MATH 322 CoViiix //isis

Arithmetic properties of complex numbers

Entre deux vrits du domaine rel, le chemin le plus facile et le plus court passe bien souvent par
le domaine complexe.
-PAUL PAINLEVE
It has been written that the shortest and best way between two truths of the real domain often
passes through the imaginary one.
-JACQUES HADAMARD
1 Extending the reals
Imagine you wish to solve the system of integers 2x = 3. Either you decide that this system has no solution, or you
need to invent an extension of the integers to handle this. We do, and we call it the rational numbers. The complex
numbers arise similarly. Imagine we wish to solve the equation x
2
+ 1 = 0. Every real number has the property
that x
2
0, so this equation has no real number solution.
If we dene a new number that satises x
2
+ 1 = 0, to what extent can we build a coherent number system?
This course attempts to answer this from an analytic point of view. We will dene complex numbers, investigate their
closure properties, dene complex functions, and revisit notions of limits, continuity, dierentiability and integrability.
Why would we do this?
Example. Use j = a
:x
to solve j = j

+ j = 0.
0 = j

+ j = :
2
a
:x
+ a
:x
(:
2
+ 1) = 0
Let i denote

1. Then the two solutions would be j = a
ix
and j = a
ix
. Let us compare this to the answers we
already know to this equation, j = sin x and j = cos x. So, if i exists, and is meaningful, then a
ix
should be related
to sin x and cos x.
A reasonable attitude: If it is going to be this much work, maybe I dont want my problem to have a solution...
Hopefully this course will convince you that it is worth it.
2 The complex number system
A number system is a set of objects, plus a rule to combine them. In this case we dene the set of complex numbers
C = {x+ij : x, j are real numbers, i =

1},
with the following structure
1. Uniqueness x
1
+ ij
1
= x
2
+ ij
2
x
1
= x
2
, j
1
= j
2
.
2. Addition rule (x
1
+ ij
1
) + (x
2
+ ij
2
) = (x
1
+ x
2
)

:ac|
+i (j
1
+ j
2
)

:ac|
3. Scalar multiplication :(x + ij) = (:x) + i(:j).
These notes are loosely based on the lecture series found at http://ocw.mit.edu/resources/res-18-008-calculus-revisited-complex-variables-
dierential-equations-and-linear-algebra-fall-2011/part-i/
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MATH 322 CoViiix //isis
Example. (3 + 2i) + (4 i) = 7 + i
With these, we have described a vector space. It is clearly two dimensional. Consequently, we can visualize it in
the plane.
We denote the set of real numbers by R. The real numbers are a sub-space. As a complex number, x R is of the
form x + i0.
Exercise. Give a basis for the vector space of the complex numbers.
2.1 The Argand Diagram
We draw the complex number z = x + ij as point (x, j) in the plane. To remember we are dealing with complex
numbers, we might call it the Argand diagram. (developed circa 1800, by Wessel, although often attributed to
Argand.)
Remark, that a number is identiable also by its polar coordinates, (:, ), where
: = +

x
2
+ j
2
|x + ij|
and is the dening angle. We say that : is the modulus of z and that is the argument of z. To translate in
the other direction, x = : cos and j = : sin . Sometimes, the polar coordinates are written as z = :a
i
. This is
called the exponential form and we will soon understand why this is a reasonable notation. Remark, we can take
the interpretation that |z| is the distance from the origin, and hence |z 1| is not only the modulus of the complex
number z 1, but the real valued distance from z to 1 in the Argand plane.
j
x
x + ij
r

: = +

x
2
+ j
2
|x + ij|
arg z = the argument of z is
x = : cos and j = : sin
Example. arg(1 i) = arctan(1) = ,4. |1 i| =

1
2
+ (1)
2
=

2
Exercise. Draw the Argand diagram of i and 3 4i. What is |3 4i|? What is arg(i)?
Exercise. Geometrically, where are the real numbers in the Argand plane? Where is i?
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MATH 322 CoViiix //isis
The x-axis is known as the real axis and the j-axis is known as the imaginary axis.
3 Additional structure of complex numbers
4. Multiplication (c + i|)(t + iJ) = (ct |J)

:ac|
+i (|t + cJ)

:ac|
Example. (3 + 2i)(4 i) = (12 + 2) + i(8 3) = 14 + 5i
Reality check: As we have noted. the real numbers are contained in the complex numbers. We would hope that
when we add, or multiply real numbers in the complex way we still real numbers. As a complex number, x R is
of the form x +i0. Verify that adding two real numbers gives a real number, and that multiplying two real numbers
also results in a real number. We will ask this question again and again as we dene complex versions of things.
Exercise. Show that any complex number times zero is zero.
Example. Compute (c +i|)(c i|). This is c
2
+|
2
+i(c| c|) = c
2
+|
2
, which we notice is also |c +i||
2
=
|c i||
2
.
This is a very important thing we have just done! So important, we nd a special name.
The complex conjugate of z = x + ij is dened to be z = x ij. One more time for good measure:
The complex conjugate of z = x + ij is z = x ij.
zz = |z|
2
for any z C
Exercise. What is the complex conjugate of a real number?
Exercise. Geometrically, where is the complex conjugate of a given number x + ij in the Argand diagram?
4 Applications of the complex conjugate
t + Ji
c + |i
=
t + Ji
c + |i
c |i
c |i
=
(ct + |J) + i(cJ |t)
c
2
+ |
2
real!
This is meaningful if c or | is not 0.
Example.
3+2i
4+i
=
3+2i
4+i
4i
4i
=
14+5i
17
=
14
17
+
5
17
i
Exercise. Write
4+2i
3+4i
in the form c + |i where c and | are real numbers.
Thus, we can divide by complex numbers, and expect a complex number. What about division by 0?
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MATH 322 CoViiix //isis
5 Multiplication in polar co-ordinates
Let us denote z = x + ij in its polar coordinates as (:, ). Then as x = : cos and j = : sin we can see the
eect of multiplication on the polar coordinates.
Exercise: Show that (:
1
,
1
) (:
2
,
2
) = (:
1
:
2
,
1
+
2
) Hint! You need a trig identity
Exercise: Using the formula for complex multiplication, give a proof that the product of two negative numbers is
always positive
Remark: By induction we can prove the following:
(:
1
,
1
) (:
2
,
2
) (:
:
,
:
) = (:
1
:
2
:
:
,
1
+
2
+ +
:
)
Powers are a special case:
(:, )
:
= (:
:
, :)
A special case of a special case:
(1, )
:
= (1, :)
This has a special name, and will allow us to compute roots of unity.
6 DeMoivres Theorem and extracting roots
DeMoivres Theorem.
(cos + i sin )
:
= cos : + i sin :
The main application is extracting roots.
Example. Find
6

i, if it exists! Write i in polar co-ordinates: i = (1, ,2). Say that

6

i exists, and is equal to

(:, ). Applying DeMoivres theorem,
(1, ,2)i = (:, )
6
= (:
6
, 6)
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MATH 322 CoViiix //isis
This gives the system of equations, 1 = :
6
, and 6 = ,2, where : is a non-negative real number, and theta is a
real number. The solution to the rst equation is : = 1. The solution to the second equation is
6 = ,2 + 2| for any integer | = {,12, 5,12, 9,12, 13,12, 17,12, 21,12, 25,12, }
These solutions divide the unit circle into 6 equal parts. We can also write them in rectangular coordinates. For
example,
(1, 9,,12) = cos 3,4 + i sin 3,4 =
1

2
(1 + i)
Exercise. Find the rectangular coordinates of the other ve roots.
From this, we could show that the complex numbers are closed with respect to taking roots.
This means that we do not have to invent any new numbers to solve polynomial equations in complex numbers. We
will formally prove this later on.
Exercise. We could have solved the example question in rectangular coordinates, by writing (x + ij)
6
= i and
then built a system of two equations by comparing real, and complex parts. Set up these equations, but do not
solve them.
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