M06 Consolidation

CVNG 2002 Soil Mechanics
M06 Consolidation
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THE UNIVERSITY OF THE WEST INDIES

ST AUGUSTINE, TRINIDAD AND TOBAGO, WEST INDIES
FACULTY OF ENGINEERING
DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL AND ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING
CVNG 2002 Soil Mechanics Module 6. Consolidation

Lectures by Richard Dean, Semester 2, 2006
Oedometers for laboratory testing, UWI
Dump truck unloading fill material as part of a soil consolidation contact, Wilson Bridge, Maryland (www.wilsonbridge.com/photos )
\\Civilserver02\temp\course notes 2005\CVNG 2002 (SoilMechanics)\CE22B RDEAN 2005\M06 Consolidation.doc
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Contents
What is consolidation? .................................................................................................................................. 3 The Oedometer Test ..................................................................................................................................... 8 Calculating the Compression Curve ........................................................................................................... 10 Typical results ............................................................................................................................................. 12 Using the results to calculate long-term settlements .................................................................................. 13 Using the results to calculate swelling ........................................................................................................ 14 Using the results to interpret geological history .......................................................................................... 15 Simplifying the calculations (1) Index formulation....................................................................................... 17 Simplifying the calculations (2) Compressibility formulation ....................................................................... 20 Casagrande's Construction......................................................................................................................... 22 Interpreting the data of time-dependency ................................................................................................... 23 Applying the square-law to the oedometer ................................................................................................. 28 Using oedometer data to estimate settlement-time responses................................................................... 30 Terzaghi's Consolidation Equation Derivation ......................................................................................... 32 Exploring Terzaghi's Consolidation Equation ............................................................................................. 35 Solving Terzaghi's equation ........................................................................................................................ 36 Interpreting time-dependent oedometer data.............................................................................................. 44 Using consolidation theory to manage long-term settlements .................................................................... 47 Secondary consolidation ............................................................................................................................. 49 Consolidation Lab ....................................................................................................................................... 50 Review Questions ....................................................................................................................................... 51 Previous Exam Questions........................................................................................................................... 55 Appendix A. Revision of Permeability and Darcy's law............................................................................... 59 References and further reading .................................................................................................................. 67
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What is consolidation?
If a load is applied to a foundation that rests on clay or silt soil, there is usually an immediate settlement, followed by settlements that increase as time passes. This increase in settlement is usually due to consolidation of the silt or clay. The rate of increase usually reduces as time passes. Eventually the settlement rate is so small that the settlement has stopped for all intents and purposes. For example, suppose a house is built on sand overlying clay overlying bedrock.
Sand Soft clay Rock The house will take some time to build, and there will be some settlements during that time. There will also normally be some continuing settlements after the house-building has finished, as shown below. House being built 0 0 50 100 150 Settlement, mm Example of a settlement-time graph for a heavily loaded foundation with large long-term settlements 1 2 3 Time, years
Primary consolidation
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The increase of settlements with time occurs because the stresses in the clay due to the weight of the house tend to force water out of the soil, so that the soil layer compacts. The sketch below shows the results of this in an exaggerated form.
Water movements
The immediate settlement is usually estimated using elastic theory. The eventual, long-term settlement is estimated using compression theory, and the final settlement depends on the overall compressibility of the clay. The settlement takes place over some time because it takes time for the water to flow out of the soil. This is affected by the permeability of the clay. Long-term settlements can be quite large. For example, for a foundation on soft to firm clay, long-term settlements can easily exceed one foot. The sketch below shows the values of ultimate settlements, in mm, for square and strip footings on soft to firm clays.
300 Long-term settlement, mm 200
Strip footings
Square footings
100
Footing width, metres Typical relation between footing width and ultimate settlement. Footings loaded to q=50kPa, 1.5m below ground level on Mexico City Clay of 40% water content. Figure from page 407 of Terzaghi et al (1996)
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The settlement depends on the size of the footing. Also, the rate of settlement can depend on size, but the distance involved is the drainage path length. In the sketch below, the thickness of the clay layer on the right is twice as great as on the left.
2m
4m
Because of the size effect, the maximum settlement is a little under twice as much for the house on the right. The drainage path length on the right is twice as long on the right as on the left. So the pressure gradients pushing the water are half as much on the right, and the distance to move is twice, so it takes 4 times as long to achieve maximum settlements. This square-law of drainage path lengths is quite general the time needed to achieve maximum settlement depends on the square of the drainage path length.
30 years Time to achieve 90% of long-term settlement 3 years 3 months 10 days 1 day 1foot
Drainage path length
3m
30m
Typical relationship between consolidation time and drainage path length for a silty clay (Note: time depends on coefficient of consolidation, which can be very different for different clays)
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As a result of the square-law, some large structures will still be settling at the end of their design lives. For instance, the design life of a large offshore concrete oil platform may typically be 20 to 30 years. But the time required to achieve 90% its ultimate settlement might be as long as 100 years. One of the effects of consolidation can be to cause negative skin friction to develop on piles. In the sketch below, a building has been founded on piles that transmit the weight of the building to the underlying stronger soil. But the general area has also been covered over with sand. The weight of the sand causes time-dependent compression of the soft clay. As the clay settles, it drags downwards on the piles, causing the "negative" skin friction. Building supported by piles
Sand
Clay
Sand
Structures founded on overconsolidated clays are generally found to behave somewhat differently. If we compare the long-term settlements of several structures on stiff clays, the relation between foundation load and long-term settlement is generally non-linear. Magnitude of long-term settlement
Magnitude of footing load Typical relation between load and long-term settlement for some clays
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The difference between the behaviours of soft and stiff clays can be explained by the theory of compression for silts and clays. There is also the opposite effect. If an excavation is made for the basement of a building, then one of the effects of the excavation is to reduce the stresses on the underlying soil. As a consequence, the soil can suck water in, and expand. The expansion is called swelling, and the upwards movement of the base of the excavation is called heave. In an extreme case, the base of the excavation will move significantly upwards. Base after some time Saturated sand: a source of water
Original base of excavation
A similar effect can occur if it rains, or if there is a water pipe burst in the excavation. Swelling also occurs in expansive clays, except that the effect is primarily due to wetting rather than unloading per se. One of the good things is that consolidation is generally associated with an increase in strength of the soil. This increase in strength is due to the effect of compaction. Conversely, there is a small decrease in strength if swelling occurs. In summary, consolidation is the time-dependent settlement of silts or clays. It occurs whenever loads are applied or removed, and is due to the fact that the changes of stress due to the loads cause water to be pushed out or sucked in to the soil. This pushing out or sucking in takes time, due to Darcy's law. In general, a designer will need to estimate both the long-term settlements (or heave) and the time-evolution of those settlements. Consolidation theory is used for this purpose, consisting of the theory of compression and the theory of permeability . The main laboratory test to use to get parameters for the theory is the oedometer test.
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The Oedometer Test

The oedometer is a laboratory device which is designed to reproduce the conditions in a layer of soil that is subjected to uniform vertical loading. These are the simplest conditions that an engineer will need to analyze. For other conditions, the engineer usually makes estimates based on the simpler conditions, then adjusts the estimate to take account of the increased complexity.
Wide foundation applying a uniform vertical load q
Sand Clay Rock
Small sample, taken for testing in the oedometer Simple field loading scenario ion which the oedometer test is based. A thin layer of clay is located between sand and bedrock. A wide uniformly pressured foundation is placed on top of the sand. In the limit, the foundation is "infinitely wide". The clay experiences the weight of the foundation as an additional load q.
The clay layer is being loaded uniformly and vertically. The clay layer cannot expand laterally if it did, then clay that was a long way left or right would have to travel fast! We normally assume that the clay experiences zero lateral strain. This is called one-dimensional condition (the one dimension being the vertical one). Thus we have one-dimensional loading, when an increase in vertical load is applied, and one-dimensional unloading, when the vertical load is decreased.
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In the oedometer, a sample is confined in a stiff ring typically a lubricated, highly polished stainless steel ring with a diameter-to-height ratio of about 3. There will be a porous stone at the top and/or base of the soil sample, so allowing water to flow into the sample or out of it. In some devices, drainage is allowed only at the top of the sample, and pore pressure is measured at the base. There is a load cell and a settlement gauge to measure vertical load and settlement. In some devices there is a lateral load cell to measure the lateral force applied by the soil to the steel ring.
Load, usually applied by a hanger and deadweight Settlement gauge Loading piston
Drainage line, maintaining constant pore pressure at top of sample Steel ring Porous stone Soil sample Porous stone Base plate Drainage line, or pore pressure measurement line
Key features of the oedometer cell The typical test procedure is to apply a load increment rapidly, and to the measure the settlement at various times after the increment has been applied. This is called the incremental loading procedure. A graph of settlement versus the square-root of time is then constructed. This usually allows a straightforward estimate to be made of when sufficient time has elapsed to achieve the long-term settlement value for that increment.
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Load increment 1 Load increment 2
Load increment 3 time
settlement
Typical result for settlement versus time for several load increments in an oedometer After the full amount of settlement has been reached or nearly reached, a further increase of load is applied, and the procedure is repeated. This incremental loading procedure is usually repeated five to eight times, with the load being doubled each time. Unloading can also be done. Usually this involves halving the load in each increment. It is also possible to apply load cycles, with the load being increased, then decreased, then increased again, etc.
Calculating the Compression Curve

The data for the long-term settlements are usually plotted on a diagram of voids ratio versus vertical effective stress. This is called the compression curve. If the test included some unloading and reloading sequences, these are called swelling and re-compression. To calculate the voids ratio, we use the simple phase diagram, noting that air is ideally not present, so that there is only soil and water in the oedometer. Suppose that the voids ratio at the beginning of the test was eo this is the ratio of the volume of voids in the sample to the volume of solids.
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Ho
Water in proportion eo Solids in proportion 1
Actual sample at start of test
Phase diagram for the start of the test
Then, if the initial height was Ho, we can say that the equivalent eight of solids was Ho/(1+eo). Suppose that the height was H at a later stage of the test, and the voids ratio was e. Then the equivalent height of solids is H/(1+e). So, if the soils are incompressible, Ho/(1+eo) = H/(1+e). Hence we have e = (1+eo).
H 1 Ho
(1)
Suppose the settlement was s. then H = Ho s. Putting this into the equation gives: e = (1+eo). 1
s Ho
(2)
The vertical effective stress on the soil is equal to the vertical total stress less the pore pressure. We shall assume that the pore pressure is zero at the end of each increment, when the long-term settlement for that increment has occurred. Then the vertical effective stress equals the vertical total stress, which is just the load on the sample divided by its cross-sectional area. Note that an area-correction is not needed, because of the one-dimensional condition. The results are usually plotted on semi-log paper or double-log paper, and usually consist of several parts. The first part shows an increase of vertical effective stress without much change of voids ratio. This means that the sample is quite stiff at this point. At some point the slope of the graph changes, and the change of voids ratio per unit change of stress becomes much larger. The point at which this occurs is called the yield point or pre-consolidation point, the vertical effective stress at this point is called the pre-consolidation stress. Sometimes, it is difficult to estimate where this point is. A method called the Casagrande construction is often used to do this in a formal way.
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Typical results
The figure below shows some typical results for a clay. The clay was from Lagunillas in Venezula.
E H D F G
Oedometer test results for Lagunillas clay, adapted from Lambe (1961) and Lambe and Whitman, p.385, 1979) In this case, the in-situ voids ratio was 1.92. The sample was set up in the oedometer at point P, at a vertical effective stress of about 25 kPa. The sample was then loaded, and the initial response was quite stiff, with a relatively rapid increase in stress with relatively small reduction in voids ratio. However, the response became less stiff around point A, which is interpreted as the end of the elastic phase and the beginning of the elasto-plastic phase. On further compression, the response followed the line ABD. On unloading from D, the sample "swelled" slightly, with a small increase in voids ratio as the stress was reduced along curve DE. The response was again stiff, with relatively little change in voids ratio for a relatively large change in stress. On re-loading, the response was stiff from E to F, but with a small hysteresis loop. There was another yield point at F, after which the sample responded in the less stiff, elasto-plastic manner. On unloading from G to H, the selling response was again quite stiff.
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Using the results to calculate long-term settlements

We can use the results to calculate long-term settlements. In the particular case that was investigated by labe 91961), the in-situ vertical effective stress was about 60 kPa. For interest, however, let us consider a site nearby, where the same clay exists at the same in-situ voids ratio, but at lower insitu stress of say 10 kPa. This would be represented by the on the vertical axis where the arrow marked "e in situ" points. Suppose a house is to be built on a 3-metre thick layer of the Langunillas clay. Suppose also that we have calculated that, in the long term, the vertical effective stress on the soil will increase to 50 kPa. The we can look along the measured curve to find the point corresponding to 50 kPa which is at a voids ratio of about 1.84. Hence, using the phase relations, we can calculate the settlement of the 3m layer:
Ho 1 + eo
3m 1 + 1.92
= 1.027m =
Ho s 1+ e
3m s 1 + 1.84
The first calculation gives the equivalent height of solids in the layer, which turns out to be 1.027m. The second calculation must also give the same value, since the soil particles themselves are incompressible. From this we can work out the settlement s, which turns out to be 3 2.84 x 1.027 m = 8.3cm. What happens if we load the soil even more? If we apply a stress greater than the value at A, then there will be much more settlement, because of the lower stiffness along the curve ABDFG. If we tabulate the settlements versus the stress level. Long-term bearing stress, kPa 50 80 100 200 400 We can also plot the results. Final voids ratio from oedometer test results 1.84 1.74 1.63 1.33 1.09 Implied long-term vertical settlement, cm 8.3 18.6 29.9 60.7 85.4 Extrapolated just past D Just before A Just after A Notes
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90 Long-term component of settlement, cm 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 0 100 200 300 400 500 Long-term bearing stress, kPa
Results for a 3-metre thick layer of Lagunillas clay with an in-situ voids ratio of 1.92 We can use these results to interpret the graph of settlement versus load on page 6. For small loads, the material response is stiff and elastic, so there is not much settlement. For larger loads, the yield point (such as A for Lagunillas clay) is exceeded, and there is an increase in settlement relative to load. At larger loads still, because of the curvature of the line ABFGH for Lagunillas clay, the increase of settlement with load decreases slightly.
Using the results to calculate swelling

We can also use the results to calculate the swelling potential for the base of an excavation. Suppose that, at a nearby site in a deeper layer of the same clay, the in-situ stress is about 166.4 kPa, and the clay at that location has reached the point B. This means that he in-situ voids ratio here will be about 1.4. Suppose that the excavation will be 10m deep, and that it will reduce the long term vertical effective stress on the Lagunillas clay layer by about 100 kPa. To calculate the amount of swelling or heave, we can either do another oedometer test, or we can "interpolate" from the data that we have. If we interpolate, then we can probably expect that the unloading curve from point B will be similar in shape and slope to the unloading curves from D and from G. SO we might expect an unloading curve like BC. At point C, the stress has reduced by 100 kPa, and the voids ratio is now 1.45 instead of 1.40. Suppose the thickness of the clay layer here is 4m. Then the phase relation calculation looks like this:
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Ho 1 + eo
4m 1 + 1.40
= 1.667m =
Ho s 1+ e
4ms 1 + 1.45
On the left side, the calculation fro the in-situ height of solids now uses the in-situ voids ratio of 1.4 instead of 1.92. For a 4m deep layer, this gives an equivalent height of solids of 1.667m. On the right, we can use the same equation, but the "settlement" will actually come out as a negative value. In this case, s = - 8.4cm downwards, which is equivalent to a "heave" upwards of 8.4 cm.
Using the results to interpret geological history

We know from the results of Lagunillas clay that, if a soil layer is subjected to an increase of load, to a point like D, and then unloaded to E and reloaded, it will have an initially elastic response from E to F, followed by "yielding" at F and a less stiff elasto-plastic response from F to G. Suppose that, at a nearby site for the same clay, we find that the clay is overlain by sand, and that the in-situ soil state is represented by point P, with an in-situ stress of 25 kPa. For this soil state, the yield stress can be measured from the oedometer data, and is about 67.4 kPa. On this basis, we can imagine a geological history which has three parts to it (see the following figure): (1) In the original deposition, material was deposited to a higher ground surface, such that the vertical effective stress reached 67.4 kPa. This might have been deposition of the clay itself, as shown above or it might have been another material. (2) After the deposition, there was a process of erosion, probably due to wind or water action. The erosion removed sufficient clay down to the top of the clay layer as it is at present. Thus the material was unloaded, and its state changed from the point A to some point like U. (3) After the erosion, the sand layer was deposited. This increased the vertical effective stress on the clay layer to the present value of 25 kPa. Now this history is a little speculative, because there are some other more complicated histories that can have the same effect. For instance, there might have been a more complicated sequence for the sand. We can see, however, that the maximum vertical effective stress that the soil has experienced previously is an important parameter. We call it the pre-consolidation stress. Thus the pre-consolidation stress for the Lagunillas clay was about 67.4 kPa.
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Present ground surface
Historical deposition
... followed by erosion
then deposition of overlying sand
Possible sequence of Geological Events for the Lagunillas clay Our interpretation also means that the curve ABDFG is a line of maximum historical stresses. For example, point D was reached during the oedoemeter test, and this was the first time that this sample for Lagunillas clay had ever experienced a vertical effective stress of just under 400 kPa. We call the curve ABDFG the virgin compression curve. It is the curve of first-time loading of the clay. We call curves like D-E and G-H swelling curves. Curves like PA and EF are called re-compression curves. These curves normally form a "hysteresis loops", as shown for DEF. In fact, in many calculations we assume that the hysteresis loop is absent, and that the swelling and re-compression curves are straight lines on the semi-log plot. We will look at this simplification shortly. It's important to know the relationship between the in-situ state of the soil and the virgin compression line. For example, if the in-situ state is a long way below or to the left if the virgin compression line, then a relatively large increase in stress will be needed before the pre-consolidation stress is reached. We call the ratio of the pre-consolidation stress to the in-situ stress the overconsolidation ratio (OCR): OCR =
/ maximum historical value of v / present value of v
(3)
For example for the point P for the Lagunillas clay, the in-situ stress is 25 kPa, and the pre-consolidation stress is 67.4 kPa. Therefore, the OCR is 67.4 / 25 = 2.7. We use the following terminology:
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OCR value 1 Between 1 and about 3 Between about 3 and 8 Greater than 8
terminology Normally consolidated Lightly over-consolidated Over-consolidated Heavily over-consolidated
Simplifying the calculations (1) Index formulation

The calculations of settlement and heave can sometimes be complicated. This is fine if an engineer has only one settlement to calculate. However, often times there are many calculations to be done. For example, in a feasibility study, the engineer might want to investigate several different types of foundation solution, and several different dimensions and depths for each solution. Also, if this is a major construction development with many different buildings, there may be many calculations to be done. The next figure shows the usual simplification that is made. Essentially, the virgin compression curve is considered to be a straight line in the semi-log plot. The swelling and re-compression curves are assumed to be the same as each other, and are assumed to be straight lines of smaller slope. Because the actual data shows curves, the straight line that best fits the data depends on the range of voids ratio or stress over which the straight line is drawn. Generally, the engineer will estimate the range that is relevant for a particular design, and draw the straight lines accordingly. There are several ways to describe the straight lines depending on what type of calculation is to be done. One way is to use so called "indexes". In this way, the equation for the virgin compression line is written as:
/ e + Cc.log10( v )
constant
(4)
where Cc is the compression index. It is dimensionless. It is the slope of the virgin compression curve in semi-log space, and we can define it as the (negative of) the change of voids ratio per log cycle:: Cc =
de
/ d(log10 ( v ))
(5)
For the Lagunillas clay, the change of voids ratio over the entire simplified graph is from 2.2 to 0.8, i.e a change of 1.4. The change of stress along the virgin compression curve is from about 30 kPa to about 780 kPa, so the compression index is about 1.4 / log10(780/30) = 0.99.
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2.2
2.0 P 1.8 A Virgin compression line
Void ratio e
1.6 Elastic lines (swelling lines) 1.4 C
1.2
E
D,F H
1.0 G 0.8 10 100 Consolidation stress, kPa 1000
Simplification for the data of Lagunillas Clay Similarly, we can define the swelling index of a soil by writing the equation for an elastic swelling line as:
/ ) e + Cs.log10( v
constant
(6)
where Cs is the swelling index. It is dimensionless. It is the slope of the elastic lines in semi-log space, and we can define it as the (negative of) the change of voids ratio per log cycle along one such line Cs =
de
/ d(log10 ( v ))
(7)
For the Lagunillas clay, the change of voids ratio from point G to H was about 0.16. The stress reduced from about 400 kPa to about 50 kPa. The swelling index in this case was 0.16 / log10(400/50) = 0.18. Values of the compression and swelling indices can be very different for different soils. Some examples are given in the following table, where the Atterberg limits are also shown. Some Authors suggest that the compression index is correlated with liquid limit or with plasticity index, but such correlations may be limited in range. The best policy is always to make the measurement directly.
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LL, %
PI, %
Cc
Cs (a)
Cs(b)
Reference
Clay minerals (exchangeable ion)

Attapulgite (Mg+2) Illite (Na+) (Na+) (Na+) Illite (Mg+2) Kaolinite Kaolinite (Mg+2) Montmorillonite Montmorillonite (Fe+3) 270 120 94 53 54 710 290 120 67 48 21 23 656 215 0.77 1.1 0.56 0.26 0.24 2.6 1.6 0.03 0.08 0.24 0.15 0.18 (1) (1) (1) (1) (1) (1) (1)
Clay soils - general

Expansive soil A Expansive soil B Cincinatti clay Montana clay Siburua clay St.Lawrence clay 84 87 30 58 70 55 36 45 18 30 44 33 0.21 0.17 0.21 0.21 0.84 0.14 0.05 0.02 0.04 0.08 0.04 0.25 0.15 0.03 0.07 0.12 0.08 (2) (2) (3) (4) (3) (3)
Undisturbed samples
Boston blue clay Chicago clay Fore river clay Louisiana clay New Orleans clay 41 58 49 74 79 21 37 28 48 53 0.35 0.42 0.36 0.33 0.29 0.07 0.07 0.09 0.05 0.04 0.09 0.12 0.09 0.08 0.08 (3) (3) (3) (3) (3)
Remoulded samples
Boston blue clay Chicago clay Fore river clay Louisiana clay New Orleans clay 41 58 49 74 79 21 37 28 48 53 0.21 0.22 0.25 0.29 0.26 0.07 0.07 0.04 0.05 0.04 0.07 0.09 0.04 0.08 0.09 (3) (3) (3) (3) (3)
Compression and swelling indices of some clay minerals and some natural soils.
Swell indices for stress ranges (a) 1000 to 100 kPa, and (b) 100 to 10 kPa. From Lambe and Whitman (pp322-323, 1979). Refs (1) Cornell (1951), (2) Dawson, 1957, (3), Mitchell, 1956, (4) Lambe-Martin, 1957
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Let us re-calculate some settlements for Lagunillas clay using the compression and swelling index approach. Suppose that the in-situ soil stress is 10 kPa, and the pre-consolidation stress is 67 kPa. Suppose the final long-term stress after the building has been constructed will be 200 kPa. The long-term settlement will be composed of two parts: (1) the elastic settlement associated with elastic re-compression, from the in-situ stress of 10 kPa to the pre-consolidation stress of 67 kPa. For this calculation, we use the swelling index, which we previous calculated as 0.18. The change of voids ratio e is Cs.log10(67/10) = 0.15 (2) the elasto-plastic settlement associated with elasto-plastic compression along the virgin compression line, from 67 kPa to 200 kPa. For this, we use the compression index. The change of voids ratio is Cc.log10(200/67) = 0.47 The total change of voids ratio is therefore 0.15+0.47 = 0.62. Recall that a 3m layer of material at an initial voids ratio of 1.92 contains an equivalent height of solids of 3 / (1+1.92) = 1.027m. Hence the settlement is 0.62 x 1.027m = 64cm. This compares well with the value of 62cm which we got previously using the data directly.
Simplifying the calculations (2) Compressibility formulation

Another approach that is often used to simplify the settlement calculations is the compressibility approach. It is based on three concepts that are related to each other:
(1)
The coefficient of volume change, mv, is the most important. It is defined as the volume strain divided by the change of vertical effective stress. In one-dimensional compression, the volume strain is the same as the vertical strain v, which equals the (negative of) the change of voids ratio divided by 1 plus the initial voids ratio: mv =
v
/ v
e
/ (1 + e o ). v
(8)
The symbol denotes a large change, giving a "secant" value. We can also use tangent values, in which case mv is the tangent of the graph of volume strain versus vertical effective stress. mv is useful because e/(1+eo) is related to the settlement via the phase relation In fact, the settlement s is just the initial depth of the layer, Ho, multiplied by e/(1+eo). Hence the settlement
/ / can be calculated simply, as s = mv. v .Ho. Its a sixty due to a change of vertical stress v second calculation, or even less!
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(2)
The coefficient of compressibility, av, is defined as the change of voids ratio divided by the change of vertical effective stress. It is related to the coefficient of volume change: av =
e
/ v
(1+eo).av
(9)
(3)
The constrained modulus, D, is defined as the change of vertical effective stress divided by the volume strain. It is just the inverse of mv D =
/ v e /(1 + e o )
1 mv
(10)
These quantities can be used either with the oedometer data directly, or with the simplificatoons. Let us do some calculations using the data of Lagunillas clay. (A) Small changes of stress: Suppose the in-situ soil state is at point U, with a voids ratio of 1.92 and a vertical effective stress of 10 kPa. Suppose the foundation loads will increase the vertical effective stress to 50 kPa. From the data, the voids ratio will reduce to about 1.84. On this basis: The coefficient of compressibility is the change of voids ratio, 0.08, divided by the change of vertical stress, 40 kpa. Hence av = 0.002 kPa1. (B) The coefficient of volume change is this divided by (1+1.92), so mv = 0.00069 kPa1. The constrained modulus is the inverse of this, which comes to 1460 kPa.
Large change of stress. Suppose the foundation loads increase the vertical effective stress to 200 kPa. From the data, the void ratio will reduce to about 1.34, due to the fact that the preconsolidation stress of 67 kPa has been exceeded. Therefore: The coefficient of compressibility is the change of voids ratio, (1.92 1.34 = 0.58), divided by the change of vertical stress, (200-10=190 kPa. Hence av = 0.58/190 = 0.0031 kPa1. The coefficient of volume change is this divided by (1+1.92), so mv = 0.0010 kPa1. The constrained modulus is the inverse of this, which comes to 956 kPa.
This shows that the coefficients and the constrained modulus varies considerably with stress level. Is therefore always wise to note the stress range over which the values apply.
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Casagrande's Construction
The pre-consolidation pressure is an important parameter, but it is sometimes rather difficult to estimate from oedometer data. There are two reasons for this. Firstly, the re-compression curve is estimated from only a few data points, which are obtained at the end of the first few load increments. One of the consequences is that there are gaps between data points. Another reason is that the response of the soil is not always simple to interpret. Professor Arthur Cagagrande, a famous Austrian engineer who was professor at Harvard University, proposed a way of estimating pre-consolidation pressure from oedometer data. His method is illustrated and described below.
Voids ratio
D E B Pre-consolidation pressure C
Effective consolidation pressure (log scale) Casagrande's construction The method consists of 4 steps: (1) Draw the curve of voids ratio versus the logarithm of effective stress. Assuming that the virgin compression line BC is a straight line, extrapolate it backwards (2) Determine the point D of maximum curvature on the re-compression part (AB) of the curve (3) Draw the tangent to the curve at D. Bisect the angle between this tangent and the horizontal. Draw the bisector (DE) (4) Find the point of intersection of the bisector DE and the extrapolated virgin compression curve BC. The stress at this point is the pre-consolidation stress. The construction provides a definite procedure for calculating pre-consolidation pressure. However, it is not without drawbacks. You are asked to use it in your lab report for the Consolidation lab (page 50 below). Based on this experience, you are asked to give your opinion of it.
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Interpreting the data of time-dependency

Let us now look at the time-dependent aspect of consolidation. Recall that, in the field, if a load is applied to a body of soil, one of the effects is normally that there are changes of pore pressures within the soil body. For example, if a vertical force is applied to a pad footing, the change of load causes the total stresses in the soil to change. Some or all of this change is taken up by the pore water, so the pore water pressure changes in response to the load. Normally, the change of stress is different in different parts of the foundation, so the changes of pore pressure are also different. This means that a field of excess pore pressures is set up within the soil body. The sketch below shows the magnitudes of excess pore pressures induced in a later of clay when the foundation is subjected to a load F that is applied "rapidly", where "rapid" means fast in comparison to the time needed for drainage to occur for the clay layer. Vertical load F
Low
Low
High
Interrmediate
CLAY
Interrmediate
Low
SAND Magnitude of excess pore pressure effects in clay due to rapid application of footing load F Because the excess pore pressures are different, Darcy's law implies that there will be a flow of water from high pressure regions to low pressure regions. The flow of water through the clay layer takes time, and gradually tails off because there is only a certain amount of water that can flow. Consequently, the
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foundations settles at a relatively high rate at first, but the rate of settlement reduces and is eventually zero for practical purposes. For sands, we normally consider that no excess pore pressures occur. In fact, excess pore pressures can arise in sand, but they dissipate rapidly due to the high permeability of sand. However, this is a relative matter, not an absolute one, and the effect depends also on whether the sand is silty or not. Exceptions also occur when the rate of loading is very rapid or cyclic, such as in an earthquake or due to machinery vibrations or impact loading. Wave loading of coastal structures can also induce significant excess pore pressure effects. We can use the oedometer to investigate the magnitude of the pore pressures generated when a load is applied. To do this, we close the lower drainage line, and place a pore pressure transducer either in the line or immediately beneath the porous stone. We can then apply a load to the sample quickly, and measure the pore pressure response.
Drainage line, maintaining constant pore pressure at top of sample
Load
Porous stone Soil sample Porous stone C B A
Electrical transducer to measure pore pressure
Electrical wires to/from transducer
When we do this, we find a remarkable result. The change in pore pressure measured at the base of the sample is initially exactly equal to the change in stress due to the application of the load. Then, as time
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passes, the pore pressure remains roughly constant for a while, then begins to reduce at an increasing rate, then slows down and eventually sops. While this is happening, the sample compresses. Time that load is applied
Excess pore pressure
Time Typical response for excess pore pressures at the base of a half-closed oedometer We can explain the first part of the time record by using the compression data, together with Terzaghi's Principle of Effective Stress. When the load is first applied, there is no time for the pore fluid to move out of the soil, so the void ratio of the soil is the same immediately after the load is applied as it was immediately before the load is applied. But this means, from the compression curve, that the vertical effective stress must be the same just after compared to just before. Now Terzaghi's Principle of Effective
/ Stress implies that the total vertical stress ( v ) equals the sum of the effective vertical stress ( v ) and
the pore pressure (u):
/ v
+ u
(11)
By applying the load quickly, we have increased the total stress, but the effective stress remains as it is instantaneously. It follows that the change of pore pressure must equal the change of vertical effective stress. This is exactly what is observed when we make those measurements in the oedometer. Another way of thinking is the so-called spring analogy. In the picture below, the soil particles are represented by springs inside a piston that is filled with water. The piston has a small hole in it. When a load is applied quickly to the piston, there is no time to the water to flow out through the hole. Therefore, the springs do not compress immediately. Instead, all of the applied load is taken up by an increase of the pressure in the water. As time passes, the extra water pressure forces water to flow out through the hole.
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So, the piston moves downwards, and the springs take up some of the pressure. This means that part of the load is now being taken by the springs, so the part taken by the water reduces, so the water pressure reduces. This cause the flow of water to slow down. Eventually, all of the applied load is transferred into the springs. All of the long-term compression is achieved, and the water pressure returns to zero.
Spring analogy for consolidation Let us return to the oedometer on page 24. To investigate the experimental results further, we can put additional pore pressure transducers at various levels in the walls of the oedometer, such as at levels A, B, and C. At each of these positions, there is also a distance from the position to the top of the sample, where water can flow out. So we should also expect that the change of pore pressure, when the load is applied, will initially equal the change of stress. This is exactly what is observed experimentally.
Excess pore pressure
B C
base of oedometer
Time Typical responses for excess pore pressures at various levels in a half-closed oedometer; A is closest to the base of the oedometer, C is closest to the top drainage boundary This kind of experimental data shows that the dissipation of t he excess pore pressures starts earliest at the position closest to the drainage boundary. This helps to explain why there is a delay for the pore pressure at the base of the oedometer.
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Another way of looking at the data is to plot the values of the excess pore pressures versus position, at a given time. Typical results are shown below. Top T1 C T2 B T3 Time T0, immediately after load application
A Base Excess pore pressure Typical excess pore pressure isochrones in an oedometer with the base drainage line closed off, and development with time. Time T3 > Time T2 > Time T1 > 0 We can interpret these results as follows. At time T1, a short time after the load is applied, there has been sufficient time for some of the pore water to flow out of the soil, though the top drainage boundary. Because of this, the void ratio of the soil there has reduced slightly. The soil has compacted slightly, and the state of the soil has moved along its re-compression curve. As a result, the effective stress near the drainage layer has increased slightly, and the pore pressure has reduced slightly. The effect is largest closest to the drainage boundary, and least at positions like A or at the base of the half-closed oedometer. Because of this, there is a gradient of excess pore pressure, and the gradient is greatest nearest the drainage boundary, and least at the base of the sample. Now Darcy's law states that the rate of flow of water through soil is proportional to the gradient of the excess pore pressure, in other words, the change of excess pore pressure with reference to position. This is why the pore pressure reduces fastest near the drainage boundary, and why there is hardly any change at first near the base of the sample. The excess pore pressure gradient is least nearest the base. As time passes, more water flows out of the soil, and eventually the rate of compression of the base of the sample begins to increase. At time T3, the rate of flow of water upwards away from the base of the sample is relatively large.
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Not all the water flows out of the soil. As further time passes, the excess pore pressures get gradually smaller, and eventually all excess pore pressures have dissipated. At this point, all of the soil in the sample has moved along the recompression line, and has reached the place on the line where the vertical effective stress equals the equilibrium value, with no excess pore pressure.
Applying the square-law to the oedometer

Now that we understand what is happening in the oedometer, we can start to apply our knowledge to field situations. Before that, it is useful to consider one further aspect. In most normal oedometer tests, the drainage line at the base of the oedometer is open. What effect does this have? One of the effects is that settlements in the oedometer will take 4 times less time. The reason can be understood by considering the drainage path lengths in the fully-open and half-closed situations. In the fully open situation, a molecule of water in the middle of the sample has to flow only half the sample height to get out of the sample. In the half-closed situation, the furthest that a molecule has to travel is twice as much, from the base of the sample to its top. Therefore, according to the square-law for drainage path lengths, settlements should take four times as long when the base drainage line is closed compared to when it is open.
Fully open: drainage top and bottom
half-closed: only one drainage boundary
Pathways for a molecule of water in the fully open and half closed situations Another was of thinking about this is shown below. For the half-closed case, we consider second oedometer sample, immediately below the first, open at its bottom end. By symmetry, a molecule at the centre of the double-height sample has a 50% chance of exiting upwards and a 50% chance of exiting downwards, so the effect is that there is no flow across the centerline! This makes the situation similar to the fully-open case, except that the height of the combined real-plus-imaginary sample is twice as much. Hence the square-law again predicts that the settlement rates will be four times slower for the half-closed sample as for the fully-one one of the same height.
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D 2D
half-closed
fully open
Half-closed situation of depth D, and fully open situation of depth 2D Using these ideas, let us work out what lies behind the square law. Suppose that the drainage path length is D, and an excess pore pressure uxs has been set up in the sample. Now the excess pore pressure gradients will be different at different parts of the sample, but we can characterize the gradients as uxs/D. For example, in the following situations, the same excess pore pressures are occurring in the two samples, but distances are twice as great in the sample on the right. The pore pressure gradient at level X-X on the left is related to the characteristic gradient uxs/D. The gradient at the corresponding level XX on the right is half as much, and the characteristic gradient uxs/D is also half as much.
X X D X
uxs
uxs "Characterizing" the pore pressure gradients using uxs/D. The drainage path length D on the right is twice as much as on the left, but the excess pore pressures at corresponding levels are the same. So the excess pore pressure gradients on the right are half as much as on the left.
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Using Darcy's law, we can characterize the velocity of the flow of fluid by k times uxs/D, where k is the permeability of the soil. Therefore, velocities are half as much if the drainage path length is twice as long. But, if the drainage path length is twice as long, there is twice as far for a molecule of water to travel. Hence the time will be four times as much. Similarly, for a drainage path length that is N times longer, the velocities will be N times smaller, and the distance to be traveled will be N times larger. So the time will be N2 times longer.
Using oedometer data to estimate settlement-time responses

Consider the situation of a footing that is to be placed on the surface of ground, where the soil profile consists of sand over clay over sand. Most of the long term settlement will be in the clay. How can we estimate its value. And how can we estimate how long it will take? Let us start by estimating the change of stress that will be applied to the clay layer. Of course this depends on position in the clay layer, but we can take a representative value by calculating the change of stress underneath the centerline of the footing, at the level of the centre of the clay. If we use the 1:2 load-spreading method, we can say that the load spreads out at a gradient of 1:2, so that at 4m depth, the load of 3200 kN is being supported on an area of 8m x 8m, giving a stress increase of 3200/64 = 50 kPa. 4mx4m footing, load =320 tons
0m
SAND
-2 m
CLAY
-6 m
SAND TO GREAT DEPTH
Calculations for settlements and times for a footing on sand over clay over sand
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Now, we take a sample of the clay from the centre of the layer. We set the sample up in the oedometer, and we apply the same stress increase. Our first task is to calculate the initial stress. Suppose the bulk unit weights for the sand and clay are 17 and 16 kN/m3 respectively, and the water table is at the soil surface. The in-situ total vertical stress 42m below ground level is then 17x2m + 16x2m = 66 kPa. If the unit weight of water is 10 kN/m3, the in-situ vertical effective stress is 66 40 = 26 kPa. So, we set the sample up in the oedometer at a vertical effective stress of 26 kPa. Now the process of sampling may have disturbed the sample a little, and will certainly have altered the pore pressures within it, We will need to allow for some time to elapse while the pore pressures in the oedometer return to equilibrium values. Then, starting at 26 kPa, we increase the stress on the sample by 50 kPa, to 76 kPa. This "models" the process that will occur in the field when the building is constructed. For the field situation, there is drainage top and bottom, so it is a fully-open situation. Let us suppose that the oedometer sample was 25mm deep at the time when the stress has equilibrated to 26 kPa, and that the bottom drainage line was open so that the sample was also in the fully-open state. Suppose the graph of settlement versus time was as follows.
Time after the application of this load increment, hours

0 0 1 2 3 4 5
0.5
1.0
1.5 settlement, mm
We can deduce many things from these results. Firstly, the maximum, long-terms settlement in the test was about 1.4mm. This was for a sample of initial thickness 25mm. The actual clay layer has a
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thickness of 4 metres, which is 160 times deeper than the sample. Therefore the long-term settlement for the real clay layer will be about 160 x 1.4mm = 0.224 metres. This is quiet a significant amount. For instance, if the footing supports a house and the floor of the house was at street level immediately after the house is built, then the floor will be 0.224 metres below street level in the long term. We will look later at ways of reducing such large long-term settlements. We can also make an estimate of the time that will elapse for various degrees of settlement. For example, suppose we want to know how long it will take for half the settlement to take place. In the oedometer, half the long-term settlement had occurred after about 2.2 hours. For the field situation, the drainage conditions are the same, because water can easily flow in the sand layers top and bottom. Hence we simply need to use the square law for drainage path lengths. The path length in the oedometer was half the sample height (because there was drainage top and bottom in the oedometer). Hence the length was 12.5mm. The path length in the field was half the layer depth, i.e. 2m. The ratio of drainage path lengths is 160. Hence the ratio of times is 1602 = 25600. Hence it will take 25600 x 2.2 hours to reach 50% consolidation in the field. This is equivalent to 6.4 years.
Terzaghi's Consolidation Equation Derivation

Considering a thin element of soil
To derive Terzaghi's consolidation equation, we consider a thin element of soil, between vertical coordinates z and z+z, where z is a small distance. We shall suppose that the element is fully saturated, and the particles are incompressible. This means that the only way that the element can experience compaction is if water is forced out of the soil. Element of soil Total stress v
excess pore pressure gradient in eqn 12
z + z
excess pore pressure gradient in eqn 13
For simplicity we will assume that the properties of the soil element do not depend on the position coordinate z. For instance, the permeability at coordinate z equals the permeability at coordinate z+z.
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We will also assume, initially, that the total stress is constant. This is true in the oedometer, for example, in the period from immediately after a load increment has been applied, to the time immediately before the next load increment. Later on, we shall consider the time during which the load is changed.
Calculating the flow of water into and out of the soil

Suppose the excess pore fluid pressure in the soil is given by a function u of z (and of time t). Then we know from Darcy's law that the rate of flow of pore fluid is proportional to the rate of change of this excess pore pressure with position z. Consider the top surface of the element. The rate of fluid flow into the element is given by: vin =
k u xs . w z evaluated
(12)
at z
where k is the permeability of the soil, and w is the unit weight of water. (Appendix A contains a reminder of how this equation comes about). The derivative is evaluated at the depth z. Now consider the bottom of the element. The rate of fluid flow out of the element is: vout =
k w
u xs z evaluated
(13)
at z + z
The derivative is evaluated at position z+z. We can evaluate the derivative using Taylor's theorem, which states that the value of a general quantity q, near a point at which it is known to be qo, is just qo plus the derivative of q times the distance. In our case, the value of vout will be the value of vin plus the derivative of the right hand side of equation 12, multiplied by z. So: vout = vin
k u xs . x z w z z
(14)
The net rate of volume flow into the element equals vin less vout, which is just the last term in the above equation. But we can also calculate this by a different method which will involve a small approximation.
Calculating the rate of volume change in terms of voids ratio

Let t be time, measured from the start of this load increment. Suppose the voids ratio of the soil at time t is e, and the voids ratio at time t+ t is e+e. The phase diagram at time t is shown below
Water, in proportion e Solids, in proportion 1
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Based on this diagram, the equivalent height of solids in the element is z/(1+e). Now if the voids ratio changes by de over times t, then the overall height of the soil element will become this times (1+e+de). Hence the element will expand by an amount e x z/(1+e). If this expansion occurs in time t, then the rate of volume decrease is the negative, so: vin vout =
1 e x z . 1 + e t
(15)
Now we can equate (vin vout) calculated in this way with (vin vout) calculated from the flow of water into the element. This gives:
1 e . 1+ e t
k u xs . w z z
(16)
Relating voids ratio, excess pore pressure, and vertical effective stress
As mentioned earlier, we shall assume that the total stress is constant. This is true, for example, in the period from immediately after a load increment has been applied, to the time immediately before the next load increment. Now we consider two things (1) In effect, we have assumed that the sum of the effective stress and the pore pressure is constant. This means that, if the equilibrium level of the pore pressure is fixed, then any change of excess pore pressure (uxs) must be balanced by an equal and opposite change of vertical effective
/ / stress ( v ). Hence we can say that uxs in the above equation is equal to v .
(2)
Second, we use the compression curve. This curve was inferred from the experimental data in terms of effective stresses instead of total stresses, so this curve still applies, even though the settlement is continuing. We already defined the coefficient of volume change mv. Based on our
/ definition, we can replace e / (1+e) in the above equation by mv. v .
Making these replacements, and then taking the mathematical limit in which the size z of the element tends to zero, and in which the interval t of time tends t zero, we get:
u xs = t
with:
cv.
2 u xs z 2
(17) (18)
cv
k w .m v
This is Terzaghi's equation for one-dimensional consolidation, for constant total stress. The quantity cv is called the coefficient of consolidation. It depends on the compressibility and on the permeability.
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Exploring Terzaghi's Consolidation Equation

Terzaghi's discovery of the consolidation equation was quite remarkable. Several concepts were needed to derive it: (1) The particulate nature of soils, so that compression requires change of void volume (2) Flow of water through the voids of soils, permeability, and Darcy's law (3) The phase diagram - relation between volume change and voids ratio (4) The compression curve relation between voids ratio and effective stress, and mv (5) The principle of effective stress, that total stress equals effective stress plus pore pressure There are several interesting features of the equation itself. One feature is that it is approximate, partly because soil properties vary with the amount of compression. This is particularly the case with the coefficient of volume change mv, and to some extent true for permeability as well. This means that the coefficient of consolidation changes as consolidation takes place. In practice we get round this problem by making adjustments for it. The dimensions of the coefficient of consolidation can be calculated by replacing the quantities on the right side of equation 18 with their dimensions: dim(cv) =
dim(k ) L/T = 2 2 dim( w ). dim(m v ) (ML T ]).(1 /(M.L1 .T 2 )
L2 T
(19)
Typical units are m2/year or cm2/sec. Typical values of the coefficient of consolidation depend on the Atterberg limits, and also on the moisture content of the soil and on the effective stresses. Lambe and Whitman (1979, page.412) quote the US Navy (1962) who give the following ranges:
Liquid limit, % 30 % 60 % 100 %
Range for cv in cm2/sec 0.001 to 0.04 0.0003 to 0.004 0.0001 to 0.0004
Range for cv in m2/year 3 to 0.120 1 to 12 0.3 to 1.2
These values are not hard and fast rules and other values are possible. In fact, cv probably depends considerably on the plastic limit. Measurement of cv is one of the most important reasons why the oedometer test is so useful.
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Terzaghi's equation is linear in excess pore pressure. In other words, if we multiply the pore pressures on left and right by a factor of 2, say, then the equation would be the same. The equation is quadratic in distance. This is because z2 appears on the right hand side, not z. This quadratic variation will help to explain the square-law for drainage path length that was mentioned earlier.
Solving Terzaghi's equation

Plan of solution
Terzaghi's Consolidation equation is not easy to solve. Some solutions were developed by Taylor (1948). Suppose we can find two solutions u1 and u2, both of which satisfy the equation:
u1 t
u2 t
cv. cv.
2 u1 z 2 2u 2 z 2
(20)
(21)
Then consider the linear combination u* = 1.u1+2.u2, where 1 and 2 are constants:
u* t
= = =
( 1u1 + 2 .u 2 ) t
1
(substituting for u*) (since 1, 2 independent of t)
(22) (23) (24)
u2 u1 + 2. t t
1.cv.
2 u1 z 2
+ 2.cv.
2u 2 z 2
(since each part satisfies the eqn)
cv. cv.
2 ( 1 .u1 + 2 .u 2 ) z 2 2u * z 2
(since 1, 2 independent of z)
(25)
(substituting for u*)
(26)
Hence u* also satisfies the Terzaghi equation. Extending this further, Taylor realized that it might be possible to find solutions in which the excess pore pressure was composed, mathematically, of the sum of a number of terms. This idea led to the Fourier series solutions in which the actual solution uxs is taken to be the sum of a finite or infinite number of components, the nth of which is un: uxs =
n=
un
(27)
As well as satisfying the Terzaghi equation itself, the solutions must also satisfy certain boundary
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conditions. For example, the solution for a soil layer that has sand above and below it is different from the solution for a clay layer on impermeable bedrock. In addition to these geometrical constraints, we must consider the initial conditions, which represent the excess pore pressures at the start of an analysis.
Fourier series solutions

Taylor's (1948) solutions were based on the idea of separation of variables. Let us suppose un is one of the terms in the Fourier series. Taylor assumed that un could be expressed as the product of two functions. One would be some function Pn(t) which would be a function of time alone. The other would be a function Qn(z) of position alone. Thus Taylor assumed:
un
Pn(t).Qn(z)
(28)
Putting uxs=un in Terzaghi's equation, the left hand side of the equation evaluates to Qn.dPn/dt, because Qn is independent of z. The right side evaluates to cv.Pn.d2Qn/dz2, because Pn is independent of z. Dividing the results by PnQn then gives:
1 dPn = Pn d t
c v d2Qn . Q n dz 2
(29)
Since the left side is a function of time alone, and the right side is a function of z alone, it follows that both
2 .cv/D2, where Mn is a number to be sides must be constant. We normally represent the constant as Mn determined, and D is the drainage path length. Then we can write:
1 dPn = Pn d t
c v d2Qn . Q n dz 2
2 Mn
D2
cv
(30)
We now solve the two sides separately. For the left side, the equation gives:
dPn Pn
2 Mn
D2
c v .dt
(31)
This can be integrated directly to give: Pn =

2 c v .t Pn,o.exp( Mn . )
D2
(32)
where Pn,o is some initial value which we will consider soon. For the right side, the equation gives:
d2Qn dz 2
2 Mn
D2
.Qn
(33)
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This is a second-order differential equation whose solution will in general involve a particular integral and a complementary function. The complementary function is: Qn = Qn,o1.cos Mn
z z + Qn,o2.sin Mn D D
(34)
Where Qn,o1 and Qn,o2 are some constants. Putting the two parts of the solution together, and putting the results into the summation, gives:
uxs
z z 2 c v .t u n,o1 .sin M . . . . ( . ) + u M M cos exp n n n,o 2 n D D D2 n=

n= +
(35)
where un,o1 = Pn,o.Qn,o1 and un,o2 = Pn,o.Qn,o2. This turns out to be a general solution for constant total stress. We can simplify the result by defining dimensionless variables z/D for position, and cv.t/D2 for time. The latter is called the time factor Tv: Tv =
c v .t D2
(36)
The time factor is one of the most important numbers in soil mechanics. It is dimensionless, because cv has dimensions L2/T, time t has dimensions T, and D2 has dimensions L2. Notice that the D-squared appears on the bottom line. This is the reason for the square-law for drainage path lengths, because for a given time factor we have: t =
Tv 2 .D cv
(37)
Thus the drainage time for a particular time factor is proportional to the square of the drainage path length (assuming cv is constant). We will find later that the time factor is related to the degree of consolidation. The time factor appears in many different geotechnical calculations. For many calculations, there are standard solutions to the equations, expressed in terms of the time factor. We develop one of these solutions below. The solutions mean that the engineer just has to be able to calculate time factors. To do this, the coefficient of consolidation needs to be known, together with the drainage path length and the time t of interest. Once Tv is known, the engineer will look up the relevant standard solution in a text book, and use the time factor to select the answer to the question being asked. In some case, the engineer has to back-calculate Tv, and then deduce the time t. The procedures will be illustrated later, but first we will develop one of the standard solutions.
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Solution for the fully-open, two-way drainage conditions

In this situation, a molecule of water in the center of a soil layer can move either upwards towards the upper drainage boundary, or downwards towards the lower drainage boundary. It is convenient to set up the z-coordinate so that one of the drainage boundaries corresponds to z=0.
SAND
Excess pore pressure At t=0
CLAY
SAND
z
immediately after t=0
Suppose a load is applied rapidly to the soil at time t=0. We already know that the excess pore pressures will immediately rise to the value of the applied stress. The applied load is taken by an increase in pore pressure, and this increase causes water to start to flow out of the soil. In fact, at the drainage boundaries, the excess pore pressure returns to zero immediately. Hence we have a mathematical condition that uxs=0 at z=0 and z=2D for all times t>0. In the general solution, we can make this happen by just using the sine terms, and by arranging that the values of Mn are such that, for the lower boundary, sin(Mn.2D/D) is always zero. This means 2Mn is a multiply of . We could also arrange it by including cosine terms, but these terms turn out to be not needed for the case we are considering. Thus we have: Mn =
n. 2
(38)
These results mean that the series solution has now reduced to:
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uxs
n= + n=1
2 u n,o1 .sin Mn . D .exp( Mn .Tv )
(39)
The series now starts at n=1 because n=0 gives sin(0) which is 0 for the zeroeth term, and because the negative values of n give sine values that are the negative of the positive values. Consequently, we can include all of the possibilities by just considering positive values of n. To find the coefficients un,o1, we use the method of Fourier analysis, applied at time t=0. According to this method, the integral of the product of uxs with any sine function can be calculated in two ways (a) by using the know conditions at t=0, or (b) from the right side of the equation. For example, suppose we multiply both sides by sin(z/D). Since uxs = v everywhere at t=0, the left side evaluates to:
.z u xs . sin .dz D z 0
v .D
. sin .d
2 v .D
(40)
Where the substitution z/D = has been made. The right side evaluates to a sum of integrals, but we find that only one of the integrals is non-zero, the one with n=1. Making the same substitution gives:
.z RHS. sin .dz = D z 0
u1,o1 .D
sin
.d
u1,o1 .D
(41)
Equating the two results gives: U1,o1 =
4 v
(42)
Doing a similar calculation for all of the terms in the series, we find that all of the even terms vanish, and that the odd terms are proportional to 4/(n). We can then tidy up by putting n = (2m+1), where m goes from 0 to infinity. The final solution is: uxs = v .
m=0
.sin(MZ ).exp ( M 2 .Tv ) M
(43)
with:
M Z
= =
( 2m + 1) 2 z D
(44) (45)
Plotting the results in terms of consolidation ratio Uz

Results for excess pore pressures are usually plotted in terms of the consolidation ratio Uz, defined as 1 (uxs /v). The consolidation ratio goes from zero at time t=0, to 1 at time t=infinity.
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Consolidation ratio as a function of normalized depth and time factor. Diagram from Lambe and Whitman (1979, p.408). In this case, the time factor is represented as T rather than Tv. The drainage path length is H rather than D. Each curve is an isochrone of excess pore pressure (from the greek, iso=same, chronos=time). The curve for Tv=0.05 is shortly after the load is applied, where "shortly" depends on the value of cv and D2. For instance, if cv=0.5 m2/year, and D=10 metres, Tv=0.05 corresponds to t = 0.05 x 102 / 0.5 = 10 years! Values of cv for silts can be several orders of magnitude larger than for clays. A typical value for a silt could be 1000 times large, say 500 m2/year, in which case Tv=0.05 would correspond to 0.05 x 102/500 years = 3 days. Values of cv can also be measured for sands, and can be 1000 times greater than for silts. Thus Tv=0.05 for a 10m thick sand layer would correspond to only 3/1000 days, or about a minute and a half. We can normally ignore time effects in sands. Exceptions arise for very silty sands or clayey sands, or in situations of rapid loading, such as earthquake loading, wave loading, machine vibrations, impact loading (eg if a ship hits a quay wall), or blast loading from explosions.
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Solutions for other drainage conditions and initial conditions

Solutions for one-way drainage can be adapted from the solutions for two-way drainage, as long as the initial excess pore pressure distribution is a uniform increase of pore pressure. For the situations below, the one on the left would use the upper half of the diagram on the previous page, from Z=0 to Z=1. The situation of the right would use the lower half, from Z=1 to Z=2. In some situations, it is possible for the initial excess pore pressure distribution to have a triangular shape. The sketch below shows solutions for the excess pore pressure isochrones for this case, for the case of two-way drainage.
Development of consolidation ratio with time factor for the case of an initially triangular distribution of excess pore pressures, with drainage top and bottom. Figure from Lambe and Whitman (1979)
Calculating the degree of consolidation ratio Uv

The consolidation ratio Uz at a particular time factor Tv depends on the depth in the clay. To calculate the settlement associated with the whole layer, we need to take the average of Uz at a given time factor Tv. This average is called the degree of consolidation, denoted as Uv. To calculate Uv, we
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integrate Uz with respect to depth z, and divide the result by 2D. For the case of an initially constant profile of excess pore pressure versus depth, the solution is : Uv = 1
m=0
.exp ( M 2 .Tv ) 2 M
(46)
The same solution also applies fro triangular distributions if there is two-way drainage. Uv is normally expressed as a %, so the above value is multiplied by 100. Notice that Uv depends only on Tv. Therefore we can plot a unique curve of Uv versus Tv. Curves of Uv versus Tv for several drainage conditions and initial conditions are shown below.
Relations between degree of consolidation and time factor, for various drainage conditions and initial conditions. Diagrams from pp.250-251 of Craig (2005).
The use of these standard solutions is very straightforward. Suppose that the long term-settlement has been estimated at 0.4 metres, based on the long-term compression curve from the oedometer. Suppose
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there is two-way drainage, so that Curve 1 applies. Suppose that cv = 2 m2/year, and D=5 metres. How long will it take to achieve 50% consolidation? To find out, we carry out the following steps: (1) Find the value of Tv on the relevant curve corresponding to the required degree of consolidation,. For the present case, curve 1 applies. For Uv=50%, the Tv value is about 0.2 (the exact value is 0.196, but 0.2 is accurate enough for most purposes) (2) Back-calculate time from the value of Tv and the other parameters. In this case, t = 0.196 x 52 / 2 = 2.5 years. We can also do the calculations the other way round. For example, to calculate the settlement after 1 year, we first calculate Tv = 2 x 1 / 52 = 0.08. Looking at Curve 1, this corresponds to a degree of consolidation of Uv = 0.31. Hence the settlement after 1 year will be 0.31 x 0.4 = 0.12 metres. It is obviously important to know the coefficient of consolidation. It can be measured directly from the time-varying stages of an oedometer test, as follows.
Interpreting time-dependent oedometer data

Two methods have been devised for interpreting oedometer test data and calculating the coefficient of consolidation. The log-time method was developed by Arthur Casagrande. The root-time method was developed by Taylor (1948). Both methods involve plotting the time-dependent data from a load increment, and deducing the coefficient of consolidation from the result. The log-time method is illustrated in the following figure. The bold curve represents data, plotted as the settlement gauge reading versus the logarithm of time. The method involves two estimates: (1) 0% consolidation point. In theory, the initial part of the curve should be approximately parabolic. Tow points on the initial part of the curve are selected, such as A and B, for which the values of time are in the ratio 4:1. The vertical distance between them is measured. An equal distance above the first point is then set off. This gives a gauge reading a0. This is taken as the point of 0% consolidation. If this is the first load increment, then the difference between a0 and the measured start of the test may be due to initial compression of some air in the sample, for instance. (2) 100% consolidation point. The middle of the curve can normally be approximated as a straight line. Also, the end of the curve, at large time, can normally be approximated by a different straight lies. The two straight lines are drawn and their intersection is taken to be the point of 100% primary consolidation (a100).
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The log-time method. From page 253 of Craig (2005), t is time after the load is applied
Since the two points represent the change from 0% to 100% consolidation, it is possible to estimate the coefficient of volume change, mv. This parameter was defined on page 20 above, and is such that the settlement s is equal to mv times the change of effective stress. For instance, the settlement in the above example is about 2.2mm (a0=4.8mm, a100=2.6mm). If the height of the sample at the end of the increment was 20mm, then the initial height was 22.2mm, and the vertical strain was 2.2/22.2 = 10%. If the change of stress was 100 kPa, then the coefficient of volume change was 0.1/100 = 0.001 kPa1. The point corresponding to 50% consolidation is located at a settlement that is half-way between a0 and a100. According to Terzaghi's theory, the value of Tv corresponding to Uv=50% is 0.196. Consequently, we can estimate the coefficient of consolidation as: cv =
0.196.D 2 t 50
(47)
where D is the drainage path length, and t50 is the time at 50% consolidation. For example, for the data shown, t50 is about 11 minutes. If the sample height was 25mm and there was drainage top and bottom,
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then drainage path length was D=12.5mm, so the coefficient of consolidation is 0.196 x 12.52 / 11 = 2.78 mm2/minute, equivalent to about 1.5 m2/year. The second method of interpreting the time-dependent data is Taylor's root-time method. In this method, the dial gauge reading is plotted against the square-root of time after load application.
The root-time method. From page 255 of Craig (2005)
Two constructions are then made: (1) 0% consolidation point. A straight line is drawn through the main part of the curve, and is extrapolated back to zero time. The dial gauge reading at this point is interpreted as the reading (a0) for 0% consolidation (2) 90% consolidation point. A second line is drawn through the zero point, with a slope equal to 1.15 times the slope of the previous line. The point at which this second line intersects the experimental curve is interpreted as the point of 90% consolidation.
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The difference between the two points corresponds to 90% of the estimated long-term primary consolidation. Hence the long terms settlement can be estimated as 10/9 times the difference between the dial gauge reading at the 0% and 90% points. From this, the coefficient of volume change can be calculated in a manner similar to the log-time method. According to Terzaghi's theory, the value of Tv corresponding to 90% consolidation is 0.848. Hence the coefficient of consolidation can be estimated as: cv =
0.848.D 2 t 50
(48)
where t90 is the time at 90% consolidation. For the example shown t90 is about 7.22 = 51.84 minutes. If the drainage path length was 12.5mm, then cv was about 0.848 x 12.52 / 51.84 = 2.56 mm2/min, equivalent to about 1.3 m2/year. The last part of the interpretation of a load increment is to work out the permeability. Suppose that cv = 2.56 mm2/minute, and the coefficient of volume change came out as 0.001 kPa1. From the equation for cv on page 34, we can solve for the permeability k: k = w.mv.cv = 10 kN/m3 x 0.001 kPa-1 x 2.56 mm2/minute (49)
We obviously have to be careful about units! One solution is to notice that the unit weight of water can actually be expressed as 10 kPa/m. Also, a coefficient of consolidation of 2.56mm2/minute is equivalent to 2.56/60 mm2/second or 2.56/60 x 106 metres2/second. Hence in his case: k = = 10 kPa/m x 0.001 kPa-1 x 2.56/60 x106 m2/sec 4.3 x 1010 m/sec (50)
This is equivalent to 4.3 x 108 cm/sec, and is in the range of typical values for clay (see Appendix A).
Using consolidation theory to manage long-term settlements

We have seen that the long-term settlements due to consolidation can sometimes be quite large. As engineers, we need to develop ways to solve this problem. One method is by preloading. Suppose that a footing will be subjected to a design load F, and the long-term settlement would be S. In preloading, we apply additional load to the soil, before or during construction. By doing this, we accelerate the settlements. We can sometime arrange that the
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accelerated settlement has reach a value of S at the end of construction. Then we remove the extra load. This means that, as far as the footing load F is concerned, the soil has already achieved its long-term settlement. Consequently, there are only minor settlements subsequently, due mainly to pore pressure equilibrium effects. For example, consider the geotechnical design of footings to support columns that support the access road to a bridge over a major river. There will be several aspects to the design, including determining the load to be supported by the footings, calculating the bearing capacity of the soil, deciding the width of the footing, carrying out a stability analysis, and estimating of the settlements at various times during and after construction. Normally there will be an allowable long-term settlement, which would depend mainly on the structural design. For instance, the structural joint at point A may be able to sustain a certain amount of rotation, and this would allow for some settlement to take place for the footing. Bridge column and footing A B Sand Clay Sand Rock
Elevation view of planned bridge and underlying soil strata Suppose the long term settlement has been calculated as 0.4 metres, but the structure cannot tolerate a long-term settlement of more than 0.1 metres. One solution is to pre-load the foundation, so that 0.3 metres of settlement occurs before the connection is made between points A and B. One way to achieve the preloading is to dump fill on and around the area to be pre-loaded. After the required settlement of 0.3 meters is achieved, the fill is removed, and the footing constructed. The final long term settlement will then only be 0.1 metres. Another method of accelerating long term settlements is by using vertical sand drains. Suppose that, instead of the column and footings, the feasibility of using embankments to support the approach roads is to be investigated. A cross section through one of the embankments might be as shown below.
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Sand drains
SAND CLAY SAND ROCK

End elevation, with vertical sand drains to accelerate consolidation settlements of the clay The construction of the embankment itself may take six months, so that correction may be needed to the theoretical calculations which assumed that the load would be applied rapidly. The magnitude of the correction needed would depend on the time factor corresponding to six months. If the six month period is sufficient to achieve the 0.3 metres of settlement, then no further action would be needed. However, if this was not sufficient, vertical sand drains could be considered. The drains would provide extra, horizontal paths for water to seep out of the clay. In effect this reduces the drainage path length, so accelerating consolidation and settlement.
Secondary consolidation
Secondary consolidation is associated with the long-term settlements that continue well past the time that the primary consolidation settlements have practically finished. Secondary consolidation is also sometimes called creep. It is more important in very soft soils, in silts, and in clays that have a high proportion of montmorillonite in their mineralogy. The rate of secondary compression can be calculated from the slope of the settlement-time graph at the end of the time-varying phase of an increment, after the 100% point as estimated using the log-time or square-root of time methods. Secondary compression is described by a secondary compression index, C, which is defined in terms of the change of voids ratio per log cycle of time. See for example Lambe and Whitman (1979).
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Consolidation Lab
In the Consolidation lab, you will be using an odometer to test a sample of clay. If you test the sample that you brought back at the start of the semester, then you should include the results of your lab in your final sample report. You will need to do a lab report anyway, but this lab report should be different to the reports in semester 1. Before you do the lab, inspect the equipment to ensure that it is all working satisfactorily. For instance, ensure the oedometer piston slides easily, and that there is no stiction in the dial gauge. In the test, you should obtain data of both the time-settlement response in one load increment, and the longterm relationship between voids ratio and effective stress. Your lab report should consist of the following: 1. 2. 3. A title page which makes it clear that this is a report on an oedometer test by you. State on this page whether the test was fully-open or half closed. A brief visual-manual description of the sample A brief report of your inspection of the equipment. State what you inspected and what its condition was. Please also give your opinion on whether the lab handouts were satisfactory. If not, make some suggestions for improvement. Include any photos or sketches as desired 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. Tabulated results for one or more load increments, settlements versus time. A log-time or root-time graph Based on the graph, provide calculations or the coefficient of consolidation for the increment, the coefficient of volume change, and the permeability Tabulated results for the long-term compression curve A graph showing the compression curve, hopefully including an unloading sequence. An estimate of the pre-consolidation pressure, using Casagrande's construction An brief statement of your opinion of the Casagrande Construction Based on the graph, provide calculations for the virgin compression index, and one or both of the recompression index or the swelling index A design calculation for long-term settlement. A design calculation for settlement versus time
For the design calculation, assume that a footing is to be placed on sand overlying a 2m layer of this clay. The 2m layer overlies impermeable bedrock. The in-situ effective stress in the middle of the layer is 50 kPa, and the footing will apply an additional average stress of 50 kPa. Assume that the in-situ voids ratio is at the 50 kPa point on the re-compression curve that you measured. What will be the eventual longterm settlement of the layer? How long will it take to achieve half of this settlement?
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Review Questions
1. As a consultant engineer, you have been approached by a software company that wants to create and market a computer program to do settlement and consolidation calculations. Write a brief report to the company, describing the kinds of calculations that engineers would be interested in, and the kinds of inputs and outputs that would be involved. 2. Describe the general phenomenon of consolidation. Sketch a typical relation between settlement and time for a building construction. Why does primary consolidation occur? What material parameters are important in consolidation theory? 3. Describe the following phenomena, and explain why they occur: (a) (b) (c) the square law for drainage path lengths negative skin friction on piles heave at the base of an excavation
What is the role of water in these phenomena? 4. Describe the key features of the oedometer. Sketch typical results for (a) settlement versus time , and (b) voids ratio versus effective consolidation stress. Starting from the phase relation, derive the relation between voids ratio and settlement for an oedometer test. 5. Search the internet for information about the oedometer. How many different types of oedometer for soil mechanics testing can you find? What are their similarities and differences? 6. (a) Using a phase diagram, or otherwise, explain why the equation relating voids ratio e to moisture content w in a fully saturated soil is: w = 100% x
e Gs
where Gs is the specific gravity of the solids. (b) In an oedometer, the moisture content at the start of an increment of loading was 35%. The specific gravity Gs was 2.65. What was the voids ratio?
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(c)
In (b), the height of the sample at the start of the increment was 22mm. What was the equivalent height of solids?
(d)
In (c), the sample was then compressed and the long term settlement was 1mm. What was the voids ratio after the long-term settlement had occurred?
(e)
In a second oedometer test, the laboratory technician forgot to measure the moisture content at the start of the test. However, the moisture content at the end of the test was measured as 22%, and the sample heights at the start and end of the test were 21mm and 17mm respectively. What was the voids ratio at the start of the test?
7.
What does the phrase "one-dimensional loading" mean? Draw a typical plot of voids ratio versus effective consolidation stress. Mark on it the recompression curve, virgin compression curve, and swelling curve.
8.
Define the terms pre-consolidation pressure, and over-consolidation ratio. Explain how these concepts can help to interpret the geological history of a soil deposit.
9.
Define the following quantities, and give typical values and dimensions where appropriate: (1) The virgin compression index, Cc (2) The swelling index, Cs (3) The coefficient of volume change, mv (4) the coefficient of compressibility, av, (5) the constrained modulus D
10.
The coefficient of volume change of a material has been measured as 0.001 m2/kN. In the next 60 seconds, calculate the long-term settlement that would occur for a 2m thick layer subjected to an increase of vertical stress of 50 kPa.
11.
A pad footing is to be built on a 3-metre thick layer of Cambridge Clay overlying bedrock. An oedometer test was carried out on a sample from the middle of the clay layer, with results shown below. Point P marks the in-situ soil state at the centre of the layer. A footing is to be placed on the layer. Calculate the long-term settlement of the footing if the additional stress at the centre of the clay layer, due to the footing is (a) 40 kPa, (b) 140 kPa, and (c) 340 kPa.
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40
60
400
600
12.
Describe in general terms what happens to the settlements and excess pore pressures in a sample of clay tested in an oedometer and subjected to a step change in vertical load. What is the spring analogy for the time-varying settlements due to consolidation? What is an excess pore pressure isochrone?
13.
(a) (b)
How would you calculate the time factor Tv? Why is this number important? A layer of clay of thickness 3m, with drainage at the top only, has a coefficient of consolidation of 0.3 m2/year. Calculate the time factor Tv one year after loading. Using the graph on page 43, or otherwise, estimate the degree of consolidation at that time.
(c) (d) (e) 14.
In (b), if the measured settlement after 1 year was 10 cm, what would be the final, long term settlement? How long will it take to achieve 90% of the long-term settlement? In theory, how long will it take to achieve 100% of the long-term settlement?
A layer of fully saturated clay 8m thick rests on impervious bedrock and is in equilibrium with the water table located at its top surface. The clay is loaded by spreading sand uniformly over it, to a maximum thickness of 6m. The unit weight of the sand fill is 19.5 kN/m3. The coefficient of consolidation of the clay is 7 m2/year. Relevant information is also on pages 41 and 43 of this module.
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(a) (b) (c)
Assuming that the fill is placed quickly, draw a graph of the excess pore pressure 1 year after placement. What is its value at this time at the base of the layer? Assuming that the long-term settlement will be 0.8 m, draw a graph of settlement versus time for the first ten years after placement. What is the settlement after five years? If placement was actually carried out over a six month period, what effect would this have on your estimates of settlement for the first ten years?
15.
As a consultant engineer, you have been asked to suggest ways of accelerating the consolidation of a clay layer so that settlements that would take 3 years to occur are actually achieved within a year. Outline two methods by which this problem might be addressed.
16.
What is secondary consolidation? Using the internet or library or otherwise, write a brief, onepage consultant's report on the subject.
17.
What are the main concepts used in the derivation of Terzaghi's consolidation equation? In the step from equation 16 to equation 17, we assumed the total vertical stress would be constant. Can you suggest a way to modify the result to allow for a gradual variation of total stress with time? (Hint: write out Terzaghi's Principle of Effective Stress, then differentiate it with respect to time, then use the coefficient of volume change to relate this to e).
18.
Derive a relation between the virgin compression index and the coefficient of volume change. (Hint: start by converting equation 4 so that it uses Napierian logs, to the base e. Then differentiate the result)
19.
In Excel, write a macro or a VB code to calculate the degree of settlement for a step load, using equations 44 and 46 of this module. Using your macro, check the relevant curve on page 43. How many terms of the infinite series are needed in order to get an accurate answer?
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Previous Exam Questions

2003. Question 5
(a) A sample was taken from a depth of 7.5m in a clay layer of unit weight 16.5 kN/m3 and total thickness 12m . The sample was subjected to a one-dimensional consolidation tests, with the following results. Effective pressure, kPa Void ratio 27 1.243 54 1.217 107 1.144 214 1.068 429 0.994 214 1.001 107 1.012 54 1.024
Plot the relation between voids ratio and the log10 of the effective pressure. Determine (1) the virgin compression index (2) the swelling index, (3) the pre-consolidation pressure (b) Assuming the water table was at the soil surface and the unit weight of water is 10 kN/m3, plot the in-situ soil state for this sample. (c) A building is to be constructed by excavating 3m into the clay, constructing a raft foundation, then constructing basement and main walls and floors. Calculate the reduction in stress due to the excavation. If the excavation is left open for a long time, how much heave could be expected? (d) The structural engineer has estimated that the weight of the raft foundation, building, and final contents will be equivalent to a total stress of 240 kPa acting on the foundation soil. Calculate the expected long-term settlement of the building.
2002, Question 4
(a) An undisturbed sample of soil was taken from the middle of the clay layer shown in the figure below, and was subjected to a one-dimensional consolidation test. The initial sample thickness was 25.4mm. Its water content at the end of the test was 45%. Long-term results during the test were as shown in the table below. Effective pressure, kPa Thickness, mm 15.5 31 78 124 186 278 464 928 1856 19.66
25.36 25.25 25.01 24.67 24.15 23.56 22.59 21.15
Calculate (1) the voids ratios at each stage of the test. Plot the relation between void ratio and log10 of effective pressure. Determine (2) the indices of virgin compression, and re-compression, and (3) the max past consolidation pressure
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Ground surface 0m Gravel. Bulk unit weight 20 KN/m3. Water table at ground surface - 3m
Clay. Bulk unit weight 17 kN/m3. Specific gravity 2.67
- 7m Gravel. Bulk unit weight 20 KN/m3. Water table at ground surface
(b)
Calculate the in-situ vertical effective stress in the middle of the clay layer. Assuming that the insitu voids ratio is on the recompression curve that was measured in the oedometer test, estimate the in-situ voids ratio.
(c)
A raft foundation of great lateral extent is to be placed at the soil surface, carrying a foundation stress of 200 kPa. Calculate the maximum expected settlement of the foundation.
2002, Question 6
In an oedometer test on a specimen of saturated clay (Gs=2.72), top and bottom drainage was allowed. In one of the load increments, the applied pressure was increased from 107 to 214 kPa, and the following compression readings were recorded: Time (min) Gauge (mm) 0 5.00 0.25 4.67 0.5 4.62 1 4.53 2 4.41 4 4.28 9 4.01 16 3.75 25 3.49
Time (min) Gauge (mm)
36 3.28
49 3.15
64 3.06
81 3.00
100 2.96
200 2.84
400 2.76
1440 2.61
After 1440 minutes, the thickness of the specimen was 13.60 mm and its water content was 35.9%.
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(a)
Plot the data on either a log-time plot or a square-root-of-time plot. Estimate the final gauge reading at 100% consolidation. From this estimate, determine the coefficient of volume change for this load increment.
(b)
From the plot in (a), determine the coefficient of consolidation for the loading interval, assuming that Tv=0.196 at 50% consolidation, and Tv=0.848 at 90% consolidation.
(c)
Given that cv = k / (w.mv), calculate the permeability of the soil. Assume the unit weight of water is 10 kN/m3.
(d)
In the field, the clay layer was 4m thick and was sandwiched between two gravel layers. If the same stress increment was applied to the field layer (1) what would be the maximum expected value of field settlement, and (2) how long would it take to achieve 70% of this settlement?
2001, Question 7
In an oedometer test on a specimen of saturated clay (Gs=2.72), top and bottom drainage was allowed. In one of the load increments, the applied pressure was increased from 107 to 214 kPa, and the following compression readings were recorded: Time (min) Gauge (mm) 0 7.82 0.25 7.42 0.5 7.32 1 7.21 2.25 6.99 5 6.78 6.25 6.61 9 6.49 16 6.37
Time (min) Gauge (mm)
25 6.29
36 6.24
49 6.21
64 6.18
81 6.16
100 6.15
300 6.10
1440 6.02
After 1440 minutes, the thickness of the specimen was 15.30 mm and its water content was 23.2%. (a) Plot the data on either a log-time plot or a square-root-of-time plot. Estimate the final gauge reading at 100% consolidation. From this estimate, determine the coefficient of volume change for this load increment. (b) From the plot in (a), determine the coefficient of consolidation for the loading interval, and the permeability of the soil. Assuming that Tv=0.196 at 50% consolidation, and w =10 kN/m3. (c) In the field, the clay layer was 5m thick and was sandwiched between two gravel layers. If the same stress increment was applied to the field layer (1) what would be the maximum expected value of field settlement, and (2) how long would it take to achieve 50% of this settlement?
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2000. Question 5
The following results were recorded from a consolidation test on a sample of saturated clay, each pressure being maintained from 24 hours. Effective pressure, kPa Thickness, mm 13.5 19.250 27 19.189 54 18.964 107 18.513 214 17.820 429 17.031
The water content at the end of the test was 37.1%. The specific gravity of the soil particles was 2.68. (a) (b) Calculate the void ratio at the end of each stage of the test. Plot the pressure versus void ratio characteristic. Derive from this plot the virgin and recompression indices for the soil If this soil sample was taken from the middle of a 3.8m thick layer of clay overlain by 3m of sand, in which a water table stood at 1m below ground surface, determine the in-situ consolidation status of the clay. Assume the bulk unit weights for the sand and clay were 19.5 and 17.5 kN/m3 respectively, and that the unit weight of water is 10 kN/m3. (c) If a foundation imposes an increase of effective stress on this layer of 125 kPa, what is the maximum expected settlement?
2000. Question 6
The following results were obtained from a consolidation test carried out on a sample of clay placed in an oedometer and tested for a stress increment from 100 to 200 kPa. Drainage was allowed from the top and bottom faces. The thickness of the sample at the start of the increment was 19.65mm. Time (min) Decrease of thickness, mm (a) (b) (c) 0.25 1 2.25 4 6.25 9 16 25 49 100
0.175
0.305
0.432
0.558
0.658
0.752
0.884
0.968
1.020
1.050
Plot the relation between decrease of thickness and the square-root of time. Determine the coefficient of consolidation cv, assuming Tv = 0.197 at 50% consolidation. Determine the value of the coefficient of volume change mv for this loading interval, and derive an estimate for the soil permeability k If a layer of this soil layer underlay gravel and rested on impermeable rock, and if the layer were subjected to the same stress increase as in the oedometer test, how long would it take for 75% of the maximum expected settlement to be achieved?
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Appendix A. Revision of Permeability and Darcy's law

The permeability of a soil is a measure of the speed with which water can flow through it. The flow occurs through the connected void spaces. If we were to watch a single molecule as it passes through the soil body, the molecule would follow a tortuous path, and the total path length would be considerably greater than the macroscopic length L that we see at larger scale.
Tortuous paths of water flowing through the connected pores of a soil matrix; the particle are in contact but this is a plane section through the soil; the plane section intersects only a few contacts; the actual path of the water molecules will also be three-dimensional If the flow is sufficiently slow, then laminar conditions occur, and the flow has some similarities with laminar flow through pipes. This means that the rate of flow between two points is proportional to the pressure difference between those points, taking account of differences in elevation. The flow will be faster for soils with less tortuous paths, and for soils with larger voids. Thus the sands is much greater than the permeability of clays, and the permeability of a loose sand, with a large void ratio, is greater than the permeability of the same sand after it has been compacted to a lower void ratio. Engineers find it useful to express water pressure in terms of "head". For a particular location in a soil body, the pressure head is the water pressure divided by the unit weight of water. It equals the height to which a column of still water would rise above the location. If we consider a datum level that is below the level of the point in question, the elevation head is simply the height of the point above the datum. The total head is the sum of the pressure head and the elevation head. In general, depending on other factors, water may flow from A to B if there is a hydraulic connection between A and B, provided that the total head at A is greater than the total head at B.
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In the situation shown below, the gravel layer is sealed above and below by clay. If we put tall pipes at A and B, water would rise to the same levels at the two points. If we define a datum level C, then the elevation heads at the two points are different, and the pressure heads are different, but the total heads are the same. Therefore there is no flow of water.
Pressure head at A
Elevation head at A
Pressure head at B
C
Clay
Heads in a situation of no flow Gravel
Elevation head at B
If we were to drill a borehole through the clay at point B, and if there was no friction or viscosity of the water, water could flow through the gravel and up the borehole, reaching a height equal to the pressure head above point B. However, the gravel offers a lot of resistance to the flow. In the following situation, the pressure head at B is now just the depth of B below the new water surface. There is difference of total heads between A and B. Water flows down from A to B through the gravel and out of the borehole.
Pressure head at A
Elevation head at A Pressure head at B Elevation head at B
C
Heads in a situation of flow
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We also speak of excess pore pressure, and excess pore pressure head. The excess pore pressure is the difference between the actual pore pressure and the value of pore pressure under "equilibrium" conditions. We usually think of equilibrium conditions as conditions of no flow, but there are special circumstances when this rule does not apply. In the case of no flow, the equilibrium condition has no flow, and the excess pore pressures are zero everywhere. In the case of flow, after the borehole has been drilled, we need to decide what the equilibrium condition is. One choice would be to say that equilibrium will have been achieved when most of the water has flowed out of the gravel layer, and the water table in the ground is at the level D. We would then say that the excess pore pressure head at A was the distance shown. The excess head at B would be zero. The difference in excess heads at A and B drives the flow from A to B.
Pressure head at A
A Excess head at A
Elevation head at A
Level D
C
Excess head in a situation of flow
Pressure head at B Elevation head at B
Note that the value of the excess head depends on what we define as the equilibrium condition. For instance, we could have defined an equilibrium position at the level of the water surface near A, in which case the excess head at B would be negative. The important feature is the difference in excess heads between two locations. This difference represents an excess pore pressure difference, and the excess pore pressure difference drives the flow from A to B. One way to measure the permeability of soil is to carry out a permeability test. The sketch below shows the essential features of a constant head permeameter. The permeameter is usually arranged vertically, with upwards flow, but for illustrative purposes it has been shown inclined.
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Tap
Total head at A
Flowpath length L Total head at B
Body of soil, cross-sectional area A datum
Measurement cylinder
Key features of the measurement of permeability with a constant head The difference in total head across the soil body is the difference in levels between the two reservoirs. Let this difference be h. We can measure the rate of volume flow Q, as a volume per unit time, and relate it to h. By doing experiments with tubes of different cross sectional areas A and different lengths L, we find that the flow rate can be related to the total head difference h as follows:
Q A
k.
h L
(A1)
Q/A has units of volume / time divided by area, ie.velocity. It is called the seepage velocity v. It is less than the actual velocity of the water molecules, because the cross sectional area A includes cross-section through particles as well as through voids. If the voids ratio is e, then the average interstitial velocity is (1+e) / e times the seepage velocity. The constant k is called the permeability of the soil. It has units of velocity. The ratio h/L is called the hydraulic gradient, normally denoted as i. It is dimensionless. Thus Darcy's law can be written: v = k.i (A2)
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Typical values of hydraulic gradient go from 0 to 1. For instance, in the case illustrated earlier, suppose the total head difference Dh is a 500 feet, and the length L is 5 miles (= 5 x 5280 = 26400 feet). Then the hydraulic gradient is 500 / 26400 = 0.02. If the permeability of the gravel was 2 cm/sec, the seepage velocity would be 0.02 x 2 = 0.04 cm/sec, equivalent to about 5 feet per hour. Much higher speeds are possible, if the hydraulic gradient is higher. Description Highly permeable Medium permeability Low permeability Very low permeability Practically impermeable Range for k, cm/sec > 0.1 0.001 to 0.1 105 to 103 107 to 105 < 107 Typical values of permeability k, in cm,/sec In the case illustrated below, the average head loss across the dam is 6m (half of the upstream water depth). The average length between the upstream face of the dam and the rock toe is probably about 20m . Hence the average hydraulic gradient is about 0.3. If the clay has a permeability 109 cm/sec, the average seepage velocity would be 0.3 x 109 cm/sec, equivalent to about 9mm per century. Typical soils Gravel, coarse sand Sands Silty sands, coarse silts Silts, clayey sands, loess Clays, sandy clays
Upstream water surface
Flow through an earth dam with rock toe (US Army Corps of Engineers, 1952). The flowlines show the average direction of flow of water molecules. The equipotentials are contours of constant excess head.
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A special case arises when there is upwards flow of water through the soil to the soil surface. This is shown below for flow underneath a sheet pile wall.
Flow underneath a sheet pile wall, from Lambe and Whitman (1979) page 269 The flow is from the high water on the left to the low water on the right. Consider the stresses in the soil in region gh. If the bulk unit weight of the material is b, then the total vertical stress at depth z is b.z + w.h, where h is the 1.5m depth of water on the right. Under equilibrium conditions, the water pressure would be w.(z+h). However, if there is an upwards hydraulic gradient i, then there is an excess water pressure of i. w.z at depth z. Hence the total water pressure is w.(z+h+i.z). So, on the basis of Terzaghi's Principle of Effective stress, the vertical effective stress is:
/ v X
( b.z + w.h) - w.(z+h+i.z)
( b (1+i). w ).z
(A3)
Now the shear strength of sand is tan times the normal stress, so the effect of the hydraulic gradient is to reduce the strength of sand in this region. Typically, the bulk unit weight of soil is about twice the unit weight of water, so the strength of the soil will reduce to zero if the upwards hydraulic gradient reaches 1. Under these conditions we see the sand boil as if it was a fluid. The condition is called piping, or sometimes fluidization. It is an explanation of quicksands.
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A geotechnical engineer must always look out for situations of possible piping or fluidization, and take steps to prevent it. For the retaining wall, gravel could be dumped to provide extra vertical stress. Piping is a danger for dams if the toe is unprotected. One solution is to provide a permeable berm that stabilizes the soil by its weight.
Gravel or rock dump
Berm
Some solutions for possible piping problems In the case of consolidation, we can image standpipes being placed near the top and base of the small element on page 32. The water would rise in the standpipes as shown.
h1
A
z
B
z1
h2
z+z
D
z2
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For the upper surface of the sample, the hydraulic gradient would be h1/z1. The head difference h1 would be related to the difference uxs,1 in excess pore pressures at points A and B. Putting this into Darcy's law, the seepage flow rate across the upper boundary becomes: vin = k.
h1 z1
k u xs,1 w z1
(A4)
Taking the limit as z1 tends to 0 gives the differential equation 12 on page 33. By a similar calculation, the seepage flow rate at the lower surface of the element is given by: Vout = k.
h2 z2
k u xs, 2 w z2
(A5)
Taking the limit as z2 tends to 0 gives the differential equation 13 on page 33.
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References and further reading

ASTM D2434-68(2000) Standard Test Method for Permeability of Granular Soils (Constant Head) ASTM D2435-96 Standard Test Method for One-Dimensional Consolidation Properties of Soils ASTM D4186-89(1998)e1 Standard Test Method for One-Dimensional Consolidation Properties of Soils Using Controlled-Strain Loading BS 1377. Methods of test of soils for civil engineering purposes. Part 6. Consolidation and permeability tests. British Standards Institution Butterfield, R. (1979). A natural compression law for soils an advance on e-logp'. Geotechnique 29, pp.469-480 Cornell, 1951, Final Report on Soil Solidification Research, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY Craig, R.F. (2005). Craig's Soil Mechanics. 7th edition. E&F Spon Florin, V.A., and Ivanov, P.L. (1961). Liquefaction of Saturated Sandy Soils. Proc., 5th. Int. Conf. Soil
Mechanics and Foundation Engineering., Paris, Vol. 1, 107-111

Head, K.H., Manual of Soil Laboratory Testing, Permeability, Shear Strength and Compressibility Tests, Pentech Press Lambe, P.W. (1961). Residual pore pressures in compacted clay. Proceedings of the 5th International
Conference on Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering (ICSMFE), Paris, Vol.1, pages 207ff
Lambe, P.W., and Whitman, R.V. (1979). Soil Mechanics SI version. Wiley Taylor, D.W. (1948). Fundamentaks of Soil Mechanics. Wiiey Terzaghi, K., Peck, R., and Mesri, G. (1996). Soil Mechanics in Engineering Practice. Wiley US Army Corps of Engineers (1952). Seepage Control, Soil Mechanics Design, Dept of the Army, Washington DC US Navy. (1962). Design Manual Soil Mechanics, Foundations, and Earth Structures. NAVDOCKS DM7

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CVNG 2002 Soil Mechanics

THE UNIVERSITY OF THE WEST INDIES

CVNG 2002 Soil Mechanics Module 6. Consolidation

Oedometers for laboratory testing, UWI

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CVNG 2002 Soil Mechanics

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CVNG 2002 Soil Mechanics

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CVNG 2002 Soil Mechanics

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CVNG 2002 Soil Mechanics

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CVNG 2002 Soil Mechanics

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CVNG 2002 Soil Mechanics

Clay minerals (exchangeable ion)