PaperResiduesConst1 Efb26766 393

Creating markets for recycled resources
Research into using recycled waste paper residues in construction products

WRAP Project code: PAP009-011
Written by:
Dr. George Goroyias and Dr. Rob Elias The BioComposites Centre, University of Wales Bangor Dr. Mizi Fan Centre for Timber Technology and Construction, Building Research Establishment (BRE)
Published by:
The Waste & Resources Action Programme The Old Academy, 21 Horse Fair, Banbury, Oxon OX16 0AH Tel: 01295 819900 Fax: 01295 819911 www.wrap.org.uk WRAP Business Helpline: Freephone: 0808 100 2040
Date (published) June 2004

ISBN: 1-84405-106-4
R&D Report: Paper
CONTENTS
CONTENTS........................................................................................................................................1 ABSTRACT........................................................................................................................................3 EXECUTIVE SUMMARY................................................................................................................4 1. Introduction................................................................................................................................9 1.1 Scope and Objectives of the project ..........................................................................................9 1.2 Summary description of the project........................................................................................10 1.3 Project partners.........................................................................................................................11 1.4 Background ...............................................................................................................................11 2 Summary of work.....................................................................................................................12 2.1 Market review ...........................................................................................................................12 2.2 Sludge characterisation ............................................................................................................12 2.2.1 Chemical composition of sludge............................................................................................12 2.2.2 Fibre Length ...........................................................................................................................13 2.3 Product development ................................................................................................................14 2.4 Non-load bearing softboard .....................................................................................................14 2.4.1 Product specifications ................................................................................................14 2.4.2 Product performance ..................................................................................................15 2.4.3 Advantages.................................................................................................................16 2.4.4 Disadvantages ............................................................................................................16 2.4.5 Applications ...............................................................................................................16 2.4.6 Market opportunities ..................................................................................................16 2.4.7 Manufacturing costs...................................................................................................17 2.4.8 Further work...............................................................................................................18 2.5 Hybrid MDF ..............................................................................................................................18 2.5.1 Product specifications ................................................................................................19 2.5.2 Product performance ..................................................................................................19 2.5.3 Advantages.................................................................................................................20 2.5.4 Disadvantages ............................................................................................................21 2.5.5 Applications ...............................................................................................................21 2.5.6 Manufacturing costs...................................................................................................21 2.5.7 Market opportunities ..................................................................................................21 2.5.8 Further Work..............................................................................................................23 2.6 Cement bonded sludge board...................................................................................................24 2.6.1 Product specifications ................................................................................................24 2.6.2 Product performance ..................................................................................................25 2.6.3 Advantages.................................................................................................................25 2.6.4 Disadvantages ............................................................................................................25 2.6.5 Applications ...............................................................................................................25 2.6.6 Market opportunities ..................................................................................................26 2.6.7 Manufacturing costs...................................................................................................26 2.6.8 Further Work..............................................................................................................26 2.7 Tile ..............................................................................................................................................27 2.7.1 Product specifications ................................................................................................27 2.7.2 Product performance ..................................................................................................28 2.7.3 Advantages.................................................................................................................28 2.7.4 Disadvantages ............................................................................................................28
Research into using recycled waste paper residues in construction products 1
2.7.5 Applications ...............................................................................................................28 2.7.6 Market opportunities ..................................................................................................28 2.7.7 Manufacturing Costs ..................................................................................................29 2.7.8 Future Work ...............................................................................................................29 2.8 Low density cement block ........................................................................................................29 2.8.1 Product specifications ................................................................................................29 2.8.2 Product performance ..................................................................................................30 2.8.3 Advantages.................................................................................................................32 2.8.4 Disadvantages ............................................................................................................32 2.8.5 Applications ...............................................................................................................32 2.8.6 Manufacturing costs...................................................................................................32 2.8.7 Market opportunities ..................................................................................................32 2.8.8 Future Work ...............................................................................................................33 2.9 Hardboard .................................................................................................................................33 2.9.1 Product specifications ................................................................................................33 2.9.2 Product performance ..................................................................................................34 2.9.3 Advantages.................................................................................................................35 2.9.4 Disadvantages ............................................................................................................35 2.9.5 Applications ...............................................................................................................35 2.9.6 Manufacturing cost ....................................................................................................35 2.9.7 Market opportunities ..................................................................................................35 2.9.8 Future Work ...............................................................................................................36 3 Consultation exercise ...............................................................................................................37 3.1 Summary of feedback ...............................................................................................................37 4 Conclusions ...............................................................................................................................40 5 Recommendations for further work.......................................................................................41 6 References .................................................................................................................................42 APPENDIX I: Research & Patent Review ....................................................................................44 APPENDIX 2: Market review ........................................................................................................50 APPENDIX 3: Chemical Analysis .................................................................................................75 APPENDIX 4: Softboard ................................................................................................................82 APPENDIX 5: Hybrid MDF ...........................................................................................................94 APPENDIX 6: Cement bonded sludge board .............................................................................112 APPENDIX 7: Tile .........................................................................................................................125 APPENDIX 8: Low Density Concrete Blocks, ............................................................................129 APPENDIX 9: Hardboard ............................................................................................................158 APPENDIX 10: Consultation exercise .........................................................................................162 APPENDIX 11 Posters and Press releases...................................................................................180
ABSTRACT
The Waste Resources Action Programme (WRAP) commissioned an integrated programme to explore the feasibility of recycling paper mill waste residues as a raw material for the manufacture of novel construction products. This programme was to demonstrate the opportunities of recycling waste material to manufacture products that conform to European standard requirements and provide prospective manufacturers with robust evidence of the technical capability of this waste resource. The project partnership funded by the Waste Resources Action Programme (WRAP) was between the Biocomposites Centre, University of Wales (BC, Project Managers) and the Building Research Establishment (BRE). This work has demonstrated that the recycling of paper mill residues into useful construction products is feasible. Six new products were developed namely softboard, hybrid MDF, cement bonded sludge board, tile, low density cement blocks and hardboard. The waste papermill sludge fibre content varied from 2.5% to 85%. The main advantage for potential technology/manufacturing partners is that in most cases a continuous production process is proposed and has many economic advantages over batch processes. Reasonable production times have been achieved for each product and their basic structural properties have been evaluated and compared against established products in accordance to European standards.
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
The Waste Resources Action Programme (WRAP) commissioned an integrated programme to explore the feasibility of recycling paper mill waste residues as a raw material for the manufacture of novel construction products. In developing new products based on alternative materials there are a number of significant barriers to be overcome. This project attempted to address the main issues in seeking to commercialise and transfer a new technology. The principle issues addressed were performance, manufacturing and markets. The aim of the programme was to demonstrate the technical and commercial feasibility of recycling a waste material to manufacture products that conformed to appropriate European standards. The key steps in the development programme were designed to provide prospective manufacturers with robust evidence of the technical capability of this waste resource and provide information on the likely markets. In terms of a potential raw material the sludge has a number of attractive attributes, it is easily available (a total of 1 million tonnes of papermill sludge are generated on an annual basis in the UK) and is of a relatively consistent composition. The product development work focused on the chemical and physical characterisation of paper mill waste residues, process design, pilot scale manufacture of product prototypes and product testing and optimisation. Finally the success of the products was measured via a consultation exercise, which involved the organisation of a series of dissemination events inviting a wide audience from a variety of industry sectors to comment on the prototype products. Six new products were developed namely softboard, hybrid MDF, cement bonded sludge board, tile, low-density cement blocks and hardboard. The waste paper mill sludge content varied from 2.5% to 85% showing that paper mill waste residues can be used in a wide range of different product applications. The technical characteristics, process of manufacture and market opportunities of the products are presented in summary below: 1. Softboard. Overview of production process
Mixing
Wet laying
Drying
Hot pressing
Laminating
Raw materials: 80% sludge - 10% MDF fibre Adhesive: 10 % Phenolic formaldehyde resin Surface lamination: Conventional wall paper or insulation waived aluminium foil Board thickness: 10-45mm Type of process of manufacture: Continuous Manufacturing:- Significant capital investment is required for the production facilities. This is offset by the fact that the main raw material for softboard is the paper mill sludge (80% plus 10% virgin fibre plus resin). If the sludge is supplied free of cost or at transportation cost there then is a significant contribution to the overall material cost. Estimates of material cost for
virgin wood fibre (refined and dried) are 50-70/tone and resin cost 200-300 per tonne. Virigin wood fibre could be further substituted by reclaimed MDF fibres. This would result in further savings and avoid the need for using any virgin material. Performance: - conforms to the requirements of grade 3 (EN 316, EN 622) which is a softboard for use in exterior conditions. Market Opportunities-Three main markets exist, fibreboards to replace traditional low-density virgin fibreboards, prefabricated constructions and door/frame applications as an in-fill product. These markets in the UK have a combined value of 1756M.
2. Hybrid MDF. Overview of production process
Refiningblow line
Drying
Forming
Pre-Press
Hot Pressing
Finishing
Raw materials: 45% sludge and 40-45 % MDF fibre (40+35+15 =100%) Adhesive: 10-15 % (based on the dry weight of the mix) Phenolic formaldehyde resin or Melamine Urea formaldehyde resin Surface lamination/modification: as MDF Board thickness: 10-25mm Type of process of manufacture: Continuous Manufacturing: - The process of manufacture is very similar to that of MDF and the production cost is expected to be lower as a significant amount of virgin wood fibre is replaced. As over 60% of the production cost of wood based panels is derived from the raw materials, this is seen as a strong driver. Access to cheaper raw materials is therefore a key to supplying the needs of the construction and furniture industries. Performance: - The hybrid MDF product presented promising results in terms of bending strength and can be used in several applications in dry conditions where high internal bond is not required. Improving the internal bond strength would create opportunities for the product for other applications (i.e. furniture, doors etc.). The internal bond result 0.5 N/mm2 was very close to the standard requirement standard MDF requirement (IB= 0.55 N/mm2). Market Opportunities: - Main markets to consider are wood based panel products, prefabricated buildings, door/frames, frames for paintings and packaging with a total UK market value of 3372M. There are strong possibilities to utilise the product as a substrate in laminated applications such as floor coverings and interior claddings. Further opportunities may arise if a high-pressure door skin type product can be developed.
3. Cement bonded Particleboard. Overview of Production process

Refiningblow line Drying
Mixing
Forming
Pre-Press
Hot Pressing
Finishing
Raw materials: 30% sludge- 70 % Cement Adhesive: Not required Surface lamination/modification: As a normal cement bonded particleboard Board thickness: 10-25mm Type of process of manufacture: Continuous Manufacturing - The manufacturing cost for this product is expected to be lower than that of its direct competitor, the conventional cement bonded particleboard. These savings are a result of the substitution of cement by sludge. Performance: - The cement bonded sludge board presented excellent test results with comparable or even better properties than the standard requirement and therefore has real potential for further development. Market Opportunities: - Prefabricated structural components made with concrete or cement for walls, floors and ceiling sections and artificial tiles have a total UK market value of 1564M. Development work has also indicated that a low-density product is achievable and this would significantly increase the market share.
4. Tile. Overview of Production process
Refining
Drying
Mechanical Blending
Forming
Pre-Press
Hot Pressing
Finishing
Raw materials: 80-85% sludge based on dry weight Adhesive: 15-20% Isocyanates (MDI) Surface lamination/modification: Polyurethane, powder coating etc. Board thickness: 10-12mm Type of process of manufacture: Continuous Manufacturing: -The cost of the main raw material, which in this case is the sludge, is negligible. Therefore the biggest raw material cost will be for the adhesive. Significant initial investment is required for the commissioning of a new production line. Large pieces of equipment such as continuous dryers, conti-roll or multi day light presses are required. With this investment the process will be continuous and large volumes can be produced efficiently. Performance: - The tile has very good mechanical properties, high stiffness and good dimensional stability. Further improvements could be achieved by developing improved finishing systems that will enhance the surface quality. A new test standard is also needed for this hybrid product, as it is neither a wood nor a ceramic type product. Market: The UK market value for the ceramic tiles and flags is 367M. This market is small compared to the construction applications but is niche. The product is easy to cut, looks natural and is warm to the touch compared to ceramic products.
5. Cement block. Overview of Production process
Refining
Mixing
Filling
Press & Consolidate
Ejecting
Steam curing
Raw materials: 95-97.5% cement aggregate mix and 2.5-5% sludge (dry weights) Adhesive: Not required Surface lamination/modification: Not required Board thickness: Standard cement block Type of process of manufacture: Continuous Manufacturing: - The introduction of 2.5-5% sludge can be achieved on existing production lines without any significant modifications to plant and equipment. The biggest challenge at this stage is to develop a compatiliser to improve the cement/sludge interaction increasing addition levels at normal cure times. Performance: - No significant decreases in material properties are observed when 5% sludge is added to the mix. Therefore through the addition of sludge, low-density blocks can be produced with the same mechanical performance. Market Applications include building blocks, clay bricks and other plaster/concrete articles (ornamental goods) that is worth. 1417M in the UK. The ornamental goods market was estimated at 114M alone and could be a commercial opportunity.
6. Hardboard. Overview of Production Process
Refining
Mixing
Wet laying
Pre-Press
Hot pressing
Raw materials: 0-100% sludge plus 0-100% MDF fibre (dry weights) Adhesive: 1.5-2% Phenolic formaldehyde resin Surface lamination/modification: Resin impregnated paper can be applied to enhance the stiffness of the board at high sludge contents Board thickness: 3-5mm Type of process of manufacture: Continuous with prolonged pressing Manufacturing - The addition of paper mill sludge fibre into an existing hardboard production line is expected to result in considerable savings. Saving will be attributed to raw materials and refiner energy. The degree of production savings is dependent upon the level of addition. At high levels of addition the incorporation of phenol formaldehyde resin will be necessary. Performance: -Up to 20% addition levels can be achieved without any significant reduction in bending and toughness. Higher addition levels can be obtained but there is a slight reduction in bending. However an improvement in the internal bond strength was observed
stands with trays and wooden frames for pictures have a combined UK market value of 284M. Picture frame and draw backs are also good target end-uses.
Market Applications: -High density fibreboards, wood based ornaments (letter, pen and ink
Opportunities
This work has successfully demonstrated that it is technically possible to recycle paper mill residues into useful construction products. It has also indicated that there are significant market opportunities and commercial benefits in using a lower cost material. Ranking opportunities by market size suggests that the product with the biggest potential is the hybrid MDF followed by softboard and cement bonded particleboard. There are also opportunities for building block materials but further technical developments are necessary. Good niche applications exist for the tile product and the hardboard substitute. However the lack of UK manufacturing capability will hamper development. The product acceptance measured via a series of consultation exercises backs the view that there are good market opportunities and applications. To move forward the development of manufacturing capacity and aim to bring products to market a number of possible scenarios are envisaged, including: A commercial company uses the outcomes of the study to bring the products to market. The present project partners continue to develop the technology to further the commercialisation of these products A company is set up comprising an industrial partner together with present project partners with the aim of developing some or all of these products and taking them to market.
1.
Introduction
The use of recycled paper in the pulp and paper industry generates waste residues as a byproduct from the process of recycling. These waste residues are currently disposed by methods such as landfill or land spread. The UK government has placed on top of the agenda as a priority of highest importance, the minimisation of waste that is disposed of to landfill. There are 78 operational papermills in the UK, which generate over 6 million tonnes of paper of varying grades and which utilise just over 5.5 million tonnes of recovered fibre each year. The sludge produced as a by-product, totals just over 1 million tonnes per annum (typically screwpressed at the mill and having a moisture content of 40-60%). The disposal of this sludge represents a significant disposal problem for mills. To address these concerns the Waste Resources Action Programme (WRAP) commissioned an integrated programme to explore the feasibility of recycling paper mill waste residues as a raw material for the manufacture of novel construction products. This programme was to demonstrate the opportunities of recycling waste material to manufacture products that conform to European standard requirements and provide prospective manufacturers with robust evidence of the technical capability of this waste resource. To find viable alternative options to the disposal of papermill sludge other than landfill or land spreading the project consisted of a combination of marketing and technical tasks. A market study and discussion with industry aimed to identify six products that may be specified and taken forward by industry into production. A series of technical development tasks were then undertaken including process design, process optimisation and product testing. Finally the success of the project was measured via a consultation exercise, which involved the organisation of series dissemination events inviting a wide audience from a variety of industry sectors to comment on the prototype products and to inform recommendations for further follow up action. This project report outlines all the main project deliverables and findings. Detailed description of the research methodology, process and product development and performance assessments is given in the technical reports, which are presented as appendices.
1.1
Scope and Objectives of the project
The detailed objectives of the project are summarised below: To provide the paper industry with a viable alternative to the disposal of papermill sludge via landfill/landspread and identify technically and economically feasible alternatives with added value end-uses. To fast track market penetration and identify gaps in the product sectors which are worthy of development. Conduct market research to identify the requirements for new board products and potential applications in construction including floor tiles, mouldings, decorative trims, ceiling tiles and partition panels. Establish the requirements for product approval and map out alternative routes to market. Consultations with potential users, distributors and specifiers will be used to establish their needs. Research into using recycled waste paper residues in construction products 9
Develop raw material blends, designs and processes for the fast track development of 3 product prototypes, review the requirements for product approval, and carry out relevant performance assessments. Develop raw material blends, designs and processes for remaining 3 products and carry out structural tests and such other tests deemed necessary to demonstrate fitness for purpose. All relevant testing to be applied according to BS EN or ISO standards where appropriate.
1.2
Summary description of the project
A number of development activities were undertaken in the project. An initial market review study (see 3.1) elucidated the market opportunities for the new products. Then a series of different technical tasks were undertaken to determine: Chemical and physical characterisation of paper mill waste residues Selection of six development products Process design Pilot scale product manufacture Product testing Identification of tests performed to BS EN or ISO standards Consultation with potential stakeholders through the whole chain of custody to establish the suitability of products developed.
A simple decision framework tool was used as a guide in the development process. The framework identified key critical pathways and strategic deliverables. Key steps in the development process were the successful completion of three critical paths, namely market review, process design (for each of the six products) and product testing. Upon successful completion of each critical path, three main deliverables were achieved, selection of product type, pilot scale manufacture, and product testing/process optimisation. The schematic below summarises the pathway used to achieve the critical paths and strategic deliverables: Market review (Critical Path 1) Product selection (Strategic Deliverable) Process design (Critical Path 2) Product manufacture (Strategic Deliverable) Product testing (Critical Path 3) Process optimisation and further product testing (Strategic Deliverable) Figure 1: Project critical path analysis
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A final consultation exercise was undertaken with potential stakeholders through focus group meetings and dissemination exercises at exhibitions and conferences. The aim of these activities was to gather feedback on the products developed during the work programme and to identify future commercial opportunities in addition to informing recommendations for further follow up actions.
1.3
Project partners
The project partnership funded by the Waste Resources Action Programme (WRAP) was between the Biocomposites Centre, University of Wales (BC, Project Managers) and the Building Research Establishment (BRE). Raw materials were supplied from Bridgewater and Shotton, which are two of the three mills in the UK producing newsprint, and Georgia Pacific (Devon) specialising in tissue production.
1.4
Background
A series of 6 products that utilise paper mill residues (sludge) as a base material for construction market applications were identified and specified. The main focus of the work was on three products (products 1 to 3) with some indicative work carried out on another three potential products (products 4 to 6). These products were: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Non-load softboard Hybrid MDF Cement bonded sludge board Tile Low density cement blocks Hardboard
The next technical challenge was to design or establish a suitable manufacturing process for each of the above product types. An extended literature review and patent search was conducted to assess the suitability of existing production technologies and to avoid any potential patent infringements (see Appendix 1). After a series of pilot plant trials the potential product methods were refined and the first prototypes products made. For each product a review of the performance in accordance with relevant EN standards was carried out and indicative testing conducted. The product assessment exercise provided practical information that helped to modify the process variables in order to achieve a quality product in each case.
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2 Summary of work
This section presents a summary of the findings of the market review study, the chemical and physical characterisation of paper sludge, product development and product performance.
2.1
Market review
The market survey focussed on a review of the potential uses of papermill sludge in the manufacture of products of similar type to wood based panel products and in applications for flooring, ceiling, partitioning boards and as a lightweight aggregate in concrete blocks. The market review (see Appendix 2) presents data on the paper and board industry; the source of the papermill sludge, as well as recent trends in the production and consumption of wood-based panel products in the UK and Europe. The conclusion of the market review study was that a number of products could potentially be made using papermill sludge where the sludge forms the bulk of the new material or is simply an additive to an existing product. The market study focused on the development of products for nonload bearing applications as these are more likely to be closer to market than full structural products. The evaluation of surface quality, moisture resistance, ease of machining and working, fire resistance and screw holding ability are considered important properties More demanding applications were explored during the project as the production technologies used to manufacture the prototype materials improved and enhanced the mechanical properties of the materials. Substitute products to replace wood based panels in general use as floor coverings have the most promising market potential. Lightweight aggregate blocks, ceiling tiles and partitions are also promising markets.
2.2 2.2.1
Sludge characterisation Chemical composition of sludge
A detailed analysis of the inorganic (filler) and fibre chemical composition (holocellulose; lignin) was carried out (See Appendix 3). Water and solvent extractives were obtained and their chemistry investigated using FTIR (see table 1).
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Analysis Moisture Content Dichloromethane Extractives Toluene/IMS/ Acetone Extractives Hot water Solubles pH of above Ash 525C Ash 900C Holocellulose Klason Lignin
Pulp A % Oven Dry Pulp Slurry 65.84 4.87 6.19 3.75 8.30 52.61 42.42 32.88 14.61
Pulp B % Oven Dry Pulp Slurry 78.60 1.71 2.20 3.51 8.60 66.35 42.47 29.03 9.91
Pulp C % Oven Dry Pulp Slurry 83.02 4.39 4.95 4.80 8.40 53.90 43.52 36.33 19.30
Table 1: Chemical Analysis of papermill sludge Inorganic material from each source of waste was analysed at two ashing temperatures and found to vary widely in metal contents. The reason for the temperature dependent variation of Aluminium & Silicon is likely to be due to the breakdown behaviour of clay with certain metals released at higher temperatures, see table 2. Metal Pulp Slurry A Pulp Slurry A Pulp Slurry B Pulp Slurry B Pulp Slurry C Pulp Slurry C
Al Ca Cr Cu Fe K Mg Mn Na Ni P Pb Si Zn
525C
3451 6160 3 8 278 211 867 32 392 2 8 5 4133 8
900C
23205 6172 7 78 803 693 1892 39 1156 11 81 7 38123 20
525C
5436 3984 2 10 373 94 1378 54 340 3 9 9 4949 14
900C
19140 4296 6 58 844 162 2569 60 316 9 54 7 26438 21
525C
3574 6010 7 9 301 248 1200 40 871 2 8 5 3501 108
900C
20471 5678 11 92 832 762 2224 47 1360 10 95 7 35027 23
Table 2: Analysis of inorganic constituents from Pulp Slurries. (All figures in parts per million = ppm)
2.2.2
Fibre Length
The fibre length was analysed using a Kajaani Fibrelength analyser. Typical average fibre lengths of 0.42 mm were found (See Appendix 3).
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2.3
Product development
For each product a process flow diagram and the summary of testing results are presented. For more detailed technical information such as process variables, additives, production parameters and so on, please refer to appendices 4, 5, 6, 7, 8 and 9. The sludge was collected from Bridgewater Paper Company after having been processed using a screw press to remove excessive water. The delivered sludge moisture content was typically 4060%. The material was then processed according the flow diagrams presented separately for each product in the following sections.
2.4
Non-load bearing softboard
The detailed technical development data for softboard are presented in appendix 4.
Picture 1: Softboard prototype panels
2.4.1
Product specifications
The product specifications are presented below in table 3: Softboard Raw materials: 80% sludge - 10% MDF fibre Adhesive: 10 % Phenolic formaldehyde resin Surface lamination: Conventional wall paper or insulation waived aluminium foil Board thickness: 10-45mm Type of process of manufacture: Continuous
Table 3: Softboard specifications
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Process flow diagram The flow diagram of the process of manufacture for softboard showing the main stages of manufacture is presented in figure 2.
Mixing
Wet laying
Drying
Hot pressing
Laminating
Figure 2: Process flow diagram for softboard
2.4.2
Product performance
Softboard was compared against requirements of wood softboard according to the EN standard requirements (EN 316, EN 622) for wood fibre softboard. The test results are presented in table 4.
Properties of soft board
Density (kg/m3) TS (%) MOR (N/mm2) MOE (N/mm2) 48 358 19 >230 >230 >230 >230 >230 48 5.4 7 <10 <7 <6 <8 <6 36 1.3 5 >0.8 >1 >1.1 >1.1 >1.2 36 31 6 NR NR NR >130 >140
No. test pieces Sludge soft board Property cov (%) Grade 1: SB Grade 2: SB.H Grade 3: SB.E Grade 4: SB.LS Grade 5: SB.HLS
* TS = Thickness swell (after 2 hours cold water soaking) % Cov= Coefficient of variation MOR = Modulus of rupture MOE = Modulus of elasticity SB = Use in dry conditions SB.H = Use in humid conditions SB.E = Use in exterior conditions SB.LS = Use for load-bearing in dry conditions SB.HLS = Use for load-bearing in humid conditions. NR = Not required Table 4: Test results of softboard and comparison against EU standard requirements
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As it can be seen in table 4, the softboard conforms with the requirements of grade 3 which is a softboard for use in exterior conditions. It is also important to mention that the softboard also conforms with grade 4 and 5 requirements excluding the MOE requirements, which could not be met.
2.4.3
Advantages
One of the main advantages of the softboard is that it is made with 80% waste material. The disposal of paper waste residues (sludge) is a significant waste disposal operation for the paper industry which is associated with high costs. If a if route for re-use can be established that could demonstrate that regular amounts of sludge could be utilised from a mill, the material may be supplied at negligible cost. The cost of the raw material on that basis should be negligible and probably will only reflect to transport costs. The softboard in general has a good feel is very lightweight and has good resistance against wetting. The high inorganic content (35-40 %) of the sludge should enhance the fire retardancy and the decay resistance against basidiomycetes and mould fungi. 1 A conventional type softboard is made utilising refined wood fibre and adhesives. The softboard that was manufactured in this project contains 80% paper mill waste of which 40-60% (see table 1) are inorganic compounds. It is hypothised that the high inorganic content of sludge softboard will enhance its fire retardancy properties and in a fire test in a straight comparison with a conventional softboard should show superior performance. However, further work is needed to evaluate the later assumption.
2.4.4
Disadvantages
The biggest disadvantage of the softboard is its low bending strength. As a result the product is brittle and not flexible. Consequently the softboard would require careful handling during installation. The surface characteristics may cause difficulties during the surface lamination stage. However, the surface characteristics are improved through lamination, which also helps improve some of the mechanical properties. The non-laminated product has a strong smell that of dry sludge. This smell is reduced when a laminate is applied on the surface.
2.4.5
Applications
The main area of application is non-load bearing uses such as thermal/acoustic insulation, a ceiling tile and in-fill product for timber frame construction.
2.4.6
Market opportunities1
The greater need for flexible use of space in buildings is driving the need for improved materials in the movable partition-walling sector. New systems using a variety of different products are being developed that provide flexible accommodation and can be easily modified to adapt to the
The EN standards that describe the methods for testing wood based products against fungal attack can be categorised into two different types such as accelerated tests and field tests. Both methods assess the decay resistance of the product by measuring the weight loss after exposure to Basidiomycetes or mould fungi. The main difference between the accelerated and the field tests is that for the accelerated methods four months only are required to collect the results while in contrast many years of exposure in the soil are required for the field tests. However, the decay resistance of a product is normally evaluated by both tests. The accelerated lab test is normally used to provide a quick indication of the decay resistance of a product while the field test method is an actual measurement of the natural durability of the product in decay conditions. 1 The UK net supply can be calculated as follows: UK net supply= UK Man. Sales + imports - exports
1
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changes in use in the building. The use of suspended ceiling light-weight systems will grow in the public sector through refurbishment in the education and health sectors. Softboard can play a role in insulation and suspended ceiling applications and can also be used as an overlay for floors. The existing market in these sectors is significant. Three main markets exist, fibreboards to replace traditional low-density virgin fibreboards, prefabricated constructions and door/frame applications as an in-fill product. These markets in the UK have a combined value of 1756M. The markets on which insulation board could make a significant impact are presented below: Fiberboard UK Man. Sales2 (M) 136 Imports (M) 257 Exports (M) 24 (Source: PRA 20200) Wooden or predominantly wooden prefabricated buildings, such as sheds, garages, greenhouses, conservatories, holiday homes INCLUDING: complete buildings fully assembled ready for use - complete buildings unassembled -incomplete buildings having the essential character of prefabricated building UK Man. Sales Imports Exports (M) 508 (M) 11 (M) 17 (Source: PRA 20300) Doors and their frames and thresholds of wood UK Man. Sales Imports Exports (M) 672 (M) 172 (M) 24 (Source: PRA 20300)
Table 5: UK market statistics for market opportunities for the softboard.
2.4.7
Manufacturing costs
Significant capital investment is required for the setting up of a softboard line with an in house refining capability. The most energy demanding production stages are the refining and the drying. Board pressing can be done efficiently on a continuous basis. Energy savings can be achieved with the utilisation of bio-fuels such as wood waste. The installation of bioenergy generators may be proved a significant cost saving investment.
UK Man. Sales = UK manufacturers sales
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The main raw material for softboard is the paper mill sludge (80%). If sludge were supplied free of cost or at transportation cost, the remaining raw materials cost will be equal to that of the phenolic resin and the refined wood fibre. Refined wood fibre can be supplied to potential softboard manufacturers by MDF industry or can be produced at the mill. The cost of refined wood fibre per tone is equal with the cost of virgin wood plus the required energy and a profit margin. On that basis the cost of refined MDF fibre per tone could be estimated at approximately 50-70/tonne (as 40/tonne is the cost of the virgin wood). As an alternative to refined MDF fibre, materials will soon be available that may be incorporated into the manufacturing process of softboard. Research scientists have been working on developing a suitable process for the recovery of MDF fibre by recycling MDF furniture waste (such as DTI Research and Development projects, Fibersolve and Microrelease). These methods are capable of recycling MDF back to MDF fibre which consequently could be utilised in the manufacturing process of softboard. These new developments open the potential for significant cost savings in the manufacturing of softboard. The refining stage could be avoided and the required 10% of refined MDF fibre could be replaced with recovered MDF fibre. The recovered MDF fibre could either be delivered on site or produced on site by recycling MDF furniture waste using the Fibresolve or Microrelease processes.3
2.4.8
Further work
This product has attracted much interest. The biggest issue is a scale up of the process as it is a wet forming method. The areas for improvement include developing a fast drying process using for example, microwaves, high frequency drying (RF) etc. The bending strength of the product could be improved by adding long fibres using renewable natural resources such as agricultural plants (hemp, etc.) Longer fibres add reinforcement to the composite structure resulting in a significant improvement of the bending properties of the product. Further work is need also to look at optimisation of resin type and production of thicker products.
2.5
Hybrid MDF
The detailed technical development data for hybrid MDF are presented in appendix 5.
a.
Fibersolve process is capable to recycle MDF furniture waste back to MDF fibre. This process has been fully scaled up and a 2-tone reactor has been successfully commissioned. The process is economical as only one hour and low pressure as 2 bar is required for a complete batch cycle. The quality of the fibre and panels produced in pilot scale using recycled MDF fibre was of equal quality to that of commercial MDF. Microrelease process is still under development and involves the use of microwaves to breakdown MDF into single fibres. Microrelease is in principle a faster method compared to Fibersolve but further development work is in required to evaluate the efficiency of the process in bigger scale.
3
18
b.
Picture 2: Hybrid MDF prototype panels a.) router profiled hybrid MDF and b.) laminated hybrid MDF
2.5.1
The product specifications are presented below in table 6: Hybrid MDF Raw materials: 45% sludge and 40-45 % MDF fibre (40+35+15 =100%) Adhesive: 10-15 % (based on the dry weight of the mix) Phenolic formaldehyde resin or Melamine Urea formaldehyde resin Surface lamination/modification: as MDF Board thickness: 10-25mm Type of process of manufacture: Continuous
Table 6: Hybrid MDF specifications
Process flow diagram

The flow diagram of the process of manufacture for hybrid MDF showing the main stages of manufacture is presented in figure 3.
Refiningblow line
Drying
Forming
Pre-Press
Hot Pressing
Finishing
Figure 3: Process flow diagram for hybrid MDF
2.5.2
Product performance
Hybrid MDF was compared against the European requirements of MDF grades according to EN 316. The test results are presented in table 6.
19
Properties of hybrid MDF Density (kg/m3) No. test pieces Hybrid MDF Property cov (%) Property cov (%) 48 995 1.5 884 8 >600 ** >600 >600 >600 TS (%) 48 11.8 7.1 9.2 2.6 12 8 12 8 IB (N/mm2) 48 0.5 18.1 1.2 9.7 0.55 0.75 0.6 0.75 MOR (N/mm2) 36 26.1 10.6 43.4 2.4 20 24 25 30 MOE (N/mm2) 36 2892 10.5 2364 2.7 2200 2400 2500 2700
Control MDF MDF MDF.H MDF.LS MDF.HLS
*TS = Thickness swell (after 24 hours cold water soaking) ** for humid uses MDF needs to be tested against a cyclic swelling test. % Cov = coefficient of variation MOR = Modulus of rupture MOE = Modulus of elasticity IB = Internal bond strength MDF = Use in dry conditions MDF.H = Use in humid conditions MDF.LS = Use for load-bearing in dry conditions MDF.HLS = Use for load-bearing in humid conditions.
Table 7. Test results of hybrid MDF and comparisons against European standard requirements
The hybrid MDF product presented promising results in terms of bending strength and can be used in several applications in dry conditions where high internal bond strength is not required. Improving the internal bond strength would create opportunities for the product for other applications (i.e. furniture, doors etc.). The internal bond result 0.5 N/mm2 was very close to the standard MDF requirement (IB= 0.55 N/mm2).
2.5.3
Advantages
This product has good mechanical properties such as stiffness and combined with promising decay and fire resistance properties could be targeted towards high-added product value markets.
20
In general the product has normal density and it is not heavy in comparison to standard MDF. The surface quality is acceptable. The product has good machinability i.e. router produced a good quality profile (Picture 2a). The high inorganic content in the sludge could hide some special characteristics, which are required from the product for new finishing technologies. Finally it could substitute virgin wood in conventional MDF production with significant cost savings. However, further work is needed to exploit this potential.
2.5.4
Disadvantages
This product needs some further optimisation. The high fines content produces a mat with very high compaction capacity, which is difficult to hot press. High resin contents were used in order to achieve good internal bond strengths, but add to the production cost. The fines also contribute to the pre-curing process on the surface increasing any sanding tolerances, and making sanding more difficult.
2.5.5
Applications
General purpose (Upholstery furniture, wall sheathing, floor covering, packaging, etc.) or laminated furniture components.
2.5.6
Manufacturing costs
The process of manufacture is very similar to that of MDF. However, the cost of manufacture is expected to be lower to that of MDF because significant amount of wood fibre is replaced with paper mill sludge. The most energy demanding manufacturing stage is the refining of the wood. If conventional adhesives systems were incorporated then the cost of the adhesive would be at the current market rates for phenolic formaldehyde resin, melamine formaldehyde resin or isocyanates. However, it is more likely that a specially designed adhesive system needs to be developed which is capable of binding organic and inorganic materials and in this case the cost is unknown. Existing manufacturers of wood based panel products are competing in a tough market where oversupply and cost are the major market forces. Over 60% of the production cost of wood based panels is dedicated to the raw materials used to manufacture the product (wood and resin). Access to cheaper suitable raw materials is therefore key to supplying the construction and furniture industries.
2.5.7
Market opportunities
The main markets to consider are wood based panel products, prefabricated buildings, door/frames, frames for paintings and packaging with a total UK market value of 3372M (table 8). Figures from Panelboard Industry Trade Association: (2003) the turnover of the industry is approximately 550million, with 8 manufacturing facilities based in the UK. There are strong possibilities of utilising the product as a substrate in laminated applications such as floor coverings and interior claddings. Further opportunities may arise if a high-pressure door skin type product could be developed. Research into using recycled waste paper residues in construction products 21
Cases, boxes, crates, drums and similar wood packaging EXCLUDING: - cable drums UK Man. Sales Imports Exports (M) 95 (M) 7 (M) 3 (source: PRA 20400) Box pallets and load boards of wood EXCLUDING: - flat pallets UK Man. Sales Imports Exports (M) 16 (M) 4 (M) 4 (source: PRA 20400) Flat pallets and pallet collars of wood UK Man. Sales Imports Exports (M) 266 (M) 82 (M) 64 (source: PRA 20400) Wooden frames for paintings, photographs, mirrors or similar objects UK Man. Sales Imports Exports (M) 160 Fiberboard UK Man. Sales (M) (source: PRA 20200) 136 Plywood UK Man. Sales (M) 78 Chipboard UK Man. Sales (M) 435 Imports (M) 171 Exports (M) 31 (source: PRA 20200) Imports (M) 297 Exports (M) 17 (source: PRA 20200) Imports (M) 257 Exports (M) 24 (M) 5 (M) 21 (source: PRA 20510)
22
Wooden or predominantly wooden prefabricated buildings, such as sheds, garages, greenhouses, conservatories, holiday homes INCLUDING: complete buildings fully assembled ready for use - complete buildings unassembled incomplete buildings having the essential character of prefabricated building UK Man. Sales Imports Exports (M) 508 (M) 11 (M) 17 (source: PRA 20300) Doors and their frames and thresholds of wood UK Man. Sales Imports Exports (M) 672
Table 8: UK market statistics for hybrid MDF
(M) 172
(M) 24
2.5.8
Further Work
Further work is necessary to optimise blow line blending as the geometry of the sludge fibre is very different to that of virgin wood fibre. A double refining system could potentially produce much more compatible fibres. Other blending methods such as mechanical blending need to be investigated. Producing a three-layered MDF type product with a wood fibre core layer and a sludge surface could enhance the structural properties. Fines could also be removed and separated from the sludge before use to yield an improved furnish (furnish is the fibre plus any other additives in the form of a mat before pressing). The fines could be then utilised for the development of a surface modifier that would improve the aesthetics of the product and add value. Different resin types should be investigated i.e. MDI (Methylene, diphenyl, diisocyanate) and screened to see if there are any effects on reactivity. Another alternative raw material that could be utilised in the manufacture of MDF and in combination with paper mill waste is recovered wood. Recovered wood waste can be separated in two major categories such as: untreated (e.g. packaging) which is relatively clean of contaminants and treated (e.g. demolition wood waste) which can be heavily contaminated with metals, paint, wood preservatives. Further development work is needed to allow the use of recovered wood in MDF production. Recycled wood can be heavily contaminated with metals and even after extensive cleaning using the PAL systems (brand name of a sophisticated cleaning process), the metal content remains an issue for the refining stage. However, it is important to note that the MDF industry is looking forward to accessing cheaper raw materials in order to reduce manufacturing costs and the utilisation of waste materials such as paper mill sludge and recycled wood would enable the industry to achieve significant savings and improve the environmental profile of their products.
23
2.6
Cement bonded sludge board
The detailed technical development data for cement bonded sludge board are presented in appendix 6.
Picture 3: Cement bonded sludge board
2.6.1
The product specifications are presented below in table 9: Cement bonded sludge board Raw materials: 30% sludge- 70 % Cement Adhesive: Not required Surface lamination/modification: As a normal cement bonded particleboard Board thickness: 10-25mm Type of process of manufacture: Continuous
Table 9: Cement bonded particleboard specifications
Process flow diagram The flow diagram of the process of manufacture for cement bonded sludge board showing the main stages of manufacture is presented in figure 4.
Refiningblow line Drying
Mixing
Forming
Pre-Press
Hot Pressing
Finishing
Figure 4: Process flow diagram for cement bonded sludge board
24
2.6.2
Product performance
Cement bonded sludge board was compared against the European requirements of the conventional cement bonded particleboard according to EN 634. The test results are presented in table 10. Properties of cement bonded sludge boards Density (kg/m3) No. test pieces Cement sludge Property board cov (%) CBPB requirements MOR = Modulus of rupture MOE = Modulus of elasticity AF321 = After cyclic test CBPB = Conventional cement bonded particleboard
Table 10: Test results of cement bonded sludge board and comparisons against European standard requirements
TS (%) IB (N/mm2) 48 0.8 12.5 <1.5 48 1 7.3 >0.5
MOR (N/mm2) 36 11.9 15.8 >9
MOE (N/mm2) 36 10882 19.3 4000- 4500
48 1618 5.8 >1000
IB TS (%) (N/mm2) AF321 AF321 48 48 0.58 21 <1.5 0.37 7.2 >0.3
* TS = Thickness swell (after 24 hours cold water soaking)
The cement bonded sludge board presented excellent test results with comparable or even better properties than the standard requirement and therefore presents real potential for further development.
2.6.3
Advantages
Key advantages of this product are strength, fire resistance and dimensional stability. These characteristics combined with decay resistance performance make this product a candidate for exterior applications in addition to interior applications
2.6.4
Disadvantages
High density products and the slow production times may raise concerns for manufacturers. There is not a big established market for cement bonded particleboard in UK and Europe and although it has competitive properties it is difficult to compete against lower density products such as Orientated Strand Board (OSB) which have dominated the construction market.
2.6.5
Applications
Much interest has been expressed for this product with applications suggested for exterior cladding, outdoor paving systems and suggestion for niche applications as fire surrounds.
25
2.6.6
Cement bonded sludge board as cement bonded particleboard may find itself a specialised niche in the market that reflects its outstanding merits of high stiffness, high durability, good protection against fire and high sound insulation. There is widespread use for cement bonded particleboard as a wall lining in public buildings, as well as a cladding material. More specialised uses embrace flooring (where there is a risk from water spillage), sound insulation and construction of protective elements for fireproofing. Prefabricated structural components made with concrete or cement for walls, floors and ceiling sections and artificial tiles have a total UK market value of 1564M (table 11). Development work has also indicated that a low-density product is achievable and this would significantly increase the market share. Prefabricated structural components (concrete, cement, or artificial stones, walls, floors or ceiling sections etc.) UK Man. Sales (M) 426 Imports (M) 5 Exports (M) 12 (Source: PRA 26100)
Plaster Products for Construction purposes1 UK man. sales Imports Exports (M)
1
(M) 14
(M) 13 (Source: PRA 26620)
351
333M for boards, sheets, panels, tiles and similar articles of plaster or of compositions based on plaster, faced or reinforced with paper or paperboard only EXCLUDING: - articles agglomerated with plaster ornamented.
Tiles (Cement, concrete, artificial stone) UK Man. Sales Imports Exports (M) 740 (M) 42 (M) 10 (Source: PRA 26100)
Table 11: Market statistics for cement bonded sludgeboard
2.6.7
Manufacturing costs
The manufacturing cost for this product is expected to be lower than that of its direct competitor, the conventional cement bonded particleboard because there will be significant production savings by the substitution of wood particles with sludge and faster production. The most energy demanding production stage is the pressing. The cost of raw materials is equivalent to the cost of cement plus the cost of water.
2.6.8
Further Work
Improvement to develop lighter weight designs is needed along with faster production processes. This could be achieved with the use of accelerators. A range of tests are needed to evaluate the effect of sludge chemical compounds on the reactivity of a range of resin systems.
26
2.7
Tile
The detailed technical development data for the tile is presented in appendix 7.
Picture 4: Prototype tile products (Tile is top product sitting on a laminated hybrid MDF)
2.7.1
The product specifications are presented below in table 12: Tile Raw materials: 80-85% sludge based on dry weight Adhesive: 15-20% Isocyanates (MDI) Surface lamination/modification: Polyurethane, powder coating etc. Board thickness: 10-12mm Type of process of manufacture: Continuous
Table 12: Tile specifications
Process flow diagram The flow diagram of the process of manufacture for the tile showing the main stages of manufacture is presented in figure 5.
Refining
Drying
Mechanical Blending
Forming
Pre-Press
Hot Pressing
Finishing
Figure 5: Process flow diagram for cement bonded sludge board
27
2.7.2
Product performance
The performance of the board material developed as the substrate for tiles was assessed against European standards for fibreboards (EN 316). However based on this scenario and because the tile is made using 20% MDI resin it becomes an expensive alternative to conventional fibreboards where lower amounts and more cost effective resins are normally applied. Further development work is required to shift the tile properties from its current grade to the more demanding grades of ceramic tiles. Tile Density: 1200-1300 kg/m3 Thickness swelling: 3-5% MOR: 20-30 N/mm2 MOE: 2000-4000 N/mm2
Table 13: Results of tile testing
In general the properties of the board panel produced as the substrate material for tiles were acceptable in terms of strength.
2.7.3
Advantages
This alternative non ceramic tile type product is warm to the touch and has good mechanical properties whilst consisting of 80-85% waste material. It can be cut easily using conventional electric saws without the need for special tile cutters and has good resistance to wetting prior to surface and edge covering.
2.7.4
Disadvantages
To achieve the strength and hard wearing characteristics the product has a high MDI resin content. The surface of the product is absorbent and affects how the product is finished (laminated, painted, coated) especially if a wet system is applied on the surface.
2.7.5
Applications
Floor covering and wall tiling system for interior use in dry environments
2.7.6
The UK market value for the ceramic tiles and flags is 367M. This is a small niche market. The product is easy to cut, looks natural and is warm to the touch compared to ceramic products. Ceramic Tiles & Flags UK Man. Sales (M) 85 Imports (M) 282 Exports (M) 18 (PRA 26300)
Table 14: Market statistics for ceramic tiles
28
2.7.7
Manufacturing Costs
Further process development is required to develop a more efficient method of fibre separation (fluffing up the sludge). In this project, the refiner was used as a method to model a system for fibre separation. As the refining stage is the most energy demanding production stage an alternative and more energy efficient method is required to separate the fibres at lower cost. This could be achieved by modification of existing refining technology or by the design of a new processing capability e.g. separation of the fibre using a sophisticated drying system incorporating aerodynamics and physics in the design or through the development of separation techniques to split the sludge fibre from the filler elements. The cost of the main raw material, which in this case is the sludge, is negligible. Therefore the biggest raw material cost will be for the adhesive. However, significant initial investment is required for the commissioning of a new production line. Large pieces of equipment such as continuous dryers, conti-roll presses or multi day light presses are required to ensure maximum use of the production time. The process is continuous and large volumes could be produced efficiently, with the appropriate infrastructure.
2.7.8
Future Work
Work needs to identify cheaper alternative resin systems and overcome the surface finishing problems. A better study of the surface wear characteristics is also needed to ensure that the tile will have a life span of 5 plus years in exterior conditions. This could be achieved by improving the resin distribution and using specially designed resins that have adhesive properties with organics and inorganics.
2.8
Low density cement block
Picture 5: Low density sludge-cement blocks
The detailed technical development data for low density cement blocks are presented in a detailed technical report in appendix 7.
2.8.1
The product specifications are presented below in table 15: Research into using recycled waste paper residues in construction products 29
Light density cement block Raw materials: 95-97.5% cement aggregate mix2.5-5% sludge (dry weights) Adhesive: Not required Surface lamination/modification: Not required Board thickness: Standard cement block Type of process of manufacture: Continuous
Table 15: Tile specifications
Process flow diagram The flow diagram of the process of manufacture for the light density cement blocks showing the main stages of manufacture is presented in figure 6.
Refining
Mixing
Filling
Press & Consolidate
Ejecting
Steam curing
Figure 6: Process flow diagram for light density cement blocks
2.8.2
Product performance
A series of mechanical and physical tests were carried out with the aim to evaluate the suitability of paper sludge as a density reduction agent in conventional cement block manufacture. Examples of test results are presented in figures 7, 8 and 9. More technical information on tests and testing results is presented in appendix 7.
Figure 7: Compressive cube crushing strength versus curing period. A significant reduction of compressive cube crushing strength was found at 2.5% and 5% sludge mixes.
30
Figure 8: Relative block (cube) crushing strength versus curing period. No significant effect was found on the relative crushing strength.
Figure 9: Block density versus sludge content. The effect of 2.5% and 5% of sludge on block density is remarkable. The density was reduced dramatically by adding 5% sludge in the mix.
It is difficult to say whether the observed effects would result in a problem on a block production line without an actual trial. However the retardation effect is minimal if present at all. Further work is required to evaluate the practicality of this combination. The market potential for lightweight aggregate blocks could be improved if further work is done on pre-treatment of the sludge. If a cost effective method of separation of fibre from fillers is used, and a higher proportion of clays, inorganic material (filler residue) is utilised, the resulting block would have better strength qualities. However, if a refined sludge containing a higher proportion of separated fines in relation to paper fibres were used then both the density and the strength of modified concrete block products would be increased relative to products made with the straight dried sludge.
31
2.8.3
Advantages
The addition of sludge to building blocks helps reduce product density and can save 2.5% cost in raw materials. The production of lighter weight products and a reduction in concrete consumption are key drivers for the construction industry
2.8.4
Disadvantages
The major disadvantage of the addition of sludge is a corresponding increase of production time to cure the products. This is seen as a major disadvantage by the industry. Low weight concrete blocks are usually deliberately semi-compacted and made with gap-graded aggregates to introduce porosity so the additional porosity resulting from the sludge addition is not a problem in itself.
2.8.5
Applications
General purpose building blocks for construction
2.8.6
Manufacturing costs
The addition of 2.5 to 5% of sludge can be done without any significant alteration in an existing production line. The biggest challenge at this stage is to develop a compatiliser to improve the compatibility of cement and sludge.
2.8.7
Market Applications include building blocks, clay bricks and other plaster/concrete articles (ornamental goods) that are worth 1417M in the UK (table 16). The ornamental good market was estimated at 114M alone and could be a good niche application for sludge based products. Building blocks (Cement, concrete, artificial stone) UK Man. Sales Imports Exports (M) 594 (M) 17 (M) 4 (Source: PRA 26100) Tiles (Cement, concrete, artificial stone) UK Man. Sales Imports Exports (M) 740 (M) 42 (M) 10 (Source: PRA 26100) Other Articles of Concrete, Plaster & Cement1 UK Man. Sales Imports Exports (M) 105 (M) 9 (M) 20
32
40M for Articles of plaster or compositions based on plaster for non-constructional purposes INCLUDING: - casts, statues, bowls, vases and ornamental goods EXCLUDING: - plaster-coated fracture bandages put up for retail sale and plaster fracture splints - models designed solely for demonstrational purposes - tailors dummies, 60M for Articles of cement, concrete or artificial stone for non-constructional purposes INCLUDING: vases, flower pots architectural or garden ornaments, statues and ornamental goods
(Source: PRA 26660)

Table 16: UK market statistics for building blocks
2.8.8
Future Work
Development of a compatiliser (an additive that would improve the compatibility of sludge and cement) to allow faster curing and allow a higher sludge content is key for commercial applications of sludge materials in this product sector.
2.9
Hardboard
The detailed technical development data for hardboard are presented in an analytical technical report in appendix 8.
Picture 6: Example of hardboard made using various amounts of sludge.
2.9.1
The product specifications are presented below in table 17: Hardboard Raw materials: 0-100% sludge plus 0-100% MDF fibre (dry weights) Adhesive: 1.5-2% Phenolic formaldehyde resin Surface lamination/modification: Resin impregnated paper can be applied to enhance the stiffness of the board at high sludge contents Board thickness: 3-5mm Type of process of manufacture: Continuous with prolonged pressing
Table 17: Hardboard specifications
Process flow diagram The flow diagram of the hardboard production process indicating the main stages of manufacturing is presented in figure 10.
33
Refining
Mixing
Wet laying
Pre-Press
Hot pressing
Figure 10: Process flow diagram for hardboard
2.9.2
Product performance
A series of hardboard samples were made incorporating various amounts of de-inking sludge. The bending properties and internal bond strength were measured.
Bending strength and toughness

0.6 0.5 m odulus of rupture kPa 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1 0 0 20 40 60 % sludge 80 0.3 0.25 0.2 0.15 0.1 0.05 0 100 w ork to peak load
bending strength
toughness
Figure 11: Bending strength and toughness versus sludge percentage.
It is evident that there is an effect on bending strength and toughness with increased additions of sludge. The most likely reason for this observation is due to the shorter fibres present in the sludge materials.
Internal bond strength

0.15 internal bond MPa 0.1 0.05 0 0 20 40 60 % sludge 80 100
Figure 12: Internal bond strength versus sludge content.
34
The internal bond (IB) shows almost the opposite behaviour to the bending strength, perhaps explaining why small amounts of sludge have little effect on bending strength. The increase in IB could be explained by the greater compaction level of the sludge material that enables more fibre to fibre interactions. It was concluded that the sludge can be incorporated into the hardboard in high proportions, having little effect on the mechanical properties of the product. Key to maintaining the mechanical properties of the hardboard is ensuring that sufficient water is removed from the mattress in the pre-press stage of the production process. Further work is required to evaluate if a 100% sludge based hardboard cab be made with the addition of several types of adhesives.
2.9.3
Advantages
Up to 40% reduction and saving in virgin raw materials can be achieved by substituting sludge for wood in hardboard products. The substitution of wood fibre with paper mill waste will result in significant energy savings at the refining stage as lower volumes of solid wood will have to be refined.
2.9.4
Disadvantages
The environmental issues of using a water intensive process are a concern. The product is used in low cost applications and is commodity driven. There is a limited production capability in UK.
2.9.5
Applications
The sludge hardboard is a direct replacement for hardboard and has potential for use in hobby applications (picture backs), as a backing material in the furniture industry (drawer bottoms and under-lays for floors)
2.9.6
Manufacturing cost
The addition of paper mill sludge fibre in an existing production line is expected to result in considerable savings in raw materials cost and refiner energy. The degree of production savings is depended upon the level of addition. At high levels of addition the incorporation of phenol formaldehyde resin will be necessary. However, even in this case it is expected that the savings that can be achieved by the replacement of wood fibre with sludge will overcome the cost of resin.
2.9.7
High density fibreboards, wood based ornaments (letter, pen and ink stands with trays and wooden frames for pictures have a combined UK market value of 284M. Picture frame and draw backs are also good target end-uses. Hardboard UK Man. Sales (M) 45 Imports (M) 23 Exports (M) 25 (Source: PRA 20200) Wood marquetry and inlaid wood; caskets and cases for jewellery or cutlery, and
35
similar articles, statuettes and other ornaments, coat or hat racks, office letter trays, ash trays, pen-trays and ink stands of wood UK Man. Sales Imports Exports (M) 6 (M) 41 (M) 5 (Source: PRA 20510) Wooden frames for paintings, photographs, mirrors or similar objects UK Man. Sales Imports Exports (M) 160 (M) 5 (M) 21 (Source: PRA 20510)
Table 18: UK market for hardboard type products
2.9.8
Future Work
Further work could look at combining recovered MDF waste with an aim to increase the amount of sludge added to the product. A good target for future development would be to optimise the process for thicker board for a construction grade product. A series of resin trials would also help to achieve a higher quality product.
36
3 Consultation exercise
A series of dissemination events were undertaken. The aims of the events were to gather feedback on the products and gauge commercial industrial interest. The dissemination events consisted of two shows/conferences and focus group meetings. principle activities: attendance at trade
The project team attended two trade shows and organised three focus group meetings. A fourth focus group meeting will be organised after the final completion of the project with the aim to attract industrial interest and support for the next phase. The first trade show attended was the 7th European Panel Products Symposium (October 2003). At this even, a poster summarising the project and some product prototypes were exhibited to UK and other European wood based panels stakeholders. The second show was at the Paper Industries Technical Association (PITA) annual conference (March 2004). This was strongly attended by the paper industry with over 140 delegates from mill and equipment suppliers. Samples of all 6 products were made available for inspection along with information on their technical performance and feedback was gathered from both. The three focus group meetings took place in conjunction with other events. The first focus group meeting was organised during the technical committee meeting of the Wood Panel Industries Federation which was held at BRE in December 2003. The second focus group meeting was part of the activities of the European Cost Action E29 Timber products innovation (February 2004). Twenty-five participants from various countries around Europe were invited to answer questions and identify the key opportunities and barriers for adopting these technologies. The third focus group meeting took place at the PITA conference (March 2004). Key stakeholders from paper industry were identified and interviewed in person. Board manufacturers, resin suppliers, product specifies, researchers, architects, civil engineers, technologists, technical managers, production managers were amongst those asked to answer questions and give their informed opinion on the six new products. The feedback was collected in the form of questionnaires. The assessment of the questionnaires was completed using simple statistical analysis. A detailed report of the dissemination events is presented in appendix 10. A final facilitated focus group meeting was held on the 5th of May at BRE Garston, Watford.
3.1
Summary of feedback
The consultation exercise provided very useful information on key areas for each of the products, such as product applications and the best candidates for further development. Stakeholders were asked to give their opinion on product appearance, environmental profile, strength, extra properties required and suggested applications. In brief the product winners were the softboard, the tile and the cement bonded sludge board (figure 13). The hybrid MDF however attracted a lot of interest. However, the general opinion was that as the wood based panels sector is very competitive there would be a number of barriers to exploiting this technology. New technologies that can be used to recycle MDF fibre are now very close to market. These technologies could potentially provide an alternative source of wood fibre by
37
recycling furniture waste which could be incorporated as an alternative type to wood fibre into the hybrid MDF product. This potential combination is worth exploring in future projects. Several applications were suggested for the new products (figure 14). The top four were flooring, tiles, insulation and furniture. A more detailed description of the consultation exercise feedback is presented in appendix 10. What do you like?
100% 90% 80% 70% 60% Percentage 50% 40% 30% 20% 10% 0% Insulation Board MDF type Cement Bonded Board Tiles Cement Blocks Hardboard Other Appearance Environmental Profile Strength
Figure 13: Ranking of product characteristics

25
20 percentage responses
15
10
s in su la tio n
fu rn itu ge re ne lin ra in lp gs an fo el rs s tu d w al lin g
ce ilin gs
cl ad di ng
ov er in g
do or s
til es
gs
al
flo or c
in su la tio n
co ve rin
pa vi ng
w al l
Figure 14: Suggested applications for the six products
in ne r
ac ou st ic
sy st em
th er m
bl oc k
ro of
38
Discussions were very positive with inputs from all the attendees. General technical issues raised revolved around product performance such as fire and thermal properties. The consensus was that if the products achieved the standards, there were no envisaged barriers to adoption with the exception of cost. The lack of practical experience of using the products and lack of incentives to change (e.g. legislation) were seen as critical commercial barriers. To overcome these barriers partnerships with prominent retail companies were thought to be necessary. The ability to be able to purchase the products was also seen as a critical step in commercialisation. The trend toward offsite construction is seen as a significant market driver for future materials. Here, the use of the products in a system that combines 1 or 2 materials will be important.
In summary supply chains, routes to market and the ability to demonstrate these products in service are important tasks that need to be considered when seeking to commercialise these products.
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4 Conclusions
There is an increasing demand to reduce delivery times in building construction. This demand is leading to the increase in consumption of wood products in the built environment through the adoption of quick build methods such as timber and steel frame based constructions. Wood based panel products play a key role in timber/steel frame type buildings accommodating a wide range of applications. As there is an increasing need to reduce build time the promotion of off-site modular construction and lightweight materials that are easily assembled with low CO2 impacts is gaining market acceptance. Low cost materials that can be easily recycled and reused are increasingly needed. Manufactures are open to innovation that will result in development of new products and technologies and will allow them to provide a greater low cost product choice, and improved designs for the consumers, in addition to selling products with greener credentials. This work has demonstrated that the recycling of paper mill residues into useful low cost construction products is feasible. Six construction products were identified and successfully produced in pilot scale. The process of manufacture has been mapped out for each of the products. The main advantage for potential technology/manufacturing partners or companies wishing to take up the technology is that in most cases a continuous production process is proposed and has many economic advantages over batch processes. Reasonable production times have been achieved for each product and their basic structural properties have been evaluated and compared against established products in accordance to European standards. Product acceptance has also been measured via consultation exercises and the front-running products and main applications have been identified. Market opportunities for the six products developed, exist in buildings construction and furniture applications. Close to market applications are in non-structural end-uses where good surface finishes using laminates can be simply achieved. Structural applications are also feasible in end-uses where moderate impact and stiffness properties are required. Wider acceptance in structural applications for the six products is feasible but additional development work is required to improve the mechanical and physical properties of the product. Finally the main deliverables of this work were: 1. Characterisation of paper mill sludge 2. Evaluation market opportunities 3. Establishment and mapping out of a platform for manufacturing 6 novel construction product based on recycled materials 4. Pilot scale manufacture of product prototypes 5. Assessment of product quality and generation of data to support future product acceptance 6. Feed back from potential producers, users and specifiers.
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5 Recommendations for further work

The following key areas need to be taken forward in project: Commitment from industrial partners Economic analysis of process of manufacture for each product Further optimisation and scale up Pilot scale production and marketing Full certification of the product. Conduct lifecycle analyses of products to assess environmental credentials. The resins used in this study were conventional type resins, which are specifically designed to bond organic materials. Paper mill sludge is a mix of organic and inorganic materials and special adhesives need to be designed in order to improve bond quality. A modified refining system that would be capable of separating and mixing paper fibres with the inorganic particles without causing damage to the fibre needs to be developed. Wood refiners are specially designed to process wood at high specific energy. The refining or fluffing of paper mill sludge is not necessarily a highly energy demanding process and can be achieved more efficiently if less energy intensive equipment were developed.
To move forward the development of waste materials into new products significant investment in new infrastructure and strong partnerships between experts is required. The development of novel processes and products that utilise waste materials is an important achievement. However, the most crucial stage after the development of a new technology is the transfer of this technology to industrial scale and market. To move forward the development of manufacturing capacity and aim to bring products to market a number of possible scenarios are envisaged, including: A commercial company uses the outcomes of the study to bring the products to market. The present project partners continue to develop the technology to further the commercialisation of these products A company is set up comprising an industrial partner together with present project partners with the aim of developing some or all of these products and taking them to market. BC would donate the pilot plant facilities to the new company.
The success of one or more of these scenarios would provide a stepping-stone for future developments and clearly signal change in mindset within industry.
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6 References
PRA 20200, Veneer Sheets, Plywood, Laminboard, Particle Board, Fibre Board & Others, 2002, National Statistics PRA 26610, Concrete Products for Construction Purposes, 2002, National Statistics PRA 20300, Builders Carpentry & Joinery, 2002, National Statistics PRA 20400, Wooden Containers, 2002, National Statistics PRA 20510, Other Products of Wood, 2002, National Statistics PRA 26300, Ceramic Tiles & Flags, 2002, National Statistics PRA 26400, Bricks, Tiles & Construction Products in Baked Clay 2002, National Statistics PRA 26620, Plaster products for construction purposes, 2002, National Statistics PRA 26660, Other Articles of Concrete, Plaster & Cement, 2002, National Statistics Bonfield P and Fan M. 2000. What can the wood-based panels sector learn from the synthetic composites industry? Proceedings of the fourth European panel products symposium. pp 5-25. Corbman B.P. 1975. Textiles, Fibre to Fabric. Fifth edition. Mcgraw Hill, Inc. New York. Fan M. 1997. Dimensional instability of cement bonded particleboard. PhD thesis. University of Wales. Maloney, T.M. 1977. Modern particleboard and dry-process fiberboard manufacturing. Miller Freeman Publication, San Francisco, CA. BSEN310: 1993. Wood based panels. Determination of modulus of elasticity in bending and of bending strength BSEN323: 1993. Wood based panels. Determination of density BSEN300: 1997. Oriented strand boards (OSB). Definitions, classification and specifications BSEN1058: 1996 Wood based panels. Determination of characteristic values of mechanical properties and density. BSEN319: 1993 Particleboard and fibreboards. Determination of tensile strength perpendicular to the plane of the board. Pr HEN 771-1: (2002) Clay units Pr HEN 771-3: (2002) Aggregate Concrete Units
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BS EN 1745:2002 Masonry and Masonry products- Methods for determining design thermal values prEN 998-1:2000, Specification for Mortar for masonry Part 1: Rendering and plastering mortar. BS EN 772-1:2000:Determination of compressive strength BS EN 772-2:1998:Determination of percentage area of voids in aggregate concrete masonry units (by paper indentation) BS EN 772-3:1998:Determination of net volume and percentage area of voids of clay masonry units by hydrostatic weighing pr EN 772-5:Determination of active soluble salts content of clay masonry units prEN 772-6:Methods of test for masonry units Determination of bending tensile strength of concrete masonry units. BS EN 772-7:1998:Determination of water absorption of clay masonry damp course units by boiling in water BS EN 772-11:2000 :Methods of test for masonry units Determination of water absorption of clay, aggregate concrete, autoclaved aerated concrete, manufactured stone and natural stone masonry units due to capillary action BS EN 772-13:2000:Determination of net and gross dry density of masonry units (except for natural stone) prEN 772-14:Methods of test for masonry units Determination of moisture movement of aggregate concrete masonry units BS EN 772-16:2000:Determination of dimensions BS EN 772-19:2000:Determination of moisture expansion of large horizontally-perforated clay masonry units BS EN 772-20:2000:Methods of test for masonry units Determination of flatness of faces aggregate concrete manufactured stone and natural stone masonry units prEN 772-22:Determination of freeze-thaw resistance of clay masonry units RILEM LUM B4 Creep and shrinkage of masonry assemblages, RILEM Technical recommendations for the testing and use of construction materials, E&F Spon, London, 1991
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APPENDIX I: Research & Patent Review

Introduction
Paper sludge is a waste product that is produced as part of the paper manufacturing and recycling process. Primary sludge is produced as a result of removing suspended solids from mill effluent, whilst secondary sludge is generated from the deinking process. A medium sized mill can generate 40 oven-dry (od) tones of sludge per day (Sell et al 1990). Traditionally assigned to landfill or burned, the waste problem has been exacerbated due to the exponential increase in paper recycling and the introduction of landfill taxes. There is a great need to find practical applications for the waste sludge. Processing the waste as a whole or utilising its components, to produce high value products, is attractive both in terms of product revenue and the avoidance of disposal costs. Environmental benefits include reduction of landfill and ultimately the new products should offset the consumption of natural resources. Applications for the utilisation of this high-volume waste resource, so far, range from direct land spreading to more complex technologies developed to produce high-quality, high demand products that compete well with comparable virgin materials.
Composition
The sludge is composed of fibre (typically about 60% on a dry weight basis) and ash (typically 25%), the remained being acidinsoluble organics. Beauchamp (2002) has analysed over 150 organic and inorganic chemicals in de-inking paper sludge (DPS). In general, nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium contents were low but variable. Arsenic, boron, cadmium, cobalt, chromium, manganese, mercury, molybdenum, nickel, lead, selenium, and zinc were also low and showed low variability. The copper contents were above the Canadian compost regulation for unrestricted use. Organic constituents measured at high levels were fatty- and resin acids, and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons. Resinic acids, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and naphthalene were also present. Most metals (75-100%) entering mills in the wastepaper are removed in the sludge. Differences in paper grades cause the largest variation in metal concentration (DSouza, 1998). Paper sludge has a high water content. Most mills have mechanical dewatering devices such as belt presses, clarifiers or screw presses that will thicken the wet sludge to 20%-40% solids. Obviously reducing the minimum water content further would be beneficial for transport (weight and volume) issues. Technology in this area has been developing and a new direct fired rotary drum dryer can take the sludge to 95% solids.
Sludge as a Fuel
As a relatively simple, low-tech option many mills have invested in systems which use paper sludge to fuel boilers. Briquettes can be produced from screw-pressed dewatered sludge (Sell et al 1990). In a novel application, charcoal has been manufactured using a mixture of paper sludge and coffee pulps. The coffee pulp absorbs the odours from the paper sludge during preheating at 400C (Kobayashi 1981).
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Soil Conditioner
A cheap and relatively easy option for sludge disposal is direct land application. Paper sludge is applied to soil as a conditioner. This is done without any further processing. The use is primarily as for soil organic amendment rather than as a fertiliser due to the low mineral nutrient contents of the sludge. Bellamy et al (1995), demonstrated beneficial effects of paper sludge when used as organic amendments to potting media and field soils, achieving increased growth and yield provided sufficient N fertiliser was applied in conjunction with the sludge. OBrien (2002) demonstrated that the paper sludge should be left to compost before horticultural use. Using a mixture of paper sludge and soil in controlled pot experiments, germination was reduced if sown immediately after mixing. However, if sowing was delayed for 21 days after soil preparation, germination was no longer a problem. Paper sludge has also been used in conjunction with wood ash to restore vegetative cover to metal contaminated soils (Brown et al 2003) Experiments using sludge to amend soil used to grow turfgrass have shown that de-inked and primary sludges can be used if supplemental fertiliser (N, P and K) is applied (Norrie & Gosselin 1996). Raw or composted sludge has been applied to potato fields with beneficial results to soil physical and biochemical properties (Gagnon et al 2001). However, the high C:N ratio limits the composting rate. Additions of nitrogen, in the form of poultry manure, increases degradation rate. Charest and Beauchamp (2002) found that 0.6% N treatment was optimal for enhancing the composting process. Sludge mixed with poultry compost has been shown to improve chemical and biological properties of low fertility or degraded soils (Baziramakenga et al 2001). The potential of using earthworms to compost paper sludge has been investigated (Gajalakshmi et al 2002). Pelletized paper sludge has been used as an inert carrier by the agricultural chemical industry (Dongieux 1999). This can also apply to seed coating for a more accurate seed rate and application. The problem with composting is that it is labour intensive requiring large areas of land space to build the piles of sludge and a mechanism to introduce air to facilitate biological action. Also concern has been raised about the environmental effects of spreading sludge on the land.
New Products
Composites Ink-eliminated sludge flour (IESF) has been used as a filler for reinforced polypropylene (PP). Coupling agents such as maleated anhydrate grafted PP (MAPP), stearic acid and titanate were used to increase compatibility between IESF and PP. IESF was shown to improve dimensional stability, hardness and the flexural property. MAPP increased the interfacial adhesion between IESF and PP and increased crystallisation rate and tensile strength (Qiao et al 2003). Composites comprising paper sludge, polypropylene and lignocellulose fibre have been developed and tested (Lee 2002A). Water absorption and thickness swell decreased, whilst, in general, IB increased, with increased paper sludge and MAPP addition. MOR decreased with 30 wt% paper sludge addition, however between 0 30 wt% no effect was observed. The potential of adding flame retardants to paper sludge/phenolic composites have been investigated (Jang et al 2000). A combination of chemicals reduced the flammability, however, phosphate flame retardants reduced the mechanical properties. Chemical products Paper sludge has been used as a feed-stock in anaerobic fermentation to produce hydrogen (Kadar et al 2003) and to produce glucose using enzymatic treatments (Lee et al 2002B). Fermentation has also been used to produce ethanol (Katzen & Fowler 1994, Lynd et al 1998) Lactic acid has also been produced from paper sludge using simultaneous saccharification and fermentation process (SSF) (Lee et al 2002B).
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Absorbent products Paper sludge is used for cat litter. It is dust free and highly absorbent and by use of various processing steps and additives can produce both clumping and conventional cat box filler (Dongieux 1999). Paper sludge has been used as animal bedding (e.g. Envirobed) as a substitute for straw. Fears of contamination from the heavy metals in the waste material (Aluminum, copper and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons) were shown not to be of significance in trials using broilers and pigs (Beauchamp et al 2002B Another product currently on the market is Gran-sorb, which is used to absorb oil and grease and can then be incinerated (Dongieux 1999). The potential of using paper sludge as a sorbent of heavy metals in contaminated water has been assessed (MooYoung 2000) and for phenols (Calace et al 2002). Construction materials The Greengrove Corporation produces has developed a process that used 696 tons of paper mill sludge combined with 124 tons of ash to produce 250 tons of light-weight aggregate. This is used in concrete blocks, bridge decks, wall panels and roofing tiles (Meade et al 1994). Light-weight aggregates with low specific gravity (<1) have been made from paper sludge using granulation technology (Liaw et al 1998). The potential to replace natural aggregates to make light-weight concrete now appears to be realistic and achievable. Synthetic aggregates have been made using paper sludge and quarry fines. The materials were mixed together, extruded and then fired in a kiln to produce material suitable for natural aggregate replacement (Wainright et al 2002). Minergy Corporation has developed and commercialised technology that utilises a vitrification process to produce a glass like material from paper sludge (Carroll 1997, 1999). Dried sludge is mixed with natural gas to fuel a high temperature recycling process. The clay component of the paper sludge is converted to a glass like aggregate. The glass aggregate can be used for sand blasting grit, roofing shingle granules, asphalt paving, chip seal aggregate and decorative landscaping. The worlds first facility is under construction in Neenah, Wisconsin will receive and process over 350,00 tons of paper sludge per annum. Both the light weight and glass aggregate technologies reduce the environmental liabilities associated with paper sludge. The high temperature, high oxygen and high retention time associated with the process conditions destroy the organic compounds and pathogens. Trace metals are stabilised permanently in the ceramic-like products. An extrusion process has been developed that processes low-grade paper pulp and paper sludge to form composite materials with mechanical properties comparable to MDF and hardboard. The pulp is extruded at approximately 30% solids and then formed into solid sheets and profiles. Addition of cross-linkable resins reduces stiffness loss caused by moisture (Zauscher et al 2000). The presence of contaminants (e.g. staples, plastics, silica), however, caused problems with processing. Spaceboard panels and pallets have been made using recycled linerboard sludge (1997 Environmental conference proceedings). The technology may be transferable to paper sludge for use in structural panels and structural product application. Cement-bonded boards (CBBS) have been produced using a mixture of paper sludge and cement in the Philippines (www.poblaw.com 2002). The boards have mechanical and physical properties comparable to existing CBBS, which are currently used in developing countries for roofing, exterior and interior panels. The sludge boards are 50% cheaper to produce. Primary sludge has been used as a substitute for the clay and limestone portion used in Portland cement. The sludge is dried to 85% solids in a rotary drier. This enables easier handling and reduced transport costs. The material is now being incorporated, at 25% substitution, into 1 ply of a multi-ply paperboard product (1993 environmental conference proceedings Drying and recycling primary sludge..). Molded fibre packaging products formed using sludge newspaper and paper board waste materials have been produced supplementing up to 15% of the raw materials with dewatered waste fibre and fibrous sludge (Damhaug 1978).
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Barriers
Paper sludge is characterised by high moisture content, high organic contents, high compressibilities and low shear strengths. The ability of paper sludges to achieve low hydraulic conductivities is its most important characteristic. Another important property is its ability to absorb heavy metals such as Pb, Cr and Zn. Innovative applications are: landfill hydraulic barriers; landfill daily cover and landfill barrier protection layers; semi-permeable reactive barriers; and paper sludge-fly ash mixtures used as roadway bases and lightly loaded foundations (Zimmie et al 1999) Paper sludge has been used in construction of hydraulic barrier layers in landfill final covers because they often have high clay content and low hydraulic conductivity. Deinking sludge has been used as a membrane to control acid mine drainage (Jobin and Labb 2002).
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References
Baziramakenga R; Simard RR; Lalande R Effect of de-inking paper sludge compost application on soil chemical and biological properties : CANADIAN JOURNAL OF SOIL SCIENCE 2001, Vol 81, Iss 5, pp 561-575 Beauchamp CJ; Charest MH; Gosselin A Examination of environmental quality of raw and composting de-inking paper sludge CHEMOSPHERE 2002A, Vol 46, Iss 6, pp 887-895 Beauchamp CJ; Boulanger R; Matte J; Saint-Laurent G Examination of the contaminants and performance of animals fed and bedded using de-inking paper sludge ARCHIVES OF ENVIRONMENTAL CONTAMINATION AND TOXICOLOGY 2002B, Vol 42, Iss 4, pp 523-528 Bellamy, KL; Chong, C; Cline, RA Paper sludge utilization in agriculture and container nursery culture Journal of Environmental Quality [J. ENVIRON. QUAL.], vol. 24, no.6, pp. 1074-1082, 1995 Brown SL; Henry CL; Chaney R; Compton H; DeVolder PS Using municipal biosolids in combination with other residuals to restore metal-contaminated mining areas : PLANT AND SOIL 2003, Vol 249, Iss 1, pp 203-215 Calace, N; Nardi, E; Petronio, BM; Pietroletti, M Adsorption of phenols by papermill sludges Environmental Pollution [Environ. Pollut.]. Vol. 118, no. 3, pp. 315-319. 2002. Carroll, T.W., P. E. Minergy's Glass Aggregate and Lightweight Aggregate Technologies, 1997 Recycling Symposium Proceedings Carroll, T.W. and Reeves, L. Paper Mill Sludge: The Ultimate Recycling Challenge, 1999 Environmental Conference Proceedings Charest MH; Beauchamp CJ : Composting of de-inking paper sludge with poultry manure at three nitrogen levels using mechanical turning: behavior of physico-chemical parameters : BIORESOURCE TECHNOLOGY 2002, Vol 81, Iss 1, pp 7-17 Damhaug, M Pulp and Paper Sludge in Formed Fibre Products Norsk Skogindustri Vol. 31, No. 5, p 108, 112, 1978 DSouza, V. A., Hand, V. C., Schaefer, R. L. Concentration of Metals In Recycled Papers, 1998 Recycling Symposium Proceedings Dongieux P. Commercially Viable Products That Utilize Pulp and Paper Mill Sludge as a Raw Material Source, 1999 Environmental Conference Proceedings Gagnon B; Lalande R; Fahmy SH: Organic matter and aggregation in a degraded potato soil as affected by raw and composted pulp residue BIOLOGY AND FERTILITY OF SOILS 2001, Vol 34, Iss 6, pp 441-447 Gajalakshmi, S; Ramasamy, EV; Abbasi, SA Vermicomposting of paper waste with the anecic earthworm Lampito mauritii Kinberg Indian Journal of Chemical Technology [Indian J. Chem. Technol.]. Vol. 9, no. 4, pp. 306-311. Jul 2002. Jang, Jyongsik; Chung, Hyuksung; Kim, Myonghwan; Sung, Hyunje. The effect of flame retardants on the flammability and mechanical properties of paper-sludge/phenolic composite. Polymer Testing [Polym. Test.]. Vol. 19, no. 3, pp. 269279. 2000. Kadar Z; De Vrije T; Budde MAW; Szengyel Z; Reczey K; Claassen PAM Hydrogen production from paper sludge hydrolysate. APPLIED BIOCHEMISTRY AND BIOTECHNOLOGY 2003, Vol 105, pp 557-566 HUMANA PRESS INC
Katzen R; Fowler De Ethanol From Lignocellulosic Wastes With Utilization Of Recombinant Bacteria Applied Biochemistry And Biotechnology 1994, Vol 45-6, Pp 697-707
Kobayashi, M Method for Manufacturing Charcoals From Paper Sludge. United Patent Official Gazette [U.S. PAT. OFF. GAZ.], vol. 1007, no. 2, p. 721, 1981
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Lee BH, Kim HJ, Park HJ Performance of paper sludge/polypropylene fibre/Lignocellulosic fibre composites : JOURNAL OF INDUSTRIAL AND ENGINEERING CHEMISTRY 2002A, Vol 8, Iss 1, pp 50-56 Lee S.M, J. Lin and Y. M. Koo Production of Lactic Acid from Paper Sludge Using Biochemical Process, 2002B Environmental Conference Proceedings Lee SM; Lin JQ; Koo YM Hydrolysis of paper sludge using mixed cellulase system: Enzymatic hydrolysis of paper sludge. BIOLOGICAL SYSTEMS ENGINEERING 2002B, Vol 830, pp 121-138 : AMER CHEMICAL SOC Liaw, Chin-Tson; Chang, Hui-Lan; Hsu, Wen-Ching; Huang, Chi-Ru. Novel method to reuse paper sludge and cogeneration ashes from paper mill. Journal of Hazardous Materials. Vol. 58, no. 1-3, pp. 93-102. Feb 1998. Lynd L.R., South C.R, Lyford K., Levenson K. and van Walsum G.P Conversion of paper sludge to ethanol. 20th Symposium on Biotechnology For Fuels and Chemicals 1998 May 3-7, 1998 Gatlinburg, Tennessee, USA Meade W, Bernie Kopp, John Pearson. Lightweight Aggregate from Paper Mill Sludge and Ash, 1994 Environmental Conference Proceedings Moo-Young, Horace K; Gallagher, Marc J; Amadon, Amanda; Polaski, Jennifer; Wolfe, Michael. Use of paper clay as a barrier for treatment of contaminated ground water ASTM SPEC TECH PUBL. no. 1374, pp. 108-122. 2000. Norrie, J; Gosselin, A Paper sludge amendments for turfgrass HortScience [HORTSCIENCE]. Vol. 31, no. 6, pp. 957960. Oct 1996. O'Brien TA; Herbert SJ; Barker AV Growth of corn in varying mixtures of paper mill sludge and soil. COMMUNICATIONS IN SOIL SCIENCE AND PLANT ANALYSIS 2002, Vol 33, Iss 3-4, pp 635-646 Qiao XY; Zhang Y; Zhang YX; Zhu YT: Ink-eliminated waste paper sludge flour-filled polypropylene composites with different coupling agent treatments JOURNAL OF APPLIED POLYMER SCIENCE 2003, Vol 89, Iss 2, pp 513-520 JOHN WILEY & SONS INC Sell N.J., McIntosh T.H., Jayne T., Rehfeldt T. and Doshi M. Burning screw-press-dewatered bulk sludge in a hoggedfuel boiler. TAPPI JOURNAL Nov 1990, Vol 73 (11) pp181-188. Wainwright RJ; Cresswell DJ; van der Sloot HA The production of synthetic aggregate from a quarry waste using an innovative style rotary kiln. Waste management & research : the journal of the International Solid Wastes and Public Cleansing Association, ISWA, 2002 Jun, 20(3):279-89 Zauscher S, C. Tim Scott, J. L. Willett, and Daniel J. Klingenberg Pulp extrusion for recycling waste-papers and paper mill sludges, TAPPI JOURNAL, June 2000, Vol. 83(6) Zimmie, Thomas F; Quiroz, Juan D; Moo-Young, Horace KJr Paper mill sludge applications in geotechnical construction Hazardous and Industrial Wastes - Proceedings of the Mid-Atlantic Industrial Waste Conference [HAZARD IND WASTES PROC MID ATL IND WASTE CONF]. pp. 551-560. 1999. http://www.poblaw.com/news06012002f.html 2002 From paper sludge to building material. Mechanical Properties of Spaceboard Panels and Pallets Made from Recycled Linerboard Mill Sludge, 1997 Environmental Conference Proceedings.
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APPENDIX 2: Market review

Potential uses of products derived from papermill sludge
Executive Summary
This project was set up as an integrated programme to take forward work on the use of papermill sludge to the stage where it can be put into the production of construction products. This market survey carried out by BRE focussed on a review of the potential uses of innovative products made from papermill sludge with their possible use as manufactured wood based panels and in applications for flooring, ceiling and partitioning boards and as a lightweight aggregate in concrete blocks. This report presents data on the paper and board industry; the source of the papermill sludge, as well as recent trends in the production and consumption of wood-based panels products in the UK and Europe, floor coverings, suspended ceilings and partitioning markets. The report provides information on the market possibilities of the innovative products. It is concluded that a number of products could potentially be made using papermill sludge where the sludge forms the bulk of the new material or is simply an additive to an existing product. In the development of useful end-products which may be brought to market as quickly as possible, the initial products are considered to be for non-load bearing applications. Evaluation of the following properties are necessary for such applications: surface quality, moisture resistance, ease of machining and working fire resistance screw holding ability
Depending on its production capabilities, other applications requiring more demanding mechanical properties may also be explored as experience is gained with the product. The product as wood based panels for general use and floor coverings has the most promising market potential. As lightweight aggregate blocks, with their added value, there is also a very promising market. The product as ceiling tiles and partitions may have market potential in the long run.
Research into using recycled residues in construction products
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Introduction
A review of the potential uses of innovative board products made from papermill sludge focused on their possible use in manufactured wood based panels and in applications for floor covering, suspended ceilings and partitioning boards. This is intended to allow informed choices to be made on the future direction of research and development effort for the remainder of the project which is due for completion by 31 March 2004. The intention is to select 6 products as front runners and to concentrate the partnerships joint research and development capabilities in progressing these to the stage where they are ready to be taken to the pilot scale stage. The principal thrust of this work has been with regard to the panels market for which wood based panels provide the main competition. Some additional information is given on the concrete block market which is actively looking for new constituent materials, particularly for lightweight blocks.
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1. Products
1.1 Panels for use in Construction
1.1.1 Wood-Based Panels
Wood-based panels are sheet materials made predominantly from wood in the form of strips, veneers, chips, strands or fibres. These include: Plywood, including blockboard and laminboard Particleboard, including wood particleboard (chipboard), flaxboard and cement-bonded particleboard Oriented strand board (OSB) Fibreboards, including medium density fibreboard (MDF) Wood-based panels have a wide variety of end-uses as they can be manufactured to meet different needs. Plywood was developed to provide panels with dimensional stability and good strength properties both along and across the sheet. Straight, well grown timber is required for plywood manufacture. Wood particleboard (chipboard) and fibreboards were developed to provide utility sheet materials with uniform properties. They utilise chipped or defibrated forest roundwood and thinnings, sawmill residues and more recently an increasing amount of recycled wood. There have been many developments in adhesive and manufacturing technology and the industry has developed many panel products with specific properties targeted at a wide variety of end uses. Oriented strand board (OSB) was developed to utilise smaller logs that are not suitable for plywood production. Made of strands normally about 75mm long, they are often in three layers, with the strands in the surface layer oriented roughly in line with the length of the panel. This gives the panel higher mechanical properties in that direction. OSB was developed from the earlier waferboards or flakeboards, which had random particle orientation. Plywood, particleboards and fibreboards all include both general purpose, or utility, boards and special purpose products. Several types of panel can be engineered to meet specific property requirements. Wood-based panel products are manufactured to a series of European Standards (ENs), published as national standards (BS ENs in the UK). Under this system, each panel material has its own set of Standards. A general standard Defining the panel type and the basic requirements for tolerances on sizes, thicknesses, density etc as appropriate. This standard usually refers to other standards for test methods and methods of demonstrating compliance Specific standard A standard (which can be a series of separate parts) defining the use requirements for the panel type in different environmental conditions; defined by service classes as dry, humid or exterior, and load conditions; defined as non-load-bearing (non-structural), load-bearing and heavy-duty load-bearing (structural) boards. Testing for these requirements is set out in other standards. It is a legal requirement that wood-based panel products used in construction meet the Essential Requirements of the Construction Products Directive (CPD). The Harmonised European Standard for wood-based panels (prEN13986), provides the mechanism by which specific products can be shown to satisfy the requirements of the CPD. Panels must be correctly marked to comply with all these requirements.
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1.1.2 Performance Standards The European Construction Products Directive (CPD) sets six Essential Requirements on the performance of construction works. These are:1. mechanical resistance and stability 2. safety in case of fire 3. hygiene, health and environment 4. safety in use 5. protection against noise 6. energy economy and heat retention. Wood-based panel products must demonstrate that they can enable the building works to comply with these Essential Requirements, and are fit for their intended purpose. All, some, one, (or even none) of these requirements may apply depending on the intended use of the panel product and the regulatory requirements. The Harmonised European Standard (prEN 13986) provides the mechanism by which specific products such as plywood, particleboard, MDF, OSB, cement-bonded particleboard(CBPB) or fibreboard are able to satisfy the CPD. The Standard is written in terms of both material specifications and performance requirements. Manufacturers have to demonstrate that their product complies with the relevant technical specification of the Harmonised European Standard for wood-based panels. This will include some testing and/or certification, possibly by a third party, to verify that the product conforms to the Standard; a legal requirement of the CPD. If third-party certification is achieved, then the manufacturer may use the CE Mark; its use is not mandatory in the UK. Products which are not manufactured to one of the standards listed in the harmonised standard may be granted an European Technical Approval (ETA): such products may then be CE marked. Panels manufactured outside the EU and then imported may be CE marked provided that it can be demonstrated that they comply with the Harmonised European standard; this includes compliance with the specified quality control procedures.
The CE Mark
The CE mark is not a mark of quality and is only a symbol of conformity with the Essential Requirements, or those particular requirements for an intended end use. EU Member States can opt, where different performance levels are included in a standard, for whichever level they wish for the purposes of legislation. If the higher of two levels is adopted in a particular EU Member State, boards complying with the lower level will not satisfy the legislation in that country despite bearing the CE Mark. If a Member State indicates that its law or building regulations do not require compliance with a specified level for a given property of the product, then no test performance can be declared for that Member State. Once affixed with the CE Mark, the burden of proof of non-compliance of the product with the Harmonised European Standard, or the ETA, lies with the national enforcement authority. This is the Trading Standards Department in the UK. European Standardisation has changed specification requirements from voluntary to mandatory for all products used in construction: British Standards have always been voluntary. Wood-based panels for use in construction must now comply with the Harmonised Standard requirements in both material properties and, where appropriate, performance requirements. European standards are used for the production and testing of wood-based panels, however the British system involving permissible stress design and the new European system based on limit state analysis are used in structural design.
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1.1.3 Structural Application (Load Bearing) A designer must know the following information before embarking on a construction: the actual load to be carried -assigns the construction to a load class as set out in BS 6399: Parts 1 to 3 or Eurocode 1: Parts 0, 1 and 2-1 (ENV 1991-1; 1991-2-1); the environmental conditions under which this load will be sustained -will have a very significant effect on the performance of the wood-based panel. These conditions are defined in terms of Service Classes in both BS 5268: Part 2 and Eurocode 5 (ENV 1995-1-1); the duration of the principal load -which will determine the long term strength and deflection of the construction. In Eurocode 5, these parameters are quantified in terms of a duration of load factor and a creep factor, though this approach to time dependence may change in future revisions of the Standard. Three basic approaches to the design of structures using wood-based panels are:
Deemed to satisfy
When experience based decisions for a particular set of conditions, defined in terms of design, load, and environmental conditions is used. Long-term experience demonstrates that the design will perform to the specified requirements. This empirical approach is restricted to certain applications, certain loads and certain materials. Usually performance testing or calculation is used in the design of structures.
Testing a prototype of the design is the most efficient use of materials. However, any changes to the design will mean more test work must be carried out. Performance or prototype testing, therefore, tends only to be used where there are economies of scale, with large numbers of identical units being produced from the same design, or where the calculation method cannot be used. The prototype is tested using one of the new European performance tests and the results converted into a design load.
Performance (prototype) testing of floors, walls and flat roofs
Design by calculation
The design of a structure is produced without the need for any prototype testing and may employ either permissible stress design or limit state design. Design by calculation (provided the design data exists without tests being carried out) tends to be conservative. When using the permissible stress method, the working stresses and moduli used in the design calculation are provided for plywood in BS 5268: Part 2 (revised 2001). for particleboard, OSB and fibreboard the characteristic values in EN 12369: Part 1 are converted to working stresses as set out in BS 5268: Part 2 (revised 2001).
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Characteristic working stresses for all load-bearing panel types can be determined or obtained from the manufacturers. 1.1.4 Non-Structural Applications Moisture is the single most important parameter to be taken into account in non-structural (non-load bearing) applications. The performance of wood-based panels used non-structurally in construction, for example window boards, skirting boards, claddings, fascias, door skins and floor overlays, are adversely affected by the ingress of, either liquid or vapour, moisture. Consequently different panel grades are given for dry application where there is no risk of subsequent wetting up, and for wet application where there is a high risk of the board becoming wet. More specialised properties for particular applications may need to be considered, for example sound adsorption: especially important in the refurbishment and conversion of old properties into flats. Water vapour permeability and abrasion resistance are other important factors that may need to be considered in specialised applications. 1.14.1 Selection of panels for specific end use: general requirements In the selection of panels for specific end-uses a number of criteria must be considered and satisfied including: panels for use in construction must comply with the EN Harmonised Standard for wood-based panels and be marked with sufficient information (on the product, packaging or accompanying documentation) to confirm compliance; where relevant, the panels must be capable of carrying the imposed loads - as set out in the standards for design by either permissible stresses or by limit state, or to meet specific loads where known; the panels must be appropriate for the environmental conditions of the projected end-use.
Panel use is described by a service class system mainly aimed at assigning strength values and for calculating deformations under defined environmental conditions. Moisture content in the materials corresponding to a temperature of 20C and the relative humidity of the surrounding air only exceeding 65% for a few weeks per year. Note: In service class 1 the average moisture content in most panels will not exceed 11%. Service class 2 Moisture content in the materials corresponding to a temperature of 20C and the relative humidity of the surrounding air only exceeding 85% for a few weeks per year. Note: In service class 2 the average moisture content in most panels will not exceed 15%. Service class 3 Climatic conditions leading to higher moisture contents than in service class 2. Further criteria relating to e.g. thermal conductivity, vapour permeability, durability, dimensional stability and sound adsorption may also have to be taken into account in the selection of panels for particular applications. 1.1.5 Applications Of Wood-Based Panels 1.1.5.1 Flooring The most important factors by which wood-based panels are selected for flooring are: the type of floor the load that the floor has to carry the ambient moisture conditions Service class 1
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Five different types of floor are: suspended floors in which the floor decking is attached to a series of joists. floating floors in which the floor decking rests either on insulation above a structural sub-floor, or on a series of battens which has insulation between them. Overlays which are attached to an existing floor (usually suspended) to improve the quality of surface or to reduce the transmission of sound. raised access floors in which the floor segments are supported on short pillars to permit access to cables below the floor. industrial platform floors which embrace both mezzanine and raised storage floors.
1.1.5.2 Flat roof decking The most important factors by which wood-based panels are selected for roof decking are: the type of roof. the load that the roof deck has to carry.
There are two basic types of flat roof design, mainly depending on the location of the insulation relative to the wood panel deck, known as: cold deck in which the insulation and vapour control layer is below the roof decking to reduce both the occurrence of condensation and its effect. There must be a void between the deck and the insulation and it needs to be well ventilated. The cold deck flat roof is not permissible in Scotland. warm deck in which the insulation and vapour control layer are above the roof decking, almost eliminating the occurrence of condensation within the decking provided there is sufficient insulation.
The designer is free to design his roof to carry any specified load. The likely load will depend on whether the flat roof has open access or whether access is restricted to maintenance only. 1.1.5.3 Sheathing When selecting a board type for sheathing, the overall performance of the wall needs to be considered. This includes: strength and stability durability thermal performance interstitial condensation risk and effects of moisture in service positioning of sheathing to the inside or the outside of the framing other components in the wall e.g. vapour control layers, insulation type and thickness, breather membranes, cavity barriers.
Strength and stability
Sheathing can impart racking resistance and stiffness to a framed structure as can plasterboard and other internal lining boards. Usually applied to the outside of the framing in timber-framed structures, sheathing contains and can provide temporary protection to insulation during construction.
Durability
The durability of wood-based boards depends on the species of timber used, the adhesives used to bind the fibres or particles together, and the conditions of use, especially with respect to wetting and risk of decay. species used in wood-based boards usually have non-durable heartwood and would include a high proportion of sapwood which is perishable. adhesives can have improved moisture resistance and can be modified to include waxes or resins to improve water and weather resistance.
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boards used as structural sheathing are generally at risk of wetting during initial erection and completion of the building process. This situation is unlikely to pose a decay risk. the risk to boards wetting in service due to building defects can be minimised by correctly choosing the type and grade of board.
Wood-based structural sheathing does not require preservative treatment. A specifier should assess the exposure and type of cladding used in external applications to decide if any preservative, and then what type, should be specified. Framed walls using wood-based panels sheathing are ideal for the enclosure of insulation in the space between the studs. Thermal transmittance (U-value) of a wall depends on its construction including sheathing material type, insulation thickness and cladding. Examples of timber framed walls with voids filled with insulation: Stud spacing (mm) 90 140 195 U value W/m2k Mineral wood/cellulose fibre 0.42 0.30 0.22
Thermal performance
Rigid foam (l[0.02W/mk) 0.27 0.19 0.15
These low values make timber frame wall construction ideal for providing excellent thermal performance that meet building regulation requirements. Moisture in service and condensation risk Internal lining panels exposed to warmer internal temperatures need to have higher vapour resistance when used in situations where wood-based panel sheathing is fixed to the outside of insulated framed wall panels. This will control the condensation risk within the wall panel. A separate vapour control layer such as polythene sheet may be used for this purpose. Outer layers of construction must have low vapour resistance compared to the inner layers to allow the wall to breathe. 1.1.5.4 Formwork The most important factors by which wood-based panels are selected for formwork are: very high levels of stiffness and strength in bending durability smoothness of surface.
Wood-based panel products are used in all types of formwork from in-situ concrete construction to modular system formwork and in precast manufacturing units. 1.1.5.5 Claddings, Fascias and Soffits The most important factors by which wood-based panels are selected for claddings, fascias and soffits are: adequate strength, stiffness and impact resistance high durability in external environments good dimensional stability in the presence of high humidity or liquid water.
1.1.5.6 Mouldings and Window Boards The most important factors by which wood-based panels are selected for mouldings and window boards are:-
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good machining properties of the panel reflecting the evenness and fineness of its texture resistance to ambient moisture conditions; high levels of humidity for new build or condensation as the building dries. Window boards may need to resist condensation running off windows long after the building has dried out moderate to high levels of resistance to abrasion which can be met using panels with moderate to high levels of density.
There is a limited selection of panels which satisfy these requirements for mouldings and window boards. 1.1.5.7 Wall Linings and Partitions The most important factors by which wood-based panels are selected for wall linings, partitions and ceilings are: moderate to high resistance to impact and abrasion, especially in certain types of public buildings good dimensional stability in the presence of seasonal changes in relative humidity of the air ability to reduce either sound absorption or sound transmission in particular applications ability to receive a variety of finishes including paints and laminates satisfying the requirements for fire performance (spread of flame and rate of heat release)
1.1.5.8 Panels and Door Skins The most important factors by which wood-based panels are selected for door skins are: adequate strength and stiffness moderate to high levels of impact resistance very smooth surface ability to take finishes easily good dimensional stability
1.1.5.9 Treads and Risers The most important factors by which wood-based panels are selected for staircase treads and risers are: high levels of strength, stiffness and impact resistance high level of abrasion resistance of treads smooth surface especially of treads moderate levels of resistance to moisture, a feature which is particularly important in the drying out of new build
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1.2 Panels for non-construction use

1.2.1 Requirements for non-construction use Non-construction applications include furniture, packaging and shopfittings. A table of general non-construction applications for wood-based panels in given in Appendix A. Although the CPD is not relevant for non-construction use, panels used in non-construction applications may still be produced to one of the EN specification standards if this suits the factory. A client will often determine their own panel requirements since although British or industry standards are available for some end-uses; giving guidance on the use and selection of wood-based panels, the specifier may choose to specify a product in accordance with an existing standard or produce their own specification. Panels used in non-construction applications are specified according to their end-use requirements which generally includes: a satisfactory appearance sufficient strength and stiffness to resist applied loads manufactured with a glue appropriate to the end-use conditions capable of being easily cut and fixed in place have an adequate service life availability at an acceptable cost Few of the standards relating to non-construction applications include specific requirements for panel products. Thus the specifier has to select the panel type that is most likely to meet his performance criteria using either a general purpose panel or one manufactured specifically for the end-use. A draft Industry Standard for non-construction products has been produced by the Wood Panel Industries Federation to simplify the specification of panels for non-construction applications. It includes the specification requirements for a number of types and classes of non-loadbearing wood-based panels defining a series of types of wood particleboards, fibreboards and oriented strand boards but not plywood. Guidance is given on appropriate quality control procedures and on some supplementary properties that may be requested by the purchaser. Copies of the draft Industry Standard are available from WPIF and adoption of this standard will simplify the process. 1.2.1.1 Furniture Furniture is a major market for wood-based panels, consuming some 1.8 million cubic metres of wood-based panel per annum. Wood-based panels have encroached into the traditional solid timber furniture market: MDF has increased its share of the market rapidly. General end-use requirements for furniture products are: high quality surface appearance strength and stiffness impact and abuse resistance good machining properties (including low grit content) good fastener performance
There are many British Standards relevant to furniture, but only some of these are relevant to wood-based panels. The trend in furniture sales from 1995 to 1999 has generally been positive with office furniture being the only market to show a decline.
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Office furniture Kitchen furniture Bedroom furniture Other furniture 1.2.1.2 Packaging
1999 millions 846 949.6 702.4 1154.4
Change since 1995 12% down 24% up 11% up 36% up
A large non-construction use of wood-based panels is for packaging where about 250,000 cubic metres are consumed each year. The most important criteria for panels in packaging are: strength and stiffness impact resistance fastener performance moisture resistance and durability (depending upon use)
1.2.1.3 Shopfitting Wood-based panels are frequently used in shopfitting applications because of their flexibility and ease of working, their range of finishes and sizes. The range of shopfitting applications include: wall panelling storage racks counters & bars special display units
Panels can be laminated, painted or stained to create a wide range of finish effects. MDF is particularly popular as it allows easy moulding of edges and corners and can be routed to create an embossed relief effect or slotted to carry display mounts. Products treated to improve their fire performance (MDF FR) are available for applications where it is required to meet safety regulations. Wood-based panels have a tendency to creep (deflection under a given load which increases with time) and so it is important that designs for load-bearing applications take into account the effects of long-term loads. Exterior grades of panels, usually either plywood or exterior grades of MDF, are used for exterior signs and fascias. In these outdoor situations, all panel types need to be protected from moisture and sunlight by suitably coating and sealing faces and the edges. 1.3 Concrete Blocks Concrete blocks have a widespread use in walling and beam-and-block flooring systems. There are three main varieties: normal dense aggregate blocks lightweight aggregate blocks autoclaved aerated lightweight concrete blocks
Small proportions of papermill sludge could be used as a constituent of the concrete mix, but the amounts that could be used in this way would be limited by retardation of cement hydration and/or adverse effects on the properties of the blocks, particularly shrinkage and durability. There may however, be ways in which the sludge could be successfully treated and stabilised into pellet form to produce a lightweight aggregate. This would be analogous to a process to stabilise clays and quarry fines which has recently been completed by Tarmac under the DTIs Partners in Innovation scheme.
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Most concrete blocks are for internal use but a significant number are used externally with or without render. Others are used below damp-proof course. In either case there may be expansion due to the uptake of water. There is additionally the possibility of frost damage due to the freezing of this water inside the blocks. Because blocks as delivered to building sites often end up in a whole range of uses and durability situations, it is considered that all blocks should have some resistance to moisture and freeze/thaw damage. Blocks may also be exposed to moisture and frost while stockpiled before use. Thus it is impractical to expect the market, as currently set up, to accept blocks which do not have at least some resistance to this. EN 771-3 Specification for masonry units - Part 3 Aggregate concrete masonry units (dense and light-weight aggregates) has recently been passed at formal vote and does not have prescriptive requirements for the type of aggregate used which is a feature of the British Standard it will replace (BS 6073 Part 1). Testing to EN 771-3: Dimensions and tolerances Flatness of surface Density Gross dry density Compressive strength Bending tensile strength Thermal properties Freeze-thaw test. Water absorption by capillarity Moisture movement Water vapour permeability Reaction to fire Bond strength to mortar
Additional relevant tests Bond wrench strength test Wallette test Bonding of render Creep test Aggressive soils Sound insulation Fire resistance (more detailed tests)
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2. Product markets
Section 1 Products identifies some products, and their uses, that may potentially be made from papermill sludge. This section focuses on their possible use as manufactured wood based panels and in applications for floorcovering, suspended ceilings and partitioning boards or concrete blocks where there is market development potential. This section aims to outline the current market situation and facilitate decisions to be made on the future direction of research and development effort. The ultimate intention is to select 6 products of interest and concentrate the research and development capabilities of the partnership on these.
2.1 Paper and Board Industry

More than 12.2 million tonnes of paper and board are used in Britain each year, over half of this is imported. UK paper and board production and consumption in 2001 Total UK production Export UK consumption of home production Import Total UK consumption Source:The Paper Federation of Great Britain There are four integrated (pulp and paper) mills in Britain, two of which have large recycling capabilities. UK pulp, paper and board mills use a large amount of waste paper pulp in their production processes. In 2001, waste paper pulp made up 67% of the fibrous raw material used. Raw material used by UK manufacturers in 2001 Imported woodpulp Home produced pulp Waste paper pulp Other fibres and pulps Fibrous raw material % usage 24 8 67 1 Million tonnes 6.2 1.2 5.0 7.6 12.6
Source:The Paper Federation of Great Britain With a high demand for waste paper pulp, the supply of the papermill sludge by-product from the process of recycling paper is likely to be high. Demand for paper follows the general economic activity of a country and is forecast to rise by 76% by 2025. The value of UK sales of printing and writings papers consumed in 2000 was about 3 billion.
Recycling
Recycling is when end-of-life products are transformed into new secondary raw materials that can be fed back into a manufacturing process. Recycling addresses some important resource issues which are primarily to conserve raw materials, save energy and protect the environment. Recycled paper uses 64% less energy than primary production of paper with 35% less water and 74% less air pollution.
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Without recycling, potentially useful materials become a hazard rather than a resource. Waste paper is an internationally traded commodity and is subject to fluctuations in price depending upon market conditions. Oversupply creates low prices. In 2001, the total amount of recovered paper in the UK was 5.56 million tonnes, about 1 million tonnes was exported whilst the rest was recycled for use in the UK. Papermill sludge is produced as a by-product from the process of recycling paper. Over 700,000 tonnes of papermill sludge is produced each year. It contains inorganic material and cellulose fibre along with inks and traces of processing chemicals used to extract and clean the recovered paper. Instead of landfilling or landspreading the sludge on agricultural land, this waste product can be converted into usable products with positive ecological and economical impacts. Previous studies have identified that the highest-grade applications in which it can be used are as blocks and boards where a price of 50/tonne is obtainable.
2.2 Wood-based panels market

The UK panel products sector have been experiencing fierce competition from lower priced imported panel products, particular pressure has been on MDF and OSB. The use of recycled wood fibre as a feedstock into the manufacturing process has assisted the competitiveness of the UK sector. In 2001 sales prices deteriorated, as in 2000, and the UK volume demand remained static. The main cause for difficult trading conditions was the increases in UK and European board production. In the UK, domestic demand for panel products is met by UK production. In fact, the UK consumes more panel products than it produces and the shortfall of ~ 1/3 of consumed panels is made up by imports. The market value of UK produced panels is in the region of 500 million per annum. UK production and consumption of wood-based panel products in 2001 Panel product UK Production (m) UK consumption (m) Particle board 2 236 000 3 258 000 Medium Density Fibreboard 850 000 1 050 000 Oriented Strand Board 320 000 Cement bonded particle 8000 tonnes boards ( in 1997) Source: Wood Panels Industry Federation 60% of these panel products find an end use in furniture whilst 40% goes into construction and other markets. European Wood-based Panel federation (EPF) represents particleboard, MDF and OSB producers in Europe. Woodbased panels producers are looking forward to positive market conditions for the future and internal EPF statistics on production and consumption for the year 2001 show upward trends for particleboard, OSB and MDF from Year 2000 values. European production of wood-based panel products in 2001 Panel product EU Production % change from (m) 2000 Particle board 31 600 000 3% decrease Medium Density Fibreboard 9 600 000 7% increase Oriented Strand Board Plywood Blockboard 1 600 000 3 000 000 284 500 28% increase EU consumption (m) Forecast for 2002 > 10 million m3 1 400 000
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In 1998 the total production value of the wood-based panels sector of the European woodworking industries was 12.7 billion EUR (approx.8.3 billion). This represented 10% of the overall woodworking industry. Over the past 5-6 years, this 10% has remained fairly consistent. In 2001, OSB sales were very successful. This could be put down to its use in new timber frame housing and also packaging, repair and renovation. The timber frame housing market which is currently on the increase will have an impact on the consumption of panels for wall/roof sheathing and floor decking. Timber frame construction in the UK in 2000 was about 12% with growth forecasts suggesting it will be 30-60% in 2008. Estimates for timber use in timber frame housing UK volume m 2004 89 mm studs 331 200 140 mm studs 386 000 Tiling battens 7 200 Wall/roof sheathing 76 700
2008 662 400 773 000 14 400 153 400
Key to a successful board production process, where there is profitability, high production volumes and a quick throughput are needed. Wood-based panel products have been priced low recently due to a sudden increase in the mill capacity of Europe. A lack of profitability within the wood-based panel sector in recent times has continued to drive down the prices of sawn roundwood and sawmill co-products.
2.3 Floor coverings market

Business activity levels within the construction market and the buoyancy of the housing market both affect the performance of the floor coverings market. The greater the amount of construction work being carried out, the more floor coverings are needed when the buildings become occupied. Furthermore, when property movements are high, this increases the sales of floor coverings as people tend to refurbish a property when they move house. Government statistics indicate optimistic construction growth forecasts and so there is a positive outlook for the development of the flooring market. Consumer spending on home improvements, mainly in the private house market, contributes a large amount to the floor coverings market. However, government spending plans and commitments mean that there are likely to be more opportunities for the floorcovering market in the public sector in the near future. The longer term outlook is more uncertain as this volatile market sector shadows the economy very closely. The floor covering market has grown steadily at 4-5% each year. In 2000 the market value of flooring was 1832 million. Considerable growth in recent years is attributed to the growth in the wood and laminates market. However, moderate future growth in the overall market is likely since changes in fashion dictate which type of covering is bought and not whether a covering should be used. Therefore consumption swapping is a feature within the sector. The wood and laminates share of the sector is increasing at the expense of carpet and vinyl.
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Floor coverings mix of types in 2000 Type of covering % of market Carpets 76 Vinyl Wood/Laminate Ceramic tiles Others 11 6 4 3
Trends losing value share to other coverings especially wood and laminates Vinyl maintaining share Wood and laminates growth expected to continue Maintaining share due to new innovations
Wooden floor coverings are increasingly popular, following the current trend towards natural products. It is estimated that this market will grow from around 113 million in 2000 to 174 million in 2004. This forecast is based on the continued growth in value of this market from the domestic sector. Wooden floorings are being used in a greater range of applications, with installations in kitchens and conservatories becoming more widespread. Another factor that has influenced this market is the number of suppliers actively promoting wooden flooring. Increased promotion has resulted in greater consumer awareness and increased competition has decreased prices. Changes in technology have assisted DIY installations with innovative fixing systems simplifying the installation process. These factors have all had positive impacts on the sector.
2.4 Suspended Ceilings market

Like the floor coverings sector, the economy has a large influence on the performance of the suspended ceilings market with a high dependence on construction and refurbishment activity. Steady growth has been seen in recent years and the market value of the sector was 140 million in 2000. Growth at 7-8% each year is due to the wide range of commercial end-use sectors the ceilings market covers. Suspended ceilings are primarily installed to improve the aesthetics of a building by concealing equipment and wiring or for sound insulation between rooms and acoustic levels in offices. Their major use is in offices, consuming 45% of the market. The trend in this market is towards smoother ceiling surfaces and promised increases in government funding on education and health is likely to have a positive impact on the market. Specifiers and developers are constantly seeking superior products which are aesthetically and technically giving higher performance. This maintains a market but its value may continue with low growth of about 2% per year since the private commercial sector impact is a critical factor and looks to be conservative as the economy is behaving unpredictably. Reasonable levels of retail investment in expansion and refurbishment projects and potential airport expansions could have a positive impact on this sector. However, price erosion as manufacturers compete in a more competitive market means with a slightly increased, or the same, turnover pre-tax profits are down. Increased competition in the market is coming from European manufacturers and the weak European currency. Suspended ceilings used in a wide range of building types. Type of building % of market Observations Office 45 Used to hide installation of air-conditioning systems, wiring for equipment Retail 25 Steady market meeting different trends Entertainment 10 Growth in demand for high performance products Health 7 Likely to increase with government funding Education 5 Likely to increase with government funding Industrial 4 Others 4
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2.5 Partitions market

The partitions market had a value of 148 million in 2000 and is heavily reliant on the office sector. In the short term, the industry considers the markets for partitioning look optimistic however, longer term prospects do not look so good. There is a forecast of some market growth, possibly 3-4 % each year but this will be affected by competition levels and its impact on pricing. Building works do not reflect likely sales of partitioning as the choice and installation of partitioning is only carried out once the building occupancy has been decided. Increased government spending on education and health will have a positive effect as will investment in new and refurbished facilities. As for the suspended ceilings market, retail investment in expansion and refurbishment projects and airport expansions are likely to result in large growth opportunities. Many companies trade-up purchasing higher value products for aesthetic purposes and better sound proofing. Relocatable partitioning has gained an increasing share of the fixed partitioning market because flexibility has increased in importance, with uses found in cleanroom areas for the electronics industry, relocatable partitioning for hotels, conference and sports centres for multifunctional areas. The different types of partitioning and their share of the market are: 12% of the market is Sliding partitions/Operable walls- with moveable parts to form a wall or open out to create a larger space 30% of the market is Monobloc- manufactured and delivered as pre-constructed sections which can be moved completely. 58% of the market is Demountable/relocatable -constructed on site but can be moved. A strategy that will contribute to this market is the introduction of new products to meet customer requirements, helping to promote replacement cycles and maintain stable market growth. The commercial sector mirrors the economy closely but there is a time lag effect so changes are not immediate. The suspended ceilings and partitions markets are both very closely linked to the commercial sector. However, even in a buoyant economy they could be adversely affected by newer working practices such as home-based working rather than office-based working which could cause a decrease in the amount of office space being built and refurbished and thus affect these markets.
2.6 Concrete block market

The market for lightweight aggregate blocks is around 23 million m2 which is about 25% of the total block market. This percentage is thought to be on the increase following the introduction of the Aggregates Tax for primary materials and HSE guidance on manual handling of blocks recommending less than 20kg for repetitive lifting. The 3 current market requirement for these blocks is about 2 million m of lightweight aggregates.
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As mentioned previously, there may be ways in which the sludge could be successfully treated and stabilised into pellet form to produce a lightweight aggregate. The majority of the supply of lightweight aggregate for blocks is still currently furnace bottom ash both 'fresh production' and reclaimed from previous 'storage' heaps. Other materials used are: Expanded clay (both imported and home produced) Blastfurnace slag Pumice Lytag Incinerator bottom ash A new aggregate from papermill sludge would probably be competing with lower density materials such as expanded 3 clay and pumice which between them contribute somewhere between 400-500,000m . As these also tend to be the more value added materials there is a good potential market.
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Summary of findings
Products
Wood-based panels, made predominantly from wood strips, veneers, chips, strands or fibres have a wide variety of end-uses as they can be manufactured to meet different needs. Wood-based panel products are manufactured to a series of European Standards (ENs), published as national standards (BS ENs in the UK). Wood-based panel products used in construction must meet the Essential Requirements of the Construction Products Directive (CPD) and must demonstrate that they comply with requirements, and are fit for their intended purpose. The Harmonised European Standard (prEN 13986) is written in terms of both material specifications and performance requirements and provides the mechanism by which specific products are able to satisfy the CPD. Three basic approaches to the design of structures using wood-based panels for structural application (Load Bearing) are: Deemed to satisfy Performance (prototype) testing Design by calculation The adverse effect of moisture ingress on the performance of wood-based panels used non-structurally in construction has dictated that different panel grades are required for dry and wet applications. Some applications need more specialised properties to be considered, for example sound adsorption and abrasion resistance. A service class system for panel use is defined and aimed at assigning strength values and for calculating deformations under defined environmental conditions. Construction applications have specific performance requirements that need to be met if the panel product is to be used successfully. Uses include flooring, flat roof decking, sheathing, formwork, claddings, fascias, soffits, mouldings, window boards, wall linings, partitions, doors, treads, risers and others. CPD is not relevant for non-construction use and a client will often determine their own panel requirements since the specifier may choose to specify a product in accordance with an existing standard or produce their own specification. Non-construction applications include furniture, packaging and shopfittings with end-use requirements generally including: satisfactory appearance, sufficient strength and stiffness,manufactured for end-use conditions, easily cut and fixed in place, adequate service life and acceptable cost. Concrete blocks have a widespread use in walling and beam-and-block flooring systems. Three main varieties of blocks are: 1)normal dense aggregate, 2)lightweight aggregate, 3)autoclaved aerated lightweight. Most concrete blocks are for internal use but some are used externally. In either case all blocks should have at least some resistance to moisture and freeze/thaw damage. Performance testing in accordance with EN 771-3 Specification for masonry units - Part 3 Aggregate concrete masonry units (dense and light-weight aggregates) will replace restrictive recipes in BS 6073 Part 1.
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Markets
In 2001, the total amount of recovered paper in the UK was 5.56 million tonnes, about 1 million tonnes was exported whilst the rest was recycled for use in the UK. Britain is a large consumer of paper and board with over half of the 12.7 million tonnes used in 2001 having to be imported from abroad. Demand for paper follows the general economic activity of a country and is forecast to rise by 76% by 2025. The value of UK sales of printing and writings papers consumed in the Year 2000 was about 3 billion. The amount of the papermill sludge by-product from the process of recycling paper is likely to be high as there is a high demand for waste paper pulp in Britain. In 2001, 67% of the fibrous raw material used to make paper and board products was waste paper pulp. Use of recycled wood fibre as a feedstock into the manufacturing process of wood based panel products has assisted the competitiveness of the UK sector. In the Years 2000 and 2001, sales prices of panel products deteriorated and the UK volume demand remained static. The main cause for difficult trading conditions was the increases in UK and European board production. In the UK, domestic demand for panel products is met by UK production (67%) and imports (33%). The shortfall in UK production could potentially be filled by an alternative panel product. The market value of UK produced panels is in the region of 500 million per annum. Internal statistics of the European Panel Federation, on production and consumption for the Year 2001, show upward trends for particleboard, OSB and MDF from Year 2000 values. Wood-based panel producers in Europe are looking forward to positive market conditions for the future. In 1998 the total production value of the wood-based panels sector of the European woodworking industries was 12.7 billion EUR (approx.8.3 billion). This represented 10% of the overall woodworking industry, a percentage that has remained fairly consistent over the past 5-6 years. The timber frame housing market in the UK, which is currently on the increase, will have an impact on the consumption of panels for wall/roof sheathing and floor decking. Timber frame construction in the UK in 2000 was about 12% with growth forecasts suggesting it will be 30-60% in 2008. Government statistics indicate optimistic construction growth forecasts and so there is a positive outlook for the development of the flooring market. The floor covering market has grown steadily at 4-5% each year. In 2000 the market value of flooring was 1832 million. Considerable growth in recent years is attributed to the growth in the wood and laminates market. It is estimated that this market will grow from around 113 million in 2000 to 174 million in 2004. The suspended ceilings market has a high dependence on construction and refurbishment activity. Steady growth has been seen in recent years and the market value of the sector was 140 million in 2000. This maintains a market but its value may continue with low growth of about 2% per year since the private commercial sector impact is a critical factor and looks to be conservative as the economy is behaving unpredictably. The partitions market had a value of 148 million in 2000 and is heavily reliant on the office sector. In the short term, the industry considers the markets for partitioning to be optimistic, however, longer term prospects do not look so good. There is a forecast of some market growth, possibly 3-4 % each year but this will be affected by competition levels and its impact on pricing. 2 The market for lightweight aggregate blocks is around 23 million m , about 25% of the total block market, but is thought to be on the increase following the introduction of the Aggregates Tax for primary materials and HSE guidance on manual handling of blocks which recommends < 20kg for repetitive lifting.
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A new aggregate from papermill sludge would probably be competing with lower density materials such as expanded clay and pumice. These tend to be the more value added materials and so there is a good market potential.
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Recommendations
There are a number of products that could potentially be made using papermill sludge. The sludge may form the bulk of the new material or simply be an additive to an existing product. As the project objective is to utilise waste materials in the development of useful end-products which may be brought to market as quickly as possible, the initial products to be considered should be for non-load bearing applications. In non-load bearing applications, product properties such as appearance, surface quality, moisture resistance, ease of machining and working, screw holding ability and fire spread should be investigated. As experience with the material progresses, and depending on its production capabilities, other applications requiring more demanding mechanical properties may be explored. Markets for general wood based panels and floor coverings look most promising. Currently, wood based panels consumption in the UK is greater than its production capacity with the shortfall having to be met by imports. Also the potential increase in timber frame housing construction could increase this need further. The market potential for floor coverings comes from its broad usage in commercial to domestic situations. The product as ceiling tiles and partitioning may have market potential in the long run. The market for lightweight aggregate blocks is thought to be on the increase and their higher added value will give them good market potential.
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References
AMA Research (2001) UK ceilings and partitions market report 2001. Third edition. AMA Research (2001) UK floorcovering market report. Updated edition. BRE (2002) Timber in Construction 2001:a strategy for increasing the use of wood in UK construction. Bureau of International Recycling website www.bir.org European Panels Federation website www.europanels.org Forestry Commission Advisory Panel supply and demand sub-committee 2001 annual market report. Market study report (2001) UK Timber frame construction- Prospects for home grown timber. The Paper Federation of Great Britain website www.paper.org.uk TRADA Technology Research Report (1998) New Growth New Competitiveness? Wood Based Panels International (June/July 2002) Wood Based Panels International (August/September 2002) Wood Panel Industries Federation (2000) Panel Guide
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Annex i Wood-based panels for use in non-construction applications

FURNITURE general Application Typical panel products Important design considerations Strength, stiffness, creep.
Bookcases and shelving
Contract and office furniture Foil/veneer laminates
General furniture
Kitchen units
Kitchen units worktops Upholstered furniture frames
plywood particleboard oriented strand board medium density fibreboard Plywood Particleboard medium density fibreboard Plywood Particleboard medium density fibreboard fibreboard Plywood Particleboard oriented strand board medium density fibreboard fibreboard Plywood Particleboard medium density fibreboard Plywood Particleboard medium density fibreboard Plywood Particleboard Oriented strand board Medium density fibreboard
Strength, stiffness, screw holding, impact, surface quality. Surface quality, dimensional stability, Strength, stiffness, screw holding, impact, surface quality, dimensional stability. Strength, stiffness, moisture resistance, surface quality, screw holding. Moisture resistance, surface quality, impact, dimensional stability, strength, stiffness. Strength, stiffness, screw holding.
PACKAGING-General Application Boxes and packing cases Containers for agricultural produce Pallets Typical panel products Plywood Particleboard Oriented strand board Plywood Oriented strand board Plywood Particleboard Oriented strand board Important design considerations Strength, stiffness, fastener performance, impact resistance, moisture resistance. Strength, stiffness, fastener performance, impact resistance, moisture resistance, durability. Strength, stiffness, fastener performance, impact resistance, moisture resistance, durability.
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SHOPFITTING
Application Bars/Counters
Typical panel products Plywood Particleboard Medium density fibreboard Plywood Particleboard Medium density fibreboard Plywood Particleboard Oriented strand board Medium density fibreboard Plywood Medium density fibreboard Cement-bonded particleboard
Important design considerations Moisture resistance, surface quality, impact, dimensional stability, strength, stiffness. Strength, stiffness, dimensional stability, impact resistance, surface quality. Strength, stiffness, creep.
Display/ Exhibition cabinets Shelving
Exterior signs and fascias
Moisture resistance, durability, fastener performance, surface quality, strength, stiffness.
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APPENDIX 3: Chemical Analysis

Materials and Methods
Fresh samples of pulp slurry from the following industrial producers were supplied Shotton Paper Mill Georgia Pacific Bridgewater Ltd
On receipt each sample was visually inspected using a dissecting microscope of times 60 and 100 magnification. All samples showed a high content of fillers with the fibres encrusted within together with some very fine particles of ink/dyes. Duplicate sub samples of the wet pulp slurries were accurately weighed and dried in a force draught oven to constant weight. Their moisture contents were calculated as a percentage of their oven dry weights. The oven dry samples were then milled in a Christie laboratory mill to produce a very fine powder which was sieved to pass through 40 micron mesh. All samples were further dried at low temperature to constant weight. Soluble Extractives in Dichloromethane and mixture of Toluene / IMS / Acetone (4:1:1) Duplicate samples of milled pulp slurry samples were extracted in the Soxhlets extraction apparatus using 400mls HPLC grade Dichloromethane for 8 hours. Similar extractions were undertaken using Toluene/IMS/Acetone (4:1:1). The heating rate of the Soxhlets extraction apparatus provided at least 60 solvent cycles during each extraction period. The solvent soluble extracts were retained, filtered and evaporated to dryness on a steam bath. All extracted samples were oven dried at 105C to constant weight, reweighed and the extractive content expressed as a percentage of the oven dried pulp slurry. (Table II.i) Klason Lignin (Tappi 222 om 88) The standard method for Klason lignin determination involving acid hydrolysis in 72% and 3% sulphuric acid was utilised for all samples. However it was necessary to slightly modify the test procedure due to the substantial proportion of filler in the slurries. Duplicate samples were used and 72% sulphuric acid added drop by drop until effervescence ceased. Further 15mls of the acid were added to 1gm samples of extractive free pulp slurry flour and stirred for 2 hours in a water bath at 20C. At the end of the initial hydrolysis, the acid was diluted to 3% and the mixture refluxed for 4 hours. The mixture was cooled and then filtered through a pre-weighed oven dry glass fibre filter paper and dried overnight at 105C. The oven dry samples were weighed and the lignin was transferred into a weighed platinum crucible in order to evaluate the residual inorganic content. All samples were ashed to constant weight using a muffle furnace at 525C for 16 hours. The samples were cooled in a desiccator and weighed to obtain the ash content. The lignin content of the sample was obtained through correction for the inorganic fraction and expressed as the percentage of the oven dry pulp slurry. (Table II.i) Holocellulose The holocellulose content of the extractive-free samples was determined by the sodium chlorite method (Browning, 1967). This method is a delignification procedure. Again due to the high inorganic content of the samples excess acetic acid was added to adjust the reaction pH to 4.5. Approximately 2g of duplicate samples were used. To the samples the following were added successively; 320mls distilled water, 1ml glacial acetic acid and 20mls 15% sodium chlorite. The reaction was carried out at 75C. At 1, 2 and 3 hours further additions of the acid and the chloride solutions were made and the reaction stopped at the end of the fourth hour. The samples were cooled in an ice bath and the holocellulose was filtered through an oven dried preweighed sintered glass crucible. The samples were washed with 200ml ethanol and 25ml acetone and oven dried overnight in an oven at 50C. The samples were re-weighed and the holocellulose transferred into a weighed platinum crucible for its inorganic content evaluation by ashing in the muffle furnace at 525C for 16 hours. The holocellulose content is expressed as the percentage of the oven dry pulp slurry. (Table II.i)
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Hot water solubles. Again duplicate samples of oven dry pulp slurry were used. Samples of about 2 grams were refluxed in deionised water for 2 hours, then filtered, cooled and the pH recorded. The extracted solubles in the water were then rotary evaporated under reduced pressure at 40C to dryness. All samples were oven dried in a force draught oven to constant weight. The soluble fraction is expressed as a percentage of the oven dry pulp slurry. (Table II.i) Analysis of inorganic content of Pulp Slurry. Duplicate samples of each oven dried pulp slurry were accurately weighed into clean platinum crucibles. These samples were ashed in the muffle furnace at either 525C or 900 C to constant weight for 16 hours. On completion of the ashing the crucibles were cooled in a desiccator and accurately weighed. The ash content is expressed as a percentage of the oven dry pulp slurry. All ash samples were acidified with nitric acid to a 1% v/v concentration and analysed by Inductively Coupled Plasma Emission Spectroscopy using a plasma torch maintained at a temperature of between 6000 and 10000C by the reaction between radio frequency waves and liquid argon. The constituent elements introduced into the torch are excited in the source and emit spectra characteristic to specific elements. The concentration of the element is measured by comparison of the intensity of light emitted from the effluent samples with that emitted by standards of known concentration. The results are expressed as ppm. (Table II.ii)
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Results
Table II.i Chemical composition of Pulp Slurries Analysis Shotton pulp slurry % Oven Dry Pulp Slurry 65.84 4.87 6.19 3.75 8.30 52.61 42.42 32.88 14.61 Georgia Pacific pulp slurry % Oven Dry Pulp Slurry 78.60 1.71 2.20 3.51 8.60 66.35 42.47 29.03 9.91 Bridgewater Ltd pulp slurry % Oven Dry Pulp Slurry 83.02 4.39 4.95 4.80 8.40 53.90 43.52 36.33 19.30
Moisture Content
Dichloromethane Extractives Toluene/IMS/ Acetone Extractives Hot water Solubles pH of above Ash 525C Ash 900C Holocellulose Klason Lignin
Table II.ii. Analysis of inorganic constituents from Pulp Slurries. (All figures ppm) Metal Shotton Pulp Slurry 525C 0 3451 0 6160 0 3 8 278 211 867 32 392 2 8 5 4133 8 Shotton Pulp Slurry 900C 0 23205 0 6172 0 7 78 803 693 1892 39 1156 11 81 7 38123 20 Georgia Pacific Pulp Slurry 525C 0 5436 0 3984 0 2 10 373 94 1378 54 340 3 9 9 4949 14 Georgia Pacific Pulp Slurry 900C 0 19140 0 4296 0 6 58 844 162 2569 60 316 9 54 7 26438 21 Bridgewater Pulp Slurry 525C 0 3574 0 6010 0 7 9 301 248 1200 40 871 2 8 5 3501 108 Bridgewater Pulp Slurry 900C 0 20471 0 5678 1 11 92 832 762 2224 47 1360 10 95 7 35027 23
Ag Al As Ca Cd Cr Cu Fe K Mg Mn Na Ni P Pb Si Zn
Comments Visual inspection (100x magnification) showed slightly different colour makeup of the 3 waste sources due to different process conditions and raw materials. Much of the waste contains black ink particulates and coloured pigment. Extractives Toluene:IMS:Acetone appears to provide the most complete removal of the solvent extractable material. The mixture removes waxes; resins; fats; photosterols and non volatile hydrocarbons as well as low molecular weight carbohydrates from pulp. The system will also remove a proportion of the coloured pigment and co-polymeric components associated with printing inks and dyes. Dichloromethane (DCM) will remove similar compounds to the above but appears less effective. The colour of the extractives varied markedly, see Table II.iii.
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Table II.iii Summary of extractive colour differences DCM TOL:IMS:AC Shotton yellow / green / brown Pink / red / orange / brown Georgia Pacific yellow / green Pink / red / orange Bridgewater green / brown Orange / brown The extractives and wastes have been investigated further by FTIR. Klason Lignin and Holocellulose The high inorganic content of the material made accurate evaluation of the lignin and holocellulose content difficult. Both methods depend on accurate control of pH throughout. Complete removal of the salts is also required. It was not possible to solubilise the inorganics during the procedure. Consequently the residual inorganic material was evaluated and used to correct the yield value. Hot water solubles These values were suspiciously low considering the high inorganic content. Further investigation may be necessary. Inorganics This material is sourced from the fillers/pigments/dyes/inks and coatings used in papermaking and printing. These materials tend to be combustible over a range of temperatures from 250C to 1100C. For wastes containing only cellulose and calcium carbonate combustion at 525C will remove the cellulose fraction and moisture leaving the calcium carbonate ash. Combustion at 900C will convert calcium carbonate to calcium oxide. Similarly metals are released more efficiently at higher temperatures as the results testify.
Fibre Length
Kajaani The Bridgewater waste was analysed by Kajaani giving fibre length as follows: Average fibre length 0.42mm Length weighted Ave. 1.30mm Weight weighted Ave. 2.15mm Neither the Shotton nor Georgia Pacific samples were suitable for analysis by Kajaani due to contamination. Bauer McNett The results are summarised in Table II.iv
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Table II.iv Summary of Bauer McNett screening of Bridgewater waste Screen size (mesh) 14 20 35 150 <150 14 20 35 150 <150 Opening (mm) 1.19 0.841 0.42 0.105 <0.105 1.19 0.841 0.42 0.105 <0.105 Fibre Fraction retained (%) Run 4 13.1 12.1 17 18.2 39.6 Run 5 10.2 8.4 16.5 6.6 58.3 Run 7 18.1 12.8 15.9 19.7 33.5 Run 6 10.7 8.1 15 14.7 51.5 Ave. 15.6 12.45 16.45 18.95 36.55 Ave. 10.45 8.25 15.75 10.65 54.9
Material Paper sludge
Refined paper sludge
The high filler content was again contaminating much of the fibre in each mesh division.
FTIR Analysis
The following samples were analysed using the Nicolet Magna IR 750 series II spectrometer scanning in the mid (400 4000cm-1) region : For each mills waste (Bridgewater; Shotton; Georgia Pacific) Waste (unprocessed) Extractive free (EFP) waste (Toluene:IMS:Acetone extracted) DCM Extractives Toluene:IMS:Acetone extractives A control sample of paper was also taken for reference. The rationale was to see if chemical differences could be identified between the extractives from different solvent systems, also to try to elucidate the main composition of any fillers / inks / dyes in the waste. The waste materials vary significantly from pure paper as expected. Contamination with polymeric materials is clearly seen in the spectra as well as the inorganic content (see Figure II.i). Figure II.i Comparison of control paper and Bridgewater waste both unprocessed and extractive free
1.9 B ridgewater S lurry P hotocopyi ng P aper B ridgewater EFP 1.8 1.7 1.6 1.5 1.4 Abs orbanc e 1.3 1.2 1.1 1.0 0.9 0.8 0.7 0.6 3000 2000 W avenumbers (c m-1) 1000
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The extractive free waste materials from each source (Figure II.ii) show essentially the similarity between all three wastes. There is very little significant chemical difference between the wastes that is detectable by FTIR analysis. Figure II.ii Extractive free waste materials
6.0 Shotton EFP B ridgewater EFP 5.5 Georgia Pac ific EFP
5.0
4.5
4.0 Abs orbanc e
3.5
3.0
2.5
2.0
1.5
1.0
0.5 3000 2000 W avenumbers (c m-1) 1000
Figure II.iii shows the spectra of the DCM extractives from each waste source and there are differences in the chemical composition. Without reference material and a library of all the dye/ink/additive spectra it is difficult to say exactly what the extractives contain. However they are clearly polymeric carbonyl materials present. Figure II.iii DCM extractives
Georgia Pac ific Extractives DCM (NaCl) 0.75 Bridgewater DCM Shotton DCM 0.70 0.65 0.60 0.55 0.50 Abs orbanc e 0.45 0.40 0.35 0.30 0.25 0.20 0.15 0.10 3000 2000 W avenumbers (c m-1) 1000
Comparison of the DCM with the Tol:IMS:Ac (Figure II.iv) extractives does show significant difference as the colour variation suggested.
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Figure II.iv Toluene:IMS:Acetone extractives

1.3 Georgia Pacific Tol IMS A c Bridgewater Tol IMS A c Shotton Tol IMS A c 1.2 1.1 1.0 0.9 0.8 0.7 0.6 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2
Abs orbanc e
3000
2000 Wavenumbers (c m-1)
1000
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Appendix 4: Softboard Development work

Product concept
After several initial trials it was found that if sludge is thoroughly dispersed in water using a pulp disintegrator and then the resulting slurry is dried out on a tray, a material is formed similar to that used to manufacture egg boxes. Using an in house simplified fire test it was found that this material is very hard to ignite, probably due to the high mineral content. These initial trials set up the background for the development of a new product that is similar to the conventional softboard which is normally made using wood fibres and is used as an insulation product.
Process of manufacture
The biggest technical challenge was to design the stages of manufacture of a continuous process capable of delivering a prototype insulation product utilising waste materials. The design of a new production process requires a good understanding of the nature and properties of the raw materials such as chemical composition, fibre geometry and consistency. These properties have been discussed in appendix 3. Paper mill sludge is a mix of inorganic and organic compounds. The chemical composition of sludge (see appendix 3) is normally consistent. It was found that the inorganic compounds in the sludge react with water and act as an aggregate. However, based on the results of fibre quality analysis (appendix 3) it was concluded that the geometrical properties of the fibres in the sludge are not sufficient to provide reinforcement into the mix. The addition of refined wood fibre at 10-20% (oven dry weight basis) helped to produce a panel with an acceptable rigidity for an insulation type product.
Description of the main stages of manufacture

The main stages of manufacture are presented in figure 1 below: Wet mixing Wet mat forming Hot pressing
Vacuum drainage
Drying
Surface lamination
Mixing
Wet laying
Drying
Hot pressing
Laminating
Figure 1: Process flow diagram for the softboard. Wet mixing and laying At this stage paper mill sludge is disintegrated in water using a pulp disintegrator (figure 2). The fibre and mineral particles are separated and then 10% of refined wood fibre and phenol formaldehyde resin (based on
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oven dry weight of sludge) are added into the suspension. This is mixed for a period of time to ensure good distribution of wood fibre and resin with sludge. The suspension is then dispersed onto a forming box, which has a drainage system at the bottom. A vacuum of 4 psi is then applied for 3 seconds. All the excessive water is then removed and the remaining mix has formed a mat with a moisture content of 100%.
Figure 2: Schematic of a wet former
Drying
The mat is then transferred using a solid aluminium tray and placed into a drying cabinet at 70C for 24 hours to achieve a MC of 5-7 %. This method of drying is uneconomical and time consuming and was only used for modelling purposes. Alternatively a more sophisticated and efficient drying method can be achieved using more modern technologies such as microwaves or high radio frequency drying.
Hot pressing
The mat is then hot pressed at 190C for 5 min for a 12 mm panel. The thickness of the final board can be varied from 10mm 45mm.
Lamination
Based on the results of the indicative testing (see product testing) it was concluded that the most economic approach to produce a softboard that conforms with testing requirements and also has an improved surface appearance was to use a powder PF (Novolak) resin at 10% loading and to laminate board surfaces with paper after manufacture. More specifically the testing results showed that the thickness swelling requirement could be met using 10% PF powder resin. However, the bending strength of the board remained still lower than the target requirement. An increase of bending strength could be achieved by replacing a large amount of sludge with wood fibres. However, this would not be beneficial for the recycling challenge of paper sludge. Therefore and based on this concept it was decided that the sludge softboard should be made using 10% PF powder resin, 80% paper sludge waste and 10% wood fibres. In order to enhance surface aesthetics and bending strength surface lamination with a decorative paper should take place after board pressing.
Summary of initial trials

Trial W01
Dry sludge was disintegrated in a pulp disintegrator for 200 counts. In a different part of the project, sludge was being put through the refiner and flash dryer. This provided a source of sludge which did not need disintegrating. In any practical product the sludge would not be de-watered in the first place, but wet sludge is very difficult to store.
Trial W02
100% refined sludge.
Trial W03
80% refined sludge and 20% wood fibre.
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These boards were very distorted after drying, but gave an indication of what could be achieved. W01 was quite lumpy, and both W01 and W02 were quite hard and dense (450 and 410 kg/m respectively). W03 had more the feel of an insulation board and a density of 320. It seems that wood fibre can be used to control the density and porosity. In order to make them flatter, boards W04 and W05 were made by placing an extra mesh strip on top of the usual mesh in the wet former, trimming the mattress to this size, and transferring it, still on the mesh strip, into the drying cabinet. At this stage the consistency was about 27%. It was covered with aluminium foil and a sheet of plywood, held down by lead weights to keep it flat. Drying time was about 2 days.
Trial W04
80% refined sludge and 20% wood fibre. Density 260.
Trial W05
90% refined sludge and 10% wood fibre. These boards were flat and of even thickness, and suitable for testing. However, they were not quite smooth enough for a product, and the drying time was still a problem.
Trial W07-73
Development work has focussed on using different resin systems to make Product 1. A total of 65 boards have been produced with a series of resin systems, see table 3. The majority of these boards have failed the technical tests carried out at BRE and BC. This resulted in the implementation of processing changes and the additions of a flocculent to the resin fibre furnish. This addition has helped to ensure an even resin distribution. Panels can now be produced that pass indicative tests conducted by the BioComposites Centre. These panels can be produced by surface laminating a paper or using a liquid/powder resin combination to enhance the mechanical properties. Table 1 summarises the different combinations tested and presents options the best two formulations for softboard up to trial w 73. Table 1. Summary of softboard trials (trial 73) Boards W 07-38 W 53-56 W 57-60 W 61-63 Resin (%) 0-5% PF, 5% UF 0% 5% UF, 1-2% PVA 9.0% PF Density 350-500 300-500 350-400 Fail/Pass Fail Fail Pass Tsw Fail MOR Reasons Tsw, Resin loading could not be controled Resin Loading applied successfully pass MOR Density, Difficult to drain water Not successful
6-7 %PF + 5,10% Novolac paper 290-420 Pass @ 10% Novolac laminated 100g 10% W 64 372 fail Novolac 10% W 65-66 580-600 Fail PF Acid 10% Novolac, W 67-73 10% PVA Not tested Failed 10% Epoxy based Recommendations for best combinations for Product 1: 10% PF liquid + 5-10% PF Novolac, TSw=6%, Density= 380 kg m-3, MOR= 2.04 N mm-2, MOE= 604 N mm-2 10% PF Novolac + laminated paper, Tsw= 7%, Density= 296 kg m-3, MOR = 2.59 N mm-2, MOE= 844 N mm-2 Press Temp. = 180C Press Factor = 25 s/mm
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Product testing
A summary of the test results of product 1 is presented in Table 4. As it can be seen product 1 (sludge softboard) conforms with the requirements of grade 3 which is a softboard for use in exterior conditions. Table 2: Sludge softboard test results Testing results with test requirements Sludge Soft board No. test pieces Density (kg/m3) Property cov (%) 48 358 19 Grade 1: SB Grade 2: SB.H Grade 3: SB.E Grade 4: SB.LS Grade 5: SB.HLS >230 >230 >230 >230 >230 TS (%) 48 5.4 7 <10 <7 <6 <8 <6 MOR (N/mm2) MOE (N/mm2) 36 1.3 5 >0.8 >1 >1.1 >1.1 >1.2 36 31 6 NR NR NR >130 >140
* TS = Thickness swell (after 2 hours cold water soaking) MOR = Modulus of rupture MOE = Modulus of elasticity SB = Use in dry conditions SB.H = Use in humid conditions SB.E = Use in exterior conditions SB.LS = Use for load-bearing in dry conditions SB.HLS = Use for load-bearing in humid conditions. NR = Not required
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Press data
Examples of pressing graphs are presented in figure 3 and 4.
Figure 3: An example of a typical press cycle used for the manufacture of Softboard. 33 secs/mm, 205C platen temperature, showing mat pressure, day light (position SP), top and bottom press temperature, core gas pressure and temperature.
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Figure 4: An example of a typical press cycle used for the manufacture of 24.5 secs/mm, 190C platen temperature.
87
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Summary of pilot plant trials

The table below presents in summary the specification of the pilot plant trials for softboard. Table 3: Summary of Pilot plant trials for softboard Board number Sludge (g) Press temperature 190C Wood Fibre (g) Press Time Nominal Actual Density (minutes) thickness thickness kg/m3 Comments Weight Ex-Press (kg)
Resin type
W W W W W W W W W W W W W W W W W W W
07 08 09 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25
1181 1181 1181 1181 1181 1181 1181 1181 1169 1169 1169 1169 1169 1169 1169 1169 1169 1169 1169
137.5 137.5 137.5 137.5 137.5 137.5 137.5 137.5 137.5 137.5 137.5 137.5 137.5 137.5 137.5 137.5 137.5 137.5 137.5
0 0 0 0 5% PF 5% PF 5% PF 5% PF 1.8% PF 1.8% PF 1.8% PF 1.8% PF 3.5% PF 3.5% PF 3.5% PF 3.5% PF 3.5% PF 3.5% PF 3.5% PF
5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5
10 3 6 6 3 10 10 7 4.5 10 7 4.5 4.5 10
9.75 12.5 5.59 5.85 4.34 9.76 11.8 9.71 6.99 4.51 12.7 9.76 6.53 4.36 11.4 4.44 9.81 13.2
497 Blown board 396 855 908 538 457 497 693 1107 398 508 755 1139 457 1049 516 390
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W 26 Board number
1169 Sludge (g)
137.5 Wood Fibre (g)
3.5% PF Resin type
5 10 9.96 489 Press Time Nominal Actual Density (minutes) thickness thickness kg/m3 Comments
Weight Ex-Press (kg)
Press temperature 190C W W W W W W W W W W W W 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 1169 4676 4676 4676 4676 1169 1169 1169 1169 1039 1039 1052 137.5 550 550 550 550 137.5 137.5 137.5 137.5 137.5 137.5 123.8 3.5% PF 3.5% PF 0 0 0 0 5% wax 5.4% UF 10.8% UF 0 5.4% UF 0 5 10 10 10 10 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 10 45 45 45 45 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10.3 43.8 45.1 44.5 44.7 10.2 10.3 9.77 10.5 9.66 9.52 9.92 490 442 459 496 460 582 477 434 466 486 511 507 Wood dust sprinkled on surface
80g BD937 on top, wax on base Top sprayed with 70g 20% BD937 Top sprayed with 70g 20% BD937 5.4% UF 10.8% UF 137.5g wood fibre surface UF in core & surface 70g 20% BD937 on wood surface
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W 39 W 40 W 41 W 42 W 43 W 44 W 45 W 46 W 47 W 48 W 49 W 50 W 51 Board number Sludge (g) Press temperature 190C W W W W W W W W W W W 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62
Wood Fibre (g)
Resin type
5 14 5 14 5 16 5 12 5 12 5 12 5 12 5 12 5 12 5 12 5 12 5 12 5 12 Press Time Nominal Actual Density (minutes) thickness thickness kg/m3 Comments
Weight Ex-Press (kg)
12 25% Al.Sulphate 25% Al.Sulphate 25% Al.Sulphate 25% Al.Sulphate
1052 1052 1052
123.8 123.8 123.8
PF + Novolac PF + Novolac Novolac
5 5 5
12 12 12
1.04 1.07 1.09
91
W 63 W 64 W 65 W 66 W 67 W 68 W 69 W 70 W 71 W 72 W 73 W 74 W 75 W 76 Board number
1052 1052 1052 1052 1052 1052 1052 1052 1052 1052 1052 1052 1052 1052 Sludge (g) 1052 1052 1052 1052 1052 1052 1052 1052 1052 1052 1175 1175 1175 1000
W W W W W W W W W W W W W W
77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90
123.8 123.8 123.8 123.8 123.8 123.8 123.8 123.8 123.8 123.8 123.8 123.8 123.8 123.8 Wood Fibre (g) 123.8 123.8 123.8 123.8 123.8 123.8 123.8 123.8 123.8 123.8
Novolac Novolac PF liquid PF liquid PF liquid Novolac PF liquid Novolac Polyurethane Polyurethane Blox-205 Novolacv Novolacv Novolacv Resin type Novolacv Novolacv Novolacv Novolacv Novolacv Novolacv Novolacv Novolacv Novolacv Novolacv Novolacv Novolacv Novolacv Novolacv
120
5 12 5 12 5 12 5 12 5 12 5 12 5 12 5 12 5 12 5 12 5 12 5 13 5 13 5 13 Press Time Nominal Actual Density (minutes) thickness thickness kg/m3 Comments 5 13 5 13 5 13 5 13 5 13 5 13 5 13 5 13 5 13 5 13 5 13 5 13 5 13 5 13
1.15 1.38 1.34 1.06 Blown 1.22 1.04 1.12 1.13 1.23
Weight Ex-Press (kg) 1.12 1.12 1.08 1.13 1.05 1.06 1.06 1.05 1.36 1.24 1.17 1.17
Control Control Control Control
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W 91 W 92 W 93 W 94 W 95 W 96 W 97 W 98 W 99 W 100
1000 1000 1000 1000 1000 1000 1000 1000 1000 1000
120 120 120 120 120 120 120 120 120 120
Novolacv Novolacv Novolacv Novolacv Novolacv Novolacv Novolacv Novolacv Novolacv Novolacv
5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5
13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13
1.15 1.08 1.14 1.15 1.09 1.18 1.11 1.14
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APPENDIX 5: Hybrid MDF

Product concept
The relatively high fibre content of sludge (45-50%) and the good quality of the sludge fibres after refining and drying were the main drivers that originated the concept for the manufacture of a hybrid MDF product. The original objective was to manufacture a product using 100% fibre sludge. However, this was not possible because the high fines content in the mat and also because the conventional MDF adhesives used did not produce a good quality bond with the inorganics of the sludge.
Development work
A total of 9 trials have been conducted and over 60 boards produced for Product 2, the hybrid MDF panel. Trials 002 and 003 Attempts to produce an MDF hybrid type product using 100% paper sludge as raw material were performed. As a first step and because paper sludge was a completely new material for the refining process, the refining conditions had to be optimised (trial 001). The use of paper sludge waste as the main raw material in this process has advantages and disadvantages. Paper sludge contains wood fibre, which has already been refined during the paper production process. The re-refining of paper sludge in this case is used as a method to separate the fibres and the other inorganic materials in the sludge and to ensure an improved resin distribution in the resin application stage is occurring. In this case the refiner variables are optimised at minimum energy levels resulting in energy savings if compared against the traditional MDF refining process variables. However, it was noted that there is a requirement for a higher drying capacity for sludge compared with wood fibre using a continuous flash tube dryer in the pilot plant. In addition the refiner energy was kept low in order to minimise production costs. However, and although some promising savings were achieved in the refining stage, the drying stage proved to be more challenging. The dryer capacity was not sufficient to produce fibre at moisture content that would allow unsophisticated pressing. Several trials were performed to evaluate the feasibility of high moisture pressing. However the results of these trials showed that the high moisture pressing is a difficult technical task and further work is necessary to optimise production variables. More specifically the fine geometry of sludge fibre produces a mat that is characterised by a high compaction capacity. This in combination with the high pressing temperature and high mat moisture content results in high gas pressure in the press and consequently the trial boards delaminated at the final stage of pressing cycle after even after allowing a period for an extended de-gas. However, there were some board pieces that remained intact after pressing and when they were tested presented a very good resistance to swelling (i.e. 4-5%). Although these results were promising, the pressing of a board made with 100% sludge proved to be impractical. At this stage because further development work was necessary to the optimise drying, pressing and resin systems it was decided to progress the product development with a lesser proportion of sludge. Consequently wood fibres replaced the sludge by 50%. The main resin used in these trials was a liquid PF (phenol formaldehyde) resin for MDF. This resin is a Dynea resin and it is made only for special grade types of MDF. After several technical discussions with resin experts an MUF (melamine urea formaldehyde) type resin was suggested as an alternative to the PF.
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Trials 005, 006, 007 Further trials were conducted using 50% wood fibre and 50% paper sludge using an MUF resin. Acceptable IB and MOR/MOE results were achieved. Trial 009 The main objective of this trial was to produce a large number of samples for demonstration purposes and also to attempt an improvement in board IB strength. A total of 26 boards were produced using a phenol formaldehyde type resin. BC has performed some initial IB testing and the results have shown that the boards with high density have a better chance to meet the IB requirement. As it was mentioned above there is a wide choice of different types of adhesives. The approach followed in this project was to try first the traditional types of adhesives that are currently used in wood based panel products industry. An alternative type was incorporated in the last trial (009) with the use of an OSB surface type resole PF resin. PF resins are not commonly used in MDF production within Europe. Further work using other types of adhesives such as isocyanate based adhesives or a specially designed melamine urea phenol formaldehyde adhesives should be considered. Table 1 summarises all the trials to date.
Summary of initial results
Table 1 and 2 summarises all the trials to date. Table 1. Summary of pilot scale trials.
Date
Product 2
Equipment Duration No.
Purpose
Comments
6/20/03 6/23/03
Plant Plant
0.6 day 1 day
00-1 00-2
To evaluate the fesibility of using MDF type technology to generate reasonable quality raw material for resination To produce novel type panels made with 100% sludge
MDF type quality fibre produced 6 boards produced: 002-1,2,3,4,5,6
7/1/03 8/13/03 10/21/03 11/20/03 2/11/2004 13/02/04
Plant Plant Plant Plant Plant P1ant
1 day 1day 1day 1day 1day 1day
00-3 00-5 00-6 00-7 00-8 00-9
To optimise refining variables and manufacture product 1 boards To optimise refining variables and manufacture product 2 boards To optimise refining variables and manufacture product 2 boards To optimise refining variables and manufacture product 2 boards To optimise refining variables and manufacture product 2 boards To optimise refining variables and manufacture product 2 boards
5 boards produced, 003, 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5 8 boards 10 boards 14 boards cooker blocked 27 boards
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Table 2: Hybrid MDF initial BC test results

Trial 001 002 003 005 006 Product type Refiner optimisation 100% sludge 100% sludge 50% sludge + 50% wood 50% sludge + 50% wood Resin 10-15% PF 15% PF 15% MUF 20% MUF Testing IB=0.2, Tsw24h=3.1% Density= 1000-1300 kg m-3 IB= 0.3, Tsw24h= 6% Density= 1500 Kg m-3 Density = 850 kg/m3 Others Not tested IB= 0.50 N mm-2, Tsw24h= 13% Water absorption= 49% Density=968 kg m-3 These results are based on indicative testing. More representative test results are presented in Table 6 IB= 0.53, MOR/MOE = 40 / 7567 N mm-2 Density= 994 kg m-3 These results are based on indicative testing. More representative test results are presented in Table 6 Blockage problems in the wash water system in the refiner IB=0.57 Density= 900kg/m3 Fail/ pass Fail Fail, difficult to press Fail Pass on the limits
007
50% sludge + 50% wood
20% MUF
008 009
50% sludge + 50% wood 50% sludge + 50% wood
Trial aborted 15% PF
Pass IB on the limits
Total number of boards= 70 boards have been produced Thickness = 10-12 mm Pressing temperature: 190-205C Press factor: 12.5 22.5 s /mm Boards have been produced according to process variables used in trial 007 (see table 5) but using two different types of melamine urea formaldehyde (MUF) resin. The boards have been tested and the results are presented in the following section of this report.
Process of manufacture
The below flow diagram (figure 1) describes in summary the basic production stages for the manufacture of product 2.
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Feed Hoppers
Blow line
Drier
MSD Cooker
Refiner
Sanding
Hot press
Pre-press
Form e r
Figure 1: Process flow diagram for product 2. The pilot plant MDF production facility at the BioComposites was designed and set up to replicate, on a much smaller scale, industrial MDF production. The only significant difference between industrial MDF production and the production at the BioComposites Centre is that in the former case hot pressing is by a continuous process. At the BioComposites Centre, the production process becomes a batch process at the press. The Facilitys ANDRITZ SPROUT-BAUER 12" pressurised refiner consists of an in-feed hopper leading to an MSD (Modular Screw Device, i.e. a plug feeder) which conveys the starting material (e.g. wood chips) from atmospheric pressure into the pressurised environment. Raw material (wood and sludge) is fed through the MSD and, via a 2.6 metre long cooker, to a 60-litre digester.
Figure 2: Module screw device, material feeding system From the digester the material is fed by screw conveyor to the centre of a stationary refiner disc, and hence into the refining zone (refining stage). The desired pressure is maintained in the system during the whole refining period by a constant supply of steam from a boiler. The residence time of material in the pressurised environment can be varied from 4 minutes to 30 minutes. Steam pressure in the cooker/digester can be varied from 2 to 20 bar (gauge) but only pressures between 5-8 bar used. The refiner plates gaps and the refiner plates themselves can be changed in order to deliver varying levels of work to fibres.
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Figure 3: Incline screw feeder, several types of refiner plates and the refiner control unit system The process variables are recorded continuously allowing for the determination and comparison of energy used in the refining process.
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Figure 4: Computer system controling the dosing of additives Fibre is vented from the refiner housing via a blow valve into a 9-metre long stainless steel BLOWLINE (resin stage). Fibre resination takes place in the blowline. Additives such as wax (to reduce moisture absorption in the board) may also be incorporated at this stage. Addition rates for both wax and the resin are maintained by determining the oven dry fibre throughput, calculating the addition rate and then adjusting flow rates of appropriate pumps accordingly. Addition rates are monitored by computer. The blowline is connected to a continuous, 120 metre long FLASH DRIER. The internal diameter of the dryer is 159 mm and the air for the dryer is heated via a hot oil heat exchanger (max 320C. Air velocity in the dryer is approximately 37 metres per second. The dryer is powered by a 22KW ID FAN capable of handling 0.8m3/s of clean air at 13000Pa. These conditions give a total residence time for fibre in the dryer of 46 seconds. Dryer temperatures can be varied and energy usage can be determined. An air seperation system (cyclone) system separates the dry fibre which can then be diverted diretcly to bags or to a pilot scale BISON FORMING STATION. The BISON forming station is able to form mats with a width of 1.1 metres to 1.3 metres. However in practice this forming station is used only as a fibre bin and mattresses are formed by the addition of a known mass of fibre into a forming box. The forming box is then transferred to the single daylight PREPRESS that has a platen area of 1.6m2 (only 0.5m2 used) with a hydraulic self alignment system They are (cold) prepressed and then transferred to a hot press on caul plates.
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Figure 5: Pre-press and forming box of 500 by 500 mm The daylight opening hot Schwabenthan press capable of pressing boards 0.5 m by 0.5 m in dimension. Schwabenthan press type Polystat 500 S. The pressure is applied by a single ram upstroke hydraulic press. The dimension of the press area is 500mm x 500mm platens. The press is electrically heated to a maximum of 250C. The press cycle control by PressMAN, monitoring: daylight opening (mm) panel pressure (bar) core temperature (C) core gas pressure (psig)
Figure 6: PressMan controlled press
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Figure 7: Board manufacture of hybrid MDF, Pre-press stage and hot pressing
Test results As it can be seen in table 3, hybrid MDF has met the technical requirements for MDF use in dry conditions except the IB. The best results achieved with MOR and MOE. The MOR and MOE results conformed the test requirements for MDF use in humid conditions and load bearing in dry conditions (sludge board 007). The IB requirement needs further optimisation. The internal bond strength test measures the quality of the bond between the raw material and the adhesive. A good quality IB strength is a combination result of good quality raw material in terms of fibre geometry and a compatible type of resin. There is a wide range of adhesives available in the market that could be incorporated but as it has to be appreciated that the fibre content and quality in paper sludge waste is a limiting factor that needs to be taken in account. In this case a special resin designed in collaboration with a resin manufacturer and specifically to be compatible with paper sludge waste could be produced and give better performance. This project has a very strict timetable. The overall objective is to demonstrate the market potential of these new products. However, in some occasions (i.e. IB) some further work is necessary in order to show the full potential of this product.
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Table 3. Test results for product 2

Density (kg/m3) TS (%) IB (N/mm2) MOR (N/mm2) MOE (N/mm2) No. test pieces Sludge board S006 Sludge board S007 Property cov (%) Property cov (%) Property cov (%) 48 775 40.3 995 1.5 884 8 >600 >600 48 61.1 2.1 11.8 7.1 9.2 2.6 12 8 12 8 48 0.73 31.1 0.37 18.1 1.2 9.7 0.55 0.75 0.6 0.75 36 27 7.6 26.1 10.6 43.4 2.4 20 24 25 30 36 2502 5.4 2892 10.5 2364 2.7 2200 2400 2500 2700
Control MDF MDF MDF.H MDF.LS MDF.HLS
**
>600 >600
*TS = Thickness swell (after 24 hours cold water soaking) ** for humid uses MDF needs to be tested against a cyclic swelling test. % Cov = coefficient of variation MOR = Modulus of rupture MOE = Modulus of elasticity IB = Internal bond strength MDF = Use in dry conditions MDF.H = Use in humid conditions MDF.LS = Use for load-bearing in dry conditions MDF.HLS = Use for load-bearing in humid conditions.
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Analytical technical data of pilot plant trials The following graphs and tables summarise the process parameters used for the manufacture of hybrid MDF.
Table 4: Refiner variables
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Table 4 continued
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Table 5: Pressing variables and initial test results
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Table 5 continued
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Figure 8: An example of a typical press cycle used for the manufacture of Hybrid Panels. 15 secs/mm, 200C platen temperature.
Figure 9: An example of a typical press cycle used for the manufacture of Hybrid Panels. 20 secs/mm, 200C platen temperature.
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Figure 10: An example of a typical press cycle used for the manufacture of Hybrid Panels. 22.5 secs/mm, 200C platen temperature.
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Figure 15: An example of a typical press cycle used for the manufacture of FibreBoard. 23 secs/mm, 190C platen temperature.
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Figure 16: An example of a density profile of a panel with high precure on the surface..
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APPENDIX 6: Cement bonded sludge board

Mizi Fan Centre for Timber Technology and Construction, BRE.
1 Introduction
Paper sludge is a waste product that is produced as part of the paper manufacturing and recycling process. Primary sludge is produced as a result of removing suspended solids from mill effluent, whilst secondary sludge is generated from the deinking process. A medium sized mill can generate 40 ovendry tones of sludge per day. The sludge is composed of fibre (typically about 60% on a dry weight basis) and ash (typically 25%), the remained being acidinsoluble organics. Paper sludge has high water content. Most mills have mechanical dewatering devices such as belt presses, clarifiers or screw presses that will thicken the wet sludge to 20%-40% solids. Obviously reducing the minimum water content further would be beneficial for transport (weight and volume) issues. Technology in this area has been developing and a new direct fired rotary drum dryer can take the sludge to 95% solids. Traditionally the sludge is assigned to landfill or burned, the waste problem has been exacerbated due to the exponential increase in paper recycling and the introduction of landfill taxes. There is a great need to find practical applications for the waste sludge. Processing the waste as a whole or utilising its components, to produce high value products, is attractive both in terms of product revenue and the avoidance of disposal costs. The addition of raw primary sludge, rich in cellulose fibres, to a reinforced Portland cement matrix would be of benefit to both the pulp and paper industries and the wood - cement composite manufacturers. This would lessen additional sludge treatments and related costs and reduce the dependency on current disposal options such as incineration, land filling, and water dumping.
2 Materials
2.1 Paper sludge Fresh samples of pulp slurry were supplied by Bridgewater Ltd. On receipt each sample was visually inspected using a dissecting microscope of times 60 and 100 magnification. All samples showed a high content of fillers with the fibres encrusted within together with some very fine particles of ink/dyes. The chemical composition of the sludge is given in Tables 1 and 2, and the inorganic contents of the sludge in given in Table 3. Table 1 Chemical composition of paper sludge Composition Moisture Content Dichloromethane Extractives Toluene/IMS/ Acetone Extractives Hot water Soluble pH of above Ash 525C Ash 900C Holocellulose Klason Lignin % Oven Dry Pulp Slurry 83.02 4.39 4.95 4.80 8.40 53.90 43.52 36.33 19.30
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Table 2 Inorganic constituents of paper sludge (ppm) Inorganic Ag Al As Ca Cd Cr Cu Fe K Mg Mn Na Ni P Pb Si Zn Table 3 Composition as dry solids Material Fibre CaCO3 Clay and other Content (%) 40 51 9 525C 0 3574 0 6010 0 7 9 301 248 1200 40 871 2 8 5 3501 108 900C 0 20471 0 5678 1 11 92 832 762 2224 47 1360 10 95 7 35027 23
The length of fibre in the sludge is given in Table 4. It can be seen that the fibre in the sludge is short and fine. Table 4 Bauer Mcnett fibre length analysis Screen size (mesh) 14 20 35 150 <150 2.2 Cement Ordinary Portland cement was purchased from a standard supplier Opening (mm) 1.19 0.841 0.42 0.105 <0.105 Fibre Fraction retained (%) 15.6 12.45 16.45 18.95 36.55
3 Experimental methods
3.1 Hydration analysis If the combination of pulp sludge with Portland cement is chemically and physically compatible, the intrinsic physical and mechanical properties (fibre strength) of sludge fibres could favourably impact the cement matrix. The addition of sludge to cement could minimise cracking, and reduce density of the product. However, prior to any product development, this compatibility of sludge with cement must be evaluated.
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The hydration study was carried out by hydrating 200g of sludge and cement combined with water. Four different water:cement ratios were used. They are: 0.30, 0.40, 0.50, 0.60 The sludge:cement ratios studied are: 5% 15% 25% which is equal to percentage of wood chips in cement bonded particleboard. The sludge and cement components were weighed and water volume measured to meet the above ratio requirements, taking into account sludge water content. An electric mixer was used to reduce the size of sludge fibre prior to adding cement. The appropriate amount of water was stirred into the cement:sludge mixture for up to 5 minutes. A thermocouple wire was inserted into the mix and the plastic bag was closed and placed into a nalgene Dewar flask and sealed. The thermocouple wire was then connected to an analogue digital board connected to a computer. A software program was written to read the digitised temperature and stored them on a disk. Experiments were conducted in room conditions of 20C/65% relative humidity. For a comparison, a group of cement and virgin wood fibre hydrations were carried out in parallel. Specific hydration characteristics such as hydration curves, maximum hydration temperatures and time to maximum hydration temperature were studied. 3.2 Panel manufacture Cement sludge boards were fabricated, with a dimension of 700x700x15 mm. The ratio of water to cement was chosen from the hydration test results, namely X. The sludge contents for the cement sludge board and cement sludge /wood chips board are given in Table 5. The experimental procedure followed the processing study described by author previously (Fan, 1997). Table 5 Percentage of sludge for cement bonded sludge board Cement sludge board Panel code Sludge content (%) 1A 10 2A 20 2 30 3A 40 4A 50 Cement sludge/wood chips board Panel code Sludge content (%) 1 0 2 30 3 20 4 10
Wood chip (%) 30 0 20 20
Tests were carried out in accordance relevant EN standards including: EN633: Cement-bonded particleboards-Definition and classification EN634-1: Cement-bonded particleboards-Specification: Part 1 General requirements EN634-2: Cement-bonded particleboards-Specification: Part 2 Requirements for OPC bonded particleboards for use in dry, humid and exterior conditions.
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4 Results and discussion

4.1 Hydration analysis Examples of hydration heat curves are given in Figures 1-4. The summarised results are given in Table 6. It is evident that the exothermic hydration behaviour of Portland cement pastes is related to both water:cement ratio and percentage of sludge. Different sludge content requires different water:cement ratio to achieve a best hydration process. As shown in Table 6, for both 5% and 15% sludge content pastes, the mixture requires 0.3 water:cement ratio, for 25% sludge paste requires 0.5 water:cement ratio.
Time Vs Temp
70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 0 10 20 30 Time (hr) 40 50 60 0.3/5% 0.4/5%
Figure 11 Hydration behaviour for 5% sludge paste with 0.3 and 0.4 water:cement ratio
Temp (degrees)
Time Vs Temp
60 Temp (degrees) 50 40 30 20 10 0 0 20 40 Time (hr)
Figure 2 Hydration behaviour for 5% sludge paste with 0.5 and 0.6 water:cement ratio
0.5/5% 0.6/5%
60
80
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Time Vs Temp
40 35 30 25 20 15 10 5 0 0 10 20 30 40 50 Time (hr)
Temp (degrees)
0.3/15% 0.4/15%
Figure 3 Hydration behaviour of 15% sludge paste with 0.3 and 0.4 water:cement ratio
Time Vs Temp
50 Temp (degrees) 40 30 20 10 0 0 10 20 30 40 50 Time (hr) 0.5/15% 0.6/15%
Figure 4 Hydration behaviour of 15% sludge paste with 0.5 and 0.6 water:cement ratio Table 5 Summarised hydration behaviour for various compositions
Time to Water:Cement/ Temp/Time Water (g) Cement (g) Sludge (g) Temp (0C) Max Temp Sludge% 62.1 11 5.65 0.3/5 28.5 95 5 56.3 10 5.63 0.4/5 38 95 5 52.1 11 4.74 0.5/5 47.5 95 5 48.9 11.5 4.25 0.6/5 57 95 5 36.8 12.5 2.94 0.3/15 25.5 85 15 34.3 12 2.86 0.4/15 34 85 15 40.4 15 2.69 0.5/15 42.5 85 15 37.7 14 2.69 0.6/15 51 85 15 26.6 18.5 1.44 0.3/25 22.5 75 25 25.6 16.5 1.55 0.4/25 30 75 25 34.3 18.5 1.85 0.5/25 37.5 75 25 30.9 20 1.55 0.6/25 45 75 25
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A comparison test has also been carried out to examine the behaviour between sludge paste, neat cement paste and virgin wood fibre paste. The results are given in Figures 5-7, and Table 6. As shown in Figure 5, in general, all sludge:cement mixtures exhibited exothermic behaviour similar to that of the neat cement in several ways: a rapid temperature rise of 1 to 2C in the first fifteen to twenty minutes is followed by a dormant period lasting five hours. Major exothermic reactions follow and peak after ten to fourteen hours and conclude with a decelerating reaction rate. However, all sludge cement pastes show a retardant behaviour compared to neat cement paste. A comparison of the behaviour between sludge cement paste and virgin wood fibre cement paste shows that the sludge had a better compatibility than virgin wood fibre, as seen in Figures 6 and 7.
Temp C 100 80 60 40 20 0 0 4
Hydration temperature
12
16
20
24
28
Time (hour)
20%sludge (wt) cement
Figure 5 Comparison of hydration behaviour between neat cement paste and sludge cement paste
MHT Wood fibre compared to sludge (25%) 40 35 Temperature (0) 30 25 20 15 10 5 0 0 6 12
Sludge wood fibre
18
24
30
36
42
48
Time (hour)
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Figure 6 Comparison of hydration behaviour of wood fibre and sludge pastes (25%)
MHT Wood fibre compared to sludge (5%) 35 30 Temperature (0) 25 20 15 10 5 0 0 6 12 18 24 30 36 42 48 Time (hour) Sludge Wood fibre
Figure 7 Comparison of wood fibre and sludge cement paste (5%)
Table 6 Summarised results of comparison tests
0.3/5 Sludge Fibre
Temp ( C) 30.5 27.3
Time to Temp/Time Max Temp 18.5 1.6 21.5 1.3
0.3/15 Sludge Fibre
Temp ( C) 26.6 25.6
Time to Temp/Time Max Temp 19.5 1.4 19 1.3
0.5/25 Sludge Fibre
Temp ( C)
Time to Temp/Time Max Temp 33.6 18.5 1.8 31 17.5 1.8

0
4.2 Cement bonded sludge boards and cement bonded sludge and wood chip boards The test results for the composites made by using paper sludge are summarised in Tables 7 and 8, and Figures 7-10. As expected, with the percentage of sludge increases, MOR, MOE and IB decrease. In considering both maximum percentage of sludge and property requirements by relevant standards, 30% sludge content
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or 20% sludge plus 20% wood chips cement are considered as most appropriate compositions for the manufacture. Therefore, these levels were used for verification production. Table 7 Summarised results of cement sludge board
Sludge (%) Specimen 1A 2A 2 3A 4A 10 20 30 40 50 EN
Density (kg/m3) 1868 1654 1618 1520 1416 >1000
TS (%) 0.5 0.2 0.8 0.5 0.2 1.5
IB (N/mm2) 2.7 2.0 1.0 0.7 0.8 0.5
MOE (kN/mm2) 60.0 42.3 8.1 4.2 4.0 4.5
MOR (N/mm2) 42.3 39.5 13.2 7.2 13.4 9.0
Table 8 Summarised results of cement sludge/particleboard
Specimen 1 2 3 4
Wood chip Sludge (%) 30W 30S 20W+20S 20W+10S EN
Density (kg/m3) 1464 1618 1400 1041 >1000
TS (%) 0.7 0.8 0.5 1.0 1.5
IB MOE MOR (N/mm2) (kN/mm2) (N/mm2) 0.9 1.0 0.8 1.2 0.5 8.6 8.1 9.8 8.0 4.5 18.0 13.2 18.6 12.6 9.0
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Figure 7 Thickness swelling of cement sludge board
MOR (MPa), MOE (GPa)
80 60 40 20 0 MOE (kN/mm2) MOR (N/mm2) Property 10 20 30 40 50 EN
Figure 8 MOR and MOE of cement sludge board
2 2 TS (%) 1 1 0 TS (%) Property
30W 30S 20W+20S 20W+10S EN
Figure 9 Thickness swelling of cement sludge particleboard
MOR (MPa), MOE (GPa)
20 15 10 5 0 MOE (kN/mm2) MOR (N/mm2) 30W 30S 20W+20S 20W+10S EN
Property
Figure 10 MOR and MOE of cement sludge particleboard
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4.3 Verification production The results of sludge boards from the verification production are given in Tables 9 and 10. Samples of cement sludge boards are given in Figure 11. It can be seen that the properties of the composites made exceed the requirements by the relevant standards. Table 9 Test results of verification production (30% sludge)
Density (kg/m3) No. test pieces Cement sludge board CBPB Property cov (%) 48 1618 5.8 >1000 IB (N/mm2) 48 1 7.3 >0.5 MOR (N/mm2) 36 11.9 15.8 >9 MOE (N/mm2) 36 10882 19.3 4000, 4500 TS (%) AF321 48 0.58 21 <1.5 IB (N/mm2) AF321 48 0.37 7.2 >0.3
TS (%) 48 0.8 12.5 <1.5
Table 10 Test results of verification production (20% sludge + 20% wood chip)
Density (kg/m3) No. test pieces Cement sludge board CBPB Property cov (%) 48 1455 5.7 >1000 IB (N/mm2) 48 0.9 9.3 >0.5 MOR (N/mm2) 48 15.5 15.5 >9 MOE (N/mm2) 48 14146 19 4000, 4500 TS (%) AF321 48 0.4 29 <1.5 IB (N/mm2) AF321 48 0.5 7.2 >0.3
TS (%) 48 0.7 15.5 <1.5
Figure 11 Cement bonded sludge boards
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5 Conclusions
Sludge had a better compatibility with cement compared to virgin wood fibre used. All sludge cement paste showed retardant during hydration process as virgin wood fibre. The trend of exothermic behaviour was similar between neat cement paste, sludge cement paste and virgin wood cement paste. The property of cement sludge board decreased with the percentage of sludge increased. Sludge can be used to partly replace both cement and wood chips for the production of cement bonded particleboard. Qualified cement sludge board can be made with 30% sludge which is equal to the percentage of wood chips for the production of cement bonded particleboard.
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6 References
Bonfield P and Fan M. 2000. What can the wood-based panels sector learn from the synthetic composites industry? Proceedings of the fourth European panel products symposium. pp 5-25. Corbman B.P. 1975. Textiles, Fibre to Fabric. Fifth edition. Mcgraw Hill, Inc. New York. Fan M. 1997. Dimensional instability of cement bonded particleboard. PhD thesis. University of Wales. Maloney, T.M. 1977. Modern particleboard and dry-process fiberboard manufacturing. Miller Freeman Publication, San Francisco, CA. BSEN310: 1993. Wood based panels. Determination of modulus of elasticity in bending and of bending strength BSEN323: 1993. Wood based panels. Determination of density BSEN300: 1997. Oriented strand boards (OSB). Definitions, classification and specifications BSEN1058: 1996 Wood based panels. Determination of characteristic values of mechanical properties and density. BSEN319: 1993 Particleboard and fibreboards. Determination of tensile strength perpendicular to the plane of the board.
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APPENDIX 7: Tile
The technical data of the pilot plant trials are presented below: Table 1: Process variables
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Figure 1: An example of a typical press cycle used for the manufacture of Tiles 26 secs/mm, 200C platen temperature.
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127
APPENDIX 8: Low Density Concrete Blocks, Part 1: A Feasibility study

Executive Summary
A combination of marketing and product development tasks will identify, specify and prototype 6 products that could utilise papermill sludge as a base material for construction market applications. The market study conducted aims to identify market requirements for new products and will be used to prioritise the development of the prototype products. The Biocomposites Centre and Building Research Establishment Ltd (BRE) are conducting the development work, and potential products will be selected and submitted for indicative testing. This report is concerned with the technical issues in relation to the use of the sludge in masonry unit and rendering materials. It covers both the general implications and conditions necessary for the use of papermill sludge in masonry unit products and specific technical implications for concrete blocks, fired clay products, partition blocks and rendering and plastering mixes.
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1 General Introduction
A combination of marketing and product development tasks will identify, specify and prototype 6 products that could utilise papermill sludge as a base material for construction market applications. The market study aims to identify market requirements for new product types using technical and commercial information. The outcomes of this study will be used to prioritise the development of 6 prototype products. The Biocomposites Centre and Building Research Establishment Ltd (BRE) will conduct this development phase. Out of the 6 potential products, 3 close to market prototypes will be selected and submitted for indicative testing to establish suitability for product approval. Likely fast track candidate products will be promoted as part of the PR activities in the project.
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This report is concerned with the technical issues related to the use of papermill sludge in masonry units and rendering materials such as concrete blocks and clay bricks. The general implications and conditions necessary for its use in masonry products are summarised in Table1 below and the specialised technical implications are discussed in subsequent sections. Table 1. General benefits of sludge recycling Direct implication of addition Reduction of material cost Reduction of gross production cost
Recycling of a zero value material Reduction of methane (greenhouse gas) from landfill Saving in requirements for landfill and tax None for successful implementation Saving in the requirements to mine conventional None for successful implementation aggregates, clays etc. Saving of energy consumption (fired clay) Provided a suitable furnace programme can be developed to exploit the organic content
Conditions Provided the cost of the sludge is only nominal and transport range is not too great Provided the addition does not increase processing costs significantly None for successful implementation None for successful implementation
It should be noted that the following tables covering individual product types contain only the key evaluation criteria necessary for checking that a viable product can be produced. Should the product/s eventually proceed to full marketing stage, some additional product type test data would be needed.
1.1
Introduction
Whenever a new ingredient is added to an existing product, implications for the production process and the final product performance need to be considered. Many of the implications can be assessed at a desk-top level based on basic information about the new ingredient. Some process implications can only be judged through production trials and some effects on the performance of the product can only be evaluated on prototype products.
1.2
Ideal data requirements for the raw paper sludge material
In order to assess the impact of the addition of papermill sludge on the performance of derived products, knowledge of certain data or their measurement needs to be carried out on the sludge. Such data will enable a preliminary assessment of any significant effects on production processes, plasticity, product density, effects on colour and effects on durability. This data includes: Minimum particle size Maximum particle size Particle shape Net density of solid matter Content of cellulose based particulates Content of silica derived from wood processing Content of insoluble inorganic compounds such as whiteners and paper surface modifiers such as Calcium carbonate or others Content of pigments derived from coloured papers or from inks Content of any unbleached dyes Content of any ionic water soluble compounds from paper or from processing Content of any water soluble organic compounds Content of any organic solids or liquids not soluble in water suspended in the sludge Content of any volatile organic compounds (VOCs) which could affect air quality if used for internal finishes of occupied buildings. Appendix A presents data available-to-date from the chemical analysis carried out by the Biocomposites Centre.
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1.3
Implications for the addition to concrete unit products
In concrete products, the addition of papermill sludge will mainly constitute a lightweight semi-structural filler additive. The components of the additive will be chemically modified during the mixing and casting production process and subsequent, hardening, curing and long term usage of the product. Chemicals from the sludge may affect the production process and ultimate durability of the units. The water content of the sludge will have to be limited to the amount required in the production process by pre-processing as necessary. The implications together with some guidance on the test programme are covered in the following table, Table 2. Table 2. Implications of adding papermill sludge to concrete block products Direct implication of addition to concrete Modification of the overall composition Modification of the overall composition inc. water Introduction of organic/inorganic impurities Increase in the content of organic matter to over 1% Possible consequent performance implications Colour change Possible evaluation test Visual
May change process behaviour By production trials / calculation of concrete mix Effect on set of hydraulic binder By production trials Reaction to fire must be classified by test Determination of the heat of combustion. Bomb calorimeter test to BS EN \SO 1716 leading to classification in accordance with BS EN 13051-1. Reduction of compressive pr HEN 771-3 Aggregate Concrete Units + strength of unit BS EN 772-1:2000 Determination of compressive strength Change of flexural strength of pr HEN 771-3 Aggregate Concrete Units unit prEN 772-6 Determination of bending tensile strength of concrete masonry units. Increase in moisture movement pr HEN 771-3 Aggregate Concrete Units +prEN 772-14 Determination of moisture movement of aggregate concrete masonry units Increased susceptibility to RILEM LUM B4 Creep and shrinkage of creep masonry assemblages Increase of thermal resistance EN 1745: Masonry and masonry products Methods for determining design thermal values BS EN 772-13:2000 Determination of net and gross dry density of masonry units. Eventually: Acoustic test data for appropriate test structures BS EN 772-13:2000 Determination of net and gross dry density of masonry units. prEN 772-22 Determination of freeze-thaw resistance of clay masonry units Accelerated durability test
Replacement of hard inorganic aggregates by cellulose Replacement of hard inorganic aggregates by cellulose Replacement of inert inorganic aggregates by cellulose Replacement of inert inorganic aggregates by cellulose Reduction of material density
Reduction of material density
Decrease of resistance to airborne sound transmission
Reduction of gross density and hence weight Replacement of inert inorganic aggregates by cellulose Introduction of ionic impurities
May reduce weight to comply with 20kg limit for one-handed working. Reduction of durability
Reduction of durability
1.4
Implications for the addition to fired clay unit products
In clay products, the addition of papermill sludge will mainly constitute a lightweight semi-structural filler additive to the plastic clay body before the primary production process of either extrusion, pressing or moulding is carried out. At this stage, the additive may alter the flow characteristics of the material and the behaviour of the green (unfired) units by changing its shape stability and drying rate. Also, firing behaviour may be affected in respect of oxidation rate, burn-out of organic content, sintering rate and colour. Most of
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these processes would have to be evaluated by production trials on realistic plant at a co-operating company. After firing, the organic matter is likely to have been destroyed with a consequent affect on porosity, density, strength, water absorption, frost resistance and general durability. The production process would have to be monitored carefully to try to avoid blackhearting: perforated units might be necessary to ensure through-body oxidation. The initial performance evaluation of the products could be carried out at BRE. The aim would be to produce units with a clay body with similar performance characteristics to Poroton which is a lightweight, high porosity product used widely in continental Europe. Figure 1 below shows some typical Poroton-based highly-perforated structural block units produced in South Germany. In Table 3 the possible outcome of the addition is stated, based on a background knowledge of the behaviour of materials. A typical example is that reductions of density will normally reduce sound insulation and improve thermal insulation performance. However, the effects will ultimately have to be judged on prototype products.
Figure 1. Typical multi-perforated clay blocks made using the poroton system The implications together with some guidance on the test programme are covered in Table 3.
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Table 3. Implications of adding papermill sludge to fired clay products (bricks or blocks) Direct implication of addition Possible consequent Possible evaluation test or to clay process performance implications calculation Modification of the overall Colour / texture change Visual composition Introduction of ionic impurities May change process behaviour of By production trials / calculation and water content of sludge clay Introduction of organic impurities May change process behaviour of By production trials clay Introduction of ionic impurities May increase soluble salts content of Pr HEN 771-1 Clay units + EN 772-5 unit Determination of active soluble salts content of clay masonry units Increase in the content of Will require change of furnace By production firing trials organic matter in unfired units program to ensure oxidation Increase in the content of Energy from oxidation could reduce By production firing trials organic matter in unfired units fuel consumption of process Replacement of clay by cellulose Reduction of compressive strength Pr HEN 771-1 Clay units + BS EN 772increases porosity of fired unit 1:2000 Determination of compressive strength Replacement of clay by cellulose Change of flexural strength of BS EN 1052-2:1999 Methods of test for increases porosity of unit masonry made with unit masonry Determination of flexural strength Replacement of clay by cellulose Modification of frost durability. This Pr HEN 771-1 Clay units + prEN 772-22 increases porosity of unit property is complex and the effect Determination of freeze-thaw could be either way. resistance of clay masonry units Reduction of material density Increase of thermal resistance BS EN 1745:2002 Masonry and masonry products - Methods for determining design thermal values Reduction of material density Decrease of resistance to airborne BS EN 772-13:2000 Determination of sound transmission net and gross dry density of masonry units Eventually acoustic test data for appropriate test structures Reduction of gross density and May reduce weight to comply with Pr HEN 771-1 Clay units + BS EN 772hence weight 20kg limit for one-handed working. 13:2000 Determination of net and gross dry density of masonry units.
1.5
Implications for the addition to interior partition blockwork
Concrete based partition blocks used internally are normally the same product as that used for external walls, therefore, the requirements in section 2 and Table 2 would apply. The movement and durability requirements for interior applications would however be less demanding. The other common type of partition block is cast from gypsum plaster. This type could be modified by addition of the papermill sludge by-product provided the sludge does not contain volatile organic compounds (VOCs) which could affect the internal air quality and occupants health. In gypsum plaster based products, the addition of papermill sludge will mainly constitute a lightweight semi-structural filler additive. The components of the additive will be chemically modified during the mixing and casting production process and subsequent, hardening, curing and long term usage of the product. Chemicals from the sludge may affect the production process and subsequent durability of the mortar. The implications together with some guidance on the test programme are covered in Table 4. Currently no British Standard (or BS EN standard) appears to be listed for Gypsum blocks although they are used in Continental Europe. Thus tests would have to be based on relevant standards for similar concretebased units. Table 4 below gives some possible tests.
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Table 4. Implications of adding papermill sludge to gypsum-based partition blocks Direct implication of addition to concrete Modification of the overall composition Modification of the overall composition and water content Introduction of organic/inorganic impurities Increase in the content of organic matter to over 1% Possible consequent performance implications Colour change May change behaviour of mix, eg. flow and consistence Effect on set of gypsum binder Reaction to fire / surface spread of flame must be classified by test Reduction of compressive strength of unit Change of flexural strength of unit Increase in moisture movement which could affect the likelihood of cracking Increased susceptibility to creep Increase of thermal resistance Possible evaluation test Visual By production trials / calculation
By production trials Determination of the heat of combustion. Bomb calorimeter test to BS EN \SO 1716 leading to classification in accordance with BS EN 13051-1. BS EN 772-1:2000 Determination of compressive strength prEN 772-6 Determination of bending tensile strength of concrete masonry units. prEN 772-14 Determination of moisture movement of aggregate concrete masonry units ? RILEM LUM B4 Creep and shrinkage of masonry assemblages EN 1745: Masonry and masonry products Methods for determining design thermal values Calculate density from dimensions and mass. Acoustic test data for appropriate test structures Weigh units and determine the weight per unit or per unit area. Accelerated durability test
Replacement of hard inorganic aggregates by cellulose Replacement of hard inorganic aggregates by cellulose Replacement of inert inorganic aggregates by cellulose Replacement of inert inorganic aggregates by cellulose Reduction of material density
Reduction of material density
Decrease of resistance to airborne sound transmission May reduce weight to comply with 20kg limit for one-handed working. Reduction of durability
Reduction of gross density and hence weight Replacement of inert inorganic aggregates by cellulose Introduction of ionic impurities
Reduction of durability
Accelerated durability test
1.6 Implications of paper sludge addition to rendering and plastering products

In cement or gypsum based mortar / plaster products, the addition of papermill sludge will mainly constitute a lightweight semi-structural filler additive. The components of the additive will be chemically modified during the mixing and casting production process and subsequent, hardening, curing and long term usage of the product. Chemicals from the sludge may affect the production process and subsequent durability of the mortar. The implications together with some guidance on the test programme are covered in Table 5.
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Table 5. Implications of adding papermill sludge to rendering and plastering products Direct implication of addition to concrete Modification of the overall composition Modification of the overall composition and water content Possible consequent performance implications Colour change May change behaviour of mix eg. Flow & consistence Possible evaluation test Visual
Introduction of organic/inorganic impurities Increase in the content of organic matter to over 1%
Replacement of hard inorganic aggregates by cellulose
Replacement of hard inorganic aggregates by cellulose
Replacement of inert inorganic aggregates by cellulose Replacement of inert inorganic aggregates by cellulose Reduction of material density
Reduction of material density Replacement of inert inorganic aggregates by cellulose Introduction of VOCs from the added sludge Replacement of inert inorganic aggregates by cellulose Introduction of ionic impurities
By production trials together with BS EN 1015-3:1999: Determination of consistence of fresh mortar (by flow table) and BS EN 1015-4:1999: Determination of consistence of fresh mortar (by plunger penetration) Effect on set of hydraulic binder By production trials together with BS EN (cement or gypsum) 1015-9:1999 Determination of workable life and correction time of fresh mortar Reaction to fire / surface Determination of the heat of combustion. spread of flame must be Bomb calorimeter test to BS EN \SO 1716 classified by test leading to classification in accordance with BS EN 13051-1. Reduction of compressive prEN 998-1:2000, Specification for Mortar strength of material. for masonry Part 1: Rendering and plastering mortar. BS EN 101511:1999:Determination of flexural and compressive strength of hardened mortar Possible reduction of tensile BS EN 998-1 prEN 772-6 Determination of strength of plaster coatings bending tensile strength of concrete which affects crack resistance: masonry units. Relevant data from BS EN May be offset by reduction in 1015-11:1999. (Direct tensile test may also elastic modulus be necessary. Not in std.) Increase in moisture movement BS EN 771-3 Aggregate Concrete Units which will affect likelihood of +prEN 772-14 Determination of moisture cracking. movement of aggregate concrete masonry units May affect the adhesion (bond) prEN 998-1:2000, BS EN 1015strength to the substrate 12:1999:Determination of adhesive strength of rendering and plastering mortars on substrates Increase of thermal resistance EN 1745: Masonry and masonry products Methods for determining design thermal values Decrease of resistance to BS EN 1015-6:1999: Determination of bulk airborne sound transmission density of fresh mortar. Reduces weight of finishes and Determine dimensions by measurement and thus the gross weight of the mass by weighing. wall system Affect of use as an internal Analysis of original sludge and/or air finish on internal air quality sampling and analysis. Reduction of durability BS EN 1015-14:1999: Determination of durability of hardened mortar Reduction of durability Accelerated durability test
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2 Outline programme of work on masonry products

Assemble data from extant sources on the composition of the sludge and possible variations depending on the raw material and the recycling process. Assess any implications resulting from the known composition. Use chemical analysis to check typical samples for any further components. Establish a liaison with suitable industrial partners in the field Devise production trials to evaluate the feasibility in relation to the production processes If the production process proves successful then measure key performance criteria for the prototype units to establish their properties. (eg. density, strength, handleabiity) IF full commercial production is contemplated then carry out full type tests for a minimum range of properties to check that they are able to comply with standards and Codes. Alternatively certify the products via the Agrment route.
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3 References
3.1 Materials standards
Pr HEN 771-1: (2002) Clay units Pr HEN 771-3: (2002) Aggregate Concrete Units BS EN 1745:2002 Masonry and Masonry products- Methods for determining design thermal values prEN 998-1:2000, Specification for Mortar for masonry Part 1: Rendering and plastering mortar.
3.2
Methods of test for masonry units and assemblages
BS EN 772-1:2000:Determination of compressive strength BS EN 772-2:1998:Determination of percentage area of voids in aggregate concrete masonry units (by paper indentation) BS EN 772-3:1998:Determination of net volume and percentage area of voids of clay masonry units by hydrostatic weighing pr EN 772-5:Determination of active soluble salts content of clay masonry units prEN 772-6:Methods of test for masonry units Determination of bending tensile strength of concrete masonry units. BS EN 772-7:1998:Determination of water absorption of clay masonry damp course units by boiling in water BS EN 772-11:2000 :Methods of test for masonry units Determination of water absorption of clay, aggregate concrete, autoclaved aerated concrete, manufactured stone and natural stone masonry units due to capillary action BS EN 772-13:2000:Determination of net and gross dry density of masonry units (except for natural stone) prEN 772-14:Methods of test for masonry units Determination of moisture movement of aggregate concrete masonry units BS EN 772-16:2000:Determination of dimensions BS EN 772-19:2000:Determination of moisture expansion of large horizontally-perforated clay masonry units BS EN 772-20:2000:Methods of test for masonry units Determination of flatness of faces aggregate concrete manufactured stone and natural stone masonry units prEN 772-22:Determination of freeze-thaw resistance of clay masonry units RILEM LUM B4 Creep and shrinkage of masonry assemblages, RILEM Technical recommendations for the testing and use of construction materials, E&F Spon, London, 1991
3.3
BS BS BS BS BS BS BS EN EN EN EN EN EN EN
Methods of test for masonry rendering and plastering mixes

1015-3:1999: Determination of consistence of fresh mortar (by flow table) 1015-4:1999: Determination of consistence of fresh mortar (by plunger penetration 1015-9:1999:Determination of workable life and correction time of fresh mortar 1015-11:1999: Determination of flexural and compressive strength of hardened mortar 1015-12:1999:Determination of adhesive strength of rendering and plastering mortars on substrates 1015-6:1999:Determination of bulk density of fresh mortar 1015-14:1999:Determination of durability of hardened mortar
(Note: Existing British Standard tests may be substituted in the short term)
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ANNEX ii Chemical analysis data available to-date from the Biocomposites Centre
Bridgewater Sludge analysis as carried out Sample 1 2 3 Moisture (%) DCM Tol:IMS:AC Ash535 Ash900 Moisture % 64.83 66.85 DCM 4.3 5.4 4.8 Tol:IMS:Ac 6.28 5.99 6.29 Ash 535 53.2 53.18 51.42 Ash 900 42.8 43.4 41.1
The moisture content of sample based on dry weight Dichloromethane extractive content(%). Soxhlet reflux of samples of sludge Toluene: IMS: Acetone (4:1:1) extractive content (%) refluxed as above Ash content(%) after firing at 535C Ashcontent(%)after firing at 900'C
Content of solid matter attributed on the basis of the analysis as above. Sample Lignin Holo Ash (in Holo) 1 35.9 62.6 42.2 2 35.2 61.9 39.5 3 36.9 62.7 42.1 Lignin(%) Holo(%) Ash in Holo (%) Fibre length (mm)
Fibre length 0.42 0.42 0.42
Amount of lignin in the sample Amount of Holocellulose (hemicellulose & cellulose) Ash level remaining in the holocellulose fraction Kajaani fibre length analysis of sludge fibre fraction (This may be inaccurate due to problems with the equipment)
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Appendix 8: Cement block Part 2: Development work

Executive Summary
An integrated combination of marketing and product development tasks will identify, specify and prototype a series of 6 products that will utilise paper mill sludge as a base material for construction market applications. The market study will assimilate technical and commercial information from potential end-users to identify market requirements for new panel type products. Information will be collected through market introductions and visits to potential customers. The outcomes of this market study will be used to prioritise the development of 6 prototype products. The BioComposites Centre and Building Research Establishment Ltd (BRE) will conduct this development phase. Out of the 6 potential products, 3 close to market prototypes will be selected and submitted for indicative testing to establish suitability for product approval. Likely fast track candidate products will be launched via exhibitions, advertising and PR activities in year 1. This report is concerned with the technical issues in relation to the use of the sludge as an additive in concrete masonry unit products. In an earlier report several issues were raised which would have to be addressed before even a factory trial of the additive could be contemplated. These were mainly process plant issues and the predominant concern was the potential retardation effect of the organic compounds within the sludge. This programme of work is aimed at evaluating these issues.
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1 Introduction
An integrated combination of marketing and product development tasks will identify, specify and prototype a series of 6 products that will utilise paper mill sludge as a base material for construction market applications. The market study will assimilate technical and commercial information from potential end-users to identify market requirements for new panel type products. Information will be collected through market introductions and visits to potential customers. The outcomes of this market study will be used to prioritise the development of 6 prototype products. The Biocomposites Centre and Building Research Establishment Ltd (BRE) will conduct this development phase. Out of the 6 potential products, 3 close to market prototypes will be selected and submitted for indicative testing to establish suitability for product approval. Likely fast track candidate products will be launched via exhibitions, advertising and PR activities in year 1. This report is concerned with the technical issues in relation to the use of the sludge as an additive in concrete masonry unit products. In an earlier report several issues were raised which would have to be addressed before even a factory trial of the additive could be contemplated. These were mainly process plant issues and the predominant concern was the potential retardation effect of the organic compounds within the sludge. This programme of work is aimed at evaluating these issues.
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2 Programme and tests

2.1 Programme
To simplify the laboratory process, no attempt has been made to emulate normal block production processes. A 1:3 ordinary Portland cement: sand mortar has been used as the basis from which prisms have been cast for strength tests over time. On the day of mixing, the plunger penetration test (EN1015-4) has been used to evaluate stiffening rate of mixes. The original programme envisaged the use of 5% and 10% addition of dried sludge by weight of the dry mortar ingredients. In the event some difficulty has been experienced even at the 5% level so the programme has been revised to the range up to 5% sludge. The following tests are being used: Plunger penetration consistence test to BS EN1015-4:1999. Flexural strength test on mortar prisms (EN1015-11:1999 ) @ 1,3,7,14 and 28 days. Cube compressive strength test on mortar prism halves (EN1015-11:1999)@ 1,3,7,14 and 28 days. Moisture content of cured prisms @ 14 days age. Density of cured prisms @ 14 days age. The mixes produced are listed in Table 1. Table 1. Mixes used by dry weight (g) Mix ref. No. CV0085/R/1 CV0085/R/2 CV0085/R/3 CV0085/R/4 Cement trial by Vol. 2175 2175 2175 Sand (dry) 6586 6586 6586 Total water 2501 1751 1751 Sludge 486 (5%) 0 (0%) 243 (2.5%) Ratio opc:sand 3.02 3.02 3.02 W/C ratio 1.15 0.81 0.81
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Results
3.1 Mixing observations
Mixing was carried out in a rotating pan mixer shown in Figure A.1 in appendix 1. This gives an efficient high-shear mixing action. The straight opc sand (mix CV0085/R/3) and the earlier trial mix by volume (mix CV0085/R/1) made acceptably plastic and readily castable mixes with no addition of any plasticizing agent using a soft fine sand. At 5% addition of sludge the water demand of the sludge was such that the added water (over that already present in the sand) was nearly double that of the straight mix. Additionally, even at the increased water content, the plasticity of the mix was reduced apropos the straight mix. The higher W/C ratio means that the strength of the material is reduced significantly. At 2.5% sludge level the water addition was constrained to that of the straight mix. An air entraining agent was added to try to improve the plasticity but this has very little tangible effect because the sludge appears to take the water out of the mix and prevents a cohesive body being formed. Under these conditions air entrainers do not really function. The mix had a barely usable plasticity which was just sufficient for casting but would have been unsuitable for use as a mortar. It was intended that the effects of water and sludge on the performance could be evaluated using this mix.
3.2
Consistence on the day of mixing
This test was used to see whether the sludge had any effect on the rate of stiffening of the mortars. A view of the apparatus is shown in Appendix A, Figure A.2. This was hoped to give an early guide on any retardation effect. One result of the sludge addition is, however, that the water demand of the sludge makes it difficult to get comparative values. It is also suspected that the water demand may continue beyond the initial uptake and thus reduce the consistence over time. The measured data is listed in Table 2 and graphs of consistence for the mixes versus time after mixing was halted are given in Figure 1. Figure 2 repeats figure 1 but with the consistence value relative to the zero time result to show the relative degree of change. It should be noted that the trial mix used a different (older) batch of cement which may explain its relatively lower setting rate. There is an indication that a slight retardation was caused by the sludge addition but it is difficult to quantify the effect. Table 2. Mortar stiffness by plunger penetration Time Plunger penetration Elapsed time mean penetration 24 hr clock cm cm cm Minutes cm CV0085/1 Mortar stiffness trial 18/11/03 14.40 3.1 3.7 3.5 0 3.43 14.50 3.5 3.3 2.9 10 3.23 15.00 3.5 2.9 3.3 20 3.23 15.35 2.8 3.1 3 55 2.97 16.15 2.9 2.8 2.7 95 2.8 17.20 2.5 2.7 3 160 2.73 CV0085/2 1:3 cement:sand + 5% sludge 12.00 2.7 2.8 2.7 0 2.73 12.30 2.5 2.5 2.6 30 2.53 14.15 2.3 2.3 2.3 135 2.3 17.14 2 2.1 2.1 314 2.07
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CV0085/3 14.40 15.10 17.20 CV0085/4 11.18 11.48 12.18 14.18
straight 1:3 cement:sand 3.8 3.8 3.5 3.4 2.8 2.6 1:3 cement:sand + 2.5% sludge 2.5 2.5 2 2.2 1.9 2.8 1.6 1.7
3.6 3.2 2.6 2. 2 1.85 1.8
0 30 160 0 30 60 180
3.73 3.37 2.67 2.50 2.07 1.85 1.70
Figure 1. Consistence by plunger penetration versus time
Figure 2. Relative consistence by plunger penetration versus time
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3.3
Strength as a function of time
Both the flexural strength of prisms and the cube compressive strength were measured and the data is recorded in Table 3. Photographs of the test machine, test jigs and specimens are shown in Appendix A, Figures A.3 to A.8 The graph of flexural strength versus time is given in Figure 3 and cube strength versus time in Figure 4. To allow more comparison of the rate of cure an additional graph of compressive strength relative to the 1 day strength is shown in Figure 5. The curing was carried out at 100% humidity and 20C (under wet sacks) for 3 days and thereafter at 20C and 60% RH. A single batch was demoulded at 1 day to measure the initial strength value. All the specimens were demouldable at 1 day indicating that there was no catastrophic retardation effect of the sludge at this addition rate which would prejudice the operation of a concrete plant. It is clear from the data that the specimens dried out at 60% humidity and eventually this caused a reversal of the strength gain seen up to 14 days. Despite the obvious overall reduction in strength resulting from the additions (probably due to cement dilution and density reduction) there was only a subtle indication of retardation from the strength data. The relative cube strength (figure5) suggests a very limited effect while the flexural data is slightly more positive.
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Table 3. Strength test results from prisms CV0085/2 Flexural strength tests - Failure load kN Specimen 1 day 3 day 7 day 14 day 1 0.2 0.54 0.82 1.32 2 0.21 0.51 0.83 1.25 3 0.19 0.49 0.8 1.33 Mean 0.2 0.51 0.82 1.3 CV0085/2 Compressive strength - Failure load kN Specimen day 3 day 7 day 14 day 1a 1.74 5.54 11.94 13.54 1b 1.66 5.6 14.68 13.71 2a 1.62 5.31 10.62 13.95 2b 1.62 5.06 9.34 13.74 3a 1.67 5.11 11.32 14.03 3b 1.55 5.25 10.11 13.58 Mean 1.64 5.31 11.33 13.76 CV0085/3 Flexural strength tests - Failure load kN Specimen 1 day 3 day 7 day 14 day 1 0.26 1.09 0.81 1.71 2 0.34 1.15 1.29 1.41 3 0.39 0.9 1.08 1.77 Mean 0.33 1.05 1.06 1.63 CV0085/3 Compressive strength - Failure load kN Specimen 1 day 3 day 7 day 14 day 1a 3.58 11.19 21.2 30.1 1b 3.5 12.94 24.2 29.9 2a 3.81 11.55 26.5 26.6 2b 3.56 13.45 19.8 32.4 3a 3.76 13.63 24 30.7 3b 3.38 13.01 25.5 32.1 Mean 3.6 12.63 23.53 30.3 CV0085/4 Flexural strength tests - Failure load kN Specimen 1 day 3 day 7 day 14 day 1 0.26 0.76 0.83 1.82 2 0.23 0.85 0.98 1.68 3 0.24 0.81 1.03 1.6 Mean 0.24 0.81 0.95 1.7 CV0085/4 Compressive strength - Failure load kN Specimen 1 day 3 day 7 day 14 day 1a 2.1 7 13.4 17.74 1b 2.23 7.26 14.68 20.94 2a 2.39 7.26 14.66 20.5 2b 2.04 7.81 13.07 18.92 3a 2.24 6.53 14.38 20.07 3b 2.23 7.5 14.4 19.37 Mean 2.21 7.23 14.1 19.59
28 day 1.09 1.14 1.13 1.12 28 day 13.02 11.66 10.29 12.92 12.26 12.2 12.06 28 day 1.96 1.72 1.97 1.88 28 day 28.6 27.7 29.7 28.7 28.2 28.6 28.58 28 day 1.55 1.55 1.58 1.56 28 day 18.88 14.35 16.17 17.53 16.3 16.5 16.62
Flexural modulus of rupture stress N/mm 1 day 3 day 7 day 14 day 28 day 0.47 1.27 1.92 3.09 2.55 0.49 1.2 1.95 2.93 2.67 0.45 1.15 1.87 3.12 2.65 0.47 1.2 1.91 3.05 2.62 Compressive cube crushing strength N/mm 1 day 3 day 7 day 14 day 28 day 1.09 3.46 7.46 8.46 8.14 1.04 3.5 9.18 8.57 7.29 1.01 3.32 6.64 8.72 6.43 1.01 3.16 5.84 8.59 8.07 1.04 3.19 7.08 8.77 7.66 0.97 3.28 6.32 8.49 7.62 1.03 3.32 7.08 8.6 7.54 lexural modulus of rupture stress N/mm 1 day 3 day 7 day 14 day 28 day 0.61 2.55 1.9 4.01 4.59 0.8 2.7 3.02 3.3 4.03 0.91 2.11 2.53 4.15 4.62 0.77 2.45 2.48 3.82 4.41 Compressive cube crushing strength N/mm 1 day 3 day 7 day 14 day 28 day 2.24 6.99 13.25 18.81 17.87 2.19 8.09 15.12 18.69 17.31 2.38 7.22 16.56 16.62 18.56 2.23 8.41 12.37 20.25 17.94 2.35 8.52 15 19.19 17.62 2.11 8.13 15.94 20.06 17.87 2.25 7.89 14.71 18.94 17.86 Flexural modulus of rupture stress N/mm 1 day 3 day 7 day 14 day 28 day 0.61 1.78 1.95 4.27 3.63 0.54 1.99 2.3 3.94 3.63 0.56 1.9 2.41 3.75 3.7 0.57 1.89 2.22 3.98 3.66 Compressive cube crushing strength N/mm 1 day 3 day 7 day 14 day 28 day 1.31 4.37 8.37 11.09 11.8 1.39 4.54 9.18 13.09 8.97 1.49 4.54 9.16 12.81 10.11 1.27 4.88 8.17 11.82 10.96 1.4 4.08 8.99 12.54 10.19 1.39 4.69 9 12.11 10.31 1.38 4.52 8.81 12.24 10.39
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Figure 3. Flexural modulus of rupture versus curing period
Figure 4. Compressive cube crushing strength versus curing period
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Figure 5. Relative cube crushing strength versus curing period
3.4
Density
The density was determined for the 14 day old specimens to see what the effects of the sludge and the W:C ratio were having on the end product. In order to calculate the dry density it was necessary also to measure the moisture content of the mortar which is given in Table 4. The density data is listed in Table 5. Figure 6 shows the dry density data versus the sludge content. As is evident from Figure 6, the sludge does cause a significant density reduction some 19% going from neat cement to 5% sludge addition. This factor, combined with the higher W/C ratio will be the cause of the observed strength reduction. Table 4. Moisture content of mortars @ 14days age and of the stock sand Mix ref. CV0085/2 CV0085/3 CV0085/4 Mix type 5%sludge Straight 1:3 2.5% sludge Vessel net weight (g) 140.7 143.65 143.7 Vessel + moist material (g) 436.3 509.6 368.8 Vessel + dried material (g) 414.8 483.7 355.84 Mass of wet material 295.6 365.95 225.1 Mass of dry material 274.1 340.05 212.14 Moisture content % 7.84 7.62 6.11
stock sand 143.61 269.73 255.6 126.12 111.99 12.62
However lower density is often a desirable characteristic in order to maximise the U-value of walls.
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Table 5. Bulk density of mortars @ 14days age Mix Replicate Dimensions ref. CV 1 2 3 Length Height x 0085/ breadth g g g mm mm 2 377.2 380.3 376.8 159 1600 3 463.8 465.8 464.5 159.5 1600 4 427.9 426.6 421 160 1600
Volume
Density Includes moisture g/cc kg/m 1.49 1486.24 1.82 1820.92 1.66 1660.81 Adjusted to dry condn. g/cc kg/m 1.37 1369.66 1.68 1682.23 1.56 1559.35
cubic cm 254.4 255.2 256
Figure 6. Mortar prism density (by weight/volume) versus sludge content.
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4 Conclusions
Retardation effect of addition
All the mortar specimens were demouldable and testable after one days cure period indicating that any retardation effect is only marginal and shouldnt create any serious process problems. There is no clear indication of significant retardation from the consistence test. There is no indication of significant retardation from the compressive strength tests up to 28 days. See particularly Figure 5 which shows the rate of relative strength increase. There is a slight indication of relative retardation from the flexural strength data after 14 days. (However this may be a statistical blip)
Other process effects

The water demand of the sludge will certainly affect the processing by generating a need for either a greater water content in the mixes or by reducing the consistence. The increased water content will prolong the drying period of the units. (This might be an advantage under some process conditions.) The increased water content and reduced density will result in a lower strength unit for a given cement content. The lower density will almost certainly improve the U value of the units.
General
It is difficult to say whether the observed effects would result in a problem on a block production line without an actual trial. However the retardation effect is minimal if present at all. This initial data should be a possible basis for proceeding to a plant trial.
150
References
5.1 Materials standards
prEN 998-2:2000, Specification for Mortar for masonry Part 2: Specification for mortar for masonry.
5,2
BS BS BS BS BS BS BS EN EN EN EN EN EN EN
Methods of test for masonry mortar mixes

1015-3:1999: Determination of consistence of fresh mortar (by flow table) 1015-4:1999: Determination of consistence of fresh mortar (by plunger penetration 1015-9:1999:Determination of workable life and correction time of fresh mortar 1015-11:1999: Determination of flexural and compressive strength of hardened mortar 1015-12:1999:Determination of adhesive strength of rendering and plastering mortars on substrates 1015-6:1999:Determination of bulk density of fresh mortar 1015-14:1999:Determination of durability of hardened mortar
151
ANNEX iii Photographic record
Figure A.1. Pan mixer (open)
152
Figure A.2 Plunger penetration test apparatus
153
Figure A.3 Strength test machine with flexural loading jig and specimen mounted.
154
Figure A.4. Typical set of three 40x40x160mm prisms
Figure A.5. Close-up view of the flexural test prism in the test jig
155
Figure A.6. Two halves of flexural test specimen used for compression test
Figure A.7 Half prism in compression jig before loading has commenced (loading head is selfaligning)
156
Figure A.8 Half prism in compression after crushing failure
157
APPENDIX 9: Hardboard
Method of manufacture
The process of manufacture is very similar to that of softboard with the difference of pressing to a higher target density board. A series of hardboard samples were made incorporating various amounts of de-inking sludge. The bending properties and internal bond strength were measured. The total dry fibre content was kept constant. The calculated amounts of wood fibre and sludge were weighed out and stirred into 22 litres of 1.5% PF resin solution. Fresh solution was used each time.
The resulting slurry was formed into a 500mm2 mattress in a wet-former, and was dewatered by pressing, usually in two stages. The final stage was in a cold pre-press with the mattress held between meshes supported by plywood. After this pre-press treatment the mattress was weighed to determine the amount of resin solution, and thus of resin, was left in the mattress. It was found that this varied significantly with the sludge content (figure 1). This variation in resin content will obviously affect the other properties.
Mattress wet weight and board resin content

resin content, %of dry w eight 1.8 1.7 1.6 1.5 1.4 1.3 1.2 1.1 0 20 40 60 % sludge 80 1.8 1.7 1.6 1.5 1.4 1.3 1.2 1.1 100 m attress weight, kg
weight
resin content
Figure 1: Mattress wet weight versus board resin content. A decrease of mat weight and resin content as a result of the increase in sludge content was evident. The mattress was pressed to 3mm stops between a steel screen and a sheet of release paper in a press at 210C for 330 seconds. The press cycle incorporates progressive closing and degassing, and is stored as tech5 in the press computer. It was found that as the sludge content increases, so does the tendency of the board to stick to the steel screen. A releasing agent was used on the screen, but this could not stop fibres being pulled off the surface. Two extra boards were made using 50% sludge and a sheet of tissue paper (from Threshers wine merchants) between the mattress and the screen. This provided good separation and stuck well to the board whether applied before or after the pre-press.
The density of the boards showed a lot of random variation, but the thickness showed a clear trend to thinner boards as the sludge content increased (figure 2).
158
Board thickness and density

4.9 4.7 board thickness, m m 4.5 4.3 4.1 3.9 3.7 0 20 40 60 % sludge thickness 80 700 680 660 640 620 600 580 100 board density kg/m
density
Figure 2: Board thickness and density.
Board stiffness
15 m odulus of elasticity MPa 10 5 0 0 20 40 60 % sludge 80 100
Figure 3: The effect of sludge on board stiffness.
Bending strength and toughness

0.6 0.5 m odulus of rupture kPa 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1 0 0 20 40 60 % sludge 80 0.3 0.25 0.2 0.15 0.1 0.05 0 100 w ork to peak load
bending strength
toughness
Figure 4: The effect of sludge content on MOR/MOE The internal bond shows almost the opposite behaviour to the stiffness, perhaps explaining why small amounts of sludge have little effect on bending strength. The increase in IB could be explained by the greater compaction ratio of the sludge material that enables more fibre to fibre interactions.
159
Figure 5: Effect of sludge content on IB strength. The boards made with tissue paper to prevent sticking showed an improvement in bending properties. There was no tendency for the paper to separate from the board. Table 1: Summary results Board % sludge 16 9 11 20 paper 21 paper 10 30 50 50 50
MOR 0.59 0.39 0.27 0.39 0.37
MOE 13.1 9.1 6.9 8.3 8.4
toughness 0.26 0.15 0.09 0.22 0.18
Conclusions Sludge can be incorporated into hardboard in any proportion, providing sufficient water is removed from the mattress in the pre-press. Increasing the amount of sludge increases the internal bond, even though less resin is left in the board. Increasing the amount of sludge drastically reduces stiffness. Boards with more than 50% sludge tend to stick to the screen. This can be prevented with a layer of thin paper, and this also improves the bending properties.
160
Table 2: Production and test data board 15 A 16 A 14 A 9A 10 A 11 A 12 A 13 A 17 A 18 A 19 A % sludge 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 MOR 0.47 0.59 0.40 0.39 0.38 0.27 0.26 0.19 0.15 0.09 0.06 MOE 13.2 13.1 10.3 9.1 9.2 6.9 6.0 3.8 2.8 1.9 1.0 toughness 0.17 0.26 0.18 0.15 0.16 0.09 0.11 0.09 0.07 0.05 0.05 density 598 672 595 636 586 618 630 654 643 668 693 IBS 0.026 0.047 0.036 0.062 0.040 0.055 0.131 0.100 0.121 0.122 0.117 thickness 4.68 4.39 4.6 4.4 4.38 4.39 4.18 4.38 3.94 3.95 3.82 mattress 1.52 1.44 1.49 1.47 1.45 1.44 1.41 1.34 1.31 1.27 1.22 % water 117 106 113 110 107 106 101 91 87 81 74 % resin 1.76 1.59 1.69 1.65 1.61 1.59 1.52 1.37 1.31 1.22 1.11
20 A 21 A
50 50
0.39 0.37
8.3 8.4
0.22 0.18
652 646
0.143 0.084
4.07 4.05
1.43 1.43
104 104
1.56 1.56
161
APPENDIX 10: Consultation exercise 1st Focus group meeting

The first focus group meeting was organised during the technical committee meeting of the Wood Panel Industries Federation which was held at BRE in December 2003. The first focus group meeting was organised during the technical committee meeting of the Wood Panel Industries Federation held on 18 December 2003 at BRE. The Wood Panel Industries Federation is a representative organisation giving voice to the industrial manufacturers in the United Kingdom and Ireland of Wood based panel products. With a particular focus on technical and environmental influences, the role of the federation is to support its members' processing activities and their products in the market. The members of the technical committee are formed by the representatives of manufacturers, construction industries, research institutes and building regulators. During the meeting an opportunity was given to present and discuss the project outcomes and all prototype products were also displayed for viewing. All members who attended were very interested in the products developed, with a particular interest in cement sludge tiles and cement bonded sludge board products. It was thought that the project has not only found a way to use paper sludge, the products developed would also replace some panel products in use. However, work to develop the process of taking these concepts to the market was thought vital.
162
2nd Focus group meeting

The second focus group meeting was part of the activities of the European Cost Action E29 Timber products innovation (February 2004). Twenty-five participants from various countries around Europe were invited to answer questions and identify the key opportunities and barriers for adopting these technologies.
The questionnaire used is presented bellow:

We would appreciate your opinion on these 6 products. Please choose 4 of the most important reasons to answer the following 4 questions. It should only take 5 minutes to complete the questionnaire. Name:.. Address:.. .. .. E-mail:. Tel.:.. Work area/sector:.. Product: 1 1. What do you like about this product? a. Strength b. Its environmental profile c. Appearance d. Other:. 2. What do you dislike about this product? a. Strength b. Appearance c. Feel d. Other: 3. Can you suggest four applications for this product? a. b. c. d. 4. What information do you need in order to specify or recommend this product? a. b. c. d.
163
Data analysis Summary of results of questionnaire.
A total of 22 questionnaires were returned. Not all categories/products had been fully completed but the data entered for each product is summarised below.
Q. 1. What do you like about this product? Percentage Response Insulation MDF Cement board (1) type bonded (2) board (3) 8 30 53 83 35 29 4 4
24
Tiles (4) 42 13 32 13
31
Cement Blocks (5) 38 25 38 0

8
Hardboard (6) 17 48 26 9
23
Strength Environment al Profile Appearance Other

Total no of responses
26 9
23
18 0
17
Q. 2. What do you dislike about this product? Percentage Response Insulation MDF Cement board (1) type bonded (2) board (3) 10 20 0 10 15 15 30 10 38 50 55 46
20 20 13
Tiles (4) 0 27 27 47
15
Cement Blocks (5) 0 22 44 33

9
Hardboard (6) 23 23 46 8
13
Strength Appearance Feel Other

Total no of responses
Note: In response to question 2 What do you dislike about the product? The overall numbers of responses to this question were smaller than to the previous question. However, the greatest number of dislikes applying to nearly all the products was their smell recorded under the category other.
Q3. Can you suggest four applications for this product?

Product 1: Insulation Board Suggested applications for this product included: Insulation thermal and acoustic False ceilings Packaging Door fill Product 2: MDF Type Board Suggested applications for this product included: Roofing Doors Core for sandwich products Flooring insulation Linings
Linings False ceilings
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Walls, covering, sheathing Insulation Packaging Timber frame structures Inside cladding Base panel for laminate floor Cooling panels carrying water tubes Frames Product 3: Cement Bonded Board Suggested applications for this product included: Flooring Separating wall structures Cladding Structural Tiling Construction Product 4: Tiles Suggested applications for this product included: Similar to ceramics Tiles Wall lining Finishing material Flooring systems Furniture Product 5: Cement Block Suggested applications for this product included: Exterior use Ceilings Non structural uses Floor and wall covering Product 6: Hardboard Suggested applications for this product included: Furniture Door skins Acoustic boards Multi layer composites Insulation panels Game boards Hobby
Flooring Furniture (non structural) sidings Joinery Finishing material Carcasses Tiling MDF type board material
Wall and floor panels Wall sheathing Bathroom walls Furniture Decorations
Floor covering Replace OSB and particleboard Kitchen tiles External cladding Coverings for chemical industry
Cladding Walls Blocks Traditional construction
Packaging Curved linings Coating (light) supports Like HD board Non structural Sheathing Ceilings
Q 4. What information do you need in order to specify or recommend this product? For all six products the following core information was requested: Mechanical properties Performance of the product in fire Dimensional stability of the product in humid conditions Health and Safety issues Costs In addition to this information other, specific information was requested depending on the product type as listed below: Product 1. Insulation board 2. MDF type 3. Cement bonded board Additional information required Thermal and acoustic properties VOC emissions Thermal and acoustic properties Screw holding Suitable finishes and binders Acoustic performance
165
4. Tiles
5. Cement blocks 6. Hardboard
Ease/difficulty of further processing Suitable finishes and binders Hardness Screw holding Chemical reactivity/non reactivity Durability and wear characteristics Life span Impact performance Moisture/sorption behaviour Heat transfer properties Screw holding Standards Impact strength Flexibility
What do you like about this product?
100% 90% 80% 70% 60% Percentage 50% 40% 30% 20% 10% 0% Insulation Board MDF type Cement Bonded Board Tiles Cement Blocks Hardboard
Other Appearance Environmental Profile Strength
What do you dislike about the products?
100% 90% 80% 70% 60% Percentage 50% 40% 30% 20% 10% 0% Insulation Board MDF type Cement Bonded Board Tiles Cement Blocks Hardboard
Other Feel Appearance Strength
166
WARP 2 Q. 1. What do you like about this product? Insulation B MDF type Cement BoTiles 1 2 3 Strength 9 33 53 Environmental Profile 87 38 29 Appearance 4 29 18 Other 0 0 0 What do you like about this product? Insulation B MDF type Cement BoTiles 1 2 3 Strength 8 30 53 Environmental Profile 83 35 29 Appearance 4 26 18 Other 4 9 0 Q. 1.
4 48 15 37 0
Cement Blo Hardboard 5 6 38 19 25 52 38 29 0 0
4 42 13 32 13
Q. 2.
What do you dislike about this product? MDF type Cement BoTiles Insulation B 1 2 3 Strength 20 44 0 appearance 20 33 29 Feel 60 22 71 Other 0 0 0
4 0 50 50 0
What do you dislike about this product? Insulation B MDF type Cement BoTiles 1 2 3 Strength 10 20 0 Appearance 10 15 15 Feel 30 10 38 Other 50 55 46
Q. 2.
4 0 27 27 47
Q. What do you like about Product 1?
90
80
70
60 Percentage (%)
50
40
30
20
10
0 Strength Environmental Profile Appearance
What do you like about Product 2?
40
35
30
25 Percentage (%)
20
15
10
0 Strength Environmental Profile Appearance
167
168
169
170
171
172
173
3rd Focus group meeting

Background
The objective of attending this event was to disseminate the findings of the work programme to the paper industry and challenge some of their perceptions associated with the utilisation of de-inking wastes. A total of 146 people were registered for the two-day event on the 9th-10th if March 2004. Representatives from the paper manufacturing, allied services and equipment supplying sectors attended. There were also 24 trade stands exhibiting equipment and technologies for the paper industry. Information on the project was disseminated through displaying samples of products and individual interviews were conducted to gather feedback.
Summary of BC/BRE Stand and promotional activities

The BC/BRE stand employed a combination of a tabletop show of prototype products and an animated PowerPoint presentation displayed on a plasma screen, see figure 1. Samples of all 6 products were available for inspection. The presentation mapped out the manufacturing steps, product properties, end uses and further work required for each product. Hand outs included information on the composition and mechanical properties of the products and an invitation to attend future workshops Fig 1. Set up of stand at PITA Conference
Dissemination and Feedback

Opportunities During the conference Pulp and Paper manufacturers and equipment suppliers visited the stand. In general delegates expressed a great deal of interest in the products and where pleasantly surprised by the examples on display. Pulp and paper companies where pleased that there were examples of potential uses of the sludge materials. The machine manufacturers were also interested in the future opportunities that could arise from developing pre-treatment equipment/systems to convert the sludge into useable materials.
174
Barriers In general the key points of concern for pulp & paper manufacturers and equipment suppliers were the issues surrounding the cost of drying the materials and transportation of the sludge from the mills to use at other sites. Individual Feedback A total of 6 individual interviews were also undertaken with 5 Pulp and Paper companies and 1 equipment manufacturer, see table 1 below. Company Name Inveresk Billerud Beetham Voith Georgia Pacific Mondi Sector Paper Speciality papers Equipment Paper Paper
Table 1 Summary of companies interviewed. In the interviewing process new potential applications were identified. Suggestions included paving slabs or fire surrounds for product 3, the cement bonded particleboard. Display boards, picture frame backs and hobby materials were suggested applications for product 6, the hardboard substitute. All the companies interviewed expressed interests in a future project and when asked if they could offer in kind commitment through letters of support all agreed. The Editor of Paper Technology, Margaret Marley was also approached and agreed that a published paper on the project would be appropriate for the official PITA journal.
Future Actions
The following actions and observations need to be considered: Key paper companies that did not attend the conference were Bridgewater and Shotton. It is suggested that these companies should be visited on an individual basis. A potential future project could include equipment suppliers interested in developing systems for handling and adding value to the de-inking sludge. Conveyors, screw presses, dryings and refiner systems are required to demonstrate this technology at a larger scale. The total outputs from the questionnaires from the focus group held at the European Construction Meeting in Watford were combined with the data for the PITA conference. This information is summarised in graphs 1 and 2 and can be used as an aid to focus on applications and help make material selections.
175

Number of responses
Number of responses recorded

fl o or co
di m
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
in
su la
ve
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
0 Graph 2. Important properties of construction materials
tio n
Graph 1. Potential Applications for Products
Analysis of the completed questionnaires indicates that products with greatest interest are in floor coverings and thermal applications, see graph 1. The most important properties are dimensional stability, mechanical, fire and thermal properties. The softboard and the cement bonded products match these requirements. Efforts should now focus on identifying potential commercial partners for these
en ec sio ha na l ni ca sta fir l pr bilit op y e th per ert er fo ies m r a l ma pr nc op e er du ties ra bi fin lity is ac hi ou ng st ic c pr o op st er tie im pa CO s ct SH st en re vi c n ro e nm rtif gth en ica ta tio ch n li m em pa ic ct al co EP D m po 's s ha ition s r dn c cl e re e ad pr anin w h ss he od o g ld si ve ucti of p ing ca on rod pa pr u bi oc ct es lit y w ses ith ap FR P pl va co icat po i nd o ur di sta uc n ffu in tiv i si on res ty co ista VO -e nt C f fi c em ien is t si on s
ri n g til e in th s ne er rl m in g f in en urn al gs e it fo ral ure r s pa tu n e d wa ls lli n bl g oc k w a l ce i l s l c in ov gs er pa c ings la v ac in dd ou g s i n g st i c yste in m su s la co ti o ve n ri n d o gs or fo s rc ro he of m pa s e x i ca l cki te i n ng f i n r n a du ni l c str sh l a y i n dd g m i ng at er ia l h de o co aut bb o y ra tiv mo t di e s ive sp ur f l ki ay ac tc he bo e n ard ti m be stru sur s r f ct f a c r a ur e m al s e p a st ru rts ct ur es O th er
176
4th focus group meeting

Facilitated Workshop with Construction Material Buyers, Manufacturers and End-users Background and Aims
The focus group meeting was held on the 5th of May at BRE Garston, Watford. The aim of this focus group was to disseminate information on the products developed using paper mill residues to an audience of construction material buyers, manufactures and end-users. The workshop commenced with a tour of the Integer house (as seen on the BBC programme Dream House hosted by Carol Vorderman) and was followed by presentations on the products developed in the research programme. A total of eight organisations attended the workshop with representatives from construction companies, manufacturers and housing management agencies, see table 1. Table 1 Attendee Profiles Organisation Bridgewater PaperDefence Housing Executive Wetherby Building Systems Readymix Ltd Hastoe H.A. Defence Housing Executive Akzo Nobel CORG ICI Interests and motives Potential supplier of waste mill residues and ways of reducing cost of disposal Specifies materials for MOD housing and is interested alternative materials Interested in insulated panel systems for steel framed constructions used in public sector Looking at new market opportunities in concrete sector Housing association that is interested in reducing waste in construction Specifies materials for MOD housing and is interested alternative materials Developing new wood care products and looking to future applications Local community initiative for Woking area interested in recycling projects Interested in finishing new substrates
A series of presentations introduced the products, discussed the technical aspects and samples were made available for inspection. Following these presentations there was a facilitated discussion that focussed on the barriers and opportunities to commercialisation of the three main prototype products 1) Softboard, 2) Hybrid MDF and 3) Cement Bonded Sludge Board (CBSB).
177
Comments and Observations

The facilitated discussion focussed on Softboard, Hybrid MDF and Cement bonded Sludge Board (CBSB). The group was asked to discuss the barriers and opportunities for each product. This information was captured on flip charts and is presented in table 2. Table 2. Opportunities and Barriers Softboard Opportunities Partnership Lower cost potential Market value paid to take away Localised/regional low transport Grants Packaging
Barriers COST Thermal performance Fire performance Flexibility H&S Mineral impact Density to performance ratio Dampness/water resistance Insect biological resistance Barriers MDF already successful Processing costs European markets Labour Biological resistance Water tolerance Expansion Leaching studies Smell in wet/dry Barriers Weight to thickness ratio Cheap imports
Hybrid MDF Opportunities Physical properties related to thickness Surface Flooring Laminated versions for offsite construction Insulation Bonding
CBSB Opportunities Man made fibre flexibility, no cracks Offsite market growth de-skilling Cement reduction/replacementreduce costs Lightweight Coating applications System with combined products
Discussions were very positive with inputs from all the attendees. General technical issues raised revolved around product performance such as fire and thermal properties. The consensus was that if the products achieved the standards, there were no envisaged barriers to adoption with the exception of cost. The lack of practical experience of using the products and lack of incentives to change (e.g. legislation) were seen as critical commercial barriers. To overcome these barriers partnerships with prominent retail companies were thought to be necessary. The ability to be able to purchase the products was also seen as a critical step in commercialisation.
178
The trend toward offsite construction is seen as a significant market driver for future materials. Here, the use of the products in a system that combines 1 or 2 materials will be important.
In summary supply chains, routes to market and the ability to demonstrate these products in service are important tasks that need to be considered when seeking to commercialise these products.
179
Appendix 11 Posters and Press releases

European Panel Products Symposium, December 2003
180
Press release, April 2003
NEWS
Construction products from papermill waste
A new research programme aims to develop innovative construction products utilising papermill waste. The work will focus on three main product groups: renders, blocks and clays; wood-based joinery, and industrial materials such as additives and extenders. The project is funded by the Waste Resources Action Programme (WRAP) and will be carried out by a partnership involving the Biocomposites Centre (BC) at the University of Wales, the Bridgewater Paper Company and BRE. A key project objective is to find viable alternative options to the disposal of papermill sludge to landfill or landspreading. The aim is to achieve this by identifying six products to be taken forward into production, following a market study and industry consultations. The detailed chemical and physical composition of the papermill sludge will be determined. Using this information, potential applications will be identified and product samples produced. Small scale processing trials and testing of the sample materials will be followed by more development work if necessary. The project will conclude in March 2004 with a workshop to present any prototype products developed and to highlight other key outcomes. We aim to demonstrate through this project how creative thinking and innovation can benefit both the industry and environment with the support of organisations such as WRAP, says Wendy Thorpe of BRE.
For further information contact: BRE Dr V Enjily, 01923 664392, e-mail enjilyv@bre.co.uk BC Dr R Elias, 01248 370 588, e-mail r.m.elias@bangor.ac.uk
181
Press Release April 2004
NEWS
Quality construction products from papermill sludge
A number of construction products incorporating the sludge waste by-product from papermills have recently been explored in a project funded by WRAP (Waste Resources Action Programme). The aim is to find alternative uses for the waste material that is currently disposed of in large volumes in landfill sites. Conducted by BRE, the Biocomposites Centre of University of Wales and the Bridgewater Paper Company, the project analysed the chemical and physical characteristics of the sludge material and developed six construction products three main products (which have undergone a more comprehensive test and development programme) and three secondary products. Main products: sludge softboard, hybrid MDF, cement bonded sludge board. Secondary products: sludge tile, low-density cement blocks, sludge hardboard. Performance tests were carried out on each product to determine whether they met the requirements of relevant product standards. It was found that the physical properties of the three main products meet the requirements of EN622:Fibreboards Specification and EN634 Cement Bonded Particle Board Specification with one limitation: the sludge softboard is suitable for non-structural use only since it does not meet the modulus of elasticity strength requirement. The prototype products are being promoted in a series of national dissemination events (for further information see contact details below). A full project report will be published by WRAP in May 2004 visit www.wrap.org for updated information. Further funding to exploit these and other potential products is currently being sought. The project partners are interested in hearing from manufacturers, specifiers and contractors who have an interest or would like to be involved.
For further information Dr V Enjily, BRE, 01923 664392, email enjilyv@bre.co.uk Dr R Elias, Biocomposites Centre, University of Wales, 01248 370 588, email r.m.elias@bangor.ac.uk
182
Poster PITA event May 2004
183
Poster PITA event May 2004 continued
184

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Creating markets for recycled resources

Research into using recycled waste paper residues in construction products

Date (published) June 2004

R&D Report: Paper

Research into using recycled waste paper residues in construction products

Research into using recycled waste paper residues in construction products

Research into using recycled waste paper residues in construction products

2. Hybrid MDF. Overview of production process

3. Cement bonded Particleboard. Overview of Production process

Research into using recycled waste paper residues in construction products

4. Tile. Overview of Production process

Research into using recycled waste paper residues in construction products

5. Cement block. Overview of Production process

Press & Consolidate

6. Hardboard. Overview of Production Process

Research into using recycled waste paper residues in construction products

Research into using recycled waste paper residues in construction products

Scope and Objectives of the project

Summary description of the project

Research into using recycled waste paper residues in construction products

Research into using recycled waste paper residues in construction products

Sludge characterisation Chemical composition of sludge

Research into using recycled waste paper residues in construction products

3451 6160 3 8 278 211 867 32 392 2 8 5 4133 8

23205 6172 7 78 803 693 1892 39 1156 11 81 7 38123 20

5436 3984 2 10 373 94 1378 54 340 3 9 9 4949 14

19140 4296 6 58 844 162 2569 60 316 9 54 7 26438 21

3574 6010 7 9 301 248 1200 40 871 2 8 5 3501 108

20471 5678 11 92 832 762 2224 47 1360 10 95 7 35027 23

Research into using recycled waste paper residues in construction products

Non-load bearing softboard

Picture 1: Softboard prototype panels

Table 3: Softboard specifications

Research into using recycled waste paper residues in construction products

Figure 2: Process flow diagram for softboard

Research into using recycled waste paper residues in construction products

Research into using recycled waste paper residues in construction products

UK Man. Sales = UK manufacturers sales

Research into using recycled waste paper residues in construction products

Research into using recycled waste paper residues in construction products

Table 6: Hybrid MDF specifications

Process flow diagram

Figure 3: Process flow diagram for hybrid MDF

Research into using recycled waste paper residues in construction products

Control MDF MDF MDF.H MDF.LS MDF.HLS

Research into using recycled waste paper residues in construction products

Research into using recycled waste paper residues in construction products

Research into using recycled waste paper residues in construction products

Cement bonded sludge board

Picture 3: Cement bonded sludge board

Figure 4: Process flow diagram for cement bonded sludge board

Research into using recycled waste paper residues in construction products

TS (%) IB (N/mm2) 48 0.8 12.5 <1.5 48 1 7.3 >0.5

MOR (N/mm2) 36 11.9 15.8 >9

MOE (N/mm2) 36 10882 19.3 4000- 4500

48 1618 5.8 >1000

IB TS (%) (N/mm2) AF321 AF321 48 48 0.58 21 <1.5 0.37 7.2 >0.3

* TS = Thickness swell (after 24 hours cold water soaking)

Research into using recycled waste paper residues in construction products

(M) 13 (Source: PRA 26620)

Research into using recycled waste paper residues in construction products

Figure 5: Process flow diagram for cement bonded sludge board