An Introduction to Astronomy:

Stars and Galaxies

Lecture 3

The evolution of stars

University of Sydney
Centre for Continuing Education
Spring 2005
 Outline

• The four forces of nature

• The birth of stars
• How stars shine
• The (lingering) demise of stars
 Forces
Forces are the means by which particles in the universe
interact with each other. There are four forces in the universe:

● Strong and weak nuclear

forces: effective only within
the nucleus

● Electromagnetic force: acts

on charged particles

● Gravity: acts on particles

with mass
The electromagnetic force governs all interactions
between protons and electrons.

Opposite charges attract

+ –

Like charges repel

+ +

– –

The EM force governs all chemistry.

Both the EM force and gravity fall off as the square of
distance. The EM force is much stronger than gravity.

Gravity is unique because there is no repelling

component to gravity. Thus each and every particle
that makes up the Earth adds up to make the overall
gravitational field of the Earth, whereas the overall
electric charge of the Earth is very close to zero.

Gravity always wins.

 Star formation
All matter attracts all other matter. This means that a
cloud of gas will tend to collapse as a result of its own
gravity: this is how stars are born.

The star-forming region Hubble-X in

nearby galaxy NGC 6822.
 Stars are born out of dense clouds of gas and dust that
are abundant in the Milky Way galaxy and other spiral
galaxies.

A Hubble Space Telescope of M100 clearly shows these

puffy clouds of dust and gas.

M100 is seen nearly face-on, so we get an

unobstructed view of the disk.
Star formation takes place in the densest regions of clouds,
called dark nebulae. A famous example is the Horsehead
Nebula.

In these regions, shrouded

by dust, molecular gas
forms and clumps together
and the density increases,
until the densest regions
start to collapse under
their own gravity.
The Hubble view of the nebula shows the intricate
structure of the cloud, with a young star still embedded in
the nebula at top left.
The cloud collapses under its own gravity. Two important
effects work to stop the collapse.

• As it collapses, the cloud heats up: this increases the

pressure, which slows the collapse.
• As the cloud contracts, its
speed of rotation increases
and the fragment will
develop into a central dense
cloud surrounded by a
swirling disk of gas.
The cloud speeds up because it must conserve
angular momentum; the same thing as happens when
an ice skater pulls her arms and legs in to speed up a
spin.
The temperature in the core of the protostar
increases, until hydrogen nuclei begin to fuse to form
helium. This further increases the temperature and
hence the pressure at the core, and halts the
collapse. A star is born.
Here is an animation illustrating the formation of a star
from a molecular cloud.
Young stars are
often born in
clusters. The Orion
Nebula contains
several young star
clusters.
Newborn stars in the Triffid Nebula
are sculpting pillars in the
surrounding gas and dust.
Young star cluster in the Rosette Nebula
 Life on the main sequence

Gravity has formed a star. For now, the star is stable,

balancing itself against gravitational collapse by
producing energy from nuclear fusion.

However, this cannot last forever. The rest of the

star’s life is a succession of states which hold off the
further gravitational collapse.
In a star, the gravitational force is large enough to
overwhelm the atoms inside the core. The atoms
break up, leaving a fluid of electrons, through which
the bare nuclei can move freely.
No longer protected by their electron shells, the nuclei
can now approach much closer to each other, smash into
each other, and fuse to form helium.

At low temperatures, hydrogen

nuclei (protons) are prevented
from colliding by the
electromagnetic force, which
repels the protons

At high temperatures the

nuclei can approach close enough
that the strong nuclear force can
bind them together: fusion.
One helium atom weighs slightly less than four
hydrogen atoms: about 0.7% less. This missing mass is
converted into energy, and is what powers the star.
The structure of a star results from a series of finely
balanced processes.

gravity
produces
which balances

high temperature
high pressure

which produces

which produces

nuclear fusion
higher temperature

which produces
The reaction forming helium from hydrogen actually takes
four hydrogen atoms, and takes place in several steps.

Fusion only happens at temperatures above about 3 million

degrees, and increases rapidly with temperature.
The energy in the core leaks out to produce the radiation
we see. It cannot reach the surface directly: instead it is
transported by radiation, where atoms absorb and then re-
emit photons; or by convection, where hot material rises and
colder material sinks, just
like a boiling pot.
The outward pressure of the hot gas exactly balances the
inward force due to gravity.

This acts as a thermostat which keeps the star in

equilibrium. If the temperature in the core is too high,
the rate of fusion would increase faster than energy
could escape, so the core would expand a bit, which in
turn makes the temperature drop a bit, which reduces
the rate of fusion back
gravity to the equilibrium rate

pressure
 A star is in dynamic equilibrium: it can survive only so
long as it can produce energy in its core.

A star is not
A star is nota atruly stable
truly stable object.
object.
So now we can understand why heavier stars are brighter:

More mass more compression

higher temperature

much higher rate of fusion

much higher luminosity

A small increase in mass leads to a large change in

luminosity.
Let’s go back to the Hertzsprung-Russell diagram for a
minute.You recall that most start fall in a narrow band,
running from cool and dim to hot and bright.

hot, bright cool, bright

10,000

100

main sequence
L/L(sun) 1
= 90% of stars
0.01

hot, dim cool, dim

0.0001

40,000 20,000 10,000 5,000 2500

Temperature (K)
The relation between luminosity and temperature
tells us there is an underlying physical link between
these properties.

What is this link?

The relation between luminosity and temperature tells us
there is an underlying physical link between these properties.

For example, consider an alien scientist constructing a similar

diagram for school children.
Our intrepid scientist measures as many numerical
quantities as zyx can. Plotting the children’s weight against
the last two digits of their telephone number shows no
pattern.

40

weight (kg) 30

20

10

0 20 40 60 80 100

telephone number
But plotting weight against height shows a decided pattern:
indicating there is an underlying factor.

40

weight (kg) 30

20

10

0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140

height (cm)
This factor is, of course, age.
Picking children of the same age finds this pattern.

And a single child would trace out the curve as he or

she grew.

40

NO
30
year 4
weight (kg)

20

kindergarten
10

0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140

height (cm)

So is this the explanation for the main sequence –

an age sequence?
Measurement of the masses of stars led to the answer:
the further up the main sequence you go, the more
massive the stars are.

The main sequence is

a mass sequence. more massive

brighter
All the properties of a
star are dictated by
its mass.

hotter
Why is mass the important factor for stars?

Because the whole of a star’s life is a sequence of

attempts to hold off gravity.
 If we plot a star’s mass against its luminosity, we find a
factor of 10 increase in mass corresponds to a factor of
3000 increase in luminosity.

So massive stars are

much brighter.
 Stellar lifetimes
How long a star lives depends on both how much nuclear
fuel it has, and how fast it burns it. Like calculating how long a
tank of petrol is going to last, you need to know both how
much fuel you have, and how fast you consume it.

fuel tank fuel efficiency range

50 / (10/100) = 500 km
50 l 10 l/100 km
or 5 h at 100 km/h

100 / (25/100) = 400 km

100 l 25 l/100 km
or 4 h at 100 km/h
We saw how the luminosity of stars goes up very rapidly
with mass; this means massive stars have much shorter
lifetimes than low-mass stars.

rate of fuel
consumption

amount of fuel
Changes on the main sequence
A star remains at a given spectral type during the
entire main sequence stage – the main sequence is
not an evolutionary sequence. However, while on the
main sequence, stars do change very slowly. As the
hydrogen is used up, the core is gradually converted
to helium. The outside of the star becomes a bit
brighter and a bit cooler.
We can show what happens to the colour and
brightness of a star as it evolves, by showing how the
star moves through the H-R diagram.
As a protostar collapses to become a star, it gets fainter
(because it is getting smaller); then when hydrogen ignites
it gets hotter and brighter, until it reaches equilibrium on
the main sequence. On the Hertzsprung-Russell diagram, it
follows a track like this:
Once on the main sequence, the star remains in roughly
the same place, becoming slightly brighter and cooler.
Thus the main sequence is not a perfectly sharp line, but a
narrow band.
 The death of stars
When the core runs out of hydrogen to burn, the core
contracts and heats up. This forces the outer envelope of
the star to expand dramatically: it comes a red giant.
Unburnt hydrogen in a shell around the core starts to burn.
As the inert helium core continues to contract, the
temperature continues to rise, until the helium ignites...
and the star begins burning helium steadily in its core, as
well as burning hydrogen in a shell.
Burning both hydrogen and helium, the star expands once
more.
With low and medium mass stars, the outer layers are
ejected in the supergiant phase to form a planetary nebula.

The Ring Nebula, M57

With low and medium mass stars, the outer layers are
ejected in the supergiant phase to form a planetary nebula.

The Spirograph Nebula, IC 418

Many are spherical, but there are some spectacularly
beautiful examples of other shapes

Planetary nebula IC 4406

Many are spherical, but there are some spectacularly
beautiful examples of other shapes

The Cat’s Eye nebula,

NGC 6543
 Here, HST catches a star near the end of its lifetime, just
after ejecting its outer layers in several stages.

Composite optical/IR
image of NGC 7027
As the outer layers of the star are removed to expose the
hot core, the star becomes much bluer. Once the core,
now a white dwarf, has shrunk to its final size, it just cools
down.
hydrogen

Massive stars
continue to burn all
elements up to iron.
 hydrogen

helium
Massive stars
continue to burn all
elements up to iron.
 hydrogen

helium
carbon Massive stars
continue to burn all
elements up to iron.
 hydrogen

helium
carbon Massive stars
continue to burn all
oxygen elements up to iron.
 hydrogen

helium
carbon Massive stars
continue to burn all
oxygen elements up to iron.

neon
 hydrogen

helium
carbon Massive stars
continue to burn all
oxygen elements up to iron.

neon

silicon
 hydrogen

helium
carbon Massive stars
continue to burn all
oxygen elements up to iron.

After iron, however,

neon
there is no more
energy to extract
from fusion.
silicon

iron
These elements
collect and burn in
concentric shells, like
an onion.

Once the silicon in

the core has fused to
make iron, the star
can no longer
support itself against
collapse.
The evolution of a massive star
When the star explodes, the resulting supernova can
outshine a whole galaxy.
 The explosion ejects material into interstellar space,
including not only stellar material, but also elements formed
during the explosion. This material expands for thousands of
years as a supernova remnant.

The Crab Nebula

The iron core collapses with such force that the
electrons are forced to combine with protons to form
neutrons: a neutron star is born.
 SN 1987A
Supernova 1987A in the Large Magellanic Cloud was the
closest supernova to the Earth in over 400 years.
The life of the star that exploded in SN1987A
In this picture of the galactic
nebula NGC 3603, HST captures
various stages of the life cycle of
stars in one single view.
 Summary of how stars evolve
Main sequence star

Light stars Massive stars

planetary
supernova
nebula

white dwarf

black dwarf
neutron star black hole
 Next week...

we’ll look in more detail at the “stellar graveyard”:

the remnants that stars leave behind – white dwarfs,
neutron stars and black holes.
 Further reading
There are many books which describe stellar evolution; almost any book which talks about
stars will describe their birth, evolution and death. Some of them I mentioned last week, and
some of next week’s books are also good sources.

• “The Collapsing Universe” by Isaac Asimov is now 25 years old, but I have a very
soft spot for it. He does a marvellous job of explaining the competing forces within stars,
in his own highly readable style. It will also be very applicable to the subject of next lecture
(the endpoints of stellar evolution). The last section is very out-of-date, but the rest is as
readable an introduction to stellar evolution as any.

• NASA has a set of nice tutorials about stars at the Observatorium,

http://observe.arc.nasa.gov/nasa/space/space_index.shtml.html. “Birth of Stars” and
“Stellar Evolution and Death” are the ones of particular interest to us.
Sources for images used:
• Four forces: from “All Four Engines Out:Volcanic Ash, St Elmo’s Fire and Electrostatics” by David Jamieson
http://www.ph.unimelb.edu.au/~dnj/jl/jl99/index.htm
• Hubble image of the star forming region Hubble-X in the galaxy NGC 6822: from Astronomy Picture of the Day
2001 February 16 http://antwrp.gsfc.nasa.gov/apod/ap010216.html
• Spiral galaxy M100: from Astronomy Picture of the Day 2001 February 13
http://antwrp.gsfc.nasa.govgov/apod/ap010203.html
• Horsehead Nebula: AAT image by David Malin, http://www.aao.gov.au/images/captions/aat036.html; Hubble view,
from HubbleSite Press Release, 24 April 2001, http://hubblesite.org/newscenter/newsdesk/archive/releases/2001/12/
• Collapsing globules: from NASA’s Observatorium: Birth of Stars
http://observe.arc.nasa.gov/nasa/exhibits/stellarbirth/opening1.html
• SOHO image of a solar prominence on the Sun: from SOHO: Best of SOHO Images
http://sohowww.nascom.nasa.gov/
• Animation of the birth of the solar system: from Chris Tinney’s home page
http://www.aao.gov.au/local/www/cgt/cgthome/homepage.html
• Great Nebula in Orion: mosaic of HST images by C. O’Dell and S. Wong, Astronomy Picture of the Day 1999
May 22 http://antwrp.gsfc.nasa.gov/apod/ap990522.html
• Triffid Nebula: photo byJim and Janet Castano/Adam Block, Astronomy Picture of the Day 2003
September 1 http://antwrp.gsfc.nasa.gov/apod/ap030901.html; HST image of pillars and jets: Astronomy Picture of
the Day 2001 December 30 http://antwrp.gsfc.nasa.gov/apod/ap0111230.html
• Rosette Nebula: CFHT picture by J. C. Cuillandre & G. Fahlman, Astronomy Picture of the Day 2002
March 17 http://antwrp.gsfc.nasa.gov/apod/ap020317.html
• Convection in a star’s interior: from “Explorations: An Introduction to Astronomy” by Thomas Arny, Figure 11.3,
http://www.mhhe.com/physsci/astronomy/arny/instructor/graphics/ch11/1103.html
• Proton-proton chain: from Astronomy 162: Stars, Galaxies and Cosmology: The Proton-Proton Chain
http://csep10.phys.utk.edu/astr162/lect/energy/ppchain.html
• Planetary nebula images: from Hubble Heritage, http://heritage.stsci.edu/gallery/gallery.html
• NGC 7027: composite of HST optical and infrared images; Astronomy Picture of the Day 1996 January 17
http://antwrp.gsfc.nasa.gov/apod/ap960117.html
• Fusion of heavy elements:
• Structure of a massive star: from Astronomy 1301-02 by Tony Hall: Deaths of Massive Stars
http://lepus.physics.uair.edu/~tahall/EXAM3/Week3.htm
• Supernova 1998aq in NGC3982; from SEDS http://www.seds.org/~spider/spider/Misc/ngc3982_sn.html
• Crab nebula:VLT image, from Astronomy Picture of the Day 2002 July 14 http://antwrp.gsfc.nasa.gov/apod/ap020714.html
• Interior of a neutron star: from Science @NASA: Crusty star makes its presence felt
http://science.nasa.gov/newhome/headlines/ast29sep98_1.htm
• SN 1987A before and after: images by David Malin, http://www.aao.gov.au/images/captions/aat050.html
• The life cycle of SN 1987A: from http://jupiter.as.arizona.edu/~burrows/papers/rob/Stellar_Evolution.jpg
• NGC 3603: from Hubble News Center, http://hubblesite.org/newscenter/newsdesk/archive/releases/1999/20/
• Small images of star’s lives: from Windows on the Universe ExploraTour: A Peek into the Lives of the Stars
http://www.windows.ucar.edu/tour/link=/cool_stuff/tourstars_38.html