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artial melting of the continental crust has long been of interest to petrologists as a small-scale phenomenon. Mineral assemblages in the cores of old, eroded mountain chains that formed where continents collided show that the continental crust was buried deeply enough to have melted extensively. Geochemical, experimental, petrological and geodynamic modelling now show that when the continental crust melts the consequences are crustal-scale. The combination of melting and regional deformation is critical: the presence of melt on grain boundaries weakens rocks, and weak rocks deform faster, inuencing the way mountain belts grow and how rifts propagate. Tectonic forces also drive the movement of melt out of the lower continental crust, resulting in an irreversible chemical differentiation of the crust.
Ga) continental crust appears to be sl ig ht ly more felsic t ha n Proterozoic (2.5 0.5 Ga) or Phanerozoic (< 0.5 Ga) crust (Rudnick and Gao 2003). Thus, juvenile material added to the crust must be modied in order to b e come cont i nent a l c r ust. Evidence from modern arcs indicates that more felsic compositions arise because the mac magmas fractionate and because they cause the crust to partially melt. Consequently, a layer of mac cumulate and residual material develops at the base of arc crust. As the arc crust thickens, this KEYWORDS : continental crust, partial melting, microstructures, cumulate and residual part at the metamorphic petrology base converts to denser material, detaches (a process called delamiINTRODUCTION nation) and sinks into the mantle. Thus, the bulk composiThe continental crust is 41.4 km thick on average and tion of the remaining continental crust becomes more covers 39% of the Earths surface. Information from the felsic. The residual and cumulate material that returns to isotopic and trace element composition of >4-billion-yearthe mantle contains, and hence is enriched by, a small old (Ga) zircon grains and the evolution of mantle isotopic proportion of felsic melt and becomes the Enriched Mantle reservoirs indicates that 75%, and possibly more, of the I (EMI) isotopic reservoir (Tatsumi 2005). continental crust was created before 2.5 Ga (Harrison 2009; Belousova et al. 2010). Thus, the continental crust is much EVIDENCE THAT THE CONTINENTAL CRUST longer-lived than oceanic crust and, consequently, has acquired considerable complexity. This is reected in the PARTIALLY MELTED At the beginning of the last century, extensive mapping petrological and structural characteristics of the rocks was done in the shield areas of Scandinavia, Canada and within it. elsewhere. This pioneering work revealed that large parts The continental crust began to form in the Hadean, more of the continental crust have been metamorphosed to a than 4.0 billion years ago, rst as the mantle differentiated, higher degree and more strongly deformed than adjacent then from thickened oceanic crust above hotspots and areas. We now know that the structures in these highly at shallow levels (~15 km) above convergent margins deformed regions are similar to those in modern orogens (Harrison 2009). Since the late Archean (from ca 2.8 Ga), where continents have collided and that the metamorphic most new, or juvenile, continental crust has formed in temperature in these regions was high enough (> 700 oC) magmatic arcs above subduction zones, but about 10% was for large areas to partially melt. Some continental crust formed where mantle magmas were added to existing crust has experienced repeated episodes of modication by by hotspots or plumes. If new, juvenile continental crust intense deformation, high-temperature metamorphism and is formed from mantle magma in magmatic arcs and at partial melting: examples occur in the Grenville Province hotspots or plumes, then its average composition should of Canada, in southern West Greenland, in the Western be mac. It is not. The average composition of the contiGneisses of Norway and in East Africa. Different terms are nental crust is broadly andesitic, although Archean (>2.5 used to describe this modication. It is simply called reworking by petrologists and structural geologists, but from a geochemists perspective, it is intracrustal differentiation. 1 Dpartement des Sciences Appliques, The largest and most intensely reworked regions of contiUniversit du Qubec Chicoutimi nental crust are located where continents collided and Chicoutimi, Qubec G7H 2B1, Canada E-mail: ewsawyer@uqac.ca major mountain chains were formed, for example, the East African Orogen. Reworking is not restricted to thickened 2 Dipartimento di Geoscienze, Universit di Padova orogens. Mantle melts emplaced into the continental crust Via Gradenigo 6, I-35131 Padova, Italy E-mail: bernardo.cesare@unipd.it at rifts or in large igneous provinces associated with hotspots can result in high-temperature metamorphism. 3 Department of Geology, University of Maryland Partial melting in such settings can lead to intense, local College Park, MD 20742-4211, USA
E-mail: mbrown@umd.edu
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reworking of the continental crust, but such thermal reworking is not generally accompanied by intense deformation. The deformed and metamorphosed continental crust is not uniform. The upper part is approximately granodioritic in composition and is richer in SiO2 and K 2O relative to the lower part, which is more mac and richer in Al2O3, FeO, MgO and CaO (Rudnick and Gao 2003). These differences as well as the considerable enrichment in light rare earth elements and the large negative Eu anomaly in the upper crust relative to the lower crust are best explained by partial melting, a process that is also called anatexis. Thus intracrustal differentiation occurs by partial melting of the lower part of the continental crust and migration of the melt to the upper part, leaving the lower crust with a more mac and residual bulk composition (FIG. 1 AND 2). In addition to these geochemical differences, this process imparts a layered structure to the continental crust, which is revealed by an increase in seismic P- and S-wave velocities with depth. Seismic pro les across young continental crust affected by late Paleozoic collision and mountain building in western Europe show the same sub-horizontal Moho and internal velocity structure as old crust in northern Europe that was reworked by mountain building events in the Proterozoic and Archean. Thus, the acquisition of a sub-horizontal layered structured must happen soon after mountains stop growing. This same basic pattern of modication to continental crust has been going on since the late Archean, at least. The geochemical approach has revealed that the large-scale process of intracrustal differentiation occurs by partial melting, but it does not address other concerns, such as
the source of the heat for melting, what happens at the grain scale during anatexis, or how felsic melt moves from the lower to the upper crust. Nor is it concerned with the broader consequences of partial melting, such as its effect on the rheology of the continental crust and how this affects the way mountain chains are built when continents collide. These and other questions are the subject of this issue of Elements on the theme When the Continental Crust Melts.
Sill and dike network in stromatic metatexite migmatite at Maigetter Peak (height 480m) in the Fosdick Mountains of West Antarctica (762638S, 1463000W). The image is looking to the SE and was taken from the air (Twin Otter wing tip in upper right). From the aerial perspective and also upon close examination in outcrops, intersecting dikes do not appear to truncate or displace each other; the sills and dikes of granite crosscut foliation but may be continuous with or discordant to leucosomes in the migmatite. The leucosomes contain peritectic garnet and cordierite (see Figure 1 in Brown et al. this issue).
FIGURE 1
Schematic representation of the reworking of continental crust by partial melting. Partial melting occurs in the lower part of the crust where temperatures exceed the solidus and migmatites are formed (brown). Melt is formed on grain boundaries but segregates from the residual solids along a progressively more focussed pathway (shown in red), rst through leucosomes then dykes. The melt collects to form plutons, typically at the transition from ductile middle crust (yellow) to brittle upper crust (green); some felsic lavas may be erupted. It is not yet clear whether melt ascent is uninterrupted or whether melt ponds at intermediate levels, shown by the question marks. The ascent of some melt ends in the middle crust as dyke complexes, without forming plutons.
FIGURE 2
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Pelitic rocks contain a large amount of muscovite and biotite 30 to 50 vol% is not unusual and will produce melt progressively as the temperature rises above the temperatures of the incongruent melting reactions involving these minerals, typically ~720 oC and ~820 oC, respectively. Other rock types also undergo uid-absent incongruent melting. Metagreywackes and meta-andesites begin to melt between 750 oC and 800 oC. Amphibolites follow at about 850 oC, but they produce melt of tonalitic composition. Fluid-absent incongruent melting of micas in metapelites and metagreywackes can produce as much as 50 vol% melt. After all the mica is consumed at about 925 o C, the rate of melt production decreases, and the composition of the melt is no longer granitic. Fluid-absent incongruent melting of micas and amphibole describes the melting of metapelite, metagreywacke and mac rocks quite well. It explains both the volumes of melt generated and the granulite facies, residual mineral assemblages found deep in the crust that are left behind after melt has been extracted. However, it is not a good description of melting in hydrate-poor quartzofeldspathic rocks, such as leucocratic granites, trondhjemites and tonalites. Recent studies in metamorphic terranes, ranging in age from Archean to Phanerozoic, show far higher degrees of partial melting in granitic rocks than can be accounted for by H2O in pores or by the breakdown of their mica and amphibole. Melting in these rocks occurred because an aqueous uid in ltrated them and led to what is called water-uxed melting at low temperature, around 700 oC. Such an inux of H2O is now recognised as being responsible for melting of metapelitic, metapsammitic and metamac rocks in some anatectic terranes (Ward et al. 2008; Berger et al. 2008). Oxygen stable isotope studies reveal diverse sources for this H2O. In some terranes it came from dehydration reactions in nearby metapelites or from crystallizing plutons, whereas in others it originated as deeply penetrating seawater or meteoric water, and in yet others it came from the mantle. It is not surprising, therefore, that many of the places where water-uxed melting has occurred in the continental crust are adjacent to major crustal-scale shear zones that provided the pathways for the H2O to in ltrate the continental crust (Sawyer 2010).
Types of melting in PT space for continental crust thickened to 71 km. The base of average (41.4 km) crust is shown by the blue dashed line. The red curve is the H2O-present solidus in the haplogranite system; subsolidus conditions occur in the yellow eld to its left, and partial melting can occur in the pink eld. Fields for melting by hydrate breakdown are shown: blue for muscovite (Ms), brown for biotite (Bt) and green for amphibole (Amp). The purple line marks the start of ultrahightemperature (UHT) metamorphism. Two equilibrium geotherms for crust of normal thickness are shown as dotted black lines. Crustal radiogenic heat production (0.61 Wm -3) and a mantle heat ux at the Moho (30 mWm -2) are the same for both, but thermal conductivity is 3.0 Wm -1K-1 for geotherm A and 2.0 for B; hence geotherm B is hotter but still does not reach UT conditions.
FIGURE 3
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approaches to better understand the conditions and petrological processes that occur when the continental crust melts. Dating the time of formation of metamorphic minerals and adding this time constraint to PT information results in a PTt trajectory, which charts the movement of rocks through the continental crust. These trajectories provide a powerful tool for testing numerical models that investigate the combination of parameters governing the development of orogens.
Since leucosome cannot be considered as representative of the initial melt composition, because of crystal fractionation and contamination for example, the chemical composition of quenched glass from melting experiments has been the principal source of information on the composition of anatectic melts. This situation is changing: micronsized inclusions of glass and nanogranite (FIG. 5), believed to be respectively quenched anatectic melt and its crystallization products, have been found in minerals from migmatite terranes (Cesare et al. 2011). These inclusions could provide the major, trace and isotopic compositions of natural anatectic melts; such starting-point compositions are required to understand what changes occur to anatectic melts in the crust. How can anatectic melt remain as glass in slowly cooled rocks from deep in the continental crust? This and other questions are addressed in the contribution by Holness et al. (2011 this issue), which outlines what recent studies of the microstructure in partially melted rocks tell us about the processes that occur when the continental crust melts and subsequently cools.
Examples of partially melted rocks. (A) Migmatite derived from pelite and psammite protoliths, Nemiscau subprovince, Quebec. The lightest-coloured parts are leucosome and the darkest parts, rich in biotite and conspicuous red garnet, are residual material; together these are the neosome. The medium-grey-coloured part is a psammite that did not partially melt; it is paleosome. Scale is 15 cm long. ( B ) Highly strained
FIGURE 4
migmatite derived from metatonalite partially melted under granulite facies conditions in the Limpopo Mobile Belt, a deeply eroded orogen. Penknife is 11 cm long. ( C ) Migmatite in which the garnetbearing neosomes have been highly strained, creating a banded or layered structure typical of shear zones developed in melt-bearing rocks. Scale is 15 cm long.
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produced when and where rocks become hot and melt. Strain and advected heat may be focussed into a narrow zone between a reverse-sense shear zone at the bottom and a normal-sense one at the top, in a phenomenon called channel ow. Over the past two decades, advances in understanding these topics and other tectonic and geodynamic consequences of When the Continental Crust Melts have occurred through the use of highly sophisticated numerical models, and the article by Jamieson et al. (2011 this issue) presents the state of the art in this critical eld.
Backscattered electron image of a nanogranite derived from a small (6 m) inclusion of granitic melt trapped in a garnet (Grt) crystal from a migmatite at Ronda (Spain). The melt inclusion has a typical polyhedric shape (negative crystal; see Cesare et al. 2011) and crystallized into a negrained aggregate of quartz (Qtz), biotite (Bt), K-feldspar (Kfs), apatite (Ap) and plagioclase (not visible in this image). IMAGE COURTESY OF O MAR BARTOLI, U NIVERSITY OF PARMA , ITALY
FIGURE 5
Approximately 80% of grain boundaries have melt on them when the melt reaches ~7 vol%, and this results in a loss of about 80% of the pre-melting strength of the protolith (Rosenberg and Handy 2005). Rocks become very weak long before melting advances enough (~26 vol%) to turn them into magma, i.e. a suspension of crystals in melt. The onset of melting and the weakening it causes have a profound effect on the rheology of the continental crust, on the way it deforms and on how orogens develop. The location of weak rocks is controlled by where the heat source is and by the rate at which hot rocks and cold rocks are moved to advect heat and mass. These factors are controlled in part by isostasy, by the development of a ductile root at the bottom of the continental crust and by erosion at the top of it. A weak region in the crust is
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Constructive reviews and comments by principal editor Hap McSween and reviewers Tracy Rushmer, Nick Petford and Gary Stevens have greatly improved this contribution. On behalf of all the contributors we would like to express our collective thanks to Pierrette Tremblay for her encouragement and help at all stages in the development of this issue.
Sawyer EW (2008b) Identifying the parts of migmatites in the eld. In: Sawyer EW, Brown M (eds) Working with Migmatites. Mineralogical Association of Canada, Short Course Volume 38, pp 29-36 Sawyer EW (2010) Migmatites formed by water-uxed partial melting of a leucogranodiorite protolith: Microstructures in the residual rocks and source of the uid. Lithos 116: 273-286. Tatsumi Y (2005) The subduction factory: How it operates in the evolving Earth. GSA Today 15: 4-10 Ward R, Stevens G, Kisters A (2008) Fluid and deformation induced partial melting and melt volumes in lowtemperature granulite-facies metasediments, Damara Belt, Namibia. Lithos 105: 253-271 White RW, Stevens G, Johnson TE (2011) Is the crucible reproducible? Reconciling melting experiments with thermodynamic calculations. Elements 7: 241-246 Whittington AG, Hofmeister AM, Nabelek PI (2009) Temperature-dependent thermal diffusivity of the Earths crust and implications for magmatism. Nature 458: 319-321
REFERENCES
Belousova EA, Kostitsyn YA, Grif n WL, Begg GC, OReilly SY, Pearson NJ (2010) The growth of the continental crust: Constraints from zircon Hf-isotope data. Lithos 119: 457-466 Berger A, Burri, T, Alt-Epping P, Engi M (2008) Tectonically controlled uid ow and water-assisted melting in the middle crust: An example from the Central Alps. Lithos 102: 598-615 Brown M, Korhonen FJ, Siddoway CS (2011) Organizing melt ow through the crust. Elements 7: 261-266 Cesare B, Acosta-Vigil A, Ferrero S, Bartoli O (2011) Melt inclusions in migmatites and granulites. Journal of the Virtual Explorer 40: paper 2 Clark C, Fitzsimons ICW, Healy D, Harley SL (2011) How does the continental crust get really hot? Elements 7: 235-240 Guernina S, Sawyer EW (2003) Largescale melt-depletion in granulite terranes: an example from the Archean Ashuanipi Subprovince of Quebec. Journal of Metamorphic Geology 21: 181-201 Harrison TM (2009) The Hadean crust: Evidence from >4 Ga zircons. Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences 37: 479-505
Holness MB (2008) Decoding migmatite microstructures. In: Sawyer EW, Brown M (eds) Working with Migmatites. Mineralogical Association of Canada, Short Course Volume 38, pp 57-76 Holness MB, Cesare B, Sawyer EW (2011) Melted rocks under the microscope: Microstructures and their interpretation. Elements 7: 247-252 Jamieson RA, Unsworth MJ, Harris NBW, Rosenberg CL, Schulmann K (2011) Crustal melting and the ow of mountains. Elements 7: 253-260 Jessup MJ, Cottle JM, Searle MP, Law RD, Newell DL, Tracy RJ, Waters DJ (2008) P-T-t-D paths of Everest Series schist, Nepal. Journal of Metamorphic Geology 26: 717-739 Rosenberg CL, Handy MR (2005) Experimental deformation of partially melted granite revisited: implications for the continental crust. Journal of Metamorphic Geology 23: 19-28 Rudnick RL, Gao S (2003) The composition of the continental crust. In: Rudnick RL (ed) The Crust. Treatise on Geochemistry 3, Elsevier-Pergamon, Oxford, pp 1-64 Sawyer EW (2008a) Atlas of Migmatites. The Canadian Mineralogist Special Publication 9, NRC Research Press, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada, 371 pp
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GLOSSARY
Anatectic front The surface marking the beginning
of partial melting in the continental crust. It corresponds to the rst occurrence of neosome in the direction of increasing metamorphic grade.
Anatectic melt A melt, generally granitic in composi-
processes such as fractional crystallization and contamination may have modied its composition.
Melanosome A type of residuum composed predomi-
prepartial melting structures, such as bedding, foliation and folds, are preserved
Migmatite A metamorphic rock formed by partial
crack propagation normal to the direction of minimum compression. It occurs when stresses at the crack tips equal fracture toughness, or when reduced stresses lead to subcritical crack growth.
Constrictional strain Deformation resulting in
melting. At the outcrop scale migmatites are heterogeneous. In addition to two petrogenetically related parts called leucosome and residuum, migmatites can also contain rocks, called paleosome, which did not melt.
Neosome The part of a migmatite formed by partial
and prepartial melting structures (bedding, foliation, folds) have been destroyed and commonly replaced by syn-anatectic ow structures
Ductile fracturing Fracturing due to creep and
melting and consisting of melt-derived and residual fractions. The neosome may, or may not, have undergone segregation.
Orogenesis The process of forming a mountain chain
in the Earths continental crust due to the convergence and collision of tectonic plates
Paleosome The non-neosome part of a migmatite that
growth of microscale voids lled with either uid or melt in rockthat become interconnected leading to rupture.
Ductile-to-brittle transition zone The depth in the
Earths crust where the brittle strength equals the ductile strength. It occurs in the range of 12 to 18 km.
Flattening strain A deformation resulting in oblate
tion of granite to just albite + orthoclase + quartz + H2O components (the AbOrQz system). Adding an anorthite component creates the haplogranodiorite system.
Incongruent melting The process by which partial
specied intensive and or/extensive variables (for example, pressure and temperature) and a specied bulk composition
Residuum The solid fraction left in a migmatite after
melting of a rock, mineral or mineral assemblage produces one or more new (peritectic) minerals, in addition to melt
Leucosome The part of a migmatite derived from segre-
gated partial melt. Leucosome does not necessarily have the composition of an anatectic melt because
phase assemblage elds (generally at lower temperature) from the melt-bearing phase elds (generally at higher temperature) in a PT phase diagram
Stromatic migmatite A type of metatexite migmatite
in which the leucosome and melanosome, or just the leucosome, occur as laterally continuous, parallel layers called stroma, which are commonly oriented along the compositional layering or the foliation
Supercontinent A large continental landmass created
Metamorphism that occurred at temperatures above 900 oC and pressures compatible with the stability of sillimanite
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