The Skeletal System

Bone tissue
Bone is a living organ. It is a specialised form of connective tissue,
often being called supportive tissue. Bone is rigid and non-elastic.

Bone matrix (the matter between the cells), consists of a fibrous

tissue framework that contains calcium and phosphorus salts. The
bulk of the weight of bone (approx 2/3) is mineral salts (calcium
carbonate and calcium phosphate).

A single bone is made up of a number of different types of tissues:

Corticol This is the dense, solid outer layer of all bone, and
(cortex) or makes up the shaft of long bones.
compact
bone Even though it appears quite smooth, when we
look at it under the microscope, it is seen to consist
of many close- packed cylindrical units called
Haversian systems.

Each Haversian system consists of a central canal,

called the Haversian canal, through which runs an
artery, vein and nerve.

This is surrounded by concentric rings of bony

matrix, called lamellae. Within this, are little
cavities (called lacunae) for the bone cells to reside
in, and little canals (called canaliculi), that carry
nutrients to the bone cells. This can be viewed in
the article on tissue types under connective tissue.

Cancellous or This type of bone consists of a fine network of bone

spongy bone tissue with spaces in between, making it look a bit
like honeycomb.

The visible spaces contain a meshwork of

intercommunicating spaces (called trabecular ribs),
that are filled with bone marrow.

All bones contain both corticol and cancellous

bone.

Spongy bone tissue makes up most of the bone

tissue of short, flat and irregular bones.

Bone marrow This is a soft form of connective tissue, which is

found in the hollow centre (called the medullary
cavity) of long bones, and also in the spaces in
spongy bone.

There are two types of bone marrow, red and

yellow.

Red bone marrow is produced in the spongy bone

and this is very important for making red blood
cells (erythrocytes).

Yellow bone marrow is produced in the centre

cavity of the long bones, which is a fatty type of
bone marrow which consists of some blood cells
and tissue. Yellow bone marrow stores energy in
the form of lipids (fat). This type of marrow is
present in mature adult animals.

Periosteum Is a tough two layered, white, fibrous membrane

that surrounds bone, except at the ends. It is
(peri = attached to the cortex by fibres, and consists of
around, osteo dense connective tissue, blood vessels, and nerves
= bone) that pass into the bone.

Periosteum is responsible for protection, nutrition,

for laying down new bone on the outside surface of
 Classification of bones
Bones are classified according to their gross appearance (shape),
into the following types:

 Long bones

 Short bones

 Flat bones

 Irregular bones

 Sesamoid bones

 Pneumatic bones

Long bones
Long bones are typically longer than they are wide. They usually
consist of a more or less cylindrical shaft called a diaphysis, which
has a larger head at both ends called the epiphysis. There is a bony
outgrowth on the head of these bones and it is called the apophysis.
Through the centre of the shaft is a cavity where the fatty yellow
bone marrow is in adult animals, this is called the medullary cavity.
This cavity is lined with fibrous tissue called endosteum.

In mature bone, the region where the diaphysis joins the epiphysis
is called the metaphysis. In growing bones, this region contains a
layer of Hyaline cartilage called the epiphyseal growth plate. This
growth plate is where bones grow in length until animals reach
physical maturity.

The end of long bones is covered with articular cartilage. This is a

thin layer of Hyaline cartilage where the bone forms an articulation
(joint) with another bone. The cartilage reduces friction and absorbs
shock at freely movable joints.
Short bones
Short bones are more or less cuboidal in shape. They do not have a
medullary cavity, but consist of an outer shell of cortical bone, with
a spongy bone interior.

The most common examples are the carpal and tarsal bones

Flat bones
The diagram below will help you to understand more about flat
bones and skull sutures, (see fibrous joints for more on the skull).

Flat bones are a sandwich of cancellous (spongy) bone between

layers of compact bone. They are reasonably thin. They do not have
a shaft or a growth plate. Flat bones afford considerable protection,
as well as providing extensive areas for muscle attachment.

Examples of flat bones are bones of the skull, like the flat plates of
the cranium, which are mostly joined by sutures, and the bones of
the pelvis.

Irregular bones
Irregular bones have more complex shapes, and are classified as
irregular because they do not fit into any other categories. They are
neither flat, nor do they have a shaft, they also vary in the amount
of spongy and compact bone that they have.

The most common example of irregular bones are bones of the

vertebral column.

Sesamoid bones
Sesamoid bones are bones shaped a bit like sesame seeds. They are
small bones found along the course of tendons where considerable
pressure develops. Sesamoid bones do not join with other bones.
They are contained within ligaments.

Examples of where we can find sesamoid bones are at the back of

the knee in some animals, the patella, the navicular bone in the
horse and the sesamoids associated with the phalanges (toes) of
some animals.
Pneumatic bones
Pneumatic bones are bones that have air spaces in them.

An example of a pneumatic bone is the sternum or the humerus in

birds.

Functions of the skeleton

 Support of the body- bones are like the "steel girders" of the
body, forming an internal framework that supports all the
internal organs. Without this framework we would all creep
along the ground like slugs!

 Leverage for movement - skeletal muscles are attached to

bones by tendons. They use the bones as levers to move the
body and its parts.

 Protect viscera - bones protect soft body organs (viscera),

which would easily be injured otherwise. For example, the
fused bones of the skull provide an excellent enclosure for the
brain. The vertebrae surround and protect the spinal cord and
the rib cage helps to protect the vital organs of the thorax.

 Store minerals - especially Calcium and Phosphorus. These

minerals are deposited and then withdrawn as needed by the
body. Also, some fat is stored in the internal cavities of bones.

 Provide a site for blood formation, in the red bone marrow

located in flat bones and in the ends of long bones - this
process of blood cell production is called haemopoiesis.

Classification of the skeleton

The skeleton is divided into:

1. The axial skeleton = skull, vertebrae and ribs

2. The appendicular skeleton = pectoral and pelvic girdles, hind

and fore limbs

The axial skeleton

The skull is made up of the cranium, facial bones and the mandible
(lower jaw) attaches to it. The cranium and facial bones are
composed from plates of bones, most of which are fused together
by immovable joints called sutures (suture = seam). The mandible
connects to the skull by a freely movable joint.
The vertebrae column consists of the following types and numbers
of bones, starting from the head to the tail:

 the cervical (or neck) vertebrae - there are seven bones

here in most mammals

 the thoracic (or chest) vertebrae - with variable numbers

between 12 and 18 bones, depending on the species of animal

 the lumbar (or loin) vertebrae - with five to seven bones

depending on the species

 the sacral (or pelvic) vertebrae - usually four to five bones

here, that are actually fused together giving great strength

 the coccygeal (or tail) vertebrae - with the greatest

variation of up to 23 bones, depending on the species.

The ribs attach to the sternum, which is also part of the axial
skeleton. The sternum is commonly called the breast bone, and
consists of a number of segments (usually six to eight, depending
on species), to which the ribs attach.

The appendicular skeleton

The bones of the limbs are often referred to as the appendages.

The forelimb is referred to as the thoracic limb.

The hind limb is referred to as the pelvic limb.

The pectoral (or shoulder) girdle attaches the bones of the forelimb
to the Axial skeleton. There are two pectoral girdles in the body, one
on either side of the body, and consists of the scapula and the
clavicle (which is the collar bone in humans and often does not exist
in animals). The pectoral girdle does not articulate via a joint with
the vertebrae column, but the scapula unites via a joint with the
humerus, which is the first bone of the thoracic limb.

The pelvic girdle consists of two hip bones (pelvis), which is made
up of three bones, the Ilium, the ischium, and the pubis, on either
side of the body. The pelvic girdle articulates with the femur, the
first bone of the pelvic limb.

Ligaments
Ligaments are strong bands of white fibrous connective tissue that
unites bones. They function to keep joint surfaces in apposition,
while still allowing movement. They serve to support and strengthen
joints. They are usually inelastic, and help stop a joint (with the help
of muscles and tendons from bending too far or the wrong way.

If a joint is wrenched and stretched too far it results in stretching

(called a sprain) or tearing of the ligaments and can result in joint
instability. Ligaments are not designed to stretch and when
damaged have a slow capacity for repair. Back to top of page

Skull
The shape of the skull varies between different species of animals,
but its actual function is basically the same. In this module we are
going to use the dog skull as our example.

The skull rests on top of the vertebral column and is composed of

two sets of bones:

1. the cranial bones -which house and protect the brain

2. the facial bones - which covers the area we call the face, it
supports many of the sense organs, and forms passages for
the beginning of the digestive and respiratory tract.

Cranial The occipital bone - is at the back of the head, joining

bones the neck.
consist of:
The parietal bone - is in the front of the occipital bone
and covers the top of the brain, towards the back, it is
like the roof of the cranial cavity.

The frontal bone (forehead) -is front part of the top of

the head and between the eyes, it forms the front part
of the roof of the cranial cavity.

The temporal bone -is the sides of the skull, housing

the ears.

Facial The lacrimal bone (lacrima = tear) - is a small delicate

bones bone, forming part of the inside wall of the eye orbit, .
consist of: It also contains the first part of the tear duct.

The nasal bone - is a long bone in most dogs, that joins

the frontal bone, and starts just in front of the eyes and
goes down to the dogs nose, it houses the nasal
cavities (airways).

The maxillary bone (or maxilla) - is at the sides of the

face and part of the hard palate (across the roof of the
mouth) It is classed as the upper jaw bone, running
from one side of the face to the other, underneath the
nasal bone. It houses the cheek teeth (Canines,
premolars and molars).

The incisive bone - paired bones at the front of the

 upper jaw that houses the incisor teeth.

The zygomatic bone - is the bone forming the hard part

of the cheek, and the lower outside portion of the orbit.

The bone that forms the bottom jaw, is called the mandible. It
supports all the lower teeth in the mouth. It articulates with the
temporal bones, on both sides of the face, by the only free moving
joint in the skull (the temporomandibular joint).

Vertebrae
The vertebrae is a collection of bones that together make up the
vertebrae column. This is often referred to as the spinal column or
the backbone.

The intervertebral discs are fibrocartilage discs, that form strong

joints, permit the various movements of the vertebral column,
absorb concussion and reduce shock.

Each group of vertebrae is represented by its first letter followed by

the number representing how many are in each section. For
example C1 is the first cervical vertebrae and C7 is the last, T1 is
the first thoracic vertebrae, and so on.

Common features of a The body: the thick, spool-shaped ventral

typical vertebra are: (towards the ground), part, that articulates
with adjacent vertebrae.

The vertebral arch: the part that arises

from the body, then ends with the spinous
process (this is the part you can feel along
the back of a "bony" animal, like a dog or a
horse).

The vertebral foramen: (foramen = hole

or opening), this forms the vertebral canal,
which houses the spinal cord.

The facet joint surface: (facet = little

face), are the articular surfaces.

The transverse process: these are the

lateral extensions of the vertebral arch.

Cervical vertebrae
Cervical vertebrae are the seven vertebrae of the neck of all
mammals. It supports and articulates with the head, and controls
and supports the neck.

The first cervical vertebrae is called the atlas (C1), it has a

synovial articulation, with the occipital bone of the head, allowing it
to flex and extend. It is often called the "yes" joint, because it allows
you to nod. The atlas has two large lateral processes called wings;
these are usually able to be felt in the conscious animal.

The second cervical vertebrae is called the axis (C2), it is a longer

vertebrae, and forms a pivot articulation with the atlas. This allows
pivotal motion, and is often called the "no" joint as it allows you to
move your head in from side to side.

The atlas and axis vertebrae are different to the other five cervical
vertebrae, because they perform these functions, (the huge range
of head movements seen in normal animals) that are not shared by
the other vertebrae.

Thoracic vertebrae
The thoracic vertebrae form the back and chest. This can be a little
confusing, as when we think of chest we often think of the area
below the neck, in front of the forelimbs. This is the breast, or
brisket area, with the chest being the area where the thorax
is (heart and ribs).

Thoracic vertebrae, articulate with the ribs. If you ride a horse, then
the saddle sits on the thoracic vertebrae

Lumbar vertebrae
The lumbar vertebrae are the loins of all animals (it is referred to as
the lower back in humans). Lumbar vertebrae give mobility to the
pelvic girdle to assist locomotion.

These are probably the largest and definitely the strongest

vertebrae in the body. This is because they serve as the site of
attachment for the large sling muscles that support the abdomen.
They are characterized by their large size and long plate-like
transverse processes, which is where the muscles attach to. Lumbar
vertebrae also help to protect the kidneys, which lie underneath.
Dogs normally have seven lumbar vertebrae.

Sacral vertebrae
The sacral vertebrae are usually referred to as the sacrum, because
the bones are actually fused together into a solid structure. Sacral
vertebrae articulate with the pelvis (the ilium), by a cartilaginous
joint called the sacroiliac joint. This articulation allows mechanical
forces to be efficiently transferred from the hind leg to the vertebral
column. The dog normally has three sacral vertebrae fused together
to form the sacrum.
Coccygeal vertebrae
Coccygeal vertebrae form the tail, and are sometimes referred to
as the caudal vertebrae. The further they move down the tail, the
smaller they become. The coccygeal vertebrae help to give the
animal balance, and have signalling functions. With some animals
they are used to swat flies and other insects, for example the horse.
With most animals they protect the perineum (the area containing
the anus and the vulva in females). The number of coccygeal
vertebrae in the dog may vary between breeds.

Examples of signalling functions are:

 wagging in the happy dog

 erect in the aggressive dog

 swishing in the mischievous cat

 jammed tight in the nervous horse

 up high and to one side in the female horse or dog signalling

her desire to mate.

Ribs
Ribs are arranged in pairs on both sides of the body.

The ribs, which are attached to the thoracic vertebrae, form a bony
cavity called the thorax. The thorax encloses and protects the
thoracic organs (heart and lungs). With the exception of fish, ribs
are essential for respiration., by providing a mechanical framework
for the expansion of the thorax during breathing.

True Ribs: these articulate with the sternum through their costal
cartilages (a cartilaginous joint).

False Ribs: have costal cartilages (hyaline) which attach to the

costal cartilages of bottom true ribs. This forms the costal arch,
indirectly joining them to the sternum.

Floating Ribs: (in dogs and humans): do not join to the sternum, or
other costal cartilages.

The intercostal space (spaces between the ribs), is for the

intercostal muscles to attach. Their major importance is for
breathing.

The xiphoid process of the sternum is the cranial attachment

point for the linea alba, which is the central junction of the
abdominal muscles.
Pectoral girdle
The pectoral girdle is the foundation of the forelimb. It is anchored
by muscular attachments to the ribs and spine and from it
originates the muscle which operate the forelimb.

The scapula (shoulder blade) in all animals is a relatively flat bone,

triangular shaped. The bottom of the scapula articulates with the
humerus of the forelimb, forming the only true joint between the
scapula and another bone in most animals. Humans, birds and cats
have a clavicle (collar bone), which forms a joint with part of the
scapula. In the cat it is a small bone which lies in the muscles just
cranial (closer to the head) of the shoulder joint. The lateral
(outside) face of the scapula has a ridge along it called the spine.
This is often palpable on its lateral surface and extends down almost
to the shoulder joint. The scapula attaches via strong muscles to the
spine, allowing it to have exceptionally free movement, which it
does by sliding smoothly back and forth. In the dog there is a band
of cartilage along the top of the scapula where it attaches to the
vertebrae and ribs.

Fore limb
The forelimb is also called the thoracic limb. In many of our four
legged domestic animals, the thoracic limb carries up to 60% of the
body weight. The horse is a classic example of this. It carries 60% of
its weight on its forelimbs, then we add a rider onto it's back, adding
more weight to the forehand. This explains why most lameness-
related problems in horses are in the forelegs.

The thoracic limb consists The humerus - sometimes called arm

of the following from top bone, articulates with the scapula.
to bottom:
The radius and ulna - these bones make
up the forearm in most animals.

The carpus - consists of two rows of

bones called the carpal bones, these
bones make up the knee.

The metacarpal bones - there is a great

variation here among species, in the
horse we call them the cannon bone and
two splint bones, (so they have three
bones), pigs have four bones, and in the
dog and cat there are five metacarpal
bones
 The phalanges - these are the toes in
most animal, they correspond to the
fingers and toes in man. The number
here varies between species, usually
between one and five.

Pelvic girdle
The pelvic girdle provides a solid foundation for the hind limbs,
protects the viscera of the pelvic cavity and provides the birth
passage in females.

It is composed of three bones, the ilium, ischium, and pubis, fused

together.

The pelvic girdle or bony pelvis as it is often called, encloses the

pelvic cavity. The "pelvic inlet" is the cranial (towards the head)
opening, into the pelvic cavity. The "pelvic outlet" is the caudal
(towards the tail) opening out of the pelvic cavity. The widest
horizontal distance of the pelvic cavity is the transverse diameter
(this is the opening where the arrows are in the diagram), this is
where the foetus must pass during birth.

The bones of the pelvic girdle are on each side of the body, and
together they form the basin like structure that we call the pelvis.
Each of the three fused bones on each side are called the
hemipelvis, and both sides meet at the pubic (or pelvic) symphysis,
which is a fibrocartilaginous joint. The acetabulum is the socket
that articulates with the femoral head of the femur, which is the first
bone of the hind limb.
The ilium is the largest bone, which articulates with the sacrum. The
iliac crest, is the bony part often called the point of the hip and can
be easily felt and seen in thin animals (these are the bony points
that we can see jutting out on a skinny cow or horse). The ischium
has a long bony part that runs back and forms the "pin bone", which
are the two pointed bones on either side of the tail head in cattle.
This can be felt in the dog and can be seen in a very poor
conditioned dog. This area is the site of attachment of the thigh
muscles.

The pubis runs along the floor of the pelvis that joins at the
symphysis. The pubis and ischium together surround the obturator
foramen, which is a large opening in the floor of the pelvis, that
allows blood vessels and nerves to pass through.

Hind limb
The hind limbs form the back legs in all four legged animals.
 They are often referred to as the pelvic limb, and consists of the
following, starting from the articulation with the pelvis:-

 The femur -which is the heaviest bone in the body.

 The patella - a small plate of bone that is a large sesamoid

bone, that sits in front of the lower end of the femur.

 The tibia and fibula -two long bones that are joined by an
interosseous space (like the radius and ulna in the foreleg),
which articulates with the tarsus.

 The tarsus - called the "hock" or tarsal bones, are two or three
rows of bones, with the number of bones varying with
different species.

 The metatarsal bones - which are similar to the carpal bones

of the thoracic limb.

 The phalanges -the toes which have the same pattern as in

the thoracic limb.

Hyoid apparatus
The hyoid apparatus consists of a collection of small bones that are
suspended from the base of the skull. They run from the temporal
bone to the larynx, forming the shape of a cradle. Its function is to
hold the larynx (voice box) in place, and serve as a major
attachment for the tongue. The movement of the hyoid apparatus
and so of the larynx, is like a swing. It moves back and forth in an
arc.

Os penis
The os penis is a bone in the penis of carnivores (mainly the dog).
Joints
Introduction
Joints are unions or junctions between two or more bones. They are
classified according to their degree of movement, and their type.
Joints are also called articulations. The surface of the bones that
meet to form a joint is called the articular surface. So, when we say
that one bone articulates with another bone, we simply mean that
one bone forms a joint with another.

Joint structure determines how it functions, they can be fixed,

slightly moveable or freely moveable. It seems that the closer the fit
of a joint at the point of contact, the stronger the joint. However, at
tightly fitting joints the amount of movement is restricted. The
looser the fit, the more movement, but unfortunately loose fitting
joints are more prone to dislocation.

Classification of joints
We can classify joints into three main types:

1. Fibrous joints

Fibrous joints are united by fibrous tissue. They exhibit little or no

movement.

Probably the best example of a fibrous joint is the sutures of the

skull. The irregular edges of these bones interlock and are bound
tightly together by connective tissue fibres. Sutures are temporary
joints, that later ossify, for example skull sutures which allow the
skull to deform in the birth passage, making birth easier, then they
fuse with age.

Syndesmoses is another type of fibrous joint. Here tight bone

junctions are stitched up with fibrous tissue. The connecting fibres
are longer than those of sutures, therefore the joint has more
"give". An example of this is type of joint is the lower junction
between the tibia and fibula.

2. Cartilaginous joints

Cartilaginous joints are slightly movable. They do not have any joint
cavities, and are united by cartilage.

There are two types of cartilage in this group:

a. Fibrocartilage - an example of this is the Intervertebral

joints of the spine. Here the articulating bone surfaces
are connected by discs of fibrocartilage. The pubic
symphysis of the pelvis is another example of this.

b. Hyaline cartilage - an example of this is the

cartilaginous joints between ribs and sternum, called the
 the costal cartilages: see the dark parts between
vertebrae.

3. Synovial joints

Synovial joints are freely movable. They are united by a synovial

joint capsule, containing a lubricating fluid, called synovial fluid, that
allows movement, by allowing one surface to glide over another.

There are different types of synovial joints, which are classified by:

 the shape of articulating surfaces

 the motion of the joint

 the mobility of the joint.

Because of this, synovial joints are further classified into the

following:

 Hinge joint - with this type of joint the convex surface of one
bone fits into the concave surface of another bone. Movement
 is limited to one plane only, similar to that of a hinged door,
which is extension and flexion movement. Examples of this is
the elbow and the fetlock in the horse.

 Plane or gliding joint - here the articulating surfaces are

flat, and capable of only limited movement of a simple gliding
or sliding motion. Examples of these are the carpal and small
tarsal bones.

 Ball and socket joint - here the head of one joint fits into a
pit or socket allowing movement in almost all directions. An
example of this is the hip joint.

 Pivot joint - in this type of joint, a rounded or pointed surface

of one bone articulates within a ring formed partly by bone
and partly by a ligament. The primary movement is rotation.
An example of this is the articulation of the axis and atlas
cervical vertebrae in the neck.

Synovial joint capsule: this is a two-layered structure surrounding

the joint. Synovial fluid is contained within the joint capsule.

Fibrous layer: (capsular ligament):is the white and yellow elastic

outer fibrous part of the Synovial joint capsule. This attaches to the
periosteum (see long bone), near the articular cartilage. The
thickness varies from joint to joint and within each joint.

Synovial membrane: this is the inner layer of the fibrous layer of

the joint capsule. It is highly vascular, nerve rich, and produces
synovial fluid.

Synovial fluid : is a viscous (like raw egg white) fluid produced by

the synovial membrane, a joint lubricant that supplies nutrients and
removes wastes from the hyaline cartilage and fills the joint cavity .

Articular Cartilage: translucent, with a bluish tinge and is usually

hyaline cartilage which covers articular ends of bones. It reduces
the effects of concussion and friction by its compressibility,
elasticity and smoothness, has no blood or nerve supply. It relies on
synovial fluid to supply nutrients and remove waste.

Intracapsular ligament: ligaments located within the joint

capsule. They are not within the joint space because the synovial
membrane reflects over them. A common example of this type of
ligament is the cruciate ligament in the stifle of the hind leg of dogs.

Extracapsular ligament: are located outside of, or as part of the

joint capsule and are responsible for thickening of the joint capsule
to increase its strength.

Joint Cavity: a cavity filled with synovial fluid

Meniscus: a plate of fibrocartilage, that partially, or completely,

divides a joint cavity. It’s function is to allow for a greater range of
movement and alleviate concussion (eg stifle and
temporomandibular joint between skull and lower jaw.)e.g. stifle &
temporomandibular joint between skull and lower jaw .

Bursa: a sac like a synovial joint capsule which can be found

between:

 skin and bone

 tendon and bone

 muscle and bone

 ligament and bone

It functions to reduce friction and stress.

Synovial sheath: like a bursa which wraps around a tendon. It

functions to reduce friction between tendon and bone.