2.2.1 Structure of a prokaryotic cell 2.2.2 Function of the prokaryotic cell parts 2.2.3 Electron micrograph study of E.

coli 2.2.4 Binary fission in prokaryotes

Prokaryotic Cells
A number of years ago t o !or egian biologists obtained a sample of soil from a nearby piece oodland. "n returning to the laboratory they began to identify kno n species of prokaryote and also to classify any unkno n species in their sample. By the time the t o nor egians had finished they had doubled the entire catalogue of kno n prokaryotic species. #he introduction to prokaryotes pro$ided here is ho e$er based on perhaps the best kno prokaryote Escherichia coli (E. coli). !otice that image of E. coli to the left sho s a straight rod shaped cell. "ther types of bacteria sho different morphology some of these $ariations are sho n in the table belo .

2.2.1 Draw and label a diagram of the ultrastructure of Escherichia coli (E. coli) as an exam le of a rokaryote (1)
%ra & #o represent by means of pencil lines. #he general si'e of a prokaryotic cell is about 1(2 um.

!ote the absence of membrane bound organelles #here is no true nucleus ith a nuclear membrane #he ribosome)s are smaller than eukaryotic cells #he slime capsule is used as a means of attachment to a surface "nly flagellate bacteria ha$e the flagellum

*lasmids are $ery small circular pieces of %!A that maybe transferred from one bacteria to another.

2.2.2 !nnotate the diagram from 2.2.1 with the functions of each named structure.
Annotate& to add brief notes to a diagram or graph. Cell "all# +ade of a murein ,not cellulose-. hich is a glycoprotein or peptidoglycan ,i.e. a protein/carbohydrate comple0-. #here are t o kinds of bacterial cell all. hich are identified by the 1ram Stain techni2ue hen obser$ed under the microscope. 1ram positi$e bacteria stain purple. hile 1ram negati$e bacteria stain pink. #he techni2ue is still used today to identify and classify bacteria. 3e no kno that the different staining is due to t o types of cell all Plasma membrane# 4ontrols the entry and e0it of substances. pumping some of them in by acti$e transport. Cyto lasm# 4ontains all the en'ymes needed for all metabolic reactions. since there are no organelles. $ibosome# #he smaller ,56 S- type are all free in the cytoplasm. not attached to membranes ,like 7E7-. #hey are used in protein synthesis hich is part of gene e0pression. %ucleoid# 8s the region of the cytoplasm that contains %!A. 8t is not surrounded by a nuclear membrane. %!A is al ays a closed loop ,i.e. a circular-. and not associated ith any proteins to form chromatin. &lagella# #hese long thread like attachments are generally considered to be for mo$ement. #hey ha$e an internal protein structure that allo s the flagella to be acti$ely mo$ed as a form of propulsion. #he presence of flagella tends to be associated ith the pathogenicity of the bacterium. #he flagella is about 26nm in diameter. #his structure should not be confused ith the e9karyotic flagella seen in protoctista. Pilli# #hese thread like pro:ections are usually more numerous than the flagella. #hey are associated ith different types of attachment. 8n some cases they are in$ol$ed in the transfer of %!A in a process called con:ugation or alternati$ely as a means of pre$enting phagocytosis. 'lime Ca sule# A thick polysaccharide layer outside of the cell all. like the glycocaly0 of eukaryotes. 9sed for sticking cells together. as a food reser$e. as protection against desiccation and chemicals. and as protection against phagocytosis. 8n some species the capsules of many cells in a colony fuse together forming a mass of sticky cells called a biofilm. %ental pla2ue is an e0ample of a biofilm.

Plasmids#

E0tra(nucleoid %!A of up to 466 kilobase pairs. *lasmids can self(replicate particularly before binary fission. #hey are associated ith con:unction hich is hori'ontal gene transfer. 8t is normal to find at least one anti(biotic resistance gene ithin a plasmid. #his should not be confused ith medical phenomena but rather is an ecological response to other antibacterial compounds produced by other microbes. 4ommonly fungi ill produce anti(bacterial compounds hich ill pre$ent the bacteria replicating and competing ith the bacteria for a resource.

con(ugation

%irect contact bet een bacterial cells in hich plasmid %!A is transferred bet een a donor cell and a recipient cell. #here is no e2ual contribution to this process. no fertilisation and no 'ygote formation. 8t cannot therefore be regarded as se0ual reproduction.

2.2.) *dentify structures from 2.2.1 in electron m icrogra hs of E. coli (2).

8dentify& #o find an ans er from a gi$en number of possibilities.

1. !ote the double membrane of this E. coli . #his feature means that the cells do not retain the dark blue stain used in microscopy. #hey are therefore kno n as 1ram( negati$e this contrast ith 1ram(positi$e single membrane bacteria. 2. #here is some e$idence in the image of pilli hich are the surrounding light grey masses. 3. 8n the cytoplasm of the bacterium there are no $isible organelles hich is consistent ith ho e e0pect a prokaryote cell to appear. 4. #he nucleoid region is not seen ell in this particular image but is clearer in the ne0t image.

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2.2.+ 'tate that rokaryotic cells di,ide by binary fission (1).

State&means to gi$e a specific name. $alue or other brief answer ithout e0planation or calculation.

*rokaryotic cells di$ide by binary fission. #his is an ase0ual method of reproduction in hich a )parental) cell di$ides into t o smaller but e2ually si'ed cells. #he cells are genetically identical and form the basis of a reproducti$e clone.

a little e0tra information for the interested reader. #he process of binary fission takes place in four stage& (a). $e roduction signal& #he cell recei$es a signal. of internal or e0ternal origin that initiates the cell di$ision. E.coli replicates about once e$ery 46 minutes hen incubated at 35o 4. 8f ho e$er e increase the concentration of carbohydrate nutrients that the cell is supplied ith then the di$ision time can be reduced to 26 minutes. #here is a suggestion here that an e0ternal signal ,nutrient concentration- is acting as the reproducti$e signal. (b). $e lication of D%!& bacterial cells ha$e a single condensed loop of %!A. #his is copied by a process kno n as semi(conser$ati$e replication to produce t o copies of the %!A molecule one for each of the daughter cells #he replication begins at a single point ,ori-on the loop of %!A. #he process proceeds around the loop until t o loop ha$e been produced. each a copy of the original. #he process finishes at a single point on the loop of %!A called the ter position. (c). 'egregation of D%!# "ne %!A loop ill be pro$ided for each of the daughter cells. As the ne loops form the ori site becomes attached to some contractile proteins that pull the t o ori sites. and therefore the loops. to opposite ends of the cell. #his is an acti$e process that re2uires the bacteria to use energy for the segregation. (d). Cytokinesis# 4ell separation.

#his occurs once the %!A loop replication and segregation is complete. #he %!A completes a process of condensing hilst the plasma membrane begins to form a ) aist) or constriction in the middle of the cell. As the plasma membrane begins to pinch and constrict the membrane fuses and seals ith additional ne membrane also being formed.