The Cell

Life is both wonderful and majestic. Yet for all of its majesty, all organisms are composed of the fundamental unit of life, the cell. The cell is the simplest unit of matter that is alive. From the unicellular bacteria to multicellular animals, the cell is one of the basic organizational principles of biology. Let's look at some of the components of this basic organizer of living organisms.

Eukaryotic Cells and Prokaryotic Cells There are two primary types of cells: eukaryotic cellsand prokaryotic cells. Eukaryotic cells are called so because they have a true nucleus. The nucleus, which houses DNA, is contained within a membrane and separated from other cellular structures. Prokaryotic cells however have no true nucleus. DNA in a prokaryotic cell is not separated from the rest of the cell but coiled up in a region called the nucleoid. As organized in the Three Domain System, prokaryotes include archaeans and bacteria. Eukaryotes include animals, plants, fungi and protists. Typically, eukaryoitc cells are more complex and much larger than prokaryotic cells. On average, prokaryotic cells are about 10 times smaller in diameter than eukaryotic cells. Eukaryotes grow and reproduce through a process called mitosis. In organisms that also reproduce sexually, the reproductive cells are produced by a type of cell division called meiosis. Most prokaryotes reproduce through a process called binary fission. During binary fission, the single DNA molecule replicates and the original cell is divided into two identical daughter cells. Both eukaryotic and prokaryotic organisms get the energy they need to grow and maintain normal cellular function through cellular respiration. Cellular respiration has three main stages: glycolysis, the citric acid cycle, and electron transport. In eukaryotes, most cellular respiration reactions take place within the mitochondria. In prokaryotes, they occur in the cytoplasmand/or within the cell membrane. The Cell There are also many distinctions between eukaryotic and prokaryotic cell structures. The following table compares the cell organelles and structures found in a typical prokaryotic cell to those found in a typical animal eukaryotic cell.

Cell Structure Comparison

Eukaryotic and Prokaryotic Cell Structures Cell Structure Cell Membrane Cell Wall Centrioles Chromosomes Cilia or Flagella Endoplasmic Reticulum Golgi Complex Lysosomes Mitochondria Nucleus Peroxisomes Ribosomes Prokaryotic Cell Yes Yes No One long DNA strand Yes, simple No No No No No No Yes Typical Animal Eukaryotic Cell Yes No Yes Many Yes, complex Yes (some exceptions) Yes Common Yes Yes Common Yes

Prokaryotes

Prokaryotes are single-celled organisms that are the earliest and most primitive forms of life on earth. As organized in the Three Domain System, prokaryotes include bacteria andarchaeans. Prokaryotes are able to live and thrive in various types of environments including extreme habitats such as hydrothermal vents, hot springs, swamps, wetlands, and the guts of animals. Prokaryotic Cell Structure Prokaryotic cells are not as complex as eukaryotic cells. They have no true nucleus as the DNA is not contained within a membrane or separated from the rest of the cell, but is coiled up in a region of the cytoplasm called the nucleoid. Using bacteria as our sample prokaryote, the following structures can be found in bacterial cells:

Capsule - Found in some bacterial cells, this additional outer covering protects the cell when it is engulfed by other organisms, assists in retaining moisture, and helps the cell adhere to surfaces and nutrients.

Cell Wall - Outer covering of most cells that protects the bacterial cell and gives it shape.

Cytoplasm - A gel-like substance composed mainly of water that also contains enzymes, salts, cell components, and various organic molecules.

Cell Membrane or Plasma Membrane - Surrounds the cell's cytoplasm and regulates the flow of substances in and out of the cell.

Pili - Hair-like structures on the surface of the cell that attach to other bacterial cells. Shorter pili called fimbriae help bacteria attach to surfaces.

Flagella - Long, whip-like protrusion that aids in cellular locomotion.

Ribosomes - Cell structures responsible for protein production.

Plasmids - Gene carrying, circular DNA structures that are not involved in reproduction.

Nucleiod Region - Area of the cytoplasm that contains the single bacterial DNA molecule.

Most prokaryotes reproduce asexually through a process called binary fission. During binary fission, the single DNA molecule replicates and the original cell is divided into two identical cells. Binary fission begins with the single DNA molecule replicating and both copies attaching to the cell membrane.

Next, the cell membrane begins to grow between the two DNA molecules. Once the bacterium just about doubles its original size, the cell membrane begins to pinch inward. A cell wall then forms between the two DNA molecules dividing the original cell into two identical daughter cells.

Plant Cell

Plant cells are eukaryotic cells, or cells with a membrane-bound nucleus. Unlike prokaryotic cells, the DNA in a plant cell is housed within the nucleus. In addition to having a nucleus, plant cells also contain other membrane-bound organelles, or tiny cellular structures, that carry out specific functions necessary for normal cellular operation. Organelles have a wide range of responsibilities that include everything from producing hormones and enzymes to providing energy for a plant cell. Plant cells are similar to animal cells in that they are both eukaryotic cells and have similar organelles. Plant cells are generally larger than animal cells. While animal cells come in various sizes and tend to have irregular shapes, plant cells are more similar in size and are typically rectangular or cube shaped. A plant cell also contains structures not found in an animal cell. Some of these include a cell wall, a large vacuole, and plastids. Plastids, such as chloroplasts, assist in storing and harvesting needed substances for the plant. Animal cells also contain structures such as centrioles, lysosomes, and cilia and flagella that are not typically found in plant cells. Plant Cell: Structures and Organelles The following are examples of structures and organelles that can be found in typical plant cells:

Cell (Plasma) Membrane - a thin, semi-permeable membrane that surrounds the cytoplasm of a cell, enclosing its contents.

Cell Wall - outer covering of the cell that protects the plant cell and gives it shape.

Chloroplasts - the sites of photosynthesis in a plant cell. They contain chlorophyll, a green pigment that absorbs energy from sunlight.

Cytoplasm - gel-like substance within the cell membrane containing water, enzymes, salts, organelles, and various organic molecules.

Cytoskeleton - a network of fibers throughout the cytoplasm that helps the cell maintain its shape and gives support to the cell.

Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER) - extensive network of membranes composed of both regions with ribosomes (rough ER) and regions without ribosomes (smooth ER).

Golgi Complex - responsible for manufacturing, storing and shipping certain cellular products.

Microtubules - hollow rods that function primarily to help support and shape the cell.

Mitochondria - this organelle generates energy for the cell.

Nucleus - membrane bound structure that contains the cell's hereditary information. Nucleolus - structure within the nucleus that helps in the synthesis of ribosomes.

Nucleopore - tiny hole within the nuclear membrane that allows nucleic acids and proteinsto move into and out of the nucleus. Peroxisomes - tiny structures bound by a single membrane that contain enzymes that produce hydrogen peroxide as a by-product. These structures are involved in plant processes such as photorespiration.

Plasmodesmata - pores or channels between plant cell walls that allow molecules and communication signals to pass between individual plant cells.

Ribosomes - consisting of RNA and proteins, ribosomes are responsible for protein assembly.

Vacuole - structure in a plant cell that provides support and participates in a variety of cellular functions including storage, detoxification, protection, and growth. When a plant cell matures, it typically contains one large liquid-filled vacuole.

Plant Cell Types As a plant matures, its cells become specialized in order to perform certain functions necessary for survival. Some plant cells synthesize and store organic products, while others help to transport nutrients throughout the plant. Some examples of specialized plant cell types include: Parenchyma Cells - although not highly specialized, these cells synthesize and store organic products in the plant.

Collenchyma Cells - help to support plants while not restraining growth due to their lack of secondary walls and the absence of a hardening agent in their primary walls.

Sclerenchyma Cells - provide a support function in plants, but unlike collenchyma cells, they have a hardening agent and are much more rigid. Plant cells are grouped together into various tissues. These tissues can be simple, consisting of a single cell type, or complex, consisting of more than one cell type. Above and beyond tissues, plants also have a higher level of structure called plant tissue systems. There are three types of tissue systems: dermal tissue, vascular tissue, and ground tissue systems.

Cell Membrane

Cell Membrane The cell membrane is a thin semi-permeable membrane that surrounds the cytoplasm of a cell. Its function is to protect the integrity of the interior of the cell by allowing certain substances into the cell, while keeping other substances out. It also serves as a base of attachment for the cytoskeleton in some organisms and the cell wall in others. Thus the cell membrane also serves to help support the cell and help maintain its shape. Animal cells, plant cells,prokaryotic cells, and fungal cells have cell membranes. Cell Membrane Structure The cell membrane is primarily composed of a mix of proteins and lipids. Depending on the membranes location and role in the body, lipids can make up anywhere from 20 to 80 percent of the membrane, with the remainder being proteins. While lipids help to give membranes their flexibility, proteins monitor and maintain the cell's chemical climate and assist in the transfer of molecules across the membrane. Cell Membrane Lipids

Phospholipids are a major component of cell membranes. They form a lipid bilayer in which their hydrophillic (attracted to water) head areas spontaneously arrange to face the aqueous cytosol and the extracellular fluid, while their hydrophobic (repelled by water) tail areas face away from the cytosol and extracellular fluid. The lipid bilayer is semi-permeable, allowing only certain molecules to diffuse across the membrane.

Cholesterol is another lipid component of cell membranes. It helps to stiffen cell membranes and is not found in the membranes of plant cells.

Glycolipids are located on cell membrane surfaces and have a carbohydrate sugar chain attached to them. They help the cell to recognize other cells of the body. Cell Membrane Proteins Structural proteins help to give the cell support and shape. Cell membrane receptor proteinshelp cells communicate with their external environment through the use of hormones, neurotransmitters and other signaling molecules. Transport proteins, such as globular proteins, transport molecules across cell membranes through facilitated diffusion.Glycoproteins have a carbohydrate chain attached to them. They are embedded in the cell membrane and help in cell to cell communications and molecule transport across the membrane. Eukaryotic Cell Structures The cell membrane is only one component of a cell. The following cell structures can also be found in a typical animal eukaryotic cell:

Centrioles - help to organize the assembly of microtubules.

Chromosomes - house cellular DNA.

Cilia and Flagella - aid in cellular locomotion.

Endoplasmic Reticulum - synthesizes carbohydrates and lipids.

Golgi Complex - manufactures, stores and ships certain cellular products.

Lysosomes - digest cellular macromolecules.

Mitochondria - provide energy for the cell.

Nucleus - controls cell growth and reproduction.

Peroxisomes - detoxify alcohol, form bile acid, and use oxygen to break down fats.

Ribosomes - responsible for protein production via translation.

The Nucleus: In Journey into the Cell, we looked at the structure of the two major types of cells: prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells. Now we turn our attention to the "nerve center" of a eukaryotic cell, the nucleus. The nucleus is a membrane bound structure that contains the cell's hereditary information and controls the cell's growth and reproduction. It is commonly the most prominent organelle in the cell. Distinguishing Characteristics:

The nucleus is bounded by a double membrane called the nuclear envelope. This membrane separates the contents of the nucleus from thecytoplasm. The envelope helps to maintain the shape of the nucleus and assists in regulating the flow of molecules into and out of the nucleus through nuclear pores. Chromosomes are also located in the nucleus. When a cell is "resting" i.e. not dividing, the chromosomes are organized into long entangled structures called chromatin and not into individual chromosomes as we typically think of them. The Nucleolus: The nucleus also contains the nucleolus which helps to synthesize ribosomes. The nucleolus contains nucleolar organizers which are parts of chromosomes with the genes for ribosome synthesis on them. Copious amounts of RNA and proteins can be found in the nucleolus as well. The nucleus controls the synthesis of proteins in the cytoplasm through the use of messenger RNA. Messenger RNA is produced in the nucleolus of the cell and travels to the cytoplasm through the pores of the nuclear envelope.

Mitochondria

Mitochondria In Journey into the Cell, we looked at the structure of the two major types of cells: prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells. Now we turn our attention to the "power houses" of a eukaryotic cell, the mitochondria. Mitochondria are the cell's power producers. They convert energy into forms that are usable by the cell. Located in the cytoplasm, they are the sites of cellular respiration which ultimately generates fuel for the cell's activities. Mitochondria are also involved in other cell processes such as cell division and growth, as well as cell death. Mitochondria: Distinguishing Characteristics Mitochondria are bounded by a double membrane. Each of these membranes is a phospholipidbilayer with embedded proteins. The outermost membrane is smooth while the inner membrane has many folds. These folds are called cristae. The folds enhance the "productivity" of cellular respiration by increasing the available surface area. The double membranes divide the mitochondrion into two distinct parts: the intermembrane space and the mitochondrial matrix. The intermembrane space is the narrow part between the two membranes while the mitochondrial matrix is the part enclosed by the innermost membrane. Several of the steps in cellular respiration occur in the matrix due to its high concentration of enzymes.

Mitochondria are semi-autonomous in that they are only partially dependent on the cell to replicate and grow. They have their own DNA, ribosomes and can make their own proteins. Similar to bacteria, mitochondria have circular DNA and replicate by a reproductive process called fission.

Ribosomes: In Journey into the Cell, we looked at the structure of the two major types of cells: prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells. Now we turn our attention to the protein assemblers of a eukaryotic cell, theribosomes. Ribosomes are cell organelles that consist of RNA and proteins. They are responsible for assembling the proteins of the cell. Depending on the protein production level of a particular cell, ribosomes may number in the millions. Distinguishing Characteristics: Ribosomes are typically composed of two subunits: a large subunit and a small subunit. Ribosomal subunits are synthesized by the nucleolus. These two subunits join together when the ribosome attaches to messenger RNA (mRNA) during protein synthesis. Ribosomes along with another RNA molecule, transfer RNA (tRNA), help to translate the protein-coding genes in mRNA into proteins. Location in the Cell: There are two places that ribosomes usually exist in the cell: suspended in the cytosol and bound to the endoplasmic reticulum. These ribosomes are called free ribosomes and bound ribosomes respectively. In both cases, the ribosomes usually form aggregates called polysomes or polyribosomes during protein synthesis. Free ribosomes usually make proteins that will function in the cytosol (fluid component of thecytoplasm), while bound ribosomes usually make proteins that are exported from the cell or included in the cell's membranes. Interestingly enough, free ribosomes and bound ribosomes are interchangeable and the cell can change their numbers according to metabolic needs. Protein Assembly: Protein synthesis occurs by the processes of transcription and translation. In transcription, the genetic code contained within DNA is transcribed into an RNA version of the code known as messenger RNA (mRNA). In translation, a growing amino acid chain, also called a polypeptide chain, is produced. Ribosomal RNA helps to link amino acids together to produce the polypeptide chain. The polypeptide chain undergoes several modifications before becoming a fully functioning protein. Proteins are very important biological polymers in our cells as they are involved in virtually all cell functions.

Endoplasmic Reticulum

Endoplasmic Reticulum In Journey into the Cell, we looked at the structure of the two major types of cells: prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells. Now we turn our attention to the endoplasmic reticulum (ER). The endoplasmic reticulum is a network of tubules and flattened sacs that serve a variety of functions in the cell. There are two regions of the ER that differ in both structure and function. One region is called rough ER because it has ribosomes attached to the cytoplasmic side of the membrane. The other region is called smooth ER because it lacks attached ribosomes. Typically, the smooth ER is a tubule network and the rough ER is a series of flattened sacs. The space inside of the ER is called the lumen. The ER is very extensive extending from the cell membrane through the cytoplasm and forming a continuous connection with the nuclear envelope. Since the ER is connected with the nuclear envelope, the lumen of the ER and the space inside the nuclear envelope are part of the same compartment. Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum The rough endoplasmic reticulum manufactures membranes and secretory proteins. In certainleukocytes (white blood cells), the rough ER produces antibodies. In pancreatic cells, the rough ER produces insulin. The rough and smooth ER are usually interconnected and the proteins and membranes made by the rough ER move into the smooth ER to be transferred to other locations. Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum The smooth ER has a wide range of functions including carbohydrate and lipid synthesis. It serves as a transitional area for vesicles that transport ER products to various destinations. In liver cells the smooth ER produces enzymes that help to detoxify certain compounds. Inmuscles the smooth ER assists in the contraction of muscle cells, and in brain cells it synthesizes male and female hormones.

Golgi Complex

In Journey into the Cell, we looked at the structure of the two major types of cells: prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells. Now we turn our attention to the "manufacturing and shipping center" of a eukaryotic cell, the Golgi complex. The Golgi complex or Golgi apparatus is responsible for manufacturing, warehousing, and shipping certain cellular products, particularly those from the endoplasmic reticulum (ER). Depending on the type of cell, there can be just a few complexes or there can be hundreds. Cells that specialize in secreting various substances typically have a high number of Golgi complexes. Golgi Complex: Distinguishing Characteristics A Golgi complex is composed of flat sacs known as cisternae. The sacs are stacked in a bent, semicircular shape. Each stacked grouping has a membrane that separates its insides from the cell's cytoplasm. Golgi membrane protein interactions are responsible for its unique shape. These interactions generate the force that shapes this organelle. The Golgi complex is very polar. Membranes at one end of the stack differ in both composition and in thickness from those at the other end. One end (cis face) acts as the "receiving" department while the other (trans face) acts as the "shipping" department. The cis face is closely associated with the ER. Golgi Complex: Molecule Transport and Modification

Molecules synthesized in the ER exit via special transport vesicles which carry their contents to the Golgi complex. The vesicles fuse with Golgi cisternae releasing their contents into the internal portion of membrane. The molecules are modified as they are transported between cisternae layers. It is thought that individual sacs are not directly connected, thus the molecules move between cisternae through a sequence of budding, vesicle formation, and fusion with the next Golgi sac. Once the molecules reach the trans face of the Golgi, vesicles are formed to "ship" materials to other sites. The Golgi complex modifies many products from the ER including proteins and phospholipids. The complex also manufactures certain biological polymers of its own. The Golgi complex contains processing enzymes which alter molecules by adding or removing carbohydratesubunits. Once modifications have been made and molecules have been sorted, they are secreted from the Golgi via transport vesicles to their intended destinations. Some of the molecules are destined for the cell membrane where they aid in membrane repair and intercellular signaling. Other molecules are secreted to areas outside of the cell. Transport vesicles carrying these molecules fuse with the cell membrane releasing the molecules to the exterior of the cell. Still other vesicles contain enzymes that digest cellular components. These vesicle form cell structures called lysosomes. Molecules dispatched from the Golgi may also be reprocessed by the Golgi. Golgi Complex Assembly The Golgi complex is capable of disassembly and reassembly. During the early stages ofmitosis, the Golgi disassembles into fragments which further breakdown into vesicles. As the cell progresses through the division process, the Golgi vesicles are distributed between the two forming daughter cells by spindle microtubules. The Golgi complex reassembles in thetelophase stage of mitosis. The mechanisms by which the Golgi complex assembles are not yet understood.

The Cytoskeleton
What Is The Cytoskeleton? The cytoskeleton is a network of fibers throughout the cell'scytoplasm that helps the cell maintain its shape and gives support to the cell. A variety of cellular organelles are held in place by the cytoskeleton. Cytoskeleton: Distinguishing Characteristics The cytoskeleton is composed of at least three different types of fibers: microtubules, microfilaments and intermediate filaments. These types are distinguished by their size with microtubules being the thickest and microfilaments being the thinnest.

Microtubules are hollow rods functioning primarily to help support and shape the cell and as "routes" along which organelles can move. Microtubules are typically found in all eukaryotic cells. Microfilaments or actin filaments are solid rods and are active in muscle contraction. Microfilaments are particularly prevalent in muscle cells but similar to microtubules, they are also typically found in all eukaryotic cells.

Intermediate filaments can be abundant in many cells and provide support for microfilaments and microtubules by holding them in place. In addition to providing support for the cell, the cytoskeleton is also involved in cellular motility and in moving vesicles within a cell, as well as assisting in the formation of food vacuoles in the cell.

Lysosomes
What are lysosomes? Lysosomes are membranous sacs of enzymes. These enzymes are typically hydrolytic and can digest cellular macromolecules. They are made by theendoplasmic reticulum andGolgi complex. Lysosomes are more than likely formed by budding from the "shipping" department of a Golgi complex. What are some distinguishing characteristics? Lysosomes contain various hydrolytic enzymes that are capable of digesting nucleic acids,polysaccharides, fats, and proteins. The inside of a lysosome is acidic. Since the enzymes work best in an acidic environment, if a lysosome's integrity is compromised, the enzymes would not be very harmful in the neutral cytosol. Lysosome Function Lysosomes have various roles. They are active in recycling the cell's organic material and in the intracellular digestion of macromolecules. In addition, in many organisms, lysosomes are involved in programmed cell death. Lysosome Defects In humans, a variety of inherited conditions can affect lysosomes. These defects are called storage diseases and include Pompe's disease and Tay-Sachs disease. People with these disorders are missing one or more of the lysosomal hydrolytic enzymes.

Peroxisomes
In Journey into the Cell, we looked at the structure of the two major types of cells: prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells. Now we turn our attention to peroxisomes.

What are peroxisomes? Peroxisomes are microbodies. They are bound by a single membrane and contain enzymes that produce hydrogen peroxide as a by-product.

What are some distinguishing characteristics? Peroxisomes contain enzymes that work by transferring hydrogen from a substrate to oxygen, thereby producing hydrogen peroxide as a by-product. Hydrogen peroxide is toxic to the cell, but peroxisomes also contain an enzyme that is capable of converting hydrogen peroxide to water. Some functions of peroxisomes include detoxifying alcohol, bile acid formation, and using oxygen to break down fats. Similar to lysosomes, peroxisomes are excellent examples of

compartmentalized structure relating to cellular function. Peroxisomes reproduce by a process called peroxisomal biogenesis. They have the ability to assemble themselves. Peroxisomes have no DNA orribosomes however, so they must take in proteins from the cytosol.

Cilia and Flagella

n Journey into the Cell, we looked at the structure of the two major types of cells: prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells. Now we turn our attention to the "movers" of a eukaryotic cell, cilia and flagella.

What are cilia and flagella? Cilia and flagella are protrusions from some cells that aid in cellular locomotion. They are formed from specialized groupings of microtubules called basal bodies. If the protrusions are short and numerous they are termed cilia. If they are longer and less numerous (usually only one or two) they are termed flagella.

What are some distinguishing characteristics? Typically cilia and flagella have a core composed of microtubules connected to the plasma membrane arranged in what is known as a 9 + 2 pattern. The pattern is so named because a ring of nine microtubule "doubles" has in its center two singular microtubules. This organization allows the sliding of the microtubule doubles against one another to "bend" the cilia or flagella. This type of organization is found in most eukaryotic cilia and flagella.

Where can cilia and flagella be found? Both cilia and flagella are found in numerous types of cells. For instance, the sperm of many animals, algae, and even ferns have flagella. Cilia can be found in areas such as the respiratory and female reproductive tracts.