Avian Diseases Found in Captivity

Disease
Acanthamoebiasis

Animal Group(s) Affected

-Birds

Transmission
-Source: soil, water -Gains entry via: breaks in skin; respiratory tract; corneal surface; hematogenous spread to central nervous system Requires ingestion of the intermediate host or a paratenic or transport host

Clinical Signs
- Cutaneous lesions - Sinusitis - Pneumonitis - Neurologic signs - Fever - Nausea - Vomiting Ill thrift, weight loss, anorexia, diarrhea, abdominal discomfort or colic; clinical signs compatible with peritonitis Granulomas of tongue and lymph nodes of head and neck. Local abscesses, chronic draining fistulas, bony infections, or infections of body cavities. Clinical signs referable to the involved area Mammal: respiratory, conjunctivitis, liver disease, gastroenteritis. Avian:

Severity
- Asymptomatic in immunecompetent individuals - Frequently fatal in immunocompromised individuals Infections can cause clinical disease and mortality. Severity of disease may not be directly correlated with the number of adult parasites present.

Treatment
Pentamidine isethionate; Sulfadiazine; Flucytosine; Fluconazole; Itraconazole Amphotericin B; Azithromycin Ivermectin and doramectin have eliminated Macracanthorhynchus species in dogs and swine. Albendazole has eliminated Moniliformis clarki from cotton-topped tamarins. Surgical debridement, systemic sodium iodide and long-term antibiotics Surgical drainage and debridement. Appropriate antibiotic therapy continued for several weeks after elimination of clinical signs. Supportive/ symptomatic.

Acanthocephalans

All vertebrates

Wooden Tongue (Actinobacillus lignieresii)

Chickens

Actinomycosis

Birds

Normal oropharyngeal and rumen flora enters tissues through epithelial damage. Endogenous infection into susceptible tissues or by bite wound

Variable; life threatening without treatment.

Can be mild if restricted to local infection but can be fatal depending on infection location, spread, and time to diagnosis. Variable: asymptomatic to death. Usually disease is sporadic and

Adenovirus

Avian

Vertical, Direct Contact, Fecaloral, Venereal.

Aeromonas Infection

Waterfowl

Aspergillosis

Vertebrates, invertebrates

Horizontal transmission, close contact with infected individual, ingestion of bacterium, direct inoculation through wounds, especially from contaminated water. Snake mite (Ophionyssus, natricis) capable of transmitting bacteria Environment -acquired via spores. It is not considered contagious. Primarily direct transmission via urofecaloral route. Viral shedding in urine, feces, choanal secretions and feathers. Increasing evidence for vertical

abnormal eggs and production, respiratory disease. Reptile: none to poor doer to unexplained death. Acute mortality, dermal hyperemia, skin wounds, pustular dermatitis, stomatitis, fasciitis, pneumonia, gastrointestinal disease

limited to the young and immunecompromised

Mild to severe depending on immune status, and route of infection

Antibiotics, appropriate wound management, supportive care

Avian Bornaviruses

Captive psittacine birds Canaries Wild freeranging goose, swan, duck and gull species.

Primarily respiratory but can become systemic. Occasionally a cutaneous disease. Proventricular dilatation disease (PDD); infection may range from asymptomatic to severe gastrointestinal signs with or without neurological signs.

May cause severe disease in immunecompromised hosts.

Antifungal drugs polyenes, azoles, allylamines, pyrimidines No specific treatment. Supportive and symptomatic treatment and good husbandry can prolong life. Possibility of complete cure is not

Birds infected with ABV may or may not show clinical disease. Once clinical signs develop, PDD is generally considered a progressive disease which ultimately becomes fatal. Acute outbreaks with high mortality have been described in psittacine aviaries.

Avian Influenza

Birds, predominantly carried by waterfowl and shorebirds,

Avian Poxvirus

Avian

transmission Fecal-oral and fecal-cloacal (i.e., contaminated water), airborne and direct contact through mucous membranes, ingestion of infected tissues, fomites and mechanical vectors Mechanical spread by invertebrate vectors. Direct contact between birds or indirect contact with contaminated surfaces.

LPAItypically asymptomatic HPAIRespirator y, digestive or nervous system signs, sudden death

Asymptomatic to fatal in all animals affected

certain. Anti-viral drugs in humans

Babesiosis

Ubiquitous in wildlife wherever tick infestations are present. Variety of species, including mammals can be affected.

Numerous species of ixodid ticks

Baylisascariasis

Avian

Ingestion of embryonated eggs or infected carrier hosts

Cutaneous or dry form: skin nodules. Diptheritic or wet form: internal lesions in upper alimentary or respiratory tracts. Systemic infection. Severe hemolytic anemia, hemoglobinemia, hemoglobinuria, fever, possible neurologic signs, anorexia, slight jaundice, or subclinical. Majority of infections in wildlife are subclinical. Depression, lethargy, agitation, tremors, head or body tilt, circling, ataxia, lateral recumbency, coma

Small, focal skin lesions to widespread severe lesions; respiratory difficulties, to peracute death in certain species.

Treat secondary bacterial infections. May need to provide supportive fluids and food.

May be severe, with acute clinical presentation and death. Clinical disease often less severe in free-ranging animals than domestic animals.

Imidicarb, tick control

Asymptomatic to fatal

Early aggressive treatment with albendazole and high dose steroids have shown to be effective, ocular larva

Lyme Disease

Some birds although they are usually asymptomatic

Campylobacteriosis

Birds

Tick vector (Ixodes sp); rodents are among the most important reservoir hosts, including white-footed mouse (Peromyscus leucopus) in N. America and Apodemus sp. in Eurasia) Food- or water-borne; fecal-oral spread; direct contact with contaminated surfaces or contact with infected animals

General: Shifting leg lameness, arthritis, fever, myocarditis, CNS signs

Varies, can be asymptomatic, mild lameness, or chronic illness

migrans can be killed using laser treatment Doxycycline x 30d, azithromycin, ceftriaxone, amoxicillin; recrudescence is possible

Host-specific: none to severe; diarrheal disease - watery or bloody; possibly with fever, abdominal cramps, nausea, and vomition; other illnesses, such as abortion and infertility, and periodontal disease

Mild to life threatening; gastroenteritis, with possible sepsis and disseminated infections; children, immunecompromised individuals and the elderly may be at greater risk. Long-term consequences (such as arthritis or Guillain-Barr) occur rarely in people Morbidity and mortality rates vary with the affected species, condition of infected individual, and strain/genotype involved.

Avian Chlamydiosis/ Chlamydophilosis

Avian

Inhalation of aerosolized fecal matter and nasal discharges primarily; also oral secretions and feathers Fomites Mechanical transmission may occur rodents and

Non-specific, oculo-nasal discharge, respiratory signs, conjunctivitis, diarrhea, weight loss, anorexia, depression, green to yellow green urates Some birds

Extra fluids to remain hydrated as long as diarrhea persists. Recovery often occurs without antibiotics, although they may be used to shorten the duration of clinical signs if administered early in course of disease. For most avian species: Doxycycline for 30-60 days. See treatment section for details

Clostridial DiseaseBotulism Toxicosis

Birds

Clostridial DiseaseTetanus

Coronavirus

Equidae; bovidae; cervidae; primates; elephant; macropods; and rodents. Multiple avian taxa.

insects Vertical transmission is infrequent Ingestion of toxin contaminated food or tissues. Wound contamination Contamination of wounds from bacteria in soil.

may have subclinical infections Mostly neurologic, involving flaccid paralysis. Gastrointestinal signs. Muscle rigidity and spasm localized or generalized. Diarrhea (often mucoid) due to enteritis, respiratory discharge, dyspnea, lethargy, death. Mammal infections may be subclinical or lead to fever, anorexia, late term abortions, infertility, retained placenta, metritis. Typically respiratory, central nervous system, ocular, or cutaneous signs; possibly in Dose related severity of mild to lethal. Supportive care; antitoxin when appropriate.

Up to 80 % mortality in clinically ill animals.

Penicillin, tetanus antitoxin, supportive care to reduce signs and support of airway. Supportive, antibiotics to reduce secondary infections.

Fecal-oral, inhalation, contaminated feed or fomites.

Often very severe.

Q Fever (Coxiella burnetii)

Birds

Cryptococcosis

Birds

Two patterns: 1) wild animals and ticks, 2) domestic ruminants independent of wildlife cycles. Shed in high numbers within amniotic fluid and placenta. Excreted in milk, urine, feces. It also may be spread through wind and dust. Inhalation of airborne organisms

Highly infectious. Humans acute form has moderate morbidity (50%), generally low mortality (12%). Mortality with endocarditis is up to 65%. Moderate to severe; guarded prognosis with neurologic signs.

Tetracycline antibiotics if showing clinical signs

Antifungal drugs; in some cases, surgical excision of granulomas may be helpful

Cryoptosporidiosis

Birds

Direct: fecal to oral. Waterborne transmission, possible paratenic host transmission, possible aerosol transmission in birds.

combination. Gastrointestinal: Diarrhea, vomiting. Respiratory disease documented in birds.

Duck Viral Enteritis (Duck Plague)

Ducks, geese, swan of all ages

Eastern Equine Encephalitis (EEE)

Birds

Bird to bird contact or via environment; water is important for transmission. Spontaneous viral shedding by duck plague carriers, particularly during spring Mosquito (Culiseta melanura)

Diarrhea, blood stained vent, cyanotic bill, inability to fly, convulsions, polydipsia, hypersensitivity to light

Depending on the affected species and organ system, severity can vary from a mild, transient, self-limiting disease to a severe and fatal disease. Severe disease is typical of immune suppressed patients, and reptiles. Moderate to severe

Nitazoxanide (Alinia) is licensed and approved for use in humans. Oral bovine hyperimmune serum is reported to be effective in reptiles. Paromomycin (Humatin) is effective against some stages of the disease, but will not eliminate infection. No effective treatment

Ehrlichia ruminatum (Heartwater)

Possibly (although not definitively proven) in birds.

Non-contagious tick borne disease via Ambylomma spp. ticks including US

Febrile, altered mentation, neurologic abnormalities, seizures, paresis, paralysis, death Acute fever, anorexia, diarrhea, serosa or mucosa

Equine fatality rate is up to 90%; survivors usually exhibit long-term neurologic signs; human fatality rate 50-75% Subclinical to peracute death. Dependent on strain, host, and

Supportive care

Remove ticks and antibiotics (e.g., tetracycline). Submit ticks

tick species: A. maculatum, A. cajennense, A. dissimile, A. americanum.

Erysipelas (Erysipelothrix rhusiopathiae)

Turkey, multiple other vertebrate species

Bacteria shed in urine, saliva, nasal secretions, and feces. Transmitted by direct contact with infected animals or body discharges (ingestion, transcutaneous). Apparently healthy swine can be carriers. Transmitted vertically (perinatal) or horizontal (percutaneous or mucosal exposure to infected body fluids, i.e. blood, saliva, sexual fluids, wound exudate)

Hepatitis B Virus

Birds

petechiae, respiratory and neurologic signs. Peracute sudden death! Acute disease pyrexia, anorexia, depression, stilted gait, diamond skin lesions, death. Chronic exercise intolerance, lameness, enlarged joints Weight loss, lethargy, anorexia, icterus, abdominal discomfort, nausea, vomiting

environment. Most common is acute clinical disease.

for diagnosis using the pCS20 RT or nested PCR.

Mild to severe. High mortality in untreated animals.

Acute disease penicillin. Chronic disease no treatment.

Klebsiella

All vertebrates

Animalanimal, human-animal, or animalhuman Environmental point sources (feed, feces, water, bedding material). Cockroach or house fly vector. Nosocomial

Normal fecal and oral cavity inhabitants. Bacterial septicemia, abscessation, multiple organ inflammation. K. pneumoniae with a unique hypermucovisco us

Often asymptomatc in non-human primates but can cause severe disease in gibbons and wooly monkeys; increased prevalence of hepatocellular carcinoma in chronic infections in woodchucks, humans. Variable

Supportive care; antivirals or -interferon can be attempted but to date unsuccessful in animal cases.

Antibiotics with Gramnegative activity pending appropriate sensitivity testing. Supportive care. It can develop a high level of

infections. Opportunistic pathogen, primary pathogen, component of normal flora, or environmental contaminant

Listeriosis

All

Lung Mites

Birds

Fecal-oral, inhalation, direct contact with affected tissues, or indirectly through contaminated milk, cheese, meat, eggs, fruits or vegetables in people. Common route in animals is hay contamination or unstable silage. Direct

Atypical Mycobacteriosis

Birds

Ingestion Inhalation Waterborne Environmental exposure via defects in respiratory, integumentary, or urogenital systems

phenotype (HMV K. pneumoniae) is an emerging disease concern in humans and NHPs as a communityacquir ed infection causing pyogenic liver abscesses Three primary forms: encephalitic, abortion septicemic (usually neonates and monogastrics) but also can see ophthalmic form. Primarily winter-spring disease in US In many cases, animals are asymptomatic; however, in severe infections, they may show signs of upper or lower respiratory disease depending on the host and species of parasite involved. Variable to none Cutaneous lesions Ascites Pneumonia Mastitis Lymphadenopat hy Lameness

resistance; common nosocomial concern.

Without aggressive treatment, encephalaitis and septicemic disease is often fatal or animals recover with permanent brain damage (encephalitic form) Dependent on the intensity of infection. Mortality is low.

Aggressive and early treatment with antibiotics, supportive care.

Ivermectin

Asymptomatic to chronic disease or acute death

May not be advised Antibiotics aminoglycoside; quinolone; macrolide

Avian Mycobacteriosis

All birds

Direct extension via Fecal-oral, environment, inhalation

Emaciation Lethargy Emaciation, weakness, lethargy, hepatosplenome galy Rarely skin lesions and respiratory disease

Variable. Severe in the individual with end stage disease

Mycoplasmosis (Mycoplasma ovipneumoniae, M. gallisepticum, M. agassizi, and others) Newcastle Disease

Birds

Birds

Psittacid Herpesvirus 1/ Pachecos Disease

Psittacines, rarely passerines

Direct contact between animals most important, fomites possible Highly contagious Avian Paramyxovirus 1 (APMV-1). Aerosol and ingestion are the primary routes. Inadvertent comingling asymptomatic with non-exposed birds. Ingestion of contaminated material from oral secretions or feces. Aerosol route is possible but not proven.

Respiratory (pneumonia, coughing), conjunctivitis, polyarthritis Death; gastrointestinal and respiratory signs

Tends to be chronic; can be severe and result in death.

Not recommended as this organism is resistant to most, if not all human antimycobacterial drugs. Euthanasia may need to be considered Difficult to treat but macrolides and fluoroquinolones are most effective. Not usually performed. In zoo specimens treatment is supportive care with consideration of vaccination.

Severe; typically fatal

Death with few premonitory signs. Rarely nonspecific signs, including lethargy and the presence of bile pigments in urine. Three of four PcHV-1 genotypes have been associated with

Dependent on viral genotype and species of birds, death can range from single birds to flock majority. Virtually all birds showing signs of the acute form will die unless treated. Mucosal papillomas cause

Acyclovir is very effective at stopping outbreaks when the entire flock is treated.

Pasteurellosis

Avian

Plasmodium

Birds especially penguins

Aerosol, mechanical via bite or scratch wounds, or environmental (food, water). Colonization of lungs by endogenous nasopharyngeal bacteria is described in ruminants and swine due to environmental stressors and/or primary infections due to viruses or Mycoplasma spp. Mosquitoes of different genera; in reptiles, also other biting flies

oral and cloacal mucosal papillomas. Primarily depression, fever, coughing, nasal and oral discharge, increased respiratory rates, tachypnea. Arthritis, gastrointestinal disease, otitis media, mastitis, bite wound abscesses and other signs are possible.

considerable morbidity but are rarely fatal. Variable. Ranges from subclinical to peracute and fatal. Supportive care, early intervention with antibiotics, ideally based on antibiotic sensitivity. Drainage of localized abscesses. Organ specific treatment for systemic infections. Peracute systemic infections may be unresponsive. Various antimalarial drugs can be used but are unlikely to eliminate infection at tissue stage; resulting in relapses of parasitemia Supportive care should be provided in isolated environments where even caretakers have no contact with other birds.

Lethargy; anorexia; minor to severe anemia; neurologic signs; paralysis

Psittacine Beak and Feather Disease

Psittacines Old World more than New World species

Direct contact with infected animals with virus presented by inhalation or ingestion. Indirect contact with contaminated excretions, secretions and feather dust. Virus remains in contaminated environments,

Peracute: Particularly common in African grey parrots with pancytopenia and death. Acute: Depression followed by appearance of dystrophic feathers and death. Chronic: Progressive

Typically of low virulence in adapted hosts; mild to severe possibly fatal disease in non-adapted hosts Aggressive disease most common in African grey, vasa, and eclectus parrots, and cockatoos. PCV-1 associated disease is fatal in most Old World psittacines. Chronic and less severe

particularly air handling systems, for years.

Pythiosis

Birds

Motile biflagellate zoospore (P. insidiosum) released into aquatic environments

Salmonellosis

Most vertebrates

Fecal-oral; direct contact by infected animals or indirectly via arthropods, or contaminated vehicles, equipment, feed, and water.

appearance of dystrophic feathers. Necrotic beak and ulcerations in some long term infected birds. Death occurs in months to years. Gastrointestinal: weight loss, vomiting, diarrhea, and hematochezia. Cutaneous: Non-healing wounds, nasopharyngeal lesions, invasive subcutaneous masses, draining nodular lesion, or ulcerated plaque-like lesions. Mild: gastroenteritis with vomiting, and diarrhea. Severe: additionally anorexia, lethargy, weight loss, pyrexia, polydipsia, dehydration, and ocular lesions; Severe acute septicemia: multifocal petechial hemorrhage, polyserositis, polyarthritis, bronchopneumo nia, meningitis or

disease in lovebirds, lories and lorikeets, particularly those birds infected with PCV-2. Devastating and often fatal unless resectable with wide margins. Surgical resection or amputation of infected tissues with wide margins. Postoperative treatment with antifungals may decrease recurrence when incomplete resection occurs. Antibiotics: streptomycin, gentamicin, tetracyclines, doxycycline.

Varies from subclinical carriage to septicemia and death. Septicemic form often is fatal without prior or unobserved clinical signs.

Screw Worm- New World

All warm blooded animals but most cases occur in cattle, goats and sheep.

Gravid female flies deposit eggs either in wounds or directly onto intact mucous membranes.

Screw Worm- Old World

All warm blooded animals, including birds

Flies are attracted to open wounds. Gravid female flies deposit eggs either into wounds or directly onto intact mucous membranes Ingestion of intermediate (invertebrate or vertebrate) or paratenic host

meningoencepha litis, death. Discomfort, decreased appetite, wounds with malodorous, reddish/brown fluid with larvae; slight movement inside a closed wound. Severe myiasis in open wounds; associated discomfort and decreased appetite

Untreated animals could die. Mortality rates in Texas when disease was endemic in the USA was 2080% in fawns. Severe infestations that remain untreated may result in the death of the host in a short time

Organophosphates (spray, foam, dip, dust) (e.g., (coumaphos, ronnel), or lindane.

Spiruridosis

Birds and insectivores

St. Louis Encephalitis

Birds (usually subclinical reservoirs, possible illness)

Bite of infected mosquito; theoretical risk of direct contact with infected tissues at necropsy. Opportunistic pathogens often involving

Variable, but may include chronic gastritis, vomiting, hemoptysis, anemia, anorexia, weight loss, conjunctivitis, keratitis, and sudden death Fever, stiff neck, seizures, coma.

Inapparent to severe; many are subclinical

Removal and killing of the larvae in lesion. Treatment of the wound with approved insecticide. Ivermectin 200-300 mcg/kg Levamisole, albendazole, mebendazole, ivermectin and other anthelminthics

Staphylococcus SPP. Infection

Birds

Can affect every organ system and clinical signs

In people, mild to severe, can be fatal although most infections are asymptomatic. Illness in animals is not completely understood. Depends upon organ(s) affected and

Supportive care - fluids, anticonvulsants; antiinflammatories.

Antibiotics: First-choice antibiotics (pending culture

breaks in the skin. Ubiquitous, and live free in the environment and commensal parasites of skin and upper respiratory tract. Droplet, direct/indirect contact transmission can occur.

Streptococcus Group C

Birds

Inhalation; ingestion; during breeding; transplacental. Indirectly via hands and/or fomites. Indirectly via hands and/or fomites. Direct contact with infectious exudates. Undercooked horsemeat. Ingestion of oocysts from felid feces; ingestion of tissue cysts; transplacental; transmammary

Toxoplasmosis

All vertebrates (primarily birds and mammals)

depend upon organ affected. Common cause of dermatitis. Fever, anorexia, pain, abscesses and infections of the skin, eyes, ears, respiratory system, mammary glands, genitourinary tract, skeleton, joints. Toxins may produce signs of food poisoning. Variable based on organ system affected. Abscesses; pharyngitis; cellulitis; septicemias; rhinitis; ocular discharge; coughing; sneezing; draining tracts. Abortions. Mastitis. Variable, depending on species and organs affected. Can range from asymptomatic to sudden death.

immune status of host.

and sensitivity testing) include cephalosporins and fluoroquinolones. Antibiotic resistance is common so sensitivity testing is recommended.

Severity can range from mild to severe or fatal, depending on age, species, and immune status of the individual.

1st choice: Procaine penicillin and ampicillin. 2nd choice: Cephalosporins, chloramphenicol, macrolides, rifampin, and trimethoprimsulfas.

Variable depending on species. Causes severe disease in Australian marsupials, New World primates, and lemurs. Usually asymptomati

Atovaquone, clindamycin, sulfonamide.

Trichostrongylosis

Birds

Fecal-oral with a direct life cycle

Heavy burdens cause weight loss, lethargy, anorexia, watery diarrhea, weakness anemia, and death

c in most felids. Low level infections are usually asymptomatic. Young animals more severely affected.

Trichuriasis

Wide range of birds

Tularemia

All warmblooded animals

Fecal/oral transmission via transmission of eggs with infective L2 Some capillarids may use earthworms as intermediate or paratenic host Arthropod vectors such as ticks, biting flies, and, in some areas, mosquitoes. Inhalation of aerosolized infectious material Ingestion of contaminated food or water

Weight loss, and diarrhea.

High morbidity, but low mortality

Benzimidazoles or macrocyclic lactones. Alternatives to anthelmintics have been investigated in artiodactylids including cooper oxide wire particles and nematophagous fungus (environmental control) Fenbendazole, milbemycin oxime

Depends on route of infection; general: lethargy, anorexia, pyrexia Transdermal exposure is marked by ulcer at site of inoculation;

lymphadenopathy.

Clinical signs can be severe and death result if untreated. Pneumonic form: severe. Septicemia often death occurs without prior signs

Antibiotics: streptomycin, gentamicin, tetracyclines, doxycycline

Oral exposure: Inhalation: pneumonia, coughing Skinning dead infected animals;

lymphadenopathy

West Nile Virus

Avian

Western Equine Encephalitits

Birds- Emus show clinical illness, while native birds serve as viral reservoirs without clinical illness

Primarily via mosquito bite, possibly ticks; less efficient means include ingestion of virus via infected carcasses or contaminated fluids (feces, urine, oral or cloacal); occupational exposure, blood transfusion, organ transplant, and maternal transmission Bite of WEE infected mosquito, but may be transmitted by ticks. Possibly from direct contact with infected tissues at necropsy (i.e. through broken skin or mucous membranes)

contaminated water Range: asymptomatic to non-specific (e.g., anorexia, weight loss, dehydration) to neurologic (e.g., ataxia, lethargy, paresis, paralysis, convulsions, seizures, death)

High fatality in some avian species (especially corvids and some raptors); 10-30% of equine clinical cases are fatal; <1% of human cases are severe (i.e., West Nile neuroinvasive disease)

Supportive care, immunoglobulin therapy

Yersiniosis

Birds

Ingestion of fecal contaminated food and

Equids: Fever, anorexia, lethargy (somnolence), impaired vision, dysphagia, circling, head pressing, paresis, paralysis, seizures Emus: asymptomatic infections are common; anorexia, watery diarrhea, weight loss, abnormal neck movements neurologic signs Diarrhea, abdominal pain, fever, weakness,

Mild to severe, may be fatal

No specific treatment but supportive care, hydration, and nutritional support are important. Anticonvulsant and antiinflammatory treatment may be used.

Ranges from subclinical to acutely fatal or a chronic

Third generation cephalosporins, fluoroquinolones; supportive

water; ingestion of raw meat and milk; blood transfusions (humans)

septicemia, weight loss, enlarged lymph nodes, sudden death

wasting form, depending on individual and species

therapy