elation !et"een ps, pd # pt &n an incompressible flow, the relation between static, dynamic and total pressures can be found ou t using a simple device called 0itot tube ,named after 1enri 0itot in *89+- shown in 6igure *. $igure %& ' Simple S(etch of a Pilot Tu!e The "itot tube has two tubes( *. tatic tube ,b-( The opening of the static tube is parallel to the direction of flow. &t measures the static pressure, since there is no velocity component perpendicular to its opening.

Impact tube ,a-( The opening of the impact tube is perpendicular to the flow direction. The point at the entrance of the impact tube is called as the stagnation point ."t this point the kinetic energy of the fluid is converted to the potential energy. Thus, the impact tube measures the total pressure ,also

+.

referred to as stagnation pressure- i.e. both static pressure and dynamic pressure ,also referred to as impact pressure-. The two tubes are connected to the legs of a manometer or equivalent device for measuring pressure. The relation between ps, pd and pt can be derived by applying a simple energy balance.

"s mentioned earlier, in the case of a fluid or gas the potential energy is represented by the static pressure and the kinetic energy by dynamic pressure. The kinetic energy is a function of the motion of the fluid, and of course it:s mass. &t is generally more convenient to use the density of the fluid , - as the mass representation. )*+ , pd , - m v. , - v.

The corresponding pressure balance equation is

&n place of the pressure terms as used above, it is more appropriate to speak of the energy during pumping as the energy per unit weight of the liquid pumped and the units of energy expressed this way are foot;pounds per pound ,/ewton;meters per /ewton- or !ust feet ,meters- i.e. the units of head. Thus the energy of the liquid at a given point in flow stream can be expressed in terms of head of liquid in feet. The pressure term can be converted to head term by division with the factor # g/. 6or unit inter; conversions the factor # g0gc should be used in place of # g/. Static pressure head The head corresponding to the static pressure is called as the static pressure head.

Static pressure head , ps 0 g

1elocity head The head corresponding to dynamic pressure is called the velocity head.

1elocity head , pd 0 g , 2 v. 0 .3 0 g , v.0.g

6rom the reading hm, of the manometer velocity of flow can be calculated and thus velocity head can be calculated. The pressure difference, d0 ,pt < ps- indicated by the manometer is the dynamic pressure.

dP , hm 2 m - 3 g , v. 0. 1elocity head , dP 0 g , hm 2 m - 3 0
1apor pressure, pv

)apor pressure is the pressure required to keep a liquid in a liquid state. &f the pressure applied to the surface of the liquid is not enough to keep the molecules pretty close together, the molecules will be free to separate and roam around as a gas or vapor. The vapor pressure is dependent upon the temperature of the liquid. 1igher the temperature, higher will be the vapor pressure. Mechanism of Cavitation The phenomenon of cavitation is a stepwise process as shown in 6igure +.

$igure .& Phenomenon of Cavitation Step One, #ormation of bubbles inside the liquid being pumped. The bubbles form inside the liquid when it vaporises i.e. phase change from liquid to vapor. $ut how does vapori%ation of the liquid occur during a pumping operation& )apori7ation of any liquid inside a closed container can occur if either pressure on the liquid surface decreases such that it becomes equal to or less than the liquid vapor pressure at the operating temperature, or the temperature of the liquid rises, raising the vapor pressure such that it becomes equal to or greater than the operating pressure at the liquid surface. 6or example, if water at room temperature ,about 88 =6- is kept in a closed container and the system pressure is reduced to its vapor pressure ,about >.?+ psia-, the water quickly changes to a vapor. "lso, if the operating pressure is to remain constant at about >.?+ psia and the temperature is allowed to rise above 88 =6, then the water quickly changes to a vapor. @ust like in a closed container, vapori7ation of the liquid can occur in centrifugal pumps when the local static pressure reduces below that of the vapor pressure of the liquid at the pumping temperature. /ATB( The vaporisation accomplished by addition of heat or the reduction of static pressure without dynamic action of the liquid is excluded from the definition of cavitation. 6or the purposes of this article, only pressure variations that cause cavitation shall be explored. Temperature changes must be considered only when dealing with systems that introduce or remove heat from the fluid being pumped. To understand vapori%ation, two important points to remember are'

*. We consider only the static pressure and not the total pressure when determining if the system pressure is less than or greater than the liquid vapor pressure. The total pressure is the sum of the static pressure and dynamic pressure ,due to velocity-. +. The terms pressure and head have different meanings and they should not be confused. "s a convention in this article, the term CpressureD shall be used to understand the concept of cavitation whereas the term CheadD shall be used in equations. Thus, the key concept is ; vapor bubbles form due to vapori7ation of the liquid being pumped when the local static pressure at any point inside the pump becomes equal to or less than the vapor pressure of the liquid at the pumping temperature.

How does pressure reduction occur in a pump system?

The reduction in local static pressure at any point inside the pump can occur under two conditions( *. The actual pressure drop in the external suction system is greater than that considered during design. "s a result, the pressure available at pump suction is not sufficiently high enough to overcome the design pressure drop inside the pump. +. The actual pressure drop inside the pump is greater than that considered during the pump design. The mechanism of pressure reduction in the external and internal suction system of a pump system is explored next. "ressure reduction in the external suction system of the pump " simple sketch of a pump #external suction system is shown in 6igure 9.

$igure 4& +xternal Suction System

(omenclature used for #igure ) ; $iquid density in lbm E ft9 ' ; "cceleration due to gravity in ft E s+ 0sn ; p refers to local static pressure ,absolute-. Subscript s refers to suction and subscript n refers to the point of measurement. The pressure at any point can be converted to the head term by division with the factor ; g ps* ; Static pressure ,absolute- of the suction vessel in psia hps* ; Static pressure head i.e. absolute static pressure on the liquid surface in the suction vessel, converted to feet of head ,ps*E gEgc-. &f the system is open, hps* equals the atmospheric pressure head. vs* ; $iquid velocity on the surface in the suction vessel in ftEs hvs* ; )elocity head i.e. the energy of a liquid as a result of its motion at some velocity #v s* . ,v+s* E +g-. &t is the equivalent head in feet through which the liquid would have to fall to acquire the same velocity, or the head necessary to accelerate the liquid to velocity v s*. &n a large suction vessel, the velocity head is practically 7ero and is typically ignored in calculations. hs ; Static suction head. . . . i.e. head resulting from elevation of the liquid relative to the pump centerline. &f the liquid level is above pump centerline, hS is positive. &f the liquid level is below pump centerline, h S is negative. " negative hS condition is commonly referred to as Csuction liftD. hfs ; 6riction head i.e. the head required to overcome the resistance to flow in the pipe, valves and fittings between points " and ., inclusive of the entrance losses at the point of connection of suction piping to the suction vessel ,point " in 6igure *-. The friction head is dependent upon the si7e, condition and type of pipe, number and type of fittings, valves, flow rate and the nature of the liquid. The friction head varies as the square of the average velocity of the flowing fluid. ps+ ; "bsolute static pressure at the suction flange in psia hps+ ; Static pressure head at the suction flange i.e. absolute pressure of the liquid at the suction flange, converted to feet of head ; ps+ E gEgc vs+ ; )elocity of the moving liquid at the suction flange in ftEs. The pump suction piping is si7ed such that the velocity at the suction remains low. hvs+ ; )elocity head at suction flange i.e. the energy of a liquid as a result of its motion at average velocity #vs+ equal to v+s+ E +g. pv ; "bsolute vapor pressure of the liquid at operating temperature in psia. hpv ; )apor 0ressure head i.e. absolute vapor pressure converted to feet of head ,pv E . gEgc-. 1s ; Total Suction 1ead available at the suction flange in ft. /ote( "s pressure is measured in absolute, total head is also in absolute.

The pump takes suction from a vessel having a certain liquid level. The vessel can be pressurised ,as shown in the 6igure 9- or can be at atmospheric pressure or under vacuum.

Calculation of the Total Suction Head, 5s

The external suction system of the pump provides a certain amount of head at the suction flange. This is referred to as Total Suction 1ead ,TS1-, 1s. TS1 can be calculated by application of the energy balance. The incompressible liquid can have energy in the form of velocity, pressure or elevation. Bnergy in various forms is either added to or subtracted from the liquid as it passes through the suction piping. The head term in feet ,or meters- is used as an expression of the energy of the liquid at any given point in the flow stream. "s shown in 6igure 9, the total suction head, 1s, available at the suction flange is given by the equation,

5s , hps% 6 hvs% 6 hs - hfs 6 hvs.

,*-

6or an existing system, 1s can also be calculated from the pressure gauge reading at pump suction flange,

5s , hps. 6 hvs.

,+-

Bquations * and + above include the velocity head terms hvs* and hvs+, respectively. * word about the velocity head term' There is a lot of confusion as to whether the velocity head terms should be added or subtracted in the head calculations. To avoid any confusion remember the following( o @ust like a static tube of 0itot, a pressure gauge can measure only the static pressure at the point of connection. &t does not measure the dynamic pressure as the opening of the gauge impulse pipe is parallel to the direction of flow and there is no velocity component perpendicular to its opening.

&n 6igure F below, flow through a pipe of varying cross section area is shown.

$igure 7& Measuring Static Pressure "s the cross section at point . reduces, the velocity of flow increases. The rise in kinetic energy happens at the expense of potential energy. "ssuming that there are no friction losses, the total energy ,sum of potential energy and kinetic energy- of fluid at point ", . and C remains constant. The pressure gauges at point ", . and C measure only the potential energy i.e. the static pressures at respective points. The drop in static pressure from *> psi ,point "- to ? psi ,point .- occurs owing to rise the dynamic pressure by ? psi i.e. increase in velocity at point .. 1owever the gauge at point . records only the static pressure. The velocity decreases from point . to C and the static pressure is recovered again to *> psi. o "t a particular point of flow, the total pressure is the sum of the static pressure and the dynamic pressure. Thus, theoretically, the velocity head terms must al"ays !e added and not su!tracted, in calculating Total Suction 5ead 2TS53, 5s* 1owever, practically speaking, the value of these terms is not significant in comparison to the other terms in the equation. o hvs*( &n industrial scale suction vessels, the value of hvs* is practically 7ero and it can be safely ignored. o hvs+( &t is good piping design practice to reduce the friction losses and prevent unnecessary flow turbulence by si7ing the suction pipes for fluid velocities in the three to five feet per second range only. The velocity head corresponding to a velocity of ? ftEs at the suction flange is only about >.F ft. Thus, for all practical purposes, in high head systems the velocity head at the suction flange is not significant and can be safely ignored. Anly in low head systems does the factor need to be considered. Therefore, neglecting the velocity head terms, Bquations * and + simplify to( ,95s , hps% 6 hs - hfs ,F5s , hps. Two important inferences can be drawn from the above equations( The pressure reduction in the external suction system is primarily due to frictional loss in the suction piping ,Bquation 9-.

6or all practical purposes, the total head at the suction flange is the static pressure head at the suction flange ,Bquation F-.

Therefore the pump s external suction system should be designed such that the static pressure available at the suction flange is always positive and higher than the vapor pressure of the liquid at the pumping temperature. 6or no vapori7ation at pump suction flange,

2ps. 8 pv3 or 2ps. - pv 3 or 2hps. - hpv 3 8 9

,?-

"s the liquid enters the pump, there is a further reduction in the static pressure. &f the value of ps+ is not sufficiently higher than pv, at some point inside the pump the static pressure can reduce to the value of pv. &n pumping terminology, the head difference term corresponding to Bquation ? ,hps+ ; hpv- is called the /et 0ositive Suction 1ead or /0S1. The /0S1 term shall be explored in detail in the next part of the article. 6or now, the readers should focus only on how the static pressure within the pump may be reduced to a value lower than that of the liquid vapor pressure. "ressure reduction in the internal suction system of the pump The pressure of the fluid at the suction flange is further reduced inside the internal suction system of the pump. #low path of fluid inside the pump The internal suction system is comprised of the pump s suction no77le and impeller. 6igures ? and 4 depict the internal parts in detail. " closer look at the graphic is a must in understanding the mechanism of pressure drop inside the pump.

$igure :& Internal Pump ;ocations

$igure <& Internal Pump =omenclature &n 6igure 8, it can be seen that the passage from the suction flange ,point +- to the impeller suction 7one ,point 9- and to the impeller eye ,point F- acts like a venturi i.e. there is gradual reduction in the cross; section area.

$igure >& Pump Internal Suction System &n the impeller, the point of minimum radius ,reye- with reference to pump centerline is referred to as the CeyeD of the impeller ,6igure G-.

$igure ?& Impeller +ye

How pressure reduction occurs as the fluid flows inside the pump?
"ccording to .ernoulli s principle, when a constant amount of liquid moves through a path of decreasing cross;section area ,as in a venturi-, the velocity increases and the static pressure decreases. &n other words, total system energy i.e. sum of the potential and kinetic energy, remains constant in a flowing system ,neglecting friction-. The gain in velocity occurs at the expense of pressure. "t the point of minimum cross;section, the velocity is at a maximum and the static pressure is at a minimum. The pressure at the suction flange, ps+ ,0oint +- decreases as the liquid flows from the suction flange, through the suction no77le and into the impeller eye. This decrease in pressure occurs not only due to the venturi effect but also due to the friction in the inlet passage. 1owever, the pressure drop due to friction between the suction no77le and the impeller eye is comparatively small for most pumps. 1owever the pressure reduction due to the venturi effect is very significant as the velocity at the impeller increases to *? to +> ftEs. There is a further drop in pressure due to shock and turbulence as the liquid strikes and loads the edges of impeller vanes. The net effect of all the pressure drops is the creation of a very low;pressure area around the impeller eye and at the beginning of the trailing edge of the impeller vanes. The pressure reduction profile within the pump is depicted in 6igure H.

$igure @& Pressure Profile in a Pump "s shown in 6igure H, the impeller eye is the point where the static pressure is at a minimum, pF. %uring pump operation, if the local static pressure of the liquid at the lowest pressure becomes equal to or less than the vapor pressure ,pv- of the liquid at the operating temperature, vapori7ation of the liquid ,the formation of bubbles- begins i.e. when pF pv. &t is at the beginning of the trailing edge of the vanes near the impeller eye where the pressure actually falls to below the liquid vapor pressure. The region of bubble formation is shown in 6igure *>.

$igure %9& Impeller Cavitation egions &n summary, vapori7ation of the liquid ,bubble formation- occurs due to the reduction of the static pressure to a value below that of the liquid vapor pressure. The reduction of static pressure in the external suction system occurs mainly due to friction in suction piping. The reduction of static pressure in the internal suction system occurs mainly due to the rise in the velocity at the impeller eye. Step Two, Growth of bubbles 5nless there is no change in the operating conditions, new bubbles continue to form and old bubbles grow in si7e. The bubbles then get carried in the liquid as it flows from the impeller eye to the impeller exit tip along the vane trailing edge. %ue to impeller rotating action, the bubbles attain very high velocity and eventually reach the regions of high pressure within the impeller where they start collapsing. The life cycle of a bubble has been estimated to be in the order of >.>>9 seconds. Step Three, +ollapse of bubbles "s the vapor bubbles move along the impeller vanes, the pressure around the bubbles begins to increase until a point is reached where the pressure on the outside of the bubble is greater than the pressure inside the bubble. The bubble collapses. The process is not an explosion but rather an implosion ,inward bursting-. 1undreds of bubbles collapse at approximately the same point on each impeller vane. .ubbles collapse non;symmetrically such that the surrounding liquid rushes to fill the void forming a liquid micro!et. The micro !et subsequently ruptures the bubble with such force that a hammering action occurs. .ubble collapse pressures greater than * '0a ,*F?x*>4 psi- have been reported. The highly locali7ed hammering effect can pit the pump impeller. The pitting effect is illustrated schematically in 6igure **.

$igure %%& Collapse of a 1apor Au!!le "fter the bubble collapses, a shock wave emanates outward from the point of collapse. This shock wave is what we actually hear and what we call IcavitationI. The implosion of bubbles and emanation of shock waves ,red color- is shown in a small video clip available here. &n nutshell, the mechanism of cavitation is all about formation, growth and collapse of bubbles inside the liquid being pumped. .ut how can the knowledge of mechanism of cavitation can really help in troubleshooting a cavitation problem. The concept of mechanism can help in identifying the type of bubbles and the cause of their formation and collapse. The troubleshooting method shall be explored in detail in the next part of the article. /ext let us explore the general symptoms of cavitation and its affects on pump performance.

Beneral Symptoms of Cavitation and its 'ffects on Pump Performance and Pump Parts
0erceptible indications of the cavitation during pump operation are more or less loud noises, vibrations and an unsteadily working pump. 6luctuations in flow and discharge pressure take place with a sudden and drastic reduction in head rise and pump capacity. %epending upon the si7e and quantum of the bubbles formed and the severity of their collapse, the pump faces problems ranging from a partial loss in capacity and head to total failure in pumping along with irreparable damages to the internal parts. &t requires a lot of experience and thorough investigation of effects of cavitation on pump parts to clearly identify the type and root causes of cavitation. " detailed description of the general symptoms is given as under. ,eduction in capacity of the pump( The formation of bubbles causes a volume increase decreasing the space available for the liquid and thus diminish pumping capacity. 6or example, when water changes state from liquid to gas its volume increases by approximately *,8>> times. &f the bubbles get big enough at the eye of the impeller, the pump CchokesD i.e. loses all suction resulting in a total reduction in flow. The unequal and uneven formation and collapse of bubbles causes fluctuations in the flow and the pumping of liquid occurs in spurts. This symptom is common to all types of cavitations.

!ecrease in the head developed( .ubbles unlike liquid are compressible. The head developed diminishes drastically because energy has to be expended to increase the velocity of the liquid used to fill up the cavities, as the bubbles collapse. "s mentioned earlier, The 1ydraulic Standards &nstitute defines cavitation as condition of 9 3 drop in head developed across the pump. $ike reduction in capacity, this symptom is also common to all types of cavitations. Thus, the hydraulic effect of a cavitating pump is that the pump performance drops off of its expected performance curve, referred to as break away, producing a lower than expected head and flow. The 6igure *+ depicts the typical performance curves. The solid line curves represent a condition of adequate /0S1a whereas the dotted lines depict the condition of inadequate /0S1a i.e. the condition of cavitation.

$igure %.& Pump Performance Curves

*bnormal sound and vibrations(

&t is movement of bubbles with very high velocities from low;pressure area to a high;pressure area and subsequent collapse that creates shockwaves producing abnormal sounds and vibrations. &t has been estimated that during collapse of bubbles the pressures of the order of *>F atm develops. The sound of cavitation can be described as similar to small hard particles or gravel rapidly striking or bouncing off the interior parts of a pump or valve. )arious terms like rattling, knocking, crackling are used to describe the abnormal sounds. The sound of pumps operating while cavitating can range from a low;pitched steady knocking sound ,like on a door- to a high;pitched and random crackling ,similar to a metallic impact-. 0eople can easily mistake cavitation for a bad bearing in a pump motor. To distinguish between the noise due to a bad bearing or cavitation, operate the pump with no flow. The disappearance of noise will be an indication of cavitation. Similarly, vibration is due to the uneven loading of the impeller as the mixture of vapor and liquid passes through it, and to the local shock wave that occurs as each bubble collapses. )ery few vibration reference manuals agree on the primary vibration characteristic associated with pump cavitation. 6ormation

and collapsing of bubbles will alternate periodically with the frequency resulting out of the product of speed and number of blades. Some suggest that the vibrations associated with cavitation produce a broadband peak at high frequencies above +,>>> 1ert7. Some suggest that cavitation follows the vane pass frequency ,number of vanes times the running speed frequency- and yet another indicate that it affects peak vibration amplitude at one times running speed. "ll of these indications are correct in that pump cavitation can produce various vibration frequencies depending on the cavitation type, pump design, installation and use. The excessive vibration caused by cavitation often subsequently causes a failure of the pump s seal andEor bearings. This is the most likely failure mode of a cavitating pump, !amage to pump parts( o +avitation erosion or pitting %uring cavitation, the collapse of the bubbles occurs at sonic speed e!ecting destructive micro !ets of extremely high velocity ,up to *>>> mEs- liquid strong enough to cause extreme erosion of the pump parts, particularly impellers. The bubble is trying to collapse from all sides, but if the bubble is lying against a piece of metal such as the impeller or volute it cannot collapse from that side. So the fluid comes in from the opposite side at this high velocity and bangs against the metal creating the impression that the metal was hit with a Iball pin hammerI. The resulting long;term material damage begins to become visible by so called 0its ,see 6igure **-, which are plastic deformations of very small dimensions ,order of magnitude of micrometers-. The damage caused due to action of bubble collapse is commonly referred as Cavitation erosion or pitting. The 6igure *9 depicts the cavitation pitting effect on impeller and diffuser surface.

$igure %4& Photographic +vidence of Cavitation Cavitation erosion from bubble collapse occurs primarily by fatigue fracture due to repeated bubble implosions on the cavitating surface, if the implosions have sufficient impact force. The erosion or pitting effect is quite similar to sand blasting. 1igh head pumps are more likely to suffer from cavitation erosion, making cavitation a Chigh;energyD pump phenomenon. The most sensitive areas where cavitation erosion has been observed are the low;pressure sides of the impeller vanes near the inlet edge. The cavitation erosion damages at the impeller are more or less spread

out. The pitting has also been observed on impeller vanes, diffuser vanes, and impeller tips etc. &n some instances, cavitation has been severe enough to wear holes in the impeller and damage the vanes to such a degree that the impeller becomes completely ineffective. " damaged impeller is shown in 6igure *F.

$igure %7& Cavitation Damage on Impellers The damaged impeller shows that the shock waves occurred near the outside edge of the impeller, where damage is evident. This part of the impeller is where the pressure builds to its highest point. This pressure implodes the gas bubbles, changing the water s state from gas into liquid. When cavitation is less severe, the damage can occur further down towards the eye of the impeller. " careful investigation and diagnosis of point of the impeller erosion on impeller, volute, diffuser etc. can help predict the type and cause of cavitation. The extent of cavitation erosion or pitting depends on a number of factors like presence of foreign materials in the liquid, liquid temperature, age of equipment and velocity of the collapsing bubble. o -echanical deformations "part from erosion of pump parts, in bigger pumps, longer duration of cavitation condition can result in unbalancing ,due to un;equal distribution in bubble formation and collapse- of radial and axial thrusts on the impeller. This unbalancing often leads to following mechanical problems( bending and deflection of shafts, bearing damage and rubs from radial vibration, thrust bearing damage from axial movement, breaking of impeller check;nuts, seal faces damage etc. These mechanical deformations can completely wreck the pump and require replacement of parts. The cost of such replacements can be huge. o +avitation corrosion 6requently cavitation is combined with corrosion. The implosion of bubbles destroys existing protective layers making the metal surface permanently activated for the chemical attack. Thus, in this way even in case of slight cavitation it may lead to considerable damage to the materials. The rate of erosion may be accentuated if the liquid itself has corrosive tendencies such as water with large amounts of dissolved oxygen to acids. Cavitation heart attack of the pump Thus fundamentally, cavitation refers to an abnormal condition inside the pump that arises during pump operation due to formation and subsequent collapse of vapor filled cavities or bubbles inside the liquid being pumped. The condition of cavitation can obstruct the pump, impair performance and flow capacity, and damage the impeller and other sensitive components. n short, Cavitation can !e termed as "the heart attack of the pump#$

Cnderstanding Centrifugal Pump Performance Curves

The capacity and pressure needs of any system can be defined with the help of a graph called a system curve. Similarly the capacity vs. pressure variation graph for a particular pump defines its characteristic pump performance curve. The pump suppliers try to match the system curve supplied by the user with a pump curve that satisfies these needs as closely as possible. " pumping system operates where the pump curve and the system resistance curve intersect. The intersection of the two curves defines the operating point of both pump and process. 1owever, it is impossible for one operating point to meet all desired operating conditions. 6or example, when the discharge valve is throttled, the system resistance curve shift left and so does the operating point.

$igure D*9%& Typical system and pump performance curves Developing a System Curve The system resistance or system head curve is the change in flow with respect to head of the system. It must !e developed !y the user !ased upon the conditions of service* These include physical layout, process conditions, and fluid characteristics. &t represents the relationship between flow and hydraulic losses in a system in a graphic form and, since friction losses vary as a square of the flow rate, the system curve is parabolic in shape. 1ydraulic losses in piping systems are composed of pipe friction losses, valves, elbows and other fittings, entrance and exit losses, and losses from changes in pipe si7e by enlargement or reduction in diameter. Developing a Pump Performance Curve " pump:s performance is shown in its characteristics performance curve where its capacity i.e. flow rate is plotted against its developed head. The pump performance curve also shows its efficiency ,.B0-, required input power ,in .10-, /0S1r, speed ,in J0K-, and other information such as pump si7e and type, impeller si7e, etc. This curve is plotted for a constant speed ,rpm- and a given impeller diameter ,or series of diameters-. It is generated !y tests performed !y the pump manufacturer* 0ump curves are based on a specific gravity of *.>. Ather specific gravities must be considered by the user.

=ormal Dperating ange " typical performance curve ,6igure %.>*- is a plot of Total 1ead vs. 6low rate for a specific impeller diameter. The plot starts at 7ero flow. The head at this point corresponds to the shut;off head point of the pump. The curve then decreases to a point where the flow is maximum and the head minimum. This point is sometimes called the run;out point. The pump curve is relatively flat and the head decreases gradually as the flow increases. This pattern is common for radial flow pumps. .eyond the run;out point, the pump cannot operate. The pump:s range of operation is from the shut;off head point to the run;out point. Trying to run a pump off the right end of the curve will result in pump cavitation and eventually destroy the pump. In a nutshell, by plotting the system head curve and pump curve together, you can determine( *. Where the pump will operate on its curveL +. What changes will occur if the system head curve or the pump performance curve changesL

Definition of Important Terms

The key performance parameters of centrifugal pumps are capacity, head, .10 ,.rake horse power-, .B0 ,.est efficiency point- and specific speed. The pump curves provide the operating window within which these parameters can be varied for satisfactory pump operation. The following parameters or terms are discussed in detail in this section.

Capacity 1ead
o o o o o o o o o o o

Significance of using 1ead instead of 0ressure 0ressure to 1ead Conversion formula Static Suction 1ead, hS Static %ischarge 1ead, hd 6riction 1ead, hf )apor pressure 1ead, hvp 0ressure 1ead, hp )elocity 1ead, hv Total Suction 1ead 5S Total %ischarge 1ead 5d Total %ifferential 1ead 5T /et 0ositive Suction 1ead Jequired =PS5r /et 0ositive Suction 1ead "vailable =PS5a

/0S1
o o

0ower ,.rake 1orse 0ower, ..1.0- and Bfficiency ,.est Bfficiency 0oint, ..B.0Specific Speed ,/s"ffinity $aws

Capacity Capacity means the flow rate with which liquid is moved or pushed by the pump to the desired point in the process. &t is commonly measured in either gallons per minute ,gpm- or cubic meters per hour ,m9Ehr-. The capacity usually changes with the changes in operation of the process. 6or example, a boiler feed pump is an application that needs a constant pressure with varying capacities to meet a changing steam demand.

The capacity depends on a number of factors like( 0rocess liquid characteristics i.e. density, viscosity Si7e of the pump and its inlet and outlet sections &mpeller si7e &mpeller rotational speed J0K Si7e and shape of cavities between the vanes 0ump suction and discharge temperature and pressure conditions 6or a pump with a particular impeller running at a certain speed in a liquid, the only items on the list above that can change the amount flowing through the pump are the pressures at the pump inlet and outlet. The effect on the flow through a pump by changing the outlet pressures is graphed on a pump curve. "s liquids are essentially incompressible, the capacity is directly related with the velocity of flow in the suction pipe. This relationship is as follows( 5ead Significance of using the "head# term instead of the "pressure# term The pressure at any point in a liquid can be thought of as being caused by a vertical column of the liquid due to its weight. The height of this column is called the static head and is expressed in terms of feet of liquid. The same head term is used to measure the kinetic energy created by the pump. &n other words, head is a measurement of the height of a liquid column that the pump could create from the kinetic energy imparted to the liquid. &magine a pipe shooting a !et of water straight up into the air, the height the water goes up would be the head. The head is not equivalent to pressure. 1ead is a term that has units of a length or feet and pressure has units of force per unit area or pound per square inch. The main reason for using head instead of pressure to measure a centrifugal pump:s energy is that the pressure from a pump will change if the specific gravity ,weight- of the liquid changes, but the head will not change. Since any given centrifugal pump can move a lot of different fluids, with different specific gravities, it is simpler to discuss the pump:s head and forget about the pressure. So a centrifugal pump s performance on any /ewtonian fluid, whether it:s heavy ,sulfuric acid- or light ,gasoline- is described by using the term #head . The pump performance curves are mostly described in terms of head. 0ressure to 1ead Conversion formula The static head corresponding to any specific pressure is dependent upon the weight of the liquid according to the following formula(

/ewtonian liquids have specific gravities typically ranging from >.? ,light, like light hydrocarbons- to *.G ,heavy, like concentrated sulfuric acid-. Water is a benchmark, having a specific gravity of *.>. This formula helps in converting pump gauge pressures to head for reading the pump curves.

The various had terms are discussed below.

=ote( The Subscripts Es/ refers to suction conditions and Ed/ refers to discharge conditions.
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Static Suction 1ead, hS Static %ischarge 1ead, hd 6riction 1ead, hf )apor pressure 1ead, hvp 0ressure 1ead, hp )elocity 1ead, hv Total Suction 1ead 5S Total %ischarge 1ead 5d Total %ifferential 1ead 5T /et 0ositive Suction 1ead Jequired =PS5r /et 0ositive Suction 1ead "vailable =PS5a

tatic uction .ead ,hS- ( 1ead resulting from elevation of the liquid relative to the pump center line. &f the liquid level is above pump centerline, hS is positive. &f the liquid level is below pump centerline, hS is negative. /egative hS condition is commonly denoted as a Csuction liftD condition tatic !ischarge .ead ,hd-( &t is the vertical distance in feet between the pump centerline and the point of free discharge or the surface of the liquid in the discharge tank. #riction .ead ,hf3( The head required to overcome the resistance to flow in the pipe and fittings. &t is dependent upon the si7e, condition and type of pipe, number and type of pipefittings, flow rate, and nature of the liquid. Vapor "ressure .ead ,hvp-( )apor pressure is the pressure at which a liquid and its vapor co;exist in equilibrium at a given temperature. The vapor pressure of liquid can be obtained from vapor pressure tables. When the vapor pressure is converted to head, it is referred to as vapor pressure head, hvp. The value of hvp of a liquid increases with the rising temperature and in effect, opposes the pressure on the liquid surface, the positive force that tends to cause liquid flow into the pump suction i.e. it reduces the suction pressure head. "ressure .ead ,hp-' 0ressure 1ead must be considered when a pumping system either begins or terminates in a tank which is under some pressure other than atmospheric. The pressure in such a tank must first be converted to feet of liquid. %enoted as hp, pressure head refers to absolute pressure on the surface of the liquid reservoir supplying the pump suction, converted to feet of head. &f the system is open, hp equals atmospheric pressure head. Velocity .ead ,hv-( Jefers to the energy of a liquid as a result of its motion at some velocity # v/. &t is the equivalent head in feet through which the water would have to fall to acquire the same velocity, or in other words, the head necessary to accelerate the water. The velocity head is usually insignificant and can be ignored in most high head systems. 1owever, it can be a large factor and must be considered in low head systems.

Total uction .ead ,5S-( The suction reservoir pressure head 2hpS- plus the static suction head ,hS- plus the velocity head at the pump suction flange ,h)S- minus the friction head in the suction line ,hfS-. 5S M hpS 6 hS N hvS < hfS The total suction head is the reading of the gauge on the suction flange, converted to feet of liquid.

Total !ischarge .ead ,5d-( The discharge reservoir pressure head , hpd- plus static discharge head ,hdplus the velocity head at the pump discharge flange ,hvd- plus the total friction head in the discharge line ,hfd-. 5d M hpd 6 hd N hvd N hfd The total discharge head is the reading of a gauge at the discharge flange, converted to feet of liquid.

Total %ifferential 1ead ,5T-( &t is the total discharge head minus the total suction head or 5T , 5d 6 5S 2"ith a suction lift3 5T , 5d - 5S 2"ith a suction head3

=PS5
When discussing centrifugal pumps, the two most important head terms are /0S1r and /0S1a.

=et Positive Suction 5ead eFuired, =PS5r

/0S1 is one of the most widely used and least understood terms associated with pumps. 5nderstanding the significance of /0S1 is very much essential during installation as well as operation of the pumps. Pumps can pump only li%uids, not vapors The satisfactory operation of a pump requires that vapori7ation of the liquid being pumped does not occur at any condition of operation. This is so desired because when a liquid vapori7es its volume increases very much. 6or example, * ft9 of water at room temperature becomes *8>> ft9 of vapor at the same temperature. This makes it clear that if we are to pump a fluid effectively, it must be kept always in the liquid form. &ise in temperature and fall in pressure induces vapori'ation The vapori7ation begins when the vapor pressure of the liquid at the operating temperature equals the external system pressure, which, in an open system is always equal to atmospheric pressure. "ny decrease in external pressure or rise in operating temperature can induce vapori7ation and the pump stops pumping. Thus, the pump always needs to have a sufficient amount of suction head present to prevent this vapori7ation at the lowest pressure point in the pump. NPSH as a measure to prevent li%uid vapori'ation The manufacturer usually tests the pump with water at different capacities, created by throttling the suction side. When the first signs of vapori7ation induced cavitation occur, the suction pressure is noted ,the term cavitation is discussed in detail later-. This pressure is converted into the head. This head number is published on the pump curve and is referred as the Inet positive suction head required ,/0S1r- or sometimes in short as the /0S1. Thus the =et Positive Suction 5ead 2=PS53 is the total head at the suction flange of the pump less the vapor pressure converted to fluid column height of the liFuid*

NPSHr is a function of pump desi(n /0S1 required is a function of the pump design and is determined based on actual pump test by the vendor. "s the liquid passes from the pump suction to the eye of the impeller, the velocity increases and the pressure decreases. There are also pressure losses due to shock and turbulence as the liquid strikes the impeller. The centrifugal force of the impeller vanes further increases the velocity and decreases the pressure of the liquid. The /0S1 required is the positive head in feet absolute required at the pump suction to overcome these pressure drops in the pump and maintain the ma!ority of the liquid above its vapor pressure. The /0S1 is always positive since it is expressed in terms of absolute fluid column height. The term I/etI refers to the actual pressure head at the pump suction flange and not the static suction head. NPSHr increases as capacity increases The /0S1 required varies with speed and capacity within any particular pump. The /0S1 required increase as the capacity is increasing because the velocity of the liquid is increasing, and as anytime the velocity of a liquid goes up, the pressure or head comes down. 0ump manufacturer:s curves normally provide this information. The /0S1 is independent of the fluid density as are all head terms. =ote& &t is to be noted that the net positive suction head required ,/0S1r- number shown on the pump curves is for fresh water at +>=C and not for the fluid or combinations of fluids being pumped.

=et Positive Suction 5ead availa!le, =PS5a

NPSHa is a function of system desi(n /et 0ositive Suction 1ead "vailable is a function of the system in which the pump operates. &t is the excess pressure of the liquid in feet absolute over its vapor pressure as it arrives at the pump suction, to be sure that the pump selected does not cavitate. &t is calculated based on system or process conditions. NPSHa calculation The formula for calculating the /0S1a is stated below(

=ote( *. &t is important to correct for the specific gravity of the liquid and to convert all terms to units of Ifeet a!soluteI in using the formula. +. "ny discussion of /0S1 or cavitation is only concerned about the suction side of the pump. There

is almost always plenty of pressure on the discharge side of the pump to prevent the fluid from vapori7ing. NPSHa in a nutshell &n a nutshell, /0S1 available is defined as( /0S1a M 0ressure head N Static head ; )apor pressure head of your product < 6riction head loss in the piping, valves and fittings. /*ll terms in feet absoluteD &n an existing system, the /0S1a can also be approximated by a gauge on the pump suction using the formula( =PS5a , hpS - hvpS hgS 6 hvS

hpS , .arometric pressure in feet absolute. hvpS M )apor pressure of the liquid at maximum pumping temperature, in feet absolute. hgS M 'auge reading at the pump suction expressed in feet ,plus if above atmospheric, minus if below atmospheric- corrected to the pump centerline. hvS M )elocity head in the suction pipe at the gauge connection, expressed in feet.

Si(nificance of NPSHr and NPSHa The /0S1 available must always be greater than the /0S1 required for the pump to operate properly. &t is normal practice to have at least + to 9 feet of extra /0S1 available at the suction flange to avoid any problems at the duty point. Po"er and +fficiency .rake 1orse 0ower ,.10The work performed by a pump is a function of the total head and the weight of the liquid pumped in a given time period. "ump input or bra0e horsepower 1$."2 is the actual horsepower delivered to the pump shaft. "ump output or hydraulic or water horsepower 13."2 is the liquid horsepower delivered by the pump. These two terms are defined by the following formulas.

The constant 9H4> is obtained by dividing the number or foot;pounds for one horsepower ,99,>>>- by the weight of one gallon of water ,G.99 pounds-. A5P can also be read from the pump curves at any flow rate. 0ump curves are based on a specific gravity of *.>. Ather liquids specific gravity must be considered. The brake horsepower or input to a pump is greater than the hydraulic horsepower or output due to the mechanical and hydraulic losses incurred in the pump. Therefore the pump efficiency is the ratio of these two values.

.est Bfficiency 0oint ,.B0The 1, /0S1r, efficiency, and .10 all vary with flow rate, O. Aest +fficiency Point 2A+P3 is the capacity at maximum impeller diameter at which the efficiency is highest. "ll points to the right or left of .B0 have a lower efficiency. Significance of A+P )*P as a measure of optimum ener(y conversion When si7ing and selecting centrifugal pumps for a given application the pump efficiency at design should be taken into consideration. The efficiency of centrifugal pumps is stated as a percentage and represents a unit of measure describing the change of centrifugal force ,expressed as the velocity of the fluid- into pressure energy. The ..B.0. ,best efficiency point- is the area on the curve where the change of velocity energy into pressure energy at a given gallon per minute is optimumP in essence, the point where the pump is most efficient. )*P as a measure of mechanically sta!le operation The impeller is sub!ect to non;symmetrical forces when operating to the right or left of the .B0. These forces manifest themselves in many mechanically unstable conditions like vibration, excessive hydraulic thrust, temperature rise, and erosion and separation cavitation. Thus the operation of a centrifugal pump should not be outside the furthest left or right efficiency curves published by the manufacturer. 0erformance in these areas induces premature bearing and mechanical seal failures due to shaft deflection, and an increase in temperature of the process fluid in the pump casing causing sei7ure of close tolerance parts and cavitation. )*P as an important parameter in calculations .B0 is an important parameter in that many parametric calculations such as specific speed, suction specific speed, hydrodynamic si7e, viscosity correction, head rise to shut;off, etc. are based on capacity at .B0. Kany users prefer that pumps operate within G>3 to **>3 of .B0 for optimum performance. Specific Speed Specific speed as a measure of the geometric similarity of pumps

Specific speed ,/s- is a non;dimensional design index that identifies the geometric similarity of pumps. &t is used to classify pump impellers as to their type and proportions. 0umps of the same /s but of different si7e are considered to be geometrically similar, one pump being a si7e;factor of the other. Specific speed Calculation The following formula is used to determine specific speed(

"s per the above formula, it is defined as the speed in revolutions per minute at which a geometrically similar impeller would operate if it were of such a si7e as to deliver one gallon per minute flow against one; foot head. The understanding of this definition is of design engineering significance only, however, and specific speed should be thought of only as an index used to predict certain pump characteristics. Specific speed as a measure of the shape or class of the impellers The specific speed determines the general shape or class of the impellers. "s the specific speed increases, the ratio of the impeller outlet diameter, %+, to the inlet or eye diameter, %*, decreases. This ratio becomes *.> for a true axial flow impeller. ,adial flow impellers develop head principally through centrifugal force. Jadial impellers are generally low flow high head designs. 0umps of higher specific speeds develop head partly by centrifugal force and partly by axial force. " higher specific speed indicates a pump design with head generation more by axial forces and less by centrifugal forces. "n axial flow or propeller pump with a specific speed of *>,>>> or greater generates its head exclusively through axial forces. "xial flow impellers are high flow low head designs. Specific speed identifies the approximate acceptable ratio of the impeller eye diameter ,%*- to the impeller maximum diameter ,%+- in designing a good impeller. /s( ?>> to ?>>>P %*E%+ Q *.? ; radial flow pump /s( ?>>> to *>>>>P %*E%+ R *.? ; mixed flow pump /s( *>>>> to *?>>>P %*E%+ M * ; axial flow pump Specific speed is also used in designing a new pump by si7e;factoring a smaller pump of the same specific speed. The performance and construction of the smaller pump are used to predict the performance and model the construction of the new pump. Suction specific speed ,/ssSuction specific speed ,/ss- is a dimensionless number or index that defines the suction characteristics of a pump. &t is calculated from the same formula as /s by substituting 1 by /0S1r. &n multi;stage pump the /0S1r is based on the first stage impeller /0S1J. Specific speed as a measure of the safe operating range

/ss is commonly used as a basis for estimating the safe operating range of capacity for a pump. The higher the /ss is, the narrower is its safe operating range from its .B0. The numbers range between 9,>>> and +>,>>>. Kost users prefer that their pumps have /ss in the range of G>>> to **>>> for optimum and trouble;free operation. The 'ffinity ;a"s The "ffinity $aws are mathematical expressions that define changes in pump capacity, head, and .10 when a change is made to pump speed, impeller diameter, or both. "ccording to *ffinity 4aws( Capacity, G changes in direct proportion to impeller diameter D ratio, or to speed = ratio( G+ , G* x HD+0D*I G+ , G* x H=+0=*I 5ead, 5 changes in direct proportion to the square of impeller diameter D ratio, or the square of speed = ratio( 5+ , 5* x HD+0D*I+ 5+ , 5* x H=+0=*I+ A5P changes in direct proportion to the cube of impeller diameter ratio, or the cube of speed ratio( A5P+ , A5P* x HD+0D*I9 .5P+ , A5P* x H=+0=*I9 Where the subscript( * refers to initial condition, + refer to new condition &f changes are made to both impeller diameter and pump speed the equations can be combined to( G+ , G* x H2D+x=+302D*x=*3I 5+ , 5* x H2D+x=+302D*x=*3I+ A5P+ , A5P* x H2D+x=+302D*x=*3I9 This equation is used to hand;calculate the impeller trim diameter from a given pump performance curve at a bigger diameter. The 'ffinity ;a"s are valid only under conditions of constant efficiency*
Fluid Dynamics 1 How is the NPSH (Net Positive Suction Head) calculated for a process vessel followed by a pump? 2 What is a uic! way to calculate frictional pressure drops in carbon steel pipe L "he relationship shown below is valid for #eynolds numbers in the ran$e of 21%% to 1%&' (or smooth tubes) a constant of 2*)%%% should be used rather than 2%)%%%'