Design and Growth of Aluminum Nitride/Gallium Nitride High Electron Mobility Field Effect Transistor

Lakehead University Engineering 4969 YB Degree Project
Design and Growth of Aluminum Nitride/Gallium Nitride High Electron Mobility Field Effect Transistor
Presentation Date April 4, 2013
Report Submission Date March 29, 2013
Supervisor/Advisor Dr. Dimiter Alexandrov
Group Members Aleksandar Aleksandrov (# 0501660) Joey Mercier (# 0502424) Ericson Rede (# 0491931)
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Abstract
Design and Growth of Aluminum Nitride/Gallium Nitride High Electron Mobility Field Effect Transistor By: Aleksandar Aleksandrov, Joey Mercier, Ericson Rede The use of transistors has evolved the way humans live their lives. The
advancements in technology enabled by this device far outreach its minimal physical dimensions. The problem with some current technologies however, is the limit in high-frequency operation predominantly at higher microwave frequencies. At these very high frequencies, transistor behaviors are harder to predict and power output is lacking, therefore the scarcity in newer technologies is potentially foreboding. High Electron Mobility Transistors (or HEMTs) have great operating characteristics at high frequencies, with GaN (Gallium Nitride) semiconductors potentially leading the way due to their expected low costs (as compared to other semiconductors with similar properties) and important material properties. This report will focus on the design and growth of such a device with N-type Aluminum Gallium Nitride, intrinsic Gallium Nitride (N-AlGaN/GaN), with an InGaN buffer layer to form a double heterojunction high electron mobility field effect transistor.
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Table of Contents
Abstract........................................................................................................................ i Table of Figures ......................................................................................................... v List of Tables ........................................................................................................... viii List of Equations ....................................................................................................... ix List of Acronyms ........................................................................................................ x
1. Introduction ......................................................................................................... 1 1.1 Objective.......................................................................................................... 1 1.2 Description of Materials ................................................................................. 1 1.2.1 Gallium Nitride (GaN) ............................................................................. 2 1.2.2 Aluminum Nitride (AlN).......................................................................... 2 1.2.3 Indium Nitride (InN) ................................................................................ 2 1.3 The High Electron Mobility Transistor (HEMT) ............................................ 3 1.3.1 Field Effect Transistors and HEMT characteristics ................................. 3 1.3.2 Heterojunctions and Basic Semiconductor Physics ................................. 6 1.3.3 Basis of Operation .................................................................................... 8 1.3.4 Physical Nature ...................................................................................... 14 1.4 Two-Dimensional Electron Gas (2DEG) ...................................................... 16 1.5 Application of HEMT Devices....................................................................... 19 1.6 Potential Economical and Societal Impacts.................................................. 20
2. Design of the HEMT ......................................................................................... 23 2.1 Electron Band Diagrams and Resulting Heterojunctions ............................... 23 2.2 Growth ............................................................................................................. 30 2.3 Doping and Metal Deposition.......................................................................... 31 2.4 Final Device Structure ..................................................................................... 34
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3. Theory of Experimental Measurements ......................................................... 36 3.1 Overview........................................................................................................ 36 3.2 Theory............................................................................................................ 36 3.2.1 Atomic Force Microscope ...................................................................... 36 3.2.2 X-Ray Diffraction .................................................................................. 38 3.2.3 Scanning Electron Microscope............................................................... 39 3.2.4 Hall-Effect .............................................................................................. 39
4. Experimental Results ........................................................................................ 42 4.1 AFM Measurements ...................................................................................... 42 4.1.1 Sample #1 (2012-11-22) ........................................................................... 42 4.1.2 Sample #2 (2012-12-12) ........................................................................... 42 4.1.3 Sample #3 (2012-12-19) ........................................................................... 43 4.1.4 Discussion .............................................................................................. 43 4.2 XRD Measurements ....................................................................................... 44 4.2.1 Discussion .............................................................................................. 44 4.3 SEM Measurements ....................................................................................... 46 4.3.1 Sample #1 (2012-11-22) ........................................................................... 46 4.3.2 Sample #2 (2012-12-12) ........................................................................... 48 4.3.3 Sample #3 (2012-12-19) ........................................................................... 49 4.3.4 Discussion ............................................................................................. 50
4.4 Hall-Effect Measurements ............................................................................. 51 4.4.1 Sample #1 (2012-11-22) ........................................................................... 51 4.4.2 Sample #2 (2012-12-12) ........................................................................... 52 4.4.3 Sample #3 (2012-12-19) ........................................................................... 53 4.4.4 Discussion .............................................................................................. 53
5. Conclusion and Future Work .......................................................................... 55 5.1 Future Work and Limitations ........................................................................ 55 5.2 Conclusion..................................................................................................... 56 - iii -
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6. References .......................................................................................................... 57
Appendix A Microwave Frequency Bands ...........................................................A Appendix B Binary and Ternary Semiconductor Properties .......................... B.1 Appendix C Overview of Local Diffusion ..........................................................C.1 Appendix D Quantum Tunneling .......................................................................D.1
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Table of Figures
FIGURE 1: SIMPLE OVERVIEW OF DIFFUSION [2]........................................................... 4 FIGURE 2: OUTPUT POWER DENSITY VS. FREQUENCY [3] ............................................. 5 FIGURE 3: THE MINIMUM NOISE FIGURE (NF,MIN) FOR GAAS AND GAN HEMTS AS A FUNCTION OF FREQUENCY (WITH ID = 100 MA/MM, L = 150NM) [1] .................... 5 FIGURE 4: THE ANDERSON MODEL ............................................................................... 6 FIGURE 5: OVERVIEW OF A 2DEG AT THE HETEROINTERFACE [7] ................................ 9 FIGURE 6: ELECTRON MOBILITY IN THE 2DEG AND BULK OF MATERIALS [4] ............. 9 FIGURE 7: VOLTAGE (VDS) TO DRAIN CURRENT (IDS) RELATIONSHIP WITH DIFFERENT GATE VOLTAGES (VGS) AND TWO VALUES OF DOPED LAYER THICKNESS (DD) (AL
CONCENTRATION IN ALGAN [IE: X] = 0.2) [7] ................................................. 10
FIGURE 8: VOLTAGE (VDS) TO DRAIN CURRENT (IDS) RELATIONSHIP WITH DIFFERENT GATE VOLTAGES (VGS) AND TWO VALUES OF AL CONCENTRATION IN ALGAN (IE: M = X) [7] ..................................................................................................... 11 FIGURE 9: VARIATION OF THE ELECTRONIC DENSITY OF THE 2DEG WITH ALUMIMUM CONCENTRATION = 0.25, INTRINSIC LAYER THICKNESS OF 3NM AND DIFFERENT DOPED LAYER THICKNESSES [8]......................................................................... 12 FIGURE 10: TYPICAL VALUES OF TRANSCONDUCTANCE FOR HEMT DEVICES [4] ..... 13 FIGURE 11: PHYSICAL STRUCTURE OF THE HEMT DESIGNED .................................... 14 FIGURE 12: DISLOCATION DENSITY AS A FUNCTION OF LATTICE MISMATCH RELATIVE
TO GAN [1] ......................................................................................................... 15
FIGURE 13: CONDUCTION BAND EDGE VS. DEPTH AS A FUNCTION OF POLARIZATION 17 FIGURE 14: SPONTANEOUS AND PIEZOELECTRIC POLARIZATION VECTORS IN AL1-X GAXN AND GAN [16] .......................................................................................... 17 FIGURE 15: NET POLARIZATION INDUCED CHARGES AT INTERFACES OF AL1-X GAXN
AND GAN [16] .................................................................................................... 18
FIGURE 16: BAND DIAGRAM FOR AL1-XGAXN/GAN HEMT AS BARRIER THICKNESS

GROWS [16]......................................................................................................... 18
FIGURE 17: COST PROJECTION FOR VARIOUS TYPES OF GAN DEVICES [15]............... 22 FIGURE 18: ANDERSON MODELS FOR GAN AND ALN ................................................ 23
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FIGURE 19: SHEET RESISTANCE OF ALXGA1XN/GAN HETEROSTRUCTURES AS A FUNCTION OF ALUMINUM CONTENT X [1] ....................................................... 24 FIGURE 20: SHEET CARRIER CONCENTRATION IN ALXGA1XN/GAN HETEROSTRUCTURES AS A FUNCTION OF ALUMINUM CONTENT X [1] ............. 25 FIGURE 21: ANDERSON MODEL OF ALGAN (DOPED) AND GAN (UNDOPED)............... 26 FIGURE 22: BAND DIAGRAM OF THE N-ALGAN/GAN HETEROJUNCTION ................... 27 FIGURE 23: ANDERSON MODELS FOR GAN AND INGAN ............................................ 28 FIGURE 24: BAND DIAGRAM FOR THE GAN/INGAN HETEROJUNCTION ...................... 29 FIGURE 25: BAND DIAGRAM FOR THE N-ALGAN/GAN AND GAN/INGAN DOUBLE HETEROJUNCTION ............................................................................................... 29 FIGURE 26: GENERAL OVERVIEW OF IDEAL EPITAXIAL GROWTH (NO MISMATCH OR
DEFECTS) [2] ....................................................................................................... 30
FIGURE 27: DIFFERENCES BETWEEN OHMIC AND SCHOTTKY CONTACTS [11]............ 33 FIGURE 28: ENERGY BAND DIAGRAMS FOR (A) SCHOTTKY JUNCTION FOR N-TYPE SI, (B) SCHOTTKY CONTACT WITH QUANTUM TUNNELING FOR N++AND (C) OHMIC CONTACT FOR P+WITH METAL [9]........................................................................ 33 FIGURE 29: FINAL STRUCTURE OF THE HEMT (NOT TO SCALE) .................................. 35 FIGURE 30: AFM MEASUREMENTS FOR SAMPLE #1 ................................................... 42 FIGURE 31: AFM MEASUREMENTS FOR SAMPLE #2 ................................................... 42 FIGURE 32: AFM MEASUREMENTS FOR SAMPLE #3 ................................................... 43 FIGURE 33: XRD MEASUREMENTS FOR SAMPLE #1.................................................... 44 FIGURE 34: XRD MEASUREMENTS FOR SAMPLE #2.................................................... 44 FIGURE 35: XRD MEASUREMENTS FOR SAMPLE #3.................................................... 44 FIGURE 36: SEM SIDE VIEW OF SAMPLE #1 (X60K) ................................................... 46 FIGURE 37: SEM SIDE VIEW OF SAMPLE #1 (1) (X220K) ........................................... 46 FIGURE 38: SEM SIDE VIEW OF SAMPLE #1 (2) (X220K) ............................................ 46 FIGURE 39: SEM SIDE VIEW OF SAMPLE #1 (X250K) ................................................. 46 FIGURE 40: SEM SURFACE VIEW OF SAMPLE #1 (X60K) ............................................ 47 FIGURE 41: SEM SURFACE VIEW OF SAMPLE #1 (X110K) .......................................... 47 FIGURE 42: SEM SURFACE VIEW OF SAMPLE #1 (X400K) ......................................... 47 FIGURE 43: SEM SURFACE VIEW OF SAMPLE #1 (X500K) .......................................... 47 - vi -
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FIGURE 44: SEM SIDE VIEW OF SAMPLE #2 (X110K) ................................................. 48 FIGURE 45: SEM SIDE VIEW OF SAMPLE #2 (X130K) ................................................ 48 FIGURE 46: SEM SIDE VIEW OF SAMPLE #2 (X150K) ................................................. 48 FIGURE 47: SEM SURFACE VIEW OF SAMPLE #2 (X60K) ............................................ 48 FIGURE 48: SEM SURFACE VIEW OF SAMPLE #2 (X110K) .......................................... 49 FIGURE 49: SEM SURFACE VIEW OF SAMPLE #2 (X350K) .......................................... 49 FIGURE 50: SEM SIDE VIEW OF SAMPLE #3 (X120K) ................................................. 49 FIGURE 51: SEM SIDE VIEW OF SAMPLE #3 (X220K) ................................................ 49 FIGURE 52: SEM SIDE VIEW OF SAMPLE #3 (X250K) ................................................. 50 FIGURE 53: SEM SURFACE VIEW OF SAMPLE #3 (X20K) ............................................ 50 FIGURE 54: SEM SURFACE VIEW OF SAMPLE #3 (X130K) .......................................... 50 FIGURE 55: SEM SURFACE VIEW OF SAMPLE #3 (X150K) .......................................... 50 FIGURE 56: CURRENT VS VOLTAGE AND CURRENT VS RESISTANCE PLOTS FOR SAMPLE #1 ....................................................................................................................... 51 FIGURE 57: HALL EFFECT MEASUREMENT RESULTS FOR SAMPLE #1 ......................... 51 FIGURE 58: CURRENT VS VOLTAGE AND CURRENT VS RESISTANCE PLOTS FOR SAMPLE #2 ....................................................................................................................... 52 FIGURE 59: HALL EFFECT MEASUREMENT RESULTS FOR SAMPLE #2 ......................... 52 FIGURE 60: CURRENT VS VOLTAGE AND CURRENT VS RESISTANCE PLOTS FOR SAMPLE #3 ....................................................................................................................... 53 FIGURE 61: HALL EFFECT MEASUREMENT RESULTS FOR SAMPLE #3 ......................... 53 FIGURE 62: PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION OF AFM [24] .................................................. 37 FIGURE 63: XRD BEAM ON A CRYSTALLINE LATTICE [19]......................................... 38 FIGURE 64: HALL-EFFECT IN A SEMICONDUCTOR [18] ............................................... 40 FIGURE 65: ENERGY BAND STRUCTURE OF GAN [6] ................................................. B.1 FIGURE 66: ENERGY BAND STRUCTURE OF ALN [6].................................................. B.2 FIGURE 67: ENERGY BAND STRUCTURE OF INN [6] ................................................... B.2 FIGURE 68: GENERAL OVERVIEW OF LOCAL DIFFUSION WITH SILICON [2] ............... C.1 FIGURE 69: OVERVIEW OF QUANTUM TUNNELING THROUGH A BARRIER [18] ..........D.1 FIGURE 70: EFFECT OF BARRIER WIDTH ON QUANTUM TUNNELING [18] ..................D.2
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List of Tables
TABLE 1: FREQUENCIES OF EXPERIMENTAL WIDE BANDGAP FETS [3] ........................ 4 TABLE 2: PROPERTIES OF SUBSTRATES USED FOR HEMT DEVICES [1] ...................... 15 TABLE 3: OHMIC CONTACT MATERIALS AND PROPERTIES OF OHMIC CONTACTS ON GAN [1] .............................................................................................................. 34 TABLE 4: SUMMARY OF XRD RESULTS ...................................................................... 45 TABLE 5: SUMMARY OF HALL-EFFECT MEASUREMENTS ............................................ 54 TABLE 6: MICROWAVE FREQUENCY BANDS .................................................................A TABLE 7: PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS AT 300K [6] (CALCULATIONS ACHIEVED WITH
FORMULAS FROM [1]) ......................................................................................... B.1
TABLE 8: DENSITY OF STATES IN CONDUCTION BAND AND DOPING CONCENTRATION

FOR SEMICONDUCTORS ...................................................................................... B.3
TABLE 9: ADDITIONAL INFORMATION ON VARIOUS MATERIAL INTERFACES [1] ....... B.3
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List of Equations
(1.1) NOISE FIGURE ....................................................................................................... 6 (1.2) ELECTRON EFFECTIVE MASS ................................................................................ 8 (1.3) ELECTRON ENERGY AS A FUNCTION OF PROPAGATION VECTOR........................... 8 (1.4) TRANSCONDUCTANCE OF A TRANSISTOR ............................................................ 13 (1.5) SHEET DENSITY OF POLARIZATION INDUCED CHARGES ..................................... 17 (1.6) MAGNITUDE OF ELECTRIC FIELD AT ALGAN/GAN INTERFACE .......................... 18 (1.7) GAUSS' LAW ....................................................................................................... 19 (2.1) BANDGAP DISCONTINUITY APPROXIMATION FOR BINARY COMPOUNDS ............ 23 (2.2) INTERPOLATION OF ALXGA1-XN CONDUCTION BAND ENERGY ........................... 24 (2.3) QUADRATIC INTERPOLATION OF ALXGA1-XN BANDGAP ENERGY ...................... 25 (2.4) ALXGA1-XN/GAN CONDUCTION BAND DISCONTINUITY APPROXIMATION .......... 26 (2.5) ALXGA1-XN/GAN VALENCE BAND DISCONTINUITY APPROXIMATION ................ 26 (2.6) INTERPOLATION OF INXGA1-XN CONDUCTION BAND ENERGY ............................ 28 (2.7) QUADRATIC INTERPOLATION OF INXGA1-XN BANDGAP ENERGY ........................ 28 (2.8) INXGA1-XN/GAN CONDUCTION BAND DISCONTINUITY APPROXIMATION ........... 28 (2.9) INXGA1-XN/GAN VALENCE BAND DISCONTINUITY APPROXIMATION ................. 28 (2.10) DONOR IMPURITY DOPING CONCENTRATION APPROXIMATION FOR ALXGA1-XN ........................................................................................................................... 32 (2.11) INTERPOLATION OF ALXGA1-XN DENSITY OF STATES ....................................... 32 (2.12) GAN DENSITY OF STATES ................................................................................ 32 (2.13) ALN DENSITY OF STATES ................................................................................. 32 (3.1) BRAGG'S LAW ..................................................................................................... 38 (3.2) LORENTZ FORCE EQUATION ............................................................................... 39 (3.3) HALL COEFFICIENTS IN SEMICONDUCTORS ......................................................... 40
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List of Acronyms
2DEG 3DEG AFM Al AlGaN (or AlN CMOS ELO eV FET GaAs GaN HEMT InGaN (or JFET MBE MESFET MOCVD MOSFET ) )
Two-Dimensional Electron Gas Three-Dimensional Electron Gas Atomic Force Microscope Aluminum Aluminum Gallium Nitride Aluminum Nitride Complementary Metal Oxide Semiconductor Epitaxial Lateral Overgrowth Electron Volts Field Effect Transistor Gallium Arsenide Gallium Nitride High Electron Mobility Transistor Indium Gallium Nitride Junction Field Effect Transistor Molecular Beam Epitaxy Metal Semiconductor Field Effect Transistor Metal-Organic Chemical Vapor Deposition Metal Oxide Semiconductor Field Effect Transistor
SEM Si SiC SiO2 UV XRD
Scanning Electron Microscope Silicon Silicon Carbide Silicon Dioxide Ultraviolet Light X-ray diffraction
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1.
Introduction
1.1
Objective
The objective of this project is to design and grow a high electron mobility field effect transistor using different types of nitride semiconductors. The HEMT is to be designed primarily with different gallium nitride compounds such as gallium nitride itself, aluminum nitride (or aluminum gallium nitride), and indium gallium nitride. All of the aforementioned semiconductors are to be grown together to form a high electron mobility transistor. This introductory section of the report will deal with a description of the materials used (physical and quantum) and provide an introduction into the mechanisms of operation behind the HEMT (most notably the two dimensional electron gas). It will also cover possible economical and societal
impacts of the HEMTs using nitride semiconductors. The second section of the report will deal with the design of the HEMT, and how it is grown and doped. This section will provide insight into the double heterojunction structure, along with the equations for doping and will explain the reasoning behind the chosen levels of impurities. This section will also briefly discuss growth
methods, with an emphasis on epitaxial growth. The third and fourth sections will include the experimental results and the meaning of those results respectively. They will describe the methodology used for the experiment and provide information on the theory and testing process. In the final section, a brief overview of future work will be explored, along with conclusions obtained from doing this experiment.
1.2
Description of Materials
Crystal Structures for Electronic Applications, in the group III-N semiconductors, can be found in three common crystal structures: Wurtzite, Zincblende, and Rock salt.
Introduction
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At room temperature GaN, AlN, and InN are found in the wurtzite structure [1]. The properties of the materials used in this report can found in Appendix B. 1.2.1 Gallium Nitride (GaN)
GaN band structure is currently thought to be a direct bandgap across the entire alloy range, and its wide band gap of 3.4 eV allows the fabrication of high quantum efficiency light emitters, high power and high frequency devices [21]. It has low dielectric constants with high thermal conductivity pathways, and high melting temperatures. Also, its resistance to chemical etching makes it suitable in harsh environment operations. GaN is used in all device layers requiring fast carrier transport with high breakdown voltage. It is incorporated in most ohmic contact layers in any devices [1]. 1.2.2 Aluminum Nitride (AlN)
AlN is the most important binary material in the III-N material family for electronic applications, after GaN. It has high bandgap energy and high activation energy. Its mass density is much smaller than in GaN or InN; thermal expansion and Vickers hardness of AlN are relatively similar to those of GaN. AlN is an attractive substrate material because its high thermal conductivity is better than that of any other semiconductor apart from BN, SiC, and diamond. The low-field electron mobility of AlN is found to be 135 cm2 V1 s1 at room temperature and at a doping concentration of 1017cm3. The electron high-field transport in wurtzite yields a very high critical field of 450 kV cm1, and the peak velocity in the bulk is found to be 1.7 107 cm s1 at a doping concentration of 1 1017 cm3. With a high-bandgap energy of 6.2eV at room temperature, it possesses a great range to modify the value of GaN to AlN on the bandgap of Al1-xGaxN [1]. 1.2.3 Indium Nitride (InN)
InN and other compounds such as InxGa1xN and InxAl1xN so far are not extensively used in electronic devices. A bulk electron mobility of 3,570 cm2 V1 s1 at 300 K, and 5,100cm2 V1 s1 at 300 K can be achieved. Also, an electron mobility
Introduction
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of 1,200 cm2 V1 s1 and a sheet carrier concentration of 1.2 1014 cm2 have been obtained at the interface InN/AlN. InxAl1xN/GaN is important, because the polarization-induced charge is a much stronger function of the material composition x than in the AlGaN/GaN material system [1].
1.3
The High Electron Mobility Transistor (HEMT)
GaN HEMTs are currently the most widespread and most advanced electronic nitride devices. They make full use of heterostructures and the advantageous breakdown and transport properties of undoped GaN [1]. Before explaining the operation of the HEMT, the details and physics behind the operation of field effect transistors should be known, as it will facilitate the understanding of this more exotic quantum device. 1.3.1 Field Effect Transistors and HEMT characteristics
Field Effect Transistors (or FETs, for short), get their name from the effects that occur when a field is applied to a certain semiconductor structure [2]. Earlier FETs were of a homogeneous structure, meaning that such devices (such as MOSFETs, JFETs, MESFETS, etc) where predominantly composed of one material. The
differences stemmed not from the selection of material (mostly Silicon), but rather in the doping of this material. Doping is the term used to describe a process where impurities are inserted into the lattice of the semiconductor (most commonly interstitially, or in between the atoms of the lattice) typically by diffusion (see below figure) or by ion implementation. As it can be seen from this figure, impurity atoms move from an area of greater concentration (above the semiconductor lattice) to an area of less concentration during diffusion (inside the semiconductor lattice). The concentration gradient is the driving force of diffusion [2]. The longer this process occurs, the more doped the semiconductor will become. If the atom
impurities are donors, the semiconductor is referred to as n-type, whereas acceptor impurities produce a p-type semiconductor.
Introduction
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Diffusion
Legend
Lattice Atoms Impurity Atom
Figure 1: Simple Overview of Diffusion [2]
In usual methodology, diffusion is performed on a single type of semiconductor, usually leading to the creation of different p and n regions. This is the basis of operation of most common solid-state devices (their exact operation will not be discussed in this report). The issue with most common electronic devices, however, is their behavior at higher microwave frequencies (see Appendix A for a list of microwave frequencies). At these frequencies, the speed and output power of these devices is usually suboptimal, and these shortcomings are what helped pave the way for other forms transistors, such as HEMTs, utilizing promising materials with wide band gaps and heterostructures [3]. The following table shows the cutoff frequencies (fT) and the maximum frequency of oscillation (fmax) of different wide bandgap FETs (with respect to gate length L): FET Type SiC SiC AlGaN/GaN AlGaN/GaN AlGaN/GaN L (m) 0.45 0.5 0.05 0.12 0.25 fT (GHz) 22 13.2 110 101 50 fmax (GHz) 50 42 140 155 100
*Latest year of data: 2001

Table 1: Frequencies of Experimental Wide Bandgap FETs [3]
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It is obvious that high frequencies can be achieved using GaN/AlGaN HEMT technology. Initial studies where performed mostly on GaAs and Si, but after nearly 30 years, these materials are approaching their theoretical limits [3]. The following figure illustrates the power density of different types of HEMT devices with respect to frequency, and it can easily be seen that AlGaN/GaN has by far the best power density:
Figure 2: Output Power Density vs. Frequency [3]
And with all of these seemingly remarkable advantages, noise performance is still relatively comparable to GaAs, as can be seen in the figure below [1]:
Figure 3: The Minimum Noise Figure (NF,min) for GaAs and GaN HEMTs as a Function of Frequency (with ID = 100 mA/mm, L = 150nm) [1]
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Noise figure is the is the power ratio of the Signal to Noise Ratios (SNR) of the output to that of the input, and can be mathematically expressed by referring to the following equation: ( )
(1.1)
This proves that a lower noise figure is better, which is again quite advantageous given the increase in power performance of the AlGaN/GaN HEMT. This, among the other desirable characteristics mentioned (and surely other ones), has led the way for research in nitride semiconductors, which was initially held back due to problems with the mismatch between substrates and GaN (which lead to a significant amount of defects in the growth phase ie: there was no ideal substrate) [4].
1.3.2
Heterojunctions and Basic Semiconductor Physics
The main idea behind the HEMT lies within its structure: unlike common devices, HEMTs are built using different semiconductors (for the actual structure of the HEMT designed, refer to section 1.3.4), which form heterojunctions at the interface between these different materials. The device designed in this report has two
interfaces of different semiconductor material; therefore it is known as a double heterojunction structure. Before getting into the effect of the heterojunction, knowledge of the Anderson model for energy bands is needed. A typical Anderson model (or the electron affinity model) is depicted in the figure below:
Evac 2 1 Ec F 3 Ei
Ev
Figure 4: The Anderson Model
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In this figure, Evac stands for the vacuum energy level, which is used as the reference level and has an energy of 0 eV. This level is of importance to lattice structured crystalline materials because electrons above this value of energy are no longer bound to the solid (they can move freely throughout space). This implies that electrons below this level are bound to the atoms of the lattice. Ec stands for conduction band (the energy level where electrons can move freely from atom to atom), F stands for the Fermi level (the level at which there is a 50% probability of electron presence, as guided by the Fermi-Dirac distribution function [3]), Ei for the intrinsic Fermi level, and finally, Ev is for the valence band. The intrinsic Fermi level is at the middle of the bandgap (usually known as Eg a gap where there are no energy levels for elections/holes), which is in between Ec and Ev (denoted as 3 in the figure). The level at which Ec is located is known as the electron affinity, which is denoted by 1 in the figure. The work function is denoted as 2 in the figure, and is the average amount of work required for an electron to get to the vacuum level (it is the difference between Evac and F). When a semiconductor is intrinsic (or not doped), the Fermi level F and Ei are the same. As a semiconductor becomes
extrinsic (or doped), the Fermi level deviates from Ei. If the Fermi level is above Ei, then the semiconductor is known as an n-type material, and conversely, if F is below Ei, the semiconductor is a p-type material. The Anderson model is revered for its simplicity and for the amount of insight it gives into the mechanisms of rather complex quantum behaviors such as heterojunctions, but unfortunately it is not the most accurate method at predicting band offsets since it assumes idealities [3]. Other methods such as energy band structures are much more accurate [2], but much more complex and will not be overly discussed in this report. Refer to Appendix B for the energy band structures of GaN, AlN, and InN respectively (there is no concise structure for AlGaN or InGaN as of yet). The energy band gap used in the simplified Anderson model can be taken from the energy band structure at the point where the propagation vector, denoted k, (which implies quantum theory is used rather than conventional theory; that is, the electron is treated as an electromagnetic wave rather than a particle) is zero [2].
Introduction
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The band structure also helps explain the change in electron effective mass. When an electron moves through a crystal structure (such as a semiconductor), its change in velocity can only be explained by a change in its effective mass, which is governed by the following equation: [ Where ]
(1.2)
is Plancks constant, and it is multiplied by the inverse of the second
derivative of the energy band structure function E(k). It must be noted that the effective mass is not linked with quantity of matter (which is itself constant and unalterable), but rather, it is connected with the inertia of an electron (or how easily it can move through a lattice) [2]. The above equation is only pertinent if used in conjunction with the following equation:
(1.3)
Where v is the velocity. The above equation implies that at a certain energy level, if the effective mass of an electron goes down, in order to keep the equation true, the velocity of that electron must go up, which indicates that the electrons mobility goes up as well [2]. This behavior is very important and is the reason behind the highspeed operation of the HEMT, and will be discussed in greater detail later in the report. The actual heterojunctions will be discussed in section 2 of this report.
1.3.3
Basis of Operation
The basis of operation of the HEMT will be briefly discussed; for more information on the operation of the HEMT, refer to section 1.4 that deals with the in depth details of the 2DEG. As mentioned previously, the driving force behind the HEMT is the heterojunction. The figure below shows such a junction and shows the effect of such an interface the creation of a two-dimensional electron gas (2DEG).
Introduction
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Figure 5: Overview of a 2DEG at the Heterointerface [7]
The 2DEG is a triangular quantum well that prevents electron scattering such as in a 3DEG. The effect is increased mobility in two directions (which is why it was named 2DEG). Additionally, the electrons are confined in the 2DEG in discrete quantum states. This allows for much greater mobility of electrons as compared to the bulk of a material [3]. The figure below compares typical values of electron mobility through the bulk of a material and through the 2DEG:
Figure 6: Electron Mobility in the 2DEG and Bulk of Materials [4]
It is quite clear that there is an approximate four to fivefold increase in mobility in the 2DEG. This is what allows for high-speed operation of the HEMT. The main reason for this was introduced in the previous section with the concept of effective mass for the electrons. Since when in the 2DEG, the electrons are confined to move only in two directions, their movement through that channel is greatly streamlined,
Introduction
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which has the effect of decreasing their effective mass. As mentioned above, there are discrete energy states in the 2DEG, which implies that if an electron occupies such a discrete energy state and its effective mass goes down (or is low), its velocity (or corresponding mobility) must increase [2]. This generally explains the reasoning behind the high electron mobility in the 2DEG as compared to the bulk of the material (where the effective mass is higher), and the above figure substantiates this claim. The HEMT has a very similar connection scheme as regular field effect transistors (eg: MOSFETs, MESFETs, etc), that is, it has a drain, a source, and a gate. The former two are typically Schottky contacts, while the latter is typically an Ohmic contact (more information on the contacts in section 2.3) [8]. Its operation is also quite similar to that of other transistors as is its voltage to current relationship. However, as with most common transistors, material composition and the layer thickness in the structure of the device play a key role in these relationships. The following two figures display the typical relationship between the current (IDS) and the drain voltage (VDS) for given values of gate voltage (VG) in an AlGaN/GaN HEMT with different doped-layer thickness (dd) and percent concentration x of Al in (denoted m in the figure), respectively [7]:
Figure 7: Voltage (VDS) to Drain Current (IDS) Relationship with Different Gate Voltages (VGS) and Two Values of Doped Layer Thickness (dd) (Al concentration in AlGaN [ie: x] = 0.2) [7]
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Figure 8: Voltage (VDS) to Drain Current (IDS) Relationship with Different Gate Voltages (VGS) and Two Values of Al concentration in AlGaN (ie: m = x) [7]
From the first figure it is obvious that a thicker doped layer results in more drain current. This is most likely attributed to the fact that the extrinsic layer contains more free electrons, and the thicker it is, the more of these free electrons are in the entire structure of the device, thus increasing current [7]. It can be seen in the second figure that an change in m (previously named x), or Al composition in AlGaN, has an effect on the drain current; that is, an increase in m induces an increase in drain current with all else constant. This is due to the strong band discontinuity caused by the higher concentration of Al, which in turn affects the 2DEG and the concentrations contained therein, which ultimately leads to a greater current [7]. It can be argued that the voltage-current characteristics of the HEMT are practically identical to that of common FET devices; however, there is one major difference. Whereas the drain current reaches saturation due to the pinch off of the channel in FETs, in HEMTs, the drain current saturation is due to the saturation of the 2DEG (no more holes/room for additional electrons), and there is never a pinch off of the channel [2]. Again, it can be seen that the current voltage characteristics of the HEMT is similar to other field effect transistors, however, unlike other devices such as MESFETs, the Introduction 11
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gate voltage in HEMTs has different effects on the device. The gate voltage in HEMTs has the effect of altering carrier density in the 2DEG, whereas channel height remains essentially the same [3]. As the gate voltage is increased in the negative direction, the 2DEG becomes more and more depleted, until there are no more free electrons in the heterostructure (this would be the cutoff voltage). When the gate voltage is above this threshold value and a positive potential is applied from the drain to source, the 2DEG electrons move from the source to the drain, and thus, a current flows from drain to source [3]. As discussed above, the gate voltage alters the carrier density in the 2DEG in the HEMT, which explains the variations with the voltage and drain current with respect to different values of gate voltages, as shown in the figures above. The following figure depicts the effect of gate voltage on the 2DEG.
Figure 9: Variation of the Electronic Density of the 2DEG with Alumimum Concentration = 0.25, Intrinsic Layer Thickness of 3nm and Different Doped Layer Thicknesses [8]
It can be seen that the gate voltage has a significant effect on the electronic density of the 2DEG, which explains why increasing the gate voltage has the effect of increasing the drain current (if there are more electrons, more current will flow with the same applied potential at the drain).
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As discussed above, GaN is a wide band semiconductor. This interesting material property leads to high breakdown voltage, which means that GaN can sustain a highapplied voltage, making it very useful for high-power, RF (and microwave) operations [3]. Another very important characteristic of a transistor is its transconductance [2]. The transconductance can be mathematically expressed with the following expression: |
(1.4)
By inspecting the equation it can be seen that the transconductance is a ratio of change in current to that of voltage, and is an important tool for circuit analysis [2]. A high transconductance generally means high current gain for small changes in voltage. The figure below illustrates typical values of transconductance for HEMT devices [4]:
Figure 10: Typical Values of Transconductance for HEMT Devices [4]
It can be seen that the HEMT shows very great and promising characteristics and is therefore a very desirable device to be used at higher frequencies.
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Physical Nature
The HEMT designed in this report has five layers: a substrate (sapphire), InGaN, GaN, and finally, AlGaN. The general physical structure is shown in the figure below:
Figure 11: Physical Structure of the HEMT Designed
Substrates, often overlooked, are one of the most important parts of any device. A substrate whose lattice that matches the semiconductor grown on to of it will greatly improve device performance. If there is some mismatch between the two lattices, there is a much greater probability of defects and imperfections during the growth phase. Other important factors such as thermal conductivity, electrical isolation, price, along with mechanical and chemical properties must all be considered when selecting a substrate [1]. All these properties can in turn affect device performance. To substantiate this claim, the following figure can be consulted, which gives an overview of the relationship between lattice mismatch and dislocation densities:
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Figure 12: Dislocation Density as a Function of Lattice Mismatch Relative to GaN [1]
It can be seen from the above figure that the best options are GaN and ELO (epitaxial regrowth techniques [stands for epitaxial lateral overgrowth] used to lower defect concentration [1]) in terms of lattice mismatch and dislocation density. It can also be seen that although sapphire has a much higher mismatch with GaN than SiC, their dislocation densities are very similar. The following table summarizes all pertinent properties mentioned above for various substrates:
Table 2: Properties of Substrates Used for HEMT Devices [1]
Therefore, one of the best substrates is silicon carbide, or SiC, due to its low mismatch, very high thermal conductivity, and very good electrical isolation
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properties [1]. However, price must also be factored into the equation, which are substantially high for SiC. Due to the advancements in technologies for growths and such, sapphire is becoming a much more viable option to use as a substrate, and it this is the main reason it was used. The InGaN layer is included in the device in order to give the HEMT its first heterojunction. This layer is known as a buffer layer, and the purpose of this first interface between the two dissimilar semiconductors is to provide a form of energy known as excitons [2]. This will be covered in greater detail in section 2.1. Grown on top of the InGaN are the intrinsic GaN and extrinsic AlGaN layers, which are the layers that serve the most important function in the HEMT, since they form and house the 2DEG. The rationale behind using undoped GaN and doped AlGaN will be discussed in section 2.3.
1.4
Two-Dimensional Electron Gas (2DEG)
This section is devoted entirely to the driving force behind the HEMT operation: the 2DEG. Electrons in the conduction band of molecules of a structure form a sort of a gas, which can be known as a three-dimensional electron gas (or 3DEG). In this case, the electron scattering is at a maximum as they can travel in any direction, with their effective mass depending on the direction of travel [2]. In the 2DEG, the electrons can only travel in two-directions, which greatly optimizes mobility and corresponding velocity. The formation of this channel is therefore of great interest, and will be explained herein. While in most semiconductor carriers the 2DEG originates from the n-type dopants within the barrier, the AlGaN/GaN materials built in polarization field is strong enough to induce the formation of the 2DEG [1]. The polarization is both spontaneous and piezoelectric: the spontaneous one is due to the fact that AlN, and GaN bonds are highly ionic and each carry a strong dipole; the lattice constants a0 and c0 for GaN are slightly larger than those of AlN, and this results in a tensile strained Al1-xGaxN layers grown in GaN, which causes piezoelectric polarization due Introduction 16
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to the deformation of the AlGaN layer [16]. The figure below shows a relationship between the conduction band edge and the depth as a function of different types of polarization:
Figure 13: Conduction Band Edge vs. Depth as a Function of Polarization
Since the total polarization in the Al1-xGaxN is larger, because of spontaneous and piezoelectric polarization, as shown in the figure below, the overall result is a net positive sheet charge at the Al1-xGaxN/GaN interface [1,16].
Figure 14: Spontaneous and piezoelectric polarization vectors in Al1-x GaxN and GaN [16]
The equation below shows the sheet density of the polarization-induced charges:
(1.5)
Where D1 and D2 are electric displacement vectors, and P1 and P2 are the polarization vectors on either side on either side of the intersecting plane with normal
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vector n. The figure below shows the net polarization and the direction of the electric field in the Al1-xGaxN layer:
Figure 15: Net polarization induced charges at interfaces of Al 1-x GaxN and GaN [16]
The equation below represents the magnitude of the electric field [16]: | | | |
(1.6)
The interface sheet charges formed in the heterojunction both, due to polarization and not free charge carriers, and the induced electric field, allow the formation of the 2DEG. That is, an electron on the Al1-xGaxN surface increases its electronic potential linearly with the Al1-xGaxN thickness, which causes the bands in the Al1-xGaxN layer to slant upwards towards the free surface due to polarization induced field [3]. The figure below shows that the thickness of the barrier increases the valence band, as it moves upward from t1 to t2, past the Fermi level, causing electrons from the valence band to go into the heterojuntion interface, which is the most energetically favorable location, inducing polarization and 2DEG [16].
Figure 16: Band diagram for Al1-xGaxN/GaN HEMT as barrier thickness grows [16]
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Before going further in the explanation of band bending, a basic understanding of Guass Law is useful. Gauss Law constitutes one of the fundamental laws of electromagnetism, and it states that the total electric flux through any closed surface is equal to the total charge enclosed by that surface [17], and can be mathematically expressed through the following equation:
(1.7)
Where D electric flux density (or electric field) and
is the volume charge. If a
Gauss surface is drawn around the entire system, the net charge is zero. However, since there was a transfer of electrons from the Al1-xGaxN into GaN, there is a positive charge in Al1-xGaxN because of the ionized donors that balance the negative charge due to electron transfer. Therefore, as an electron moves from Al1-xGaxN to GaN, it sees a negative charge that acts to raise its energy, causing the Al1-xGaxN band to bend upwards. Similarly, as an electron moves from GaN to Al 1-xGaxN, it sees a net positive charge due to the presence of ionized donors in Al1-xGaxN, which reduces its energy and causes its band to bend downwards. Thus, a conduction band discontinuity occurs and this forms a notch, or well-like potential, in the conduction band of the GaN, known as the 2DEG. In the HEMT design in the report, the 2DEG is in fact a triangular quantum well.
1.5
Application of HEMT Devices
High Electron Mobility Transistors (HEMT) is fairly new component in the electronics world, but they are quickly taking over and being used in many applications that require high gain and low noise at very high frequencies. Initially these transistors were meant to be used to increase the speed of a circuit, but after being used in applications, researchers found out that HEMTs reduce the effects of noise at very high frequencies [1]. HEMTs are found in many different types of electronic equipment such as; cell phones, satellite television receivers, microwave and millimeter wave communications, radars, radio transmission and so on. Due to its great characteristics; high gain, high power added-efficiency, higher output power, Introduction 19
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and better low noise performance, the HEMT is best choice for high power applications [1]. At such high frequencies the operation of the device is separated in few different band frequency groups due to the need of different characteristics that can change with higher frequencies. Some of these bands are; L-Band and S-Band (1-3 GHz), C-Band (4-8 GHz), X-Band (8.2-12.4 GHz), Ku-Band (12.4-18 GHz), KBand (18-26 GHz) and MM-Wave Frequencies are above 30 GHz for the complete list of microwave frequency band, kindly refer to Appendix A. For all these different bands a slight structural adjustment is needed depending on what the application desires. For example, devices that operate in the L-Band Frequency need higher impedance and reduced thermal memory effect, on the other hand we have a HEMT that is built for applications that use the X-Band Frequencies which require high-gain and high-efficiency while maintaining high-speed [1]. By applying slight changes to the structure of the transistor these needed characteristics can be modified for better result in each application. In the previous sections of this report we have explained HEMT based on AlGaN/GaN, here are some useful applications of this particular transistor. X-band applications include transmit-receive modules for naval and airborne phased array radars. For these devices power-added efficiency is very important for both the device and system. By using a modified version of the AlGaN/GaN HEMT we are able to focus mostly on the efficiency of the component and make it a very good choice for these circuits. For devices that operate in the Cband frequencies (4-8 GHz ), most important qualities of the transistor are being able to operate at high power and high temperature that is combined with high PAE [1].
1.6
Potential Economical and Societal Impacts
Although technical and theoretical research forms the bulk of this report, the economical and societal analyses are also a very important portion of any experiment, helping determine the viability, survivability and conceivable evolution of the experiment over the coming years, and therefore cannot be overlooked. Since this experiment contains no immediate environmental impact, this topic was deemed irrelevant and was not included in the report.
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The potential economical impacts of utilizing nitride semiconductors (GaN, InN, AlN, AlGaN, InGaN) to build HEMTs (and other transistors) are quite promising. Due to the advantages of GaN (and nitride devices in general) mentioned above, it seems inevitable that technological advancements in microelectronics be intertwined with the advancements in this technology. According to [12], the GaN market is forecasted to rise from near zero in 2011 to exceeding $1 billion in 2021. This implies that there will be much more research and development in GaN (or even nitride) devices, such as HEMTs. This new market is particularly attractive in the microelectronic scene, since tapping into a rising market can yield economical benefits to not only individual corporations, but to an economy as a whole. Additionally, using low-cost substrates such as sapphire (as compared to siliconcarbide) produces a greater worth to the overall HEMT design due to its lower costs of production and similar operating characteristics (this was initially unviable due to the lack in epitaxial technologies for growth on sapphire). It can then be argued from the arguments above that the most of the potential economic impacts from using GaN HEMTs are positive. The major drawback of using GaN HEMTs rather than Silicon devices is the initial cost associated with those devices. According to the economics, the worth for the transistor does not outweigh its production costs (the substrates are quite expensive, and so are the growth methods). An alternate means of this is to grow GaN on Si substrates, and is currently being done by [13], which, according to them, will yield tremendous savings in production costs. Additionally, an independent research firm (Lux Research) found that gallium nitride substrates could still displace cheaper silicon by offering 360% to 380% better performance [15]. Another seemingly viable option is the use of GaN itself as a substrate. According to LUX research, bulk Gallium Nitride costs will fall 60% by 2020, leading to more efficient devices [15]. The following figure depicts some results obtained by this firm:
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Figure 17: Cost Projection for Various Types of GaN Devices [15]
It can be seen that as of today, GaN on Si is the most viable option, but with increase in technologies, GaN on GaN will become feasible cost-wise in the future, maybe one day replacing current sapphire and SiC substrates. The societal impacts of advancements in HEMTs are also paramount to integrated circuits and microelectronics. So far in the microelectronic scene, Moores Law (number of transistors on integrating circuits double approximately every two years) seemed be proven true, but with reducing size, power scaling has also become an issue [14]. New IC chips cannot become much smaller without having more
expensive means to dissipate power (since lowering operating voltage can no longer be done without deteriorating device performance) additional costs that would not be beneficial. Using the properties of the HEMT (high mobility, high breakdown voltage), one could reap the rewards of small devices without sacrificing too much performance [14]. It can then be seen that the many professionals seem to agree that the societal and economical benefits of HEMT design and research is positive.
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2.
Design of the HEMT
2.1 Electron Band Diagrams and Resulting Heterojunctions

The HEMT designed in this report uses GaN and AlGaN semiconductors to form the heterointerface, but before AlGaN can be used, the properties of AlN must be fully known. The figure below illustrates the Anderson model for GaN and AlN (not to scale), with the values for the levels given in Appendix B.
Figure 18: Anderson Models for GaN and AlN
It can be seen that both materials have different bandgaps, and these discontinuities are at the heart of the operation of the HEMT. This bandgap discontinuity is the result of the conduction and valence band offsets, and the three are usually related together (for binary compounds) by the following equation [3]:
(2.1)
The conduction band discontinuity is found by subtracting the electron affinity of both materials together, and the valence band discontinuity can be found by altering the above equation when both other discontinuities are known [3]. Since AlGaN is used, and not AlN, obtaining an Anderson model for this material is paramount. 23
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Fortunately, most parameters for ternary compounds are determined through the interpolation of the values from its composite binary compounds (since research to their actual structure is still at an infant stage) therefore AlN and GaN can be used to determine the properties of AlGaN. The approximate conduction band can be obtained by interpolating using both GaN and AlN bands with respect to their percent concentrations, as is displayed in the equation below [2] and is included in Appendix B:
(2.2)
In order to find the bandgap of AlGaN, the value of x (or percent concentration of Aluminum) in must known. This value is of great importance to the
operation of the HEMT. The concentration affects the amount of band bending that occurs in the conduction band and therefore affects the operation of the device [7]. Additionally, the Aluminum content must be selected with two other important factors taken into account: a good balance of sheet resistance and sheet carrier concentration is desired [1]. The following figure illustrates the relationship between the sheet resistance and Aluminum content in AlGaN:
Figure 19: Sheet Resistance of AlxGa1xN/GaN Heterostructures as a Function of Aluminum Content x [1]
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It can be seen that without using an interlayer, the higher the concentration of Aluminum, the lower the sheet resistance in the 2DEG (doping also lowers the sheet resistance more on this later in the report). Another important factor that cannot be overlooked is sheet carrier concentration in the 2DEG. The Aluminum content of AlGaN also plays a crucial role determining this concentration [1], as is depicted by the figure below:
Figure 20: Sheet Carrier Concentration in AlxGa1xN/GaN Heterostructures as a Function of Aluminum Content x [1]
It can be seen upon inspection of both figures above that a higher Aluminum content yields good sheet carrier concentration and good sheet resistance. According to this information, the Aluminum content as chosen to be 0.5. This should also produce a greater band discontinuity between the GaN and AlGaN interface, as stated per [3] (Appendix B). Additionally, it was discussed in section 1 of the report that a higher Al concentration yields higher sheet density of the 2DEG and therefore higher mobility/current. The bandgap for AlGaN is a function of x, and can be computed using a quadratic interpolation of both AlN and GaN values as shown in the following equation [1]:
(2.3)
Where the last term is the bowing factor (constant), which is either -0.7 or -1.3 [1]. Once the bandgap is known, the conduction and valence band discontinuities can be Design of the HEMT 25
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found by using the following two equations [1] (the results of all these calculations are included in Appendix B):
(2.4) (2.5)
It can be seen that using a ternary compound (AlGaN) complicates the computations slightly as compared to only using binary compounds (AlN and GaN). Now that all the levels for AlGaN are known, the Anderson model can be constructed for this material, and can be seen in the figure below:
Figure 21: Anderson Model of AlGaN (doped) and GaN (undoped)
It can be seen that the AlGaN is an extrinsic semiconductor in this figure, and this is in fact an accurate depiction, since the HEMT is composed of intrinsic GaN and doped (n-type) AlGaN. The actual doping scheme will be thoroughly discussed in section 2.3. Once the two semiconductors are brought together, their Fermi levels become aligned horizontally throughout the entire structure. To obtain this condition, the band diagram of the AlGaN must be pulled down and the GaN lifted up while pinning the conduction and valence band edges at the heterojunction [3]. This occurs because when both materials come in contact, the electrons from the n-type material tend diffuse to the undoped material (since there is a higher concentration in the ntype material). The process continues until equilibrium is reached [3], and the final result of this union is depicted in the figure below. Design of the HEMT 26
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Figure 22: Band Diagram of the N-AlGaN/GaN heterojunction
It is obvious that with a heterostructure, the Anderson model is quite different then with a homogeneous structure, and this is the motivation behind the quantum effects of the HEMT, as explained earlier. The heterojunction of the GaN and InGaN interface is not as important as the AlGaN/GaN one for the simple fact that the 2DEG (and corresponding conducting channel of the device) is contained in the interface of the latter semiconductors. The InGaN/GaN heterojunction is simply used to introduce excitons to the GaN semiconductor, as previously mentioned in section 1 (it is a buffer layer). An exciton is the bound state of an electron and a hole that can move freely inside the semiconductor that is, it is the combination of the two charges and it can move throughout the lattice. Although the exciton is electronically neutral, it is still a transport of energy, which is akin to increasing the electron/hole (or energy) concentration inside the HEMT and corresponding 2DEG channel [2]. This more abstract explanation can be simplified by simply saying that the InGaN is used in order to add energy in the form of holes and electrons to the GaN layer, without having to dope the semiconductor. Now that the purpose of the InGaN is known, its properties can be found in a very similar manner than with AlGaN; equation 2.2 is modified in order to find the conduction band energy of InGaN:
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(2.6)
Moreover, the percent composition x of
must be known in order to
proceed with the calculations. The value of x is not as important as with the case, and should be kept low in order to achieve lattice match between InGaN and GaN [1] (chosen to be 0.1). Hence, equation 2.3 can also be modified in order to quadratically interpolate the bandgap energy of InGaN (where the bowing factor is constant at -1.4 [1]):
(2.7)
Now that the bandgap and conduction band energies are known, the valence band and corresponding band discontinuities can be determined (the results are included in Appendix B)1:
(2.8) (2.9)
With these values computed, the Anderson model can now be constructed for InGaN, and is depicted in the following figure:
Figure 23: Anderson Models for GaN and InGaN
GaN was included into the figure in order to quantitively and visually compare the two semiconductors, and it can be seen that their bandgaps and energy levels are very
It must be advised that experimental band values for InGaN are not well documented as of yet, therefore theoretical results could not be adequately compared with any published experimental data Design of the HEMT 28
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similar; therefore it can be easily rationalized that the union of these two materials yields the following approximate heterojunction:
Figure 24: Band Diagram for the GaN/InGaN Heterojunction
Finally, when the entire device is considered as a whole, the presence of the two heterojunctions gives the double heterojunction structure, as is approximated by the figure below:
Figure 25: Band Diagram for the N-AlGaN/GaN and GaN/InGaN Double Heterojunction
The above figure depicts the proposed structure of the HEMT device designed in this report.
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2.2 Growth
There are many types of growth methods for semiconductor technologies, the prominent ones being epitaxy, molecular beam epitaxy (MBE), metal organicchemical vapor deposition, and so on. It does suffice to say that MOCVD is achieved at a much higher temperature than MBE, and MBE enables the growth of very precise interfaces that improve transport properties [1]. However, the physics behind these growth methods is rather complex and will not be explained in this report. This report will simply introduce the concepts behind epitaxial growth, the fundamentals of which can be used to understand the other techniques. The figure below illustrates an ideal case of epitaxial growth:
Epitaxial Growth
Legend
Substrate Lattice Atoms Epitaxial Layer Lattice Atoms
Figure 26: General Overview of Ideal Epitaxial Growth (no mismatch or defects) [2]
The growth is referred to as ideal because in the case presented in the above figure, there is a perfect match between the substrate and semiconductor, and there are no imperfections such as dislocations (lattice misalignment) or point defects (vacancies, interstitial atoms). It does, however, give a general idea of the process of epitaxial growth. Epitaxial growth is a process where a crystal structure (or lattice) is formed on top of another crystal structure. To achieve this method of growth, everything must be placed in a vacuum to assure optimal temperature, pressure, and contents. A substrate (or semiconductor structure) is first inserted inside the vacuum, followed by Design of the HEMT 30
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ions of the wanted layer. These ions will then bond themselves to the substrate, following the substrates lattice structure, layer after layer [2]. This is why mismatch is important: if there is a high percentage of mismatch between the two layers, high strain will be present during the growth, which can lead to the aforementioned imperfections, among other undesirable effects. This growth is repeated sequentially for each different semiconductor layer.
2.3 Doping and Metal Deposition

As previously stated on numerous occasions in the design of the HEMT, intrinsic GaN is used with extrinsic AlGaN. One of the main reason behind using undoped GaN is to not impede electron mobility throughout the channel (or 2DEG) [1]. Adding impurities into the semiconductor could create potential barriers to the flow of electrons through the lattice. Additionally, using undoped GaN is essential for the formation of the 2DEG, as mentioned in the previous section (no doping required to achieve a 2DEG due to the strong polarization fields in AlGaN/GaN interface) [16]. Using intrinsic GaN also simplifies the design process. Unlike GaN, AlGaN is doped in the HEMT. This doping was done in order to achieve a good balance between greater electron concentrations in the 2DEG and lower sheet resistance without the use of an AlN interlayer [1]. Also, since the channel is located inside the GaN portion of the heterointerface, the impurities cannot impede electron mobility. Additionally, as it was seen in section 1, by using doped AlGaN, greater currents are achieved for the same values of gate voltage. The optimal doping concentration of AlGaN is obtained by inspection of the materials energy levels: it is desired to have the Fermi level of AlGaN above the conduction band of GaN and close to enough to the conduction band of AlGaN. These conditions are desired in order to obtain a 2DEG even when no potential is applied (ie: at least one discrete energy state of quantum well in the conduction band be above the Fermi level of the heterostructure) [2]. The following equation describes an approximation on how the doping concentration can be obtained:
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(2.10)
Where Nc is the density of states in the conduction band, k Boltzmanns constant (

-
), and T is the temperature in Kelvin. The temperature is assumed
to be 300K and the density of states in the conduction band is obtained by interpolating values from GaN and AlN using the following equation:
(2.11)
Furthermore, values for density of states for both binary compounds were obtained from the following equations coming from [6]:

(2.12) (2.13)
The calculated values can be found in Appendix B of the report. As previously mentioned, the Fermi level of AlGaN was chosen to be above the conduction band of GaN, and with equation 2.10, a rough approximation for doping concentration of AlGaN was calculated and included in Appendix B2. Although the GaN portion of the HEMT is said to be intrinsic, the semiconductor is highly doped at the interface with the metal (termed n+ doping). The n-type doping is to create the formation of an ohmic contact between the GaN and the metal (Al). When a metal and a semiconductor come in contact, their Fermi levels align and band bending occurs in the semiconductor. If this band bending yields no barrier to the electrons in the conduction band or holes in the valence band, the interface is called an ohmic contact. However, if the converse is true (a barrier exists to the electrons in the conduction band or holes in the valence band), the contact is known as a Schottky barrier and operates in a similar way as a pn junction [2]. However, if the width of this Schottky barrier is kept to a minimum, the electrons/holes can tunnel through the barrier, which is a phenomenon termed quantum tunneling (can only be understood and explained if the electron is modeled to behave like an
The doping concentration calculated is used more as a guideline and is not an exact value (due to all the rough approximations used) Design of the HEMT 32
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electromagnetic wave rather than a particle [2]). This quantum tunneling has the effect of making the Schottky contact behave more like an ohmic contact, since electrons effectively tunnel through the barrier [2]. The following figure depicts the two types of contacts that arise in a metal-semiconductor interface (the first being a Schottky contact, and the other being a Schottky with quantum tunneling or ohmic contact) it can be seen that the barrier width in the bottom figure is lower than the barrier width in the upper figure:
Figure 27: Differences Between Ohmic and Schottky Contacts [11]
The n+ pockets in GaN are used to assure quantum tunneling occurs at the interface between the Al contact and the GaN semiconductor. For more information on
quantum tunneling, refer to Appendix D. A more general layout of metalsemiconductor interface can be seen in the following figure:
Figure 28: Energy Band Diagrams for (a) Schottky Junction for n-type Si, (b) Schottky Contact with Quantum Tunneling for n++and (c) Ohmic Contact for p+with metal [9]
The n+ pockets can be created by local diffusion, a process that is briefly explained in Appendix C [2]. The deposition of Al on the HEMT is achieved in a very similar Design of the HEMT 33
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way as local diffusion (steps 1 thru 6 are practically identical), but instead of doping, metal is applied to the structure and then annealed at high temperatures [1]. The following table lists typical values of annealing temperatures and contact resistances for different types of metals and the type of doping required for GaN:
Table 3: Ohmic Contact Materials and Properties of Ohmic Contacts on GaN [1]
The work functions of different types of metals can be found in [10] and therefore were not included in this report.
2.4 Final Device Structure

The previous sections all covered the design of the HEMT. The reasons for selecting each material and for performing the particular growths, depositions, and doping were explained in detail. Finally, this brief section is dedicated to the final device structure. Section 1.3.4 gave an idea of the physical nature of the device, which is the main structure of the HEMT. The figure below illustrates the actual shape of the HEMT designed. It can be seen that it is very simple and that it resembles that of a
Design of the HEMT
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MOSFET device, but instead of a dielectric, a ternary semiconductor is used (AlGaN) at the gate. The drain, source, and gate terminals are labeled D, G, and S, respectively. As mentioned previously, the metal contacts are Al, and the figure shows an approximate location of the 2DEG at the GaN/AlGaN interface. It should be noted that the figure does not accurately depict the devices physical dimensions to scale; it does not show the actual size of the layers, of the n+ pockets, of the metal contacts, or of the substrate. Typically, the AlGaN layer should be approximately 200 300 3, while the GaN layer can be in the micrometer range ( ) [16].
The size of the buffer layer should be kept low but be high enough as to no hinder device performance [1].
D G S
metal
N-AlGaN
metal metal 2DEG
n+
n+
GaN
InGaN
Sapphire
Figure 29: Final Structure of the HEMT (not to scale)
Design of the HEMT
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3.
Theory of Experimental Measurements
3.1
Overview
The experiments were conducted in the MEAglow semiconductor lab at Lakehead University4. Unfortunately, current technologies and processes at this facility do not allow the entire fabrication of the HEMT designed in this report (much more testing and research must be done on the growth and such), but three separate samples of thin GaN on InN were grown on sapphire substrates. The following subsections discuss brief theory behind the operation of the measurements taken on the three samples. Results were obtained from Atomic Force Microscopy (AFM), X-Ray diffraction (XRD), Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM), and Hall effect measurements (for the actual results, please refer to section 4).
3.2
Theory
3.2.1 Atomic Force Microscope
The Atomic Force Microscope is a very high-resolution type of scanning, which is used to visualize the surface of a given sample in the range of nanometers. It is based on measuring the force acting between a fine tip and a sample. The tip is attached to the free end of a cantilever and it scans very closely to the sample. Then attractive or repulsive forces acting on the cantilever will result in positive or negative bending. The bending is detected by a laser beam that reflects to a photo detector and creates a signal that is sent to a PC and by the help of appropriate software an image of the sample is created [24]. The following figure shows the typical arrangement of AFM:
MEAglow: Migration Enhanced Afterglow a hybrid system that utilizes principles of both MBE and MOCVD to grow nitride semiconductor devices with plasma Theory of Experimental Measurements 36
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Figure 30: Principle of Operation of AFM [24]
The AFM has three modes of operation; Contact Mode, Non-Contact and Tapping Mode. In contact mode the tip makes a slight contact with the edge of the sample surface to sense the surface and create the image. In this mode the tip of the cantilever is very important to be soft enough to be able to be deflected by very small force to avoid damage to the sample [24]. Non-contact mode uses attractive force region, which minimizes the contact between the tip and the sample (also a Proportional, Integral, and Derivative (PID) controller is used) [2]. Silicon based tips are mostly used for this mode. In tapping-mode the cantilever is oscillating close to its resonance frequency, which generates an electronic feedback loop to make sure that the oscillation amplitude is constant at all times. The forces acting between the sample and the tip will cause change in oscillating amplitude and also change in resonant frequency and phase of the cantilever. The image of the sample is created by the phase changes. In this mode the amount of contact to the sample is very low, which causes in less damage to the sample. Silicon based tips are used in tappingmode. Even if AFM gives a good idea of surface conditions, when there is something of interest on the surface, SEM is used to quantify what is actually present at this region of interest. Additionally, the aforementioned software used in conjunction with
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AFM can provide RMS surface roughness, and values under 9-10nm typically indicate a smooth surface [2]. 3.2.2 X-Ray Diffraction
X-ray diffraction is method of analysis used in crystalline materials; A. W. Hull conceptualized it in the early 1900s. Hull stipulated in his paper that every crystalline substance has a unique diffraction pattern and, in a mixture of substances, each produces its pattern independently of others (it can be seen as a fingerprint to a substance) [19]. The theory behind x-ray diffraction can be understood with the help of Braggs Law, which is the following equation:
(3.1)
Where d is the spacing between diffracting planes, is the incident angle, n is any integer, and is the wavelength of the beam. These values are better understood with the help of the following image:
Figure 31: XRD Beam on a Crystalline Lattice [19]
When an X-ray beam is projected into a lattice (as seen in the image above), the electrons from the atoms will oscillate at the frequency of the incoming beam. This will cause destructive interference (the combining electron waves are out of phase with each other) in almost all directions [19]. In some directions (according to Braggs Law), there will be constructive interference since the atoms in a lattice are usually in a predefined structure. The X-ray reflections occur at angle with respect to the incident beam, and generate a reflected beam at an angle 2 from the incident
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beam. The angles and such are determined by the arrangement of the unit-cell of the atoms in the lattice and arrangement of the lattice itself [19]. With this theory, when a compound semiconductor is analyzed by XRD, a curve can be generated with the help of hardware (the x-ray device) and software. The corresponding curve should have peaks at a certain angle 2 that identifies the type of semiconductor present. Furthermore, the areas under those peaks are related to the amount of each semiconductor present in the sample, ie: a thicker layer of semiconductor should have a higher peak [19]. 3.2.3 Scanning Electron Microscope
The scanning electron microscope (SEM) uses a focused beam of high-energy electrons, which interact with the electrons on the sample to produce a detailed topography of the samples surface, chemical composition, crystalline structure and orientation of materials. It can detect specimens in high vacuum, low vacuum and in environmental SEM specimens can be observed in wet conditions while achieving a resolution of 25 angstrom (0.25 nm) [22]. The electron beam dissipates energy, producing different signals that give information of the characteristics of the material. These signals include secondary and backscattered electrons, which are commonly used for imaging samples; secondary electrons are suited for showing morphology and topography of specimens and backscattered electrons are suited for showing contrasts in composition in many samples [23]. 3.2.4 Hall-Effect
Hall-Effect is the creation of a potential difference, or Hall voltage, across the surface of a semiconductor, perpendicular to the current flowing through it [20]. The driving force behind this effect is the Lorentz force, which is a law in electromagnetism that applies to a point charge in the presence of a magnetic field, and can be mathematically expressed with the following equation [17]: ( )
(3.2)
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When current flows through a semiconductor (which is due to the migration of holes/electrons in the semiconductor or electro-migration) in the absence of a magnetic field, the current tends to flow in a straight line. Conversely, when a magnetic field is present, the electrons/holes tend to deviate from this straight line due to the Lorentz force. This causes the accumulation of opposite charges on the surfaces perpendicular to current flow, ultimately resulting in the creation of a voltage potential termed the Hall voltage [19]. The following figure illustrates the concepts explained above (Fm and Fe denote the direction of the Lorentz force):
Figure 32: Hall-Effect in a Semiconductor [18]
The Hall coefficient in semiconductors can be expressed with the following equation:
(3.3)
Where n is the electron concentration, p the hole concentration, mobility,
the electron
the hole mobility, and e the absolute value of the electronic charge
[19]. It can be seen from the above equation that performing Hall-Effect tests can give insight into the mobility, resistivity, sheet concentration, conductivity, and bulk concentration of a semiconductor material. The test performed on the semiconductors in this report consists of applying voltage to a semiconductor, creating current flow. The semiconductor is then subjected to a perpendicular magnetic field by means of a permanent magnet to induce the Hall-
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Effect (the polarity of the magnet is changed during the test). The system is then able to obtain all of the information mentioned above.
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4.
Experimental Results
4.1
AFM Measurements
4.1.1 Sample #1 (2012-11-22)
Figure 33: AFM Measurements for Sample #1
The RMS surface roughness for this sample was measured at 5.7 nm. 4.1.2 Sample #2 (2012-12-12)
Experimental Results 42
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The RMS surface roughness for this sample was measured at 6.5 nm. 4.1.3 Sample #3 (2012-12-19)
As can be seen in the figure above, this sample was a very difficult to scan, but the lower right corner gives a good approximation of the surface conditions. The RMS surface roughness for this sample was measured at 3.7 nm. 4.1.4 Discussion
The AFM results indicate that all three samples had respectable surface smoothnesses; the RMS surface roughness was 5.7 nm, 6.5 nm, and 3.7 nm for samples 1, 2, and 3 respectively. For samples 1 and 2 a square window of 1.03 m was used, while sample 3 had a square window of 4 m. The 2D topography surface scan of the 3rd sample was objectionable since it did not produce a cohesive image. However, the 3D surface topography looked good and was used to instead of the 2D one. All the results obtained were satisfactory and there were no immediate regions of interest (imperfections and such) observed through the AFM.
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4.2
XRD Measurements
Figure 36: XRD Measurements for Sample #1
4.2.1
Discussion
It can be seen in the figures above that there are in fact two semiconductors in the XRD measurements since there are two distinct peaks. According to some literature, GaN should have a reflection angle 2 of approximately 34.4, while InN should have a reflection angle of about 31, both of which strongly correlate to the data
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obtained from the XRD measurements. Additionally, since the samples consisted of thin-GaN on InN, two peaks of different heights were expected. As it can be seen from the XRD measurements, both GaN and InN were detected at reflection angles close to the expected values. Additionally, the InN peak was higher than the GaN one, which agrees with the theory described above (area under the curve can be linked with thickness of layer). Although each sample gave consistent results with theory, the counts where different in each sample, thus indicating that the layers are not of the same thickness in each sample. From the data, it can be seen that sample #1 should have thicker layers than both other samples, and sample #2 should have the thinnest layers. Sample #3 seems to have the largest deviation of thicknesses between GaN and InN that is, the peak of InN reaches over 3000 counts, while the GaN layer reaches about 500 counts. The following table summarizes the results obtained:
Sample Sample #1 Sample #2 Sample #3
Material InN GaN InN GaN InN GaN
Peak Angle 2 31.5 34.8 31.5 34.8 31.5 34.8
Counts 5600 3000 750 400 3200 500
Peak Deviation 2600 350 2700
Table 4: Summary of XRD Results
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4.3
SEM Measurements
4.3.1 Sample #1 (2012-11-22)
Figure 39: SEM Side View of Sample #1 (x60k)
Figure 40: SEM Side View of Sample #1 (1) (x220k)
Figure 41: SEM Side View of Sample #1 (2) (x220k)
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Figure 43: SEM Surface View of Sample #1 (x60k)
The above figures show both a cross-sectional and aerial (or top) view of the grown semiconductors. For the analysis of these images, refer to the discussion section following all SEM results.
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4.3.2 Sample #2 (2012-12-12)
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Again, the figures above show both a cross-sectional and aerial (or top) view of the grown semiconductors. For the analysis of these images, refer to the discussion section following all SEM results. 4.3.3 Sample #3 (2012-12-19)
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4.3.4
Discussion
The results obtained from the SEM microscope prove that the growth was successful. By observing the surface results it can be seen that these agree with the results of obtained by AFM: that is, the surfaces are smooth. These images also show the different orientations and growths of GaN crystals along the surface. The crosssectional views (or side views) of the semiconductors indicate a good continuous growth as no observable lattice strain or imperfections are observed. According to the measurements of the semiconductors, all three samples share similar thicknesses in the range of 300 nm, which seem to deviate from the XRD results (those results seem to indicate that sample #1 was thicker, while sample #2 was thinner). Experimental Results 50
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Additionally, the GaN and InN layers are visible in sample #3, where it can be seen that GaN is in fact a thinner layer (approximately 111 nm) than InN (about 175 nm). These observations concur with the XRD results.
4.4
Hall-Effect Measurements
4.4.1 Sample #1 (2012-11-22)
Figure 59: Current vs Voltage and Current vs Resistance Plots for Sample #1
Figure 60: Hall Effect Measurement Results for Sample #1
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4.4.2 Sample #2 (2012-12-12)
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4.4.3 Sample #3 (2012-12-19)
4.4.4
Discussion
Before a Hall-Effect measurement can be made using the sensor in the lab, proper ohmic contacts must be achieved in order to prevent the presence of a barrier
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typically found in a Schottky contact, which would give erroneous results. Therefore, before the actual Hall-Effect tests can take place, software is used to assure that this condition is satisfied. Included in the Hall-Effect results in section 3 are I-V and I-R curves, which give all the required information on the type of contacts formed (there are four contacts and therefore four independent curves). A straight I-R curve
indicates ohmic contact behavior while deviation from a straight line indicates the presence of a barrier, or Schottky contact. It can be seen that all the I-R curves for all the contacts of each sample are relatively flat, indicating the presence of ohmic contacts and thus accurate results can be expected. All samples gave different results during the test, some of which can be attributed to the different measurement data for each sample (see the measurement data section of the Hall Effect Measurement Results figures in section 3), and others due to the actual physical differences in the layers (impurities, thickness, and such). following table summarizes the pertinent information on all three samples: The
Sample #1 #2 #3
Mobility (cm2/Vs) 2.993E+01 5.881E+01 6.747E+01
Resistivity (cm) 2.317E-03 1.195E-03 1.586E-03
Sheet Conc. (/cm2) -2.521E+15 -2.486E+15 -1.633E+15
Conductivity (Scm) 4.316E+02 8.366E+02 6.305E+02
RH (m2/C) -6.934E-02 -7.030E-02 -1.070E-01
Table 5: Summary of Hall-Effect Measurements
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5.
Conclusion and Future Work
5.1
Future Work and Limitations
Much more must be done in order to adequately complete the objective listed in this report, and this subsection is dedicated to noting a few key limitations encountered as well as future work. The lack of documentation on ternary semiconductor
compounds may have lead to potentially inaccurate or erroneous calculations. Additionally, the actual design and theory of semiconductor physics extends much beyond the scope of this report and the knowledge of the authors, which may hinder the proper explanation of some concepts. The actual design and implementation of a HEMT was technologically infeasible at the moment of this report at the MEAglow lab (much research is being devoted to this however), and therefore the growths of the proposed device could not be achieved and was not performed. Once it is feasible to do so, the HEMT should be designed according to the specifications of this report and tested properly. This also gives rise to monetary constraints; as explained in the economics section of the report, all the materials used for the HEMT are quite expensive and therefore proper funding must first be obtained. The HEMT designed in this report is by no means the only HEMT design available (ie: double heterojunction AlGaN/GaN/AlGaN, T-gate, mushroom gate, etc), and therefore this should be experimented with when feasible to do so to determine an optimized model for certain operations. Finally, different substrates could also be used and experimented with to determine some potential benefits/drawbacks. It can be seen that this report has many areas for expansions.
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5.2
Conclusion
A design for a AlGaN/GaN/InGaN on sapphire high electron mobility transistor was proposed. The materials used as well as the principle of operation of the device were adequately described. The applications of the HEMT for different frequency bands were also thoroughly discussed, indicating the need for these devices. This went in hand with the potential economical and societal impacts of the design of such a device using GaN technology. Proper band diagrams were obtained and specific doping concentrations were calculated in order to achieve a proper 2DEG. The physics, theory behind
semiconductor operation, and growth methods were explored and from these a final device structure was obtained. Experiments were carried out on three samples of thin-GaN on InN grown on sapphire in order to get AFM, XRD, SEM, and Hall-Effect measurements. The results obtained concurred with the established theory and were positive. The
surfaces of the semiconductors observed were smooth and the different layer thicknesses gave different results (as expected). These three samples were the starting point for the growths and heterojunctions required. Much was learned in the entire process of writing this report and performing the research and experiments, and it is the authors hope that work may continue where it was left off in this report in order to actually determine the feasibility and operation of the device designed. Barring the limitations and future works proposed, this research report is considered a success.
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6.
References
[1] Quay, R. (2008). Gallium Nitride Electronics. Berlin, Germany: Springer. [2] Alexandrov, D. (2013, January-March). Advanced Electronic Devices (ENGI0654). Lakehead University, Thunder Bay, Ontario, Canada. [3] Schwierz, F., & Liou, J. J. (2003). Modern Microwave Transistors: Theory, Design, and Performance. Hoboken, New Jersey, U.S.A: John Wiley & Sons, Inc. [4] Pearton, S. J., Abernathy, C. R., & Ren, F. (2006). Gallium Nitride Processing for Electronics, Sensors and Spintronics. London, England: Springer. [5] The IEEE Radar Band Designation. (n.d.). Retrieved January 29, 2013, from http://www.naval.com/radio-bands.htm [6] Ioffe Physico-Technical Institute. (2001). Physical Properties of Semiconductors. (Russian Federation) Retrieved January 31, 2013, from Electronic archive: New Semiconductor Materials, Characteristics, and Properties:
http://www.ioffe.rssi.ru/SVA/NSM/Semicond/ [7] Alshaik-Aid, M., Telia, A., & Soltani, A. (2008). Heterojunction AlmGa1mN/GaN Transistor Current-Voltage Characteristics Including the Polarization Effect. African Physical Review Special Issue (Microelectronics) , 2 (0001). [8] Gibson, W. A. (2007). Comparison of Gallium Nitride High Electron Mobility Transistors Modeling in Two and Three Dimensions. Thomas Edison State College. Monterey, CA: U.S. Navy. [9] G.H. Jayakody, T. W.-G. (2005). Imaging of doped Si in low and very low voltage SEM: the contrast interpretation. Journal of Electron Spectroscopy and Related Phenomena , 143 (2-3), 223-239.
References
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[10] Tipler, P. A., & Ralph, L. A. (1999). Modern Physics (3rd ed.). New York, New York: W.H. Freeman & Company. [11] Yao, T., & Hong, S.-K. (2009). Oxide and Nitride Semiconductors: Processing, Properties, and Applications. (Y. Kawazeo, Ed.) Advances in Materials Research [12] Press Release. (2012, March 14). Retrieved March 5, 2013, from PR Newswire, A UBM plc Company: http://www.prnewswire.com/news-releases/gan-powersemiconductor-market-to-exceed-1-billion-by-2021-142601706.html [13] Compound Semiconductor. (2012, October 22). Slashing The Cost Of GaN HEMTs. Retrieved March 12, 2013, from Compound Semiconductor:
http://www.compoundsemiconductor.net/csc/features-details/19735640/Slashing-thecost-of-GaN-HEMT.html [14] del Alamo, J. A., Kim, D.-H., Kim, T.-W., Donghyun, J., & Antoniadis, D. A. (2012). III-V CMOS: What have we learned from HEMTs? MIT, Microsystems Technology Laboratories. Cambridge: MIT. [15] Lux Reasearch. (2012). Price or Performance: Bulk GaN Vies with Silicon for Value in LEDs, Power Electronics and Laser Diodes (Press Release). Energy Electronics Intelligence Service, http://www.luxresearchinc.com/news-and-
events/press-releases/134.html. Boston: Lux Research. [16] DiSanto , D. W. (2005). Aluminum Gallium Nitride/Gallium Nitride High Electron Mobility Transistor Fabrication and Characterization. Simon Fraser University, Physics. Burnaby: Simon Fraser University. [17] Sadiku, M. N. (2010). Elements of Electromagnetics (5th ed.). New York, U.S.A: Oxford University Press. [18] Georgia State University: Department of Physics and Astronomy. (2000). Quantum Physics. Retrieved March 19, 2013, from Hyperphysics and Quantum Physics: http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/quantum/
References
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[19] Scintag, Incorporated. (1999). Earth & Planetary Sciences X-Ray Diffraction Laboratory. Retrieved March 22, 2013, from University of New Mexico: Department of Earth and Planetary Sciences: http://epswww.unm.edu/xrd/ [20] Kasap, S. O. (2001). Hall Effect in Semiconductors. University of Saskatchewan, Department of Electrical Engineering. Saskatchewan: University Of Saskatchewan. [21] DenBaars, S. P. Gallium Nitride Materials Technology. University of California, Santa Barbara, Materials Department. Santa Barbara: UCSB. [22] Cheney, B. Introduction to Sanning Electron Microscopy. San Jose State University, Department of Materials Enigeering, San Jose. [23] Swapp, S. (2012, July 23). Sanning Electron Microscopy. Retrieved March 24, 2013, from Science Education Resource Center at Carleton College:
http://serc.carleton.edu/research_education/geochemsheets/techniques/SEM.html [24] Vilalta-Clemente, A., & Gloystein, K. (2008). Principles of Atomic Force Microscopy. Aristotle University, Physics of Advanced Materials, Thessaloniki.
References
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Appendix A Microwave Frequency Bands
IEEE Radar Band Designation [5]

Designation L Band S Band C band X band Ku band K band Ka band V band W band mm band sub-mm band Frequency Range (GHz) 1-2 2-4 4-8 8-12 12-18 18-27 27-40 40-75 75-110 110-300 300-3000
Table 6: Microwave Frequency Bands
Wave Length (cm) 30-15 15-7.5 7.50-3.75 3.75-2.50 2.50-1.67 1.67-1.11 1.11-0.75 0.75-0.40 0.40-0.27 0.27-0.10 0.10-0.01
Appendix A Microwave Frequency Bands
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Appendix B Binary and Ternary Semiconductor Properties
Material GaN AlN InN AlGaN5 6 InGaN7 GaN/AlGaN InGaN/GaN
Ec (eV) 4.1 0.6 5.8 2.35 4.27
Eg (eV) 3.39 6.026 1.97 4.533 4.383 3.122 0.8001 eV 0.6951 eV 0.1876 eV
Ev (eV) 7.49 6.626 7.77 6.883 6.733 7.392
Ei (eV) 5.795 3.613 6.785 4.6165 4.5415 5.831 0.3429 eV 0.2979 eV 0.0804 eV
Table 7: Properties of Materials at 300K [6] (calculations achieved with formulas from [1])
Figure 65: Energy Band Structure of GaN [6]
5 6
Value of x = 0.5 (ie: Al0.5Ga0.5N) Top row is with bowing factor of -0.7, bottom with factor of -1.3 7 Value of x = 0.1 (ie: In0.1Ga0.9N) Appendix B Binary and Ternary Semiconductor Properties B.1
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Figure 66: Energy Band Structure of AlN [6]
Figure 67: Energy Band Structure of InN [6]
Appendix B Binary and Ternary Semiconductor Properties
B.2
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Material GaN AlN AlGaN8
Nc (cm-3) 2.234 x 1018 6.235 x 1018 4.2345 x 1018
Nd (cm-3) ------8.8473 x 1016
Table 8: Density of States in Conduction Band and Doping Concentration for Semiconductors
Table 9: Additional Information on Various Material Interfaces [1]9
8 9
Doping concentration calculated for EC-EF of 0.1 eV It can be seen that increasing x from 0.2 (values in above table) to 0.5 for AlGaN yields significant increase in band discontinuities Appendix B Binary and Ternary Semiconductor Properties B.3
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Appendix C Overview of Local Diffusion
1 SiO2 Si Photoresist (liquid) SiO2 Si
UV light
Photomask
Photoresist
(solid) SiO2 Si
Photoresist (liquid) SiO2 Si
5
Photoresist
6 (solid) SiO2 Si SiO2 Si
Donor or Acceptor Impurity Atoms
p or n SiO2 p or n Si Si
Figure 68: General Overview of Local Diffusion with Silicon [2]
Appendix C Overview of Local Diffusion
C.1
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Step
Description The initial step in local diffusion is to begin with a wafer (or device) of some semiconductor (in this case Si10) and perform wet oxidation in order to create a thick oxide layer (in this case SiO2). The next step is to cover the oxide layer with some liquid
photoresist, which is a form of polymer that has an interesting optical reaction when it comes in contact with ultra violet radiation (it hardens and becomes a solid). The next step is to perform photolithography that is, to exploit the properties of the photoresist over certain areas. A photomask is
used to mask the region where the diffusion is to be performed, and then ultra violet light is radiated on the device, where the exposed photoresist hardens.
In this step, the photoresist that was under the mask portion of the photomask (ie: it is still in liquid form) is removed with water. The next step consists of removing the now exposed SiO2 by chemical etching, revealing the semiconductor. The next step is to remove the solid photoresist from the SiO2 with
chemical etching (using another type of chemical). The photoresist is removed because it would not withstand the high temperatures involved in the diffusion process. In this step diffusion is performed, which acceptor or donor
impurities are used in order to get p-type or n-type doping respectively. The impurity atoms can only diffuse in the exposed semiconductor and not through the SiO2.
The final step consists of removing the SiO2 by chemical etching.
10
Even though Si is used here, other semiconductors use very similar processes [2] Appendix C Overview of Local Diffusion C.2
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Appendix D Quantum Tunneling
Quantum tunneling is a phenomenon that occurs when an electron effectively tunnels through a barrier. The quantum physics behind this can be better explained with the aid of the following image, which also shows the relationship between the conventional way of dealing with electrons (as a particle) in relation to its quantum counterpart:
Figure 69: Overview of Quantum Tunneling Through a Barrier [18]
In the figure, E is the energy level the electrons are assumed to be occupyi ng in the conduction band, while denotes the electron wavefunction (the electrons are
modeled as electromagnetic waves rather than particles). In the figure above, it can be seen that the energy of the electron remains the same after tunneling; only its probability decreases as it passes through the barrier (an exponential decrease) [2,18]. If the barrier is too wide, the probability will approach zero, at which point it can be assumed that no electrons tunneled through the barrier. The following figure shows the effect of different size barriers:
Appendix D Quantum Tunneling D.1
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Figure 70: Effect of Barrier Width on Quantum Tunneling [18]
It can be seen that in the top portion of the figure, the barrier is too large and therefore no electrons can tunnel through it, while the bottom portion shows the exact opposite. The exact reason for quantum tunneling can be explained with Schrdinger equations, which is beyond the knowledge of the authors of this report; for more information, refer to [18] or advanced physics textbooks.
Appendix D Quantum Tunneling D.2

Design and Growth of Aluminum Nitride/Gallium Nitride High Electron Mobility Field Effect Transistor

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Design and Growth of Aluminum Nitride/Gallium Nitride High Electron Mobility Field Effect Transistor

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Lakehead University Engineering 4969 YB Degree Project

Presentation Date April 4, 2013

Report Submission Date March 29, 2013

Supervisor/Advisor Dr. Dimiter Alexandrov

Electrical Engineering Dept.

Electrical Engineering Dept.

Electrical Engineering Dept.

Electrical Engineering Dept.

Electrical Engineering Dept.

FIGURE 16: BAND DIAGRAM FOR AL1-XGAXN/GAN HEMT AS BARRIER THICKNESS

Electrical Engineering Dept.

Electrical Engineering Dept.

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TABLE 8: DENSITY OF STATES IN CONDUCTION BAND AND DOPING CONCENTRATION

TABLE 9: ADDITIONAL INFORMATION ON VARIOUS MATERIAL INTERFACES [1] ....... B.3

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SEM Si SiC SiO2 UV XRD

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The High Electron Mobility Transistor (HEMT)

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Figure 1: Simple Overview of Diffusion [2]

*Latest year of data: 2001

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Figure 2: Output Power Density vs. Frequency [3]

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Heterojunctions and Basic Semiconductor Physics

Figure 4: The Anderson Model

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is Plancks constant, and it is multiplied by the inverse of the second

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Figure 5: Overview of a 2DEG at the Heterointerface [7]

Figure 6: Electron Mobility in the 2DEG and Bulk of Materials [4]

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Figure 10: Typical Values of Transconductance for HEMT Devices [4]

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Figure 11: Physical Structure of the HEMT Designed

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Table 2: Properties of Substrates Used for HEMT Devices [1]

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Two-Dimensional Electron Gas (2DEG)

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Figure 13: Conduction Band Edge vs. Depth as a Function of Polarization

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Where D electric flux density (or electric field) and

is the volume charge. If a

Application of HEMT Devices

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Potential Economical and Societal Impacts

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Design of the HEMT

2.1 Electron Band Diagrams and Resulting Heterojunctions

Figure 18: Anderson Models for GaN and AlN