PLANT PATHOGENS (PESTS)

Wheat Leaf Rust

Wheat leaf rust, is fungal disease that affects wheat, barley and rye stems, leaves and grains. In temperate zones it is destructive on winter wheat because the pathogen overwinters. Infections can lead up to 20% yield loss - exacerbated by dying leaves which fertilize the fungus. The pathogen is Puccinia rust fungus. Puccinia triticina causes 'black rust', P.recondita causes 'brown rust' and P.sriiformis causes 'Yellow rust'. It is the most prevalent of all the wheat rust diseases, occurring in most wheat growing regions. It causes serious epidemics in North America, Mexico and South America and is a devastating seasonal disease in India. All three types of Puccinia are heteroecious requiring two distinct and distantly related hosts (alternate hosts). Rust and the similar smut are members of the class Pucciniomycetes but rust is not normally a black powdery mass. In recent years, breeding for the resistance against disease proved to be as important for total wheat production as breeding for increase in yield. The use of single resistance gene against various pests and diseases plays a major role in resistance breeding for cultivated crops. The earliest single resistance gene was identified effective against yellow rust. Molecular techniques have been used to estimate genetic distances among different wheat cultivars. With the genetic distances known predictions can be made for the best combinations concerning the two foreign genotypes carrying gene Lr37, VPMI and RL6081 and local South African cultivars. This is especially important in wheat with its low genetic variation. The gene will also be transferred with the least amount of backcrosses to cultivars genetically closest to each other, generation similar genetic offspring to the recurrent parent, but with gene Lr37, Genetic distances between near isogenic lines (NILs) for a particular gene will also give an indication of how many loci, amplified with molecular techniques, need to be compared in order to locate putative markers linked to the gene.

Life Cycle

Wheat leaf rust is spreads via airborne spores. Five types of spores are formed in the life cycle. Uredospores, teleutospores, and basidiospores develop on wheat plants and pycnidiospores and aeciospores develop on the alternate hosts. The germination process requires moisture, and works best at 100% humidity. Optimum temperature for germination is between15-20 C. Before sporulation, wheat plants appear completely asymptomatic. In the Asian Subcontinent, the spores cannot survive the hot dry weather but are re-introduced every year from the Himalayas or surrounding hills, possibly coming from Berberis spp, Thalictrum flavum and Muehlenbergia huglet which is a main reason for bread mouldes or even some grasses. Wheat rust pathogens are biotrophic and require living plant cells to survive. P. triticina has an asexual and sexual life cycle. In order to complete its sexual life cycle P. triticina requires a second host Thalictrum spp. which it will overwinter on. In places where Thalictrum does not grow, such as Australia, the pathogen will only undergo its asexual life cycle and will overwinter as mycelium or uredinia. The germination process requires moisture

and temperatures between 15 20 C. After around 10 14 days of infection, the fungi will begin to sporulate and the symptoms will become visible on the wheat leaves. Puccinia triticina is a macrocyclic and heteroecious rust fungus with five spore stages and two taxonomically unrelated host species (Fig. 1). Urediniospores produced on wheat hosts are dikaryotic, 20m in width Anikster et al., 2005a), and will re-infect the telial host with free water on the leaf surface and temperatures of 1025C (Fig. 1A). As the host plant matures and the uredinial infections develop, dikaryotic, brownblack, two-celled teliospores, 16 m in width, with thick, smooth walls are produced in uredinia. In Mediterranean climates, teliospores allow the rust to survive the hot and dry summers to infect the alternative hosts in the autumn. Early in teliospore development, the two haploid nuclei in the teliospore undergo karyogamy to produce a diploid nucleus. When conditions are suitable, one or both cells in the teliospore produce a hypal protrusion called a promycelium (Anikster,1986).

Fig. 1 Life cycle of Puccinia triticina. (A) Uredinia on leaf containing single cell dikaryotic urediniospores originating from aeciospores or urediniospores. This asexual uredinial stage may originate either from aeciospores or urediniospores and the uredinial stage is repeated on the wheat host as long as favourable conditions for infection occur. Top inset: surface view of a uredinium (100); bottom inset: echinulate surface of a single urediniospore (3000). (B) Telia typically form beneath the leaf epidermis near the end of the growing season, are the size of uredinia, and are black and erumpent at maturity. Top inset: teliospores which originate from telia and signal the beginning of the sexual stage of the life cycle; bottom inset: karyogamy and meiosis occur in the mature teliospore. Each teliospore can germinate producing a promycelium which gives rise to four haploid basidiospores, two of each mating type (+ and ). The nuclei undergo mitotic division so that mature basidiospores each have two haploid nuclei (not shown). (C) Pycnia, produced by basidiospores on Thalictrum, appear as yelloworange pustules on upper leaf

surfaces. (D) Diagrammatic cross-section of Thalictrum with pycnia. Top inset: basidiospores infect Thalictrum in which the fungus produces haploid pycnia (400); bottom inset: pycniospores and flexuous hyphae are immersed in a liquid nectar exudate (500). Fertilization occurs when pycniospores and receptive hyphae fuse in compatible pairs of opposite mating type combinations (+/). (E) Diagrammatic cross-section of Thalictrum with both pycnia and aecia. Top inset: following fertilization, a dikaryotic aecium develops (200); bottom inset: the aecium produces chains of dikaryotic aeciospores (1250). Inset pictures in A, C, and E courtesy of Brown and Brotzman (1979), by permission of the University of Missouri Extension Division. Top inset picture in B from Anikster et al. (2005a).

The diploid nuclei undergo meiosis and four haploid nuclei migrate into the promycelium which become subdivided by septa into four cells, each with one haploid nucleus. A spike-like structure called the sterigma forms on the apical wall of each cell and each haploid nucleus migrates through the sterigma into the newly expanding basidiospore at the apex of the sterigma (Fig. 1B). The nucleus within each basidiospore undergoes mitosis, forming a mature single-cell basidiospore, 6 m in width, each with two identical haploid nuclei. Within a few hours after being formed, mature basidiospores are ejected from sterigmata and carried from the telial host by air currents short distances to nearby alternative hosts (Fig. 1C). Light and electron microscopy studies of P. triticina infections by basidiospores and subsequent pycnial and aecial development were conducted by Allen (1932) and Gold et al. (1979). Basidiospores directly infect epidermal cells resulting in the development of flask-shaped pycnia that develop as yelloworange pustules on both leaf surfaces. Each pycnium produces haploid pycniospores, 23 m in width, and flexuous (receptive) hyphae that function as male and female gametes, respectively (Fig. 1D). Gold et al. (1979) indicated that flexuous hyphae are formed and extend through the pycnia at the upper leaf surface. However, Allen (1932) reported that flexuous hyphae most commonly extend through stomatal guard cells of the lower leaf and that fertilization typically takes place on the lower leaf surface. Puccinia triticina is heterothallic and therefore pycniospores and flexuous hyphae originating from the same pycnium are not sexually compatible. Pycniospores emanate from the tip of the pycnium in a liquid nectar exudate that attracts insects. The pycniospores are disseminated to different pycnia by insects and by movement in water such as dew and rain splashing. Fertilization occurs when pycniospores and receptive hyphae fuse in compatible pairs of opposite mating type (Fig. 1D). This fusion restores the dikaryotic nuclear condition in the resulting mycelium. The dikaryotic mycelium proliferates through the leaf and culminates on the lower leaf surface as an aecium, typically formed directly below the pycnium (Fig. 1E). Dikaryotic aeciospores, 20 m in width, are formed in chains within the aecium and are wind-disseminated to the telial/ uredinial hosts when the aecia erupt through the leaf epidermis. The life-cycle is complete when aeciospores germinate and penetrate stomata of the telial/uredinial host, resulting in production of asexual urediniospores. P. triticina can cycle indefinitely as uredinial infections on telial hosts such as wheat. In the southern Great Plains of the US, leaf rust infections that over-summer on volunteer wheat can serve as resevoirs of inoculum for the autumn-planted winter wheat. In winter wheat, leaf rust can over-winter as mycelial or uredinial infections in areas with suitable temperature conditions (Roelfs, 1989).

UREDINIAL INFECTION PROCESS

Urediniospores are deposited by wind or rain on either side of the wheat leaf. Urediniospores imbibe water, swell and develop a germ tube after coming into contact with a film of moisture such as dew or light rain on the leaf surface. Germination occurs after 48 h at 20 C under 100% humidity (Hu and Rijkenberg, 1998; Zhang and Dickinson, 2001; Zhang et al., 2003), but spores may retain viability 13 days after inoculation under field conditions in the absence of an immediate dew period (Allen, 1926). Similar to P. graminis and other rust fungi (Collins and Read, 1997; Leonard and Szabo, 2005; Wynn and Staples, 1981), P. triticina germ tube growth is controlled by a thigmotropic response to the topography of the leaf surface, with growth orientated perpendicular to the long axis of the epidermal cells (Fig. 2A). Germ tubes continue to grow on the leaf surface until endogenous spore reserves are depleted or until a stoma is encountered (Dickinson, 1969). On artificial membranes that contain surface topographies of plant species other than wheat, germ tubes will often be unable to locate or recognize artificial stomata (Wynn and Staples, 1981). Likewise, germ tubes are also unable to locate or recognize stomata from non-host plants (Wynn and Staples, 1981). At the stoma, the germ tube stops elongating and protoplasm flows towards the tip to form an appressorium over the stomatal aperture (Fig. 2B). The formation of appressoria occurs within 24 h after inoculation and germ tubes that have not found stomata by this stage do not survive (Zhang et al., 2003). The two nuclei from the urediniospore migrate into the appressorium where they undergo mitosis followed by formation of a septum which isolates the now-empty germ tube from the appressorium. The stomata usually close promptly in response to appressorium formation, and remain closed in the presence of a mature appressorium (Caldwell and Stone, 1936). A penetration peg originating from the appressorium pushes through the closed stoma to gain entry into intercellular space within the host leaf where the fungus forms a substomatal vesicle and another round of mitosis occurs (Fig. 2C). In contrast to P. graminis, P. triticina does not require light for entry through stoma and is unaffected by CO2 concentration (Wynn and Staples, 1981). Subsequently, an infection hypha typically begins to grow inward from the substomatal vesicle towards the mesophyll cells (Allen, 1926), in contrast to intercellular hyphae of P. graminis which grow along the inner surface of the epidermis to the mesophyll cells nearest the stoma (Allen, 1923). Cytoplasm and nuclei migrate from the substomatal vesicle into the hypha that grows until the tip comes into contact with a mesophyll cell. After this contact, a septum forms behind the tip to delimit the haustorial mother cell (Fig. 2D). The haustorial mother cell, typically containing three nuclei, forms between 12 and 24 h after appressorium penetration (Hu and Rijkenberg, 1998) and adheres tightly to the host cell wall (Allen, 1926). Host cell penetration begins with the formation of a penetration peg within an area of contact between the haustorial mother cell and the host cell, followed by the formation of a haustorium within the host cell. The haustorium is a specialized hypha that acts as a feeding structure for the fungus. Although the host cell wall is breached, haustoria are not truly intracellular as they remain separated from host cytoplasm by the extrahaustorial membrane, a derivative of the host plasma membrane that tightly envelops the haustorium (Panstruga, 2003; Szabo and Bushnell, 2001). The extrahaustorial membrane is thought to be the interface where nutrient uptake from the host

occurs, which is probably the result of fungal manipulation of host cell metabolism to establish and maintain compatibility (Bushnell and Rowell, 1981; Hahn and Mendgen, 2001; Mendgen et al.,2000; Panstruga, 2003; Szabo and Bushnell, 2001).

Fig. 2 Infection structures of Puccinia triticina on wheat leaf surface. (A) Urediniospore (U) germ tube (G) has produced an appressorium (A) over stomatal aperture (bar = 40 m). (B) Appressorium contents have moved into substomatal vesicle (SSV) (bar = 12 m). (C) Inside of leaf showing SSV orientated perpendicular to leaf surface (bar = 10 m). (D) SSV produces primary infection hyphae (PH) and haustorial mother cell (HMC). The HMC produces a haustorium (not shown) within a mesophyll cell. A secondary haustoria (SH) may emerge in the proximity of HMC (bar = 7 m). Pictures courtesy of Hu and Rijkenberg (1998), by permission of Elsevier.

Although the three nuclei from the haustorial mother cell migrate through the penetration peg and into the haustorium, only one nucleus is found in the mature haustorium due to disintegration of the other two nuclei (Allen, 1926). After haustorial formation, more infecting hyphae produced from the haustorial mother cell grow and come into contact with additional host cells. These also form haustorial mother cells and haustoria, resulting in a branching network of fungal mycelium. Allen (1926) noted that even up until 6 days after inoculation of a susceptible cultivar, the host cell appeared to be unaltered by the infection. The only visible change seen in host cells during this time was movement of the host nucleus towards the haustorium (Allen, 1926). At 710 days post inoculation, the mycelium growing in susceptible wheat leaf tissue gives rise to uredinia that produce dikaryotic urediniospores. Orangered urediniospores are released when uredinia rupture the epidermis. The released urediniospores impart the characteristic rusty appearance to leaves. In highly susceptible hosts, secondary uredinia form in a small oval around the primary pustule (Schafer, 1987). Even at 16 days post inoculation, less than 1% of host cells have died as a result of infection (Allen, 1926).

Disease Management

The overzealous and indiscriminate use of most of the synthetic fungicides has created different types of environmental and toxicological problems. Recently, in different parts of the world, attention has been paid towards exploitation of higher plant products as novel chemotherapeutants in plant protection. The popularity of botanical pesticides is once again increasing and some plant products are being used globally as green pesticides. The Aqueous extracts from bird cherry tree (Padus avium[Prunus padus]), aspen (Populus tremula), Celadine (Chelidonium majus) effectively suppressed the germination of Puccinia triticina (Puccinia recondite) uredospores (Karavaev et al., 2002). Fungitoxic activity of the extracts was attributed to the high phenolic compound content and high peroxidase activity in the leaves of these plants. Abstract: Wheat rust caused by Puccinia reconditawas controlled by leaf extract of poisonous phanerogamic plants. Leave extract of 4 poisonous phanerogamic plants, Narium odorum, Calotropis gigantea, Azadirachta indica and Datura trimonium have 40. 60, 45. 45, 56.96 and 81.81% decrease of disease over control respectively. Whereas fungicide Baytan decrease the disease 84.84% which is at par with Datura strimonium

Introduction Wheat is grown on an area of 8821 .4 thousand hectares with an annual production of 16696.61 thousand tons Anonymous, 1994. Antifungal activity of neem oil has been reported against Fusarium moniliformae and Flhizoctonia Solani Kazmi et al., 1991. Baytan has been proved as an effective rusticide IBhowmick and Chaudhary, 19921. Antifungal activity of leaf extract of A. indica against Alternaria radicina, Helminthosporium turcicum and Ascochyta rabiei was demonstrated by Khan, 1989.

Bhowmick and Chaudhary 119821 found leaf extract of A. indica conpletely inhibited the growth of Alternaria alternate Muthusamy and coworkersl1 9881 reported the effect of neem seed extract and neem oil against rust of groundnut. Severe rust epiphytotics of 1948 and 1954 results in 30 to 50% reduction in yield. About 2400 plants species are known to possess biologically active compounds that control various pests and pathogen Saleem et al.,1981. Control of wheat rust by poisonous phenerogamic extract is safe, economical, with least residual effects as compared to fungicides.

Materials and Methods Dhurum variety IWL-7111 of wheat was cultivated which is highly susceptible to leaf rust of wheat. The experiment was laid out in plant pathology section of Ayub Agricultural Research lnsititute, Faisalabad. The wheat variety WL-711 susceptible to leaf rust was cultivated in each of the 24 sub plots I5 x 101. Randomized complete Block Design IRCBD1 was used for data analysis. In first year of the experiment, leaf rust of wheat was appeared in natural way. While in next year's season wheat crop, the experiment was artificially inoculated with wheat rust inoculum. Here the rust effected leaves from the other fields of wheat were collected and grinded. Then extract was passed through 4 ply muslin cloth and this extract includes spores of P. recondita were sprayed over the experiment for artificial inoculation. The leaf rust symptoms were appeared after 7 days interval. Then extract of D. strimonium, A. indica, C. gigantea, N. odorum were obtained. Here fresh leaves of all these 4 poisonous phanerogamic plants were taken. Aqueous extract was prepared by macerating 50 gm of leaves in 100 ml of distilled water 11:2 ratio. The extract of each individual poisonous phanerogamic plant's leaves was passed through ply muslin cloth and then sprayed over the respective treatment by Knapsack sprayer. Thoroughly washed knapsack sprayer should be used for each treatment. Three consecutive sprays with the interval of 7 days were done along with Benlate @ 2 gm/lit of water while last treatment did not sprayed which considered as control. Disease incidence data were recorded after seven days of each spray. The data recorded were analysed statistically and significant results were found. Datura, Neem, Akk an Knair have 81.67, 60.64, 48.38, 38.32% decrease of disease incidence respectively in the first year and 81.81, 56.96, 45.45 and 40.60% decrease of disease incidence respectively, in the second year of the experiment.

Results Poisonous phanerogamic plants have toxins in their extracts by nature. When these extract are sprayed over the diseased crop inhibit the productivity of the fungus spores of P. recondita, and fungus do not reproduced and multiplied and ultimately reduce disease incidence. Datura, Neem and Akk have moreover less equal control over wheat rust. In first year the experiment's results, maximum control was achieved by Baytan has 0.98% disease incidence which is followed by Datura, Neem, Akk and Knair having 2.84, 6.10,8.56 and 9.56% disease incidence respectively

as compared to control which has 15.5% disease incidence. Similarly Baytan has 93.67% decrease of disease incidence over control and '5 followed by Datura, Neem, Akk and Knair having 81.67, 60.64, 48.38 and 38.32% decrease of disease incidence over control. In the next year of the experiment again Baytan a fungicide gave maximum control over the leaf rust of wheat which is 2.5% and it is followed by Datura, Neem, Akk and Knair having 3.0, 7.10, 9.0 and 9.80% disease incidence respectively. Whereas in control 16.5% disease incidence were recorded. Similarly Baytan has 84.84% decrease over control which is followed by Datura, Neem, Akk and Knair having 81.81, 56.96, 45.45 and 40.60% decrease of disease

Discussion Leaf extract of poisonous phanerogamic plants effectively controlled the wheat rust of fungi. Percentage decrease of disease incidence over control by Datura strimonium is 81.81% while decrease of disease incidence by Baytan is 84.84% the most effective fungicide against the wheat rust disease. So far the control of Puccinia reconditais concerned the poisonous phanerogamic plants, leaves extract can be used instead of fungicide which will not only save the foreign exchange but cheapest way to control the leaf rust of wheat.

Introduction Many plants are poisonous and a great number of plants are used by herbal experts to cure human and animal diseases. Keeping in view these properties of plants research workers have been attracted to find safe and cheap control of plant diseases using extracts of different plant parts (Misra & Dixit, l977; Charya at 111., 1979; Kumar ct al, 1979; Awasthi & Mukerjee, i980; Kapoor et al., l98l; Rahber-Bhatti, 1986). Experiments were carried out to study the control of leaf rust of wheat (Puccinia recondita f.sp. tririci) with plant products for minimizing health hazards by the use of chemical fungicides.

Materials and Methods Decoction: Leaves of the plants (Table 1) were collected in the morning, dried at 25-- 30C and crushed. Powdered leaves at 0.5, 1.0 and 1.5 g1" were separately added to distilled water in conical flasks, autoclaved for l5 min and ltered through Whatman No. l filter paper followed by Millipore lter (pore size 0.22 um) before use. Host and parasite: Seeds of Mexi-Pak wheat were sown in clay pots at 20C under continuous illumination of 2000 Lux. From seedlings in 3 leaf stage, fully expanded lower 2 leaves were detached, cut into l5 mm portions, placed in Petri dishes (5 pieces dish) containing water~saturated cotton wool which were then inoculated with unrcdiniospore suspension (5 x 10 spores ml"1) of Puccinia recondita f.sp. tritici following the techniques described by Rahber~Bhatti & Shattock (1980). Inoculated plates were sealed with adhesive tape and incubated at 20C under constant illumination of 2000 Lux. The fungus was thus maintained by serial subcultures after every fortnight. Urediniospore germination: In each concentration of leaf decoction, l% agar was added which was dissolved by heating in water bath containing boiling water and poured in Petri dishes. The dishes were inoculated with urediniospores and incubated at 20C under 24 h darkness keeping 5 replicates of each treatment. Urediniospore germination was recorded after 24 h following the techniques described by Shattoek & Rahber-Bhatti (1983) which was transformed into inhibition percentage by the following formula: Inhibition % =(1-germination on decoction/germination on control )x1(l00

Germination on control If any decoction exhibited 100% inhibition at the dilution of 0.5 g1", its further lower concentrations (0.25, 0.125 and 0.0625 g1") were also tested. The ED50 and ED90 values were calculated by probit analysis. Detached leaves: Plants with low ED50 and ED9O values were selected for rust control on detached leaves of wheat. One dilution (1 g1") of each leaf decotion was separately prepared and used against the infection of P. recondila f.sp. tritici. To test protec- tive effect of the decoetions the leaf segments were dipped for S min in decoction and placed 5 per Petri dish on watersaturated cotton wool. Control leaf portions were dipped in distilled water for the same time. Leaf segments were then inoculated with spore suspension of the rust. The plates were then sealed with adhesive tape and 5 Petri dishes of each treatment and control were incubated at 20C under constant illumination of 2000 Lux. To test curative effect of the same leaf decoctions, detached leaf portions of wheat were first set up in Petri dishes containing water- saturated cotton wool, inoculated similarly and incubated under the same conditions. Three days after inoculation 25 leaf portions were separately dipped in each leaf decoction for 5 min and returned to the same Petri dishes. Control leaf segments

were dippedin distilled water. Five plates (5 leaf portions in each) of each treatment and control were sealed with adhesive tape and incubated under the same conditions. Petri dishes of both experiments were observed under the microscope 15 days after inoculation. Following the techniques of Shattock 8; Rahber-Bhatti (1983) the mean number of uredinia per microscope field (x 10) in each treatment was calculated by observing 5 random fields on each leaf segment.

Results Urediniospore germination." Cassia serma showed enhanced germination of urediniosporcs whereas all other leaf dccoctions reduced urediniospore germination of P. recondita f.sp. trilici. ED50 and ED90 values of Datum stramonium were lowest among all the plants tested. ED50 and ED9O values of Acacia nilotica, Calotropis procera, Dodonaea viscosa and Rhazya stricta were very low as compared with other plants. Discussion Decoctions of dry leaves have been used for the first time againt leaf rust of wheat. Leaves of l5 plants tested inhibited urediniospore germination, when Cassia senna showed enhanced spore germination of P. recondita f.sp. tritici. Sathe & Rahalkar (1975) used extracts of 7 plants against spore gennination of leaf rust of wheat. There are reports of inhibition of spore germination of Botryodiplodia theobromae (Manoharachary & Reddy, 1978), Ustilago trizici, U. hordei (Misra & Dixit, 1979) and in vitro growth of Rhizocronia solani and Sclerolium oryzae (Naidu & John, 1981). The present and previous studies show that different parts of Azadimchm indica and Lawsonia inermis possess antifungal activity (Charya et aiZ., 1979; Singh & Singh, 1981). Use of leaf decoctions on inhibition of rust infection on wheat leaf segments (Table 2) supports the results of other workers when extracts of Datum szramonium and other plants completely controlled rice blast (Lapis & Dumancas, 1979). Sugarcane mosaic (Shukla & Joshi, 1980) and bunt of wheat (Siugh er al.,, 1980) under field conditions. These results and the findings of Rahber-Bhatti (1986) show that plant extracts, diffusates and decoclions could be used to control plant diseases as they reduce susceptibility or increase resistance of treated plants (Vcrma & Awasthi, 1979; Roychoudhury, 1980).

DUSTY SURFACE BEETLE Identification A small, unobtrusive beetle, which is often present in large numbers, the dusty surface beetle, Gonocephalum simplex, is sometimes capable of doing considerable damage to germinating crops. The beetle is brownish-black in colour, usually coated with a layer of dust, and is roughly rectangular and flattened in shape. It is about 10 mm long and 5 mm in width, and often feigns death when disturbed. The hard forewings, or wing-covers, are ridged longitudinally, and while membranous wings are present, the beetle has seldom been seen to fly. Eggs are creamy white and oval, being less than 1 mm long, and the larvae are elongate and cylindrical, with three pairs of legs on the thorax. They are straw-coloured, shiny and tough-skinned, reaching about 15 mm in length when fully grown. They are called false wireworms because they closely resemble the insects known as "wireworms" from colder climates, but which belong to a different beetle family (Elateridae).

Hosts The pest, in either beetle or false wireworm form, has been recorded as a sporadic pest of maize, wheat and other cereals, tobacco, cotton, sunflower, coffee, groundnuts, strawberries and potatoes. The beetle is often present within crops, vegetable beds and gardens in great numbers without doing any apparent damage. Damage Two types of damage by the beetle have been recorded. Young transplants, such as coffee or tobacco, or newly germinated crops of sunflower, cotton, or even maize, sometimes have their stem bases eaten into or partly ring barked. The beetles are also responsible for digging up and eating into the germ of dryplanted seed, particularly maize, thus reducing the plant stands. Serious losses caused by either type of damage are most likely under drought conditions, or, in the second case mentioned, whenever there is a long dry spell after planting. A third type of damage is caused by the larvae (false wireworms) feeding on roots in the soil. There have been cases of severe, although very sporadic, damage by the larvae of this species in wheat particularly, necessitating replanting of large patches within a field. The false wireworms seem to eat either into the actual seed, or they consume the developing roots and shoots. Wheat plants that have been damaged wilt and dry off about three weeks after planting. Early-planted summer crops (i.e. before the rains appear) such as cotton, groundnuts, early maize, paprika and tobacco may be damaged by quite large larvae which have not yet pupated. The damage is to the stems just below soil level, and has

the effect of causing gaps in plant stands. Other species of false wireworm than the one described here may be responsible for similar damage. Life cycle G. simplex has one generation a year. The majority of eggs are laid singly in the soil from the end of the wet season (April onwards) and since the beetles are relatively long-lived, they may continue to lay in the early part of the dry season if conditions are suitable for them. The eggs take one to two weeks to hatch. The larvae live and feed in the soil from April right through the dry winter months, and then form a loose earthen cell in which to pupate. Peak emergence of the beetles occurs in about December, during the main rains, explaining why October-planted crops can suffer damage by the larval stages. Eggs that are laid late in the season give rise to adults that emerge later, so that there is considerable overlap of generations. The beetles tend to spend the daylight hours in mulch or amongst clods of soil, coming out to feed at night. As the season becomes drier, they may be found concentrated in irrigated fields, or under clumps of crop residue. It is probable that in drought conditions many beetles die before they are ready to lay eggs. Control The presence of trash on the soil surface harbours the beetles, and it appears that certain crops, such as soyabeans and groundnuts, seem to favour their presence. The beetles also prefer the heavier red soils to sandy soils, and an infestation often remains and builds up in a particular spot from season to season, since they do not move very far. Damage by the beetles themselves can be expected particularly in maize that is planted after the first week in December, in dry ground. The beetles do not usually affect earlier plantings, since few will have emerged before this time, but these may be subject to serious standreducing damage by the larvae. Under conditions such as these, then, it would be wise to control the adults before damage can occur, and since they are very poorly controlled by insecticidal sprays, this has to be done either by seed dressings or the application of baits. The most commonly used, and probably safest, of the home-made baits, is made up of maize meal, sugar and trichlorfon. As with cutworm control, this should be moistened to a crumbly texture and spread as late in the day as possible, using at least 20 kg/ha.

PINK STEM BORER

Identification The pink stem borer, Sesamia calamistis, is a pest of sporadic importance in graminaceous crops. The larvae have a brown head and pinkish-brown body, with dark spiracles down the sides. They are much lighter in colour than the similar maize stem borer (Busseola fusca). They can reach about 30 mm in length, although this depends on the size of the stems in which they bore. The pupae are roughly 15 mm long and a pale reddish-brown, and the adult moths, with a wingspan of 25-30 mm, have yellowish-brown forewings and white hindwings.

Pink Stem Borer in wheat stem

Hosts The pink stem borer has been recorded on maize, sorghum and other millets, wheat, sugar cane, rice and other grasses. It is not a major pest of maize, but on occasions it has been reported causing quite extensive damage to very young, early-planted maize plants, and to sweetcorn crops. Damage In maize, the damage takes the form of withering of the central leaves of young plants. The attack comes much earlier than that of the maize stalk borer (Busseola fusca) which is a more widespread and serious pest of maize. The significance of this is that while the normal maize stalk borer funnel treatments would probably give some control of pink stem borer, especially if they were insecticidal sprays rather than granule applications, it arrives before these treatments have been applied, often in maize plants less than 15 cm tall. Another difference between the two pests is that the eggs tend to be laid low down on the plant stem, and the young larvae tunnel straight into the stems, avoiding the funnel. Thus there are none of the characteristic feeding marks found on the unfurling leaves of the funnel left by the maize stalk borer, which can be used for scouting. Several pink stem borers will penetrate the stem successfully, while maize stalk borer infestations tend to be only one or two successful individuals per plant. (Many actually die from drowning or natural enemies before they penetrate the stem.) In sweetcorn crops that are earlyplanted, the most serious damage is to the cobs themselves where rows of seeds are destroyed by the caterpillars feeding activities. In wheat, which is grown in Zimbabwe through the winter months, relatively low numbers of white ears caused by S. calamistis are noticed in most seasons. When an

affected tiller is noticed, a sharp tug will easily detach it and the hollowed stalk will contain piles of frass and sometimes the pinkish caterpillars. The base of the stalk remains green. Rodents or termites can also cause white ears, in which case the stem is eaten away entirely. Even when there is an affected ear for every square metre, the damage to wheat will be negligible, considering the dense wheat stands generally grown in Zimbabwe. Their presence, however, may be an indication that large numbers of this pest are present to start off the coming summer season, when maize is planted. In rice the damage by pink stem borer is very similar in appearance to that in wheat. In sorghum and millets, damage by pink stem borer may lead to stunted growth or poorly developed heads, and occasionally damage to sugar cane can occur in a very similar fashion to that described for maize, with attack at ground level giving rise to dead hearts.

Life cycle The adult moths lay their eggs in elongated batches of 25 to 40 at night under the leaf sheaths near the base of the plant. (In the case of sweetcorn damage, the eggs tend to be laid under the cob bracts or in the cob axils.) The eggs hatch in about a week and the young larvae soon penetrate the stem or the developing cobs. During the summer the larval period is 3 to 6 weeks, and the caterpillars pass through six or seven larval instars. They pupate in the plant stalks or in the tunnels caused by feeding on the cobs, and after 10 to 14 days, new moths emerge. In the winter months, development takes place at a much slower rate.

Control It is fortunate that this is not normally a serious pest of maize, as its habit of entering the stem low and almost immediately after hatching, makes it very difficult to control. If dead hearts are seen in maize in numbers that are significant, it is possible that sprays rather than granules applied on the very young plants so that the chemical runs down the stem, will do a reasonable job of control. However, the damage is usually noted long after it is possible to prevent it. Of course, pre-planting systemic granules applied to the furrows, while expensive, will probably give good control of this pest, (as well as the common maize stalk borer, maize streak vectors, some soil pests and nematodes) if the maize crop is a valuable one. Taking note of the amount of infestation in preceding wheat crops should give warning of the possibility of problems when early maize or sweetcorn is to be planted.

The bioactivity of the aqueous extracts of the leaf and stem bark of the medicinal plant, Alstonia booneiDe Wild (Apocyanaceae), against the pink stalk borer, Sesamia calamistis Hampson (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) was studied in a laboratory bioassay. The extracts were incorporated into artificial diet at a rate of 0.0% (control), 1.0%, 2.5%, 5.0%, and 10.0% (w/w). Both extracts significantly (P<0.01) reduced larval survival and weight in a dose dependent manner. The concentrations that killed 50% of the larvae (LC50) for the stem bark extract were 2.8% and 2.1% at 10 and 20 DAI (days after introduction), respectively, while those for the leaves extract were 5.6% and 3.5%. The weights of the larvae also varied significantly (P<0.05) between the treatments in a dose dependent manner. We conclude that both leaf and stem bark extracts of A. boonei are toxic, used as growth inhibitors to S. calamistis larvae, and hold good promise for use as alternative crop protectants against S. calamistis. [1]

RED SPIDER MITE

Identification Spider mite belongs to the class Arachnida and is a common pest of a variety of crops. Spider mites are very tiny, and comprise a huge number of different species, most of which are distinguishable only to experts. The majority of damaging species belongs to the genus Tetranychus, and different species attack different crops, although many of them are fairly polyphagous. The adult mites range from 0.3 to 0.5 mm in length, are more or less oval in shape, usually reddish in colour (although some are straw-coloured or greenish), and have four pairs of legs. They are active creatures and usually associated with very fine webbing on the plant surface. When the population becomes heavy, the webbing is strung from leaf to leaf and may be covered in red mites. The eggs are spherical, semi-translucent or creamy, and about 0.1 mm in diameter. They are laid singly on the leaf amongst the threads of webbing. These hatch into tiny flesh-coloured nymphs, which at first have only three pairs of legs. hosts Tetranychus species are found on an extremely wide range of host plants. Amongst these are cotton, tobacco, tomatoes, potatoes, soyabeans and other beans, sunflowers, groundnuts, green peppers, brinjals, citrus, deciduous fruit, strawberries, cucurbits and even maize. Many ornamentals are also attacked; particularly roses, fuchsia, chrysanthemums, carnations, pansies, violets and many others, and the mites flourish in greenhouse situations. A variety of weeds such as blackjack (Bidens pilosa), sorrel (Oxalis spp,) and false gooseberry (Physalis spp.) can also support populations of Tetranychus. Damage The first symptom of red spider mite attack is usually the appearance of minute yellow stippling on the upper surface of leaves that have populations on their undersides. This is a result of sapsucking by the mites. Infested leaves generally become yellow, then bronzed, and drop off the plant if the infestation is left uncontrolled. In extreme infestations, the plants may become covered with webbing, and the mites cluster at the highest point of the plant to facilitate dispersal onto other plants by human movement or wind. Red spider mite infestations are often in hot spots in the crop, whether it is a field crop such as cotton, or a greenhouse crop such as cutflower roses. This may be as a result of inefficient control measures, or because there is a nearby source of uncontrolled mites (such as infested weeds). Sometimes spider mites are a resurgence pest after broad-spectrum insecticides have been applied for another pest, killing off its natural enemies. Damage can be at any time of year, but in field crops, red spider mite infestations usually occur in hot, dry spells of weather, and are checked by heavy rains.

Life cycle The life cycle of these mites is a short one and this enables a rapid build-up of the pest population if conditions are suitable. Four to seven days after being laid, the eggs hatch into sixlegged larvae, then pass through two further nymphal stages (the protonymph and the deutonymph) which have eight legs and resemble the adult stage. The three nymphal stages last about three days each and all feed actively. The adult stage lives from 10 to 30 days, and is able to reproduce eggs very soon after the last moult, laying about 10 eggs a day.

Control In some situations, such as in greenhouse crops, certain measures should be put in place to limit the occurrence of this pest. Among these are the removal of weed hosts from the vicinity, the avoidance of planting downwind of common host crops (cotton, tomato and bean crops particularly) and limiting access to the greenhouse by workers who may bring the pests in from infested areas (vegetable gardens or other crops). Within the crop, be it greenhouse or field crop, scouting or monitoring should be carried out regularly, checking the undersides of leaves, particularly in hot, dry weather. At first signs of the pest, control measures should be taken, since the population can spread so rapidly. Red spider mites are notorious for developing resistance to most of the groups of pesticides, and are totally unaffected by many commonly used insecticides today, so spray programmes for both the mites themselves, and for other pests in the crop need to take this into account. Over-use of any one group of pesticides will encourage development of resistance in the mite population, and most pesticides will destroy their natural enemies, further exacerbating the situation. Indeed some insecticides seem to cause mite explosions. To alleviate resistance problems in red spider mites in cotton crops, for many years a very successful acaricide rotation scheme was in operation in Zimbabwe. This specified the systemic acaricides that were permissible within any particular area, and the acaricides, which were derived from different chemical groups, were rotated through the cotton growing regions on a two-year basis. The system worked as long as farmers were conscientious in sticking to the rules. This became much more difficult to operate as cropping became more diversified and a variety of chemicals was used to control spider mite on other crops within each area. The basis of the system should still be used as far as possible, however, even on individual farms or within areas. There are many acaricides registered for different crops, from a variety of chemical groups, and some of them are relatively new compounds. Amongst them are acaricides that have contact action only (such as dicofol and dienochlor) and those that are mainly translaminar (such as abamectin, diafenthiuron, tetradifon and older organophosphates such as triazophos). Translaminar action is a useful property since spider mites are found mainly on the lower leaf surfaces, and spray application is thus facilitated. Good cover of the foliage is still important, however, as translaminar pesticides are not able to move from leaf to leaf. For contact acaricides, underleaf cover is obviously of vital importance if the population is to be controlled. L. javanica and S. delagoense water extracts showed potential to suppress vegetable pests when applied at 12.5 % and 25.6 % respectively. L. javanica was more efficacious than S. delagoense on rape aphids and tomato red spider mites. However, more studies are required to validate these results under typical farmer conditions. [5] Tea is a popular beverage made from the leaves of evergreen shrub or tree Camellia sinensis, under the family Theaceae. Tea plant is subjected to the attack of insects, mites, nematodes and some plant pathogenic diseases. Tea production is greatly hindered due to these maladies. About 10-15% crop loss occurred by these pests per annum. In severe cases, it would be 100%. To combat these problems different groups of pesticides have been used in the tea fields since 1960. As tea is a consumable commodity, the effect of residue of pesticides in made tea is harmful to human health. In this context, biopesticides are being considered as environmentally safe, selective, biodegradable, economical and renewable alternatives for use in IPM programmes. Biopesticides are natural plant products and may be grown by the planters with minimum cost and extracted by indigenous methods. Biopesticides are secondary metabolites, which include

alkaloids, terpenoids, phenolics, and minor secondary chemicals. It is estimated that as many as 2121 plant species have been reported to posses pest control properties. Botanicals like neem, ghora-neem, mahogoni,karanja, adathoda, sweet flag, tobacco, derris, annona, smart weed, bar weed, datura, calotropis, bidens, lantana, chrysanthemum, artemisia, marigold, clerodendrum, wild sunflower and many others may be grown by planters with minimum expense and extracted by indigenous methods. These botanical materials can be used as an alternative to chemical pesticides. These botanical extracts will help in controlling major pests of tea such as Helopeltis, red spider mite, aphids, thrips, jassid, flushworm, termites, nematodes etc. The present note reviews the information of most widely available indigenous plants that may be used for the control of insect pests of tea as a component of IPM. [4]

TERMITES
Identification In the drier regions of southern Africa, termites, often popularly called "white ants", can cause a good deal of damage to a variety of crops. A number of species have been implicated: Macrotermes spp., which may be recognised by their large size, white bodies and golden-red heads, and the large mounds ("ant hills") they build. Odontotermes spp., which are smaller (about 4 mm long), white-bodied, with golden heads, and which build smaller mounds with large open ventilation shafts, particularly in black vlei areas. Ancistrotermes latinotus, a small species that looks very similar to the above but which does not form mounds at all, merely living in series of underground hives or occupying portions of hives belonging to other termites. Microtermes spp., which is a minute termite (about 2 mm long), similar in appearance to the above two, and which also does not build mounds. The harvester termite, Hodotermes mossambicus, belongs to a different family and is not included here, as it is a more specific pest of grasses and pastures. Macrotermes sp. are often erroneously called harvester termites, but they differ in appearance (being much paler in body colour than the pigmented harvesters, although of similar size) and in their food-collecting habits (they do not wander freely, but build mud tunnels over their food source).

Crop Damaging Termites

Host Among the crops which have been subject to termite damage are cotton, deciduous fruit trees, groundnuts, maize, pasture grasses, plantation trees, sorghum, soyabeans, sugar cane, tea, tobacco and wheat. Also attacked are lawns and various ornamentals. Plants are readily attacked when they have been damaged or have been under some form of stress, such as drought or sometimes even water logging. Not surprisingly, timber is sometimes damaged by the species mentioned, as dry wood is their natural food, but other species are usually implicated. Damage Damage takes on various forms, depending on the crop. In cotton, most of the damage takes place in the first nine weeks after planting, and the termites (Ancistrotermes, Odontotermes and Microtermes spp. particularly) tend to penetrate and hollow out the taproot and stem from beneath the soil. Affected plants then simply wilt and become desiccated. In maize, the smaller termite species may hollow out the roots and lower stem, but this seems to occur after physiological maturity of the crop. The result is lodging and then rapid covering of the fallen plants with earth workings so that they can be consumed, cobs and all. Sometimes Macrotermes spp. from a nearby mound may attack the crop, and they approach from above the ground, simply covering the lower stem with earth and climbing up the plant. In groundnuts, damage appears from about twelve weeks after planting, and taproots and subterranean pods may be hollowed out. This allows the penetration of fungi into the pods, one of which in particular, Aspergillus flavus, produces a substance (aflatoxin) which is highly toxic to cattle and poultry. In other plants, damage may be more obvious, with earth-workings around the stem bases. Often, weakened or stressed plants (from drought or a spell of water logging) are attacked.

Life Cycle A number of different forms of individuals exist in termite communities. Every colony has a king and queen, whose sole concern is reproduction, and these are often enclosed in an earthen cell where the hugely distended and helpless queen produces thousands of eggs. If destroyed, the royal couple can be replaced by complementary royalties which are reared by the workers. The soldier caste is easily recognised by the enlarged, pigmented head and usually well-developed jaws. Soldiers surround the openings of mounds or earth workings and protect the workers while they are on food forays. The greater part of the colony consists of the workers, which are concerned with food gathering, nest building and care of the eggs and young. They also feed all the other members of the colony, which are unable to feed themselves. Many termites of the family Termitidae cultivate a fungus within the nest, and this is a source of food for the royal pair and the young. When the rains arrive, activity in the colony increases, the hives are enlarged, and a winged form appears. These termites are fully developed sexually, and have the task of mating and founding new colonies. Vast flights of them appear when weather conditions are ideal, and after mating, the wings are dropped and each pair finds a new home. They form an important source of food for many other animals, and relatively few succeed to start new colonies.

Control Control of termites has proven difficult. There is little doubt that in themselves termites would be very susceptible to a number of chemicals, but the difficulty lies in their inaccessibility and in their time of attack. Most of the currently available chemicals are short-lived and the attack invariably comes at the end of the crop's life. A successful chemical would need to have some persistence or to be able to move down the soil profile to provide any control, so insoluble compounds or those that are readily adsorbed onto clay particles would be of no use unless they were incorporated. A couple of new insecticides are currently being researched for termite control, and have received registration for certain crops. One of these, fipronil, has given some success either as a seed dressing, or as a furrow treatment at planting, and another, imidachloprid, has given some success when applied as a high-volume spray to the plant bases at the appropriate time (when attack is likely). As far as termite mound control is concerned, it may not be the nearest mound that is responsible for termite damage in a field, since frequently no mound is made and the subterranean colony is apparent only by earth workings on the soil surface. If, however, a nearby mound has been found to be responsible, then attempts can be made to eliminate this by direct application of an insecticide with some persistence, such as gamma-BHC which is usually available in ant remedies. Contact insecticides such as synthetic pyrethroids may serve only to eliminate those individuals which come into direct contact with them, but are unlikely to reach the termite queen. Sometimes an attempt is made to destroy a colony by removing the queen. This may be an extremely laborious task, since the queen may be concealed at some depth. Some termites, however, have the ability to replace the lost queen by putting in her place reproducing females. The extracts of Cannabis sativus, Datura alba, Curcuma amada, Ricinus communis and Asafoetida were found to be effective against termites. Although some botanicals were not as effective as chemical but they are nontoxic and safe for the environment, biodegradable and renewable source. The plant extract could be exploited to develop new wood preservatives to protect wooden structures, agricultural crops, plants and trees, as these are less harmful to the environment and humans. Further, short and long term field studies are required to use them as commercial termiticide. [2] Aqueous extract from Artemisia cina (family Compositae), was lethal to larvae of Culex pipiens L. The EC50 for the mosquito at 24 h after treating with extract was 4.0 g L-1 for Artemisia cina (Aly & Badran, 2003). Essential oils of Artemisia absinthium L. extracted by three methods, a microwave assisted process (MAP), distillation in water (DW) and direct steam distillation (DSD) were lethal to the spider mite but to variable degrees (Chiasson et al., 2001). Essentials oil form A. absinthium was not toxic to Trialeurodes vaporariorum (Choi et al., 2003). The efficacy of A. absinthium against termites confirms the results of Choi et al. (2003) but contradict Aly and Badran (2003). These studies used seed either as aqueous or oil extracts whereas leaves of the plant were used in the present studies. The rapid degradation of leaf extract of A. absinthium in soil could be one reason for being not able to prevent damage by the termites. Absinthe, Chulai and Babchi were equal in rendering germination percentage, bud and seedling damage.

Ahmed et al. (2006a) have reported termiticidal activity of Babchi from the laboratory experiment. Though Babchi suppressed the population of foraging termites in the field but was not successful in checking the bud damage when compared with Aksen and chlorpyrifos. Aksen (W. somnifera) had comparable results with chlorpyrifos towards bud, seedling damages and population of foraging termites in the field. We have previopusdly reported successfuyl use of crude extracts of Calotropis procera and Datura alba nees against the termites in the sugarcane (Ahmed et al., 2005b). Extracts of neem leaves and whole plant of Haloxylon recurvum were not able to protect the setts from termites (Ahmed et al., 2005a). Further studies on the use of extracts of plants mentioned herein at other sugarcane growing area will enforce the use of these plants as an alternate to insecticides.[3]

Pesticides Discovery and Development Major Events in Pesticide Development Process Chemical Research Synthesis from known chemicals Synthesis from plants, fungi, etc. Patent Review 17 year time limit on patent Lab and Greenhouse Screening Efficacy Toxicology Environmental safety Field Trials Efficacy Environmental safety Toxicology Acute toxicity Subchronic toxicity Chronic toxicity and carcinogenicity Reproduction/Developmental toxicity Neurotoxicity Genetic toxicology

Environmental Safety Environmental effects on soil, water, and air Residue/decomposition studies Registration Label information Toxicology data Environmental safety data Worker safety data

References 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1997230/ http://www.kadinst.hku.hk/sdconf10/Papers_PDF/p571.pdf http://fspublishers.org/ijab/past-issues/IJABVOL_9_NO_3/5.pdf http://ijarit.webs.com/IJARIT%200003.pdf http://www.nri.org/projects/adappt/docs/Muzemu.pdf

Helpful links http://www.arc.agric.za/home.asp?pid=5722 http://www.pestsandcrops.com/ http://books.google.co.in/books?id=MqbxFcXDrZQC&pg=PA65&lpg=PA65&dq=plant+extracts+against +Puccinia+triticina&source=bl&ots=Yd5_q9rA2R&sig=mUjBRIgfqq5K8v8oRwA11Ww5T5k&hl=en&s a=X&ei=O6fUJT1NtDOrQfYooCwCA&ved=0CG4Q6AEwBw#v=onepage&q=plant%20extracts%20against%20Pucc inia%20triticina&f=false http://www.formatex.info/microbiology3/book/1033-1042.pdf http://www.ijat-aatsea.com/pdf/v8_n2_12_March/11_IJAT%202012_8_2__Tesfaye%20Hailu%20Terefeevaluated.pdf