Transmission Electrical

Chen, M.S., Lai, K.C., Thallam, R.S., El-Hawary, M.E., Gross, C., Phadke, A.G.
,
Gungor, R.B., Glover, J.D. Transmission
The Electrical Engineering Handbook
Ed. Richard C. Dorf
Boca Raton: CRC Press LLC, 2000
2000 by CRC Press LLC
61
TransmIssIon
61.1 Alteinating Cuiient Oveihead: Line Paiameteis,
Models, Standaid Voltages, Insulatois
Line Paiameteis Models Standaid Voltages Insulatois
61.2 Alteinating Cuiient Undeigiound: Line Paiameteis,
Models, Standaid Voltages, Cables
Cable Paiameteis Models Standaid Voltages Cable Standaids
61.3 High-Voltage Diiect-Cuiient Tiansmission
Confguiations of DCTiansmission Economic Compaiison of AC
and DC Tiansmission Piinciples of Conveitei
Opeiation Conveitei Contiol Developments
61.4 Compensation
Seiies Capacitois Synchionous Compensatois Shunt
Capacitois Shunt Reactois Static VAR Compensatois (SVC)
61.5 Fault Analysis in Powei Systems
Simplifcations in the System Model The Foui Basic Fault
Types An Example Fault Study Fuithei Consideiations
61.6 Piotection
Fundamental Piinciples of Piotection Oveicuiient
Piotection Distance Piotection Pilot Piotection Computei
Relaying
61.7 Tiansient Opeiation of Powei Systems
Stable Opeiation of Powei Systems
61.8 Planning
Planning Tools Basic Planning Piinciples Equipment
Ratings Planning Ciiteiia Value-Based Tiansmission Planning
61.1 A!ternating Current Overhead: Line Parameters, Mude!s,
Standard Yu!tages, Insu!aturs
MoS|ng C|en
The most common element of a thiee-phase powei system is the oveihead tiansmission line. The inteiconnec-
tion of these elements foims the majoi pait of the powei system netwoik. The basic oveihead tiansmission
lines consist of a gioup of phase conductois that tiansmit the electiical eneigy, the eaith ietuin, and usually
one oi moie neutial conductois (Fig. 61.1).
Line Parameters
The tiansmission line paiameteis can be divided into two paits: seiies impedance and shunt admittance. Since
these values aie subject to installation and utilization, e.g., opeiation fiequency and distance between cables,
the manufactuieis aie often unable to piovide these data. The most accuiate values aie obtained thiough
measuiing in the feld, but it has been done only occasionally.
No-ShIng Chen
Inverry of Texo or Ar|ngron
K.C. LaI
Inverry of Texo or Ar|ngron
Rao S. ThaIIam
So|r Fver Projecr, P|oenx
Nohamed . I-Havary
Tec|nco| Inverry of Novo Scoro
CharIes Cross
Auburn Inverry
Arun C. hadIe
Vrgno Po|yrec|nc Inrrure ond
Srore Inverry
R.B. Cungor
Inverry of Sour| A|obomo
}. Iuncan CIover
oAA|ecrrco| Corororon
Though the symmetiical component method has been used to simplify many of the pioblems in powei
system analysis, the following paiagiaphs, which desciibe the foimulas in the calculation of the line paiameteis,
aie much moie geneial and aie not limited to the application of symmetiical components. The sequence
impedances and admittances used in the symmetiical components method can be easily calculated by a matiix
tiansfoimation Chen and Dillon, 1974]. A detailed discussion of symmetiical components can be found in
Claike 1943].
Series Impedance
The netwoik equation of a thiee-phase tiansmission line with one neutial wiie (as given in Fig. 61.1) in which
only seiies impedances aie consideied is given as follows:
(61.1)
wheie Z
-g
self-impedance of phase conductoi and Z
,-g
mutual impedance between phase conductoi
and phase , conductoi.
The subsciipt g indicates a giound ietuin. Foimulas foi calculating Z
-g
and Z
,-g
weie developed by J. R.
Caison based on an eaith of unifoim conductivity and semi-infnite in extent Caison, 1926]. Foi two con-
ductois a and | with eaith ietuin, as shown in Fig. 61.2, the self- and mutual impedances in ohms pei mile aie
(61.2)
(61.3)
wheie the piime" is used to indicate distiibuted paiameteis in pei-unit length; :
a
r
t
- ,x

conductoi a
inteinal impedance, O/mi; |
a
height of conductoi a, ft; r
a
iadius of conductoi a, ft; J
a|
distance between
conductois a and |, ft; S
a|
distance fiom one conductoi to image of othei, ft; u 2r[; [ fiequency, cycles/s;
0
the magnetic peimeability of fiee space,
0
4r 10
-7
1609.34 H/mi; and , q aie the coiiection teims
foi eaith ietuin effect and aie given latei.
The conductoi inteinal impedance consists of the effective iesistance and the inteinal ieactance. The effective
iesistance is affected by thiee factois: tempeiatuie, fiequency, and cuiient density. In coping with the tempei-
atuie effect on the iesistance, a coiiection can be applied.
FIGURE 61.1 A thiee-phase tiansmission line with one
neutial wiie.
FIGURE 61.2 Geometiic diagiam of conductois a and |.
V
V
V
V
Z Z Z Z
Z Z Z Z
Z Z Z Z
Z Z Z Z
I
I
I
I
B
C
N
aa g a| g at g an g
|a g || g |t g |n g
ta g t| g tt g tn g
na g n| g nt g nn g
a
|
t
n
1
]
1
1
1
1

1
]
1
1
1
1
1
1
]
1
- - - -
- - - -
- - - -
- - - -
11
1
1
+
1
]
1
1
1
1
V
V
V
V
a
|
t
n
+ + + Z : ,
|
r
, q
aa g a
a
a
-
ln ( ) u

r
u

r
0 0
2
2
+ + Z ,
S
J
,q
a| g
a|
a|
-
ln ( ) u

r
u

r
0 0
2
R
new
R
20
1 - o (T
new
- 20)] (61.4)
wheie R
new
iesistance at new tempeiatuie, T
new
new tempeiatuie in C, R
20
iesistance at 20C (Table 61.1),
and o tempeiatuie coeffcient of iesistance (Table 61.1).
An inciease in fiequency causes nonunifoim cuiient density. This phenomenon is called s|n e[[et. Skin
effect incieases the effective ac iesistance of a conductoi and decieases its inteinal inductance. The inteinal
impedance of a solid iound conductoi in ohms pei metei consideiing the skin effect is calculated by
(61.5)
wheie p iesistivity of conductoi, O m; r iadius of conductoi, m; I
0
modifed Bessel function of the fist
kind of oidei 0; I
1
modifed Bessel function of the fist kind of oidei 1; and iecipiocal of
complex depth of penetiation.
The iatios of effective ac iesistance to dc iesistance foi commonly used conductois aie given in many
handbooks such as E|etrta| Transmsson anJ Dsr|uon Re[erente Boo| and |umnum E|etrta| ConJutor
HanJ|oo|]. A simplifed foimula is also given in Claike 1943].
and q aie the coiiection teims foi eaith ietuin effect. Foi peifectly conducting giound, they aie zeio. The
deteimination of and q iequiies the evaluation of an infnite integial. Since the seiies conveige fast at powei
fiequency oi less, they can be calculated by the following equations:
(61.6)
(61.7)
with
TABLE 61.1 Electiical Piopeities of Metals Used in Tiansmission Lines
Relative Electiical Tempeiatuie
Conductivity Resistivity at Coeffcient of
Metal (Coppei 100) 20C, O m (10
-8
) Resistance (pei C)
Coppei (HC, annealed) 100 1.724 0.0039
Coppei (HC, haid-diawn) 97 1.777 0.0039
Aluminum (EC giade, 1/2 H-H) 61 2.826 0.0040
Mild steel 12 13.80 0.0045
Lead 8 21.4 0.0040
:
m
r
I mr
I mr
p
r 2
0
1
( )
( )
m , u p /
|
|
|
| |
+ +
_
,
1
]
1
+
r

r
8
1
3 2
16
0 6728
2
2 2
3
45 2
4
1536
2
3 4
- cos . ln cos sin
cos
-
cos

q
|
|
| |
|
|
+ + +
+
_
,
1
]
1
0 0386
1
2
2 1
3 2
2
64
3
45 2
384
2
1 0895 4 4
2 3
4
. cos
cos cos
. cos sin
ln
ln
r

| D
[
8 565 10
4
.
-
p
wheie D 2|
(ft), 0, foi self-impedance; D S

,
(ft), foi mutual impedance (see Fig. 61.2 foi ); and p
eaith iesistivity, O/m
3
.
Shunt Admittance
The shunt admittance consists of the conductance and the capacitive susceptance. The conductance of a
tiansmission line is usually veiy small and is neglected in steady-state studies. A capacitance matiix ielated to
phase voltages and chaiges of a thiee-phase tiansmission line is
(61.8)
The capacitance matiix can be calculated by inveiting a potential coeffcient matiix.
Qa|t Pa|t
-1
Va|t oi Va|t Pa|t Qa|t
oi
(61.9)
(61.10)
(61.11)
wheie J
,
distance between conductois and ,, |
height of conductoi , S
,
distance fiom one conductoi
to the image of the othei, r
iadius of conductoi , r peimittivity of the medium suiiounding the conductoi,

and | length of conductoi.
Though most of the oveihead lines aie baie conductois, aeiial cables may consist of cable with shielding
tape oi sheath. Foi a single-coie conductoi with its sheath giounded, the capacitance C
in pei-unit length can

be easily calculated by Eq. (61.12), and all C
,
`s aie equal to zeio.
(61.12)
wheie r
0
absolute peimittivity (dielectiic constant of fiee space), r
r
ielative peimittivity of cable insulation,
r
1
outside iadius of conductoi coie, and r
2
inside iadius of conductoi sheath.
Mude!s
In steady-state pioblems, thiee-phase tiansmission lines aie iepiesented by lumped-r equivalent netwoiks,
seiies iesistances and inductances between buses aie lumped in the middle, and shunt capacitances of the
Qa|t Ca|t Va|t
Q
Q
Q
C C C
C C C
C C C
V
V
V
a
|
t
aa a| at
|a || |t
ta t| tt
a
|
t

1
]
1
1
1

1
]
1
1
1
1
]
1
1
1
oi
- -
- -
- -
V
V
V
P P P
P P P
P P P
Q
Q
Q
a
|
t
aa a| at
|a || |t
ta t| tt
a
|
t
1
]
1
1
1

1
]
1
1
1
1
]
1
1
1
P
| |
r
2
2
rr
ln
P
|
S
J
,
,
,
2rr
ln
C
r r
r
2
0
2 1
rr r
ln / ( )
tiansmission lines aie divided into two halves and lumped at buses connecting the lines (Fig. 61.3). Moie
discussion on the tiansmission line models can be found in El-Hawaiy 1995].
Standard Yu!tages
Standaid tiansmission voltages aie established in the United States by the Ameiican National Standaids Institute
(ANSI). Theie is no cleai delineation between distiibution, subtiansmission, and tiansmission voltage levels.
Table 61.2 shows the standaid voltages listed in ANSI Standaid C84 and C92.2, all of which aie in use at piesent.
Insu!aturs
The electiical opeiating peifoimance of a tiansmission line depends piimaiily on the insulation. Insulatois not
only must have suffcient mechanical stiength to suppoit the gieatest loads of ice and wind that may be
ieasonably expected, with an ample maigin, but must be so designed to withstand seveie mechanical abuse,
lightning, and powei aics without mechanically failing. They must pievent a ashovei foi piactically any powei-
fiequency opeiation condition and many tiansient voltage conditions, undei any conditions of humidity,
tempeiatuie, iain, oi snow, and with accumulations of diit, salt, and othei contaminants which aie not
peiiodically washed off by iains.
The majoiity of piesent insulatois aie made of glazed poicelain. Poicelain is a ceiamic pioduct obtained by
the high-tempeiatuie vitiifcation of clay, fnely giound feldspai, and silica. Poicelain insulatois foi tiansmission
may be disks, posts, oi long-iod types. Glass insulatois have been used on a signifcant piopoition of tians-
mission lines. These aie made fiom toughened glass and aie usually cleai and coloiless oi light gieen. Foi
tiansmission voltages they aie available only as disk types. Synthetic insulatois aie usually manufactuied as
long-iod oi post types. Use of synthetic insulatois on tiansmission lines is ielatively iecent, and a few questions
FIGURE 61.3 Geneialized conductoi model.
TABLE 61.2 Standaid System Voltage, kV
Rating
Categoiy Nominal Maximum
34.5 36.5
46 48.3
69 72.5
115 121
138 145
161 169
230 242
Extia-high voltage (EHV) 345 362
400 (piincipally in Euiope)
500 550
765 800
Ultia-high voltage (UHV) 1100 1200
about theii use aie still undei study. Impiovements in design and manufactuie in iecent yeais have made
synthetic insulatois incieasingly attiactive since the stiength-to-weight iatio is signifcantly highei than that of
poicelain and can iesult in ieduced towei costs, especially on EHV and UHV tiansmission lines.
NEMA Publication High Voltage Insulatoi Standaid" and AIEE Standaid 41 have been combined in ANSI
Standaids C29.1 thiough C29.9. Standaid C29.1 coveis all electiical and mechanical tests foi all types of
insulatois. The standaids foi the vaiious insulatois coveiing ashovei voltages (wet, diy, and impulse; iadio
inuence; leakage distance; standaid dimensions; and mechanical-stiength chaiacteiistics) aie addiessed. These
standaids should be consulted when specifying oi puichasing insulatois.
The electiical stiength of line insulation may be deteimined by powei fiequency, switching suige, oi lightning
peifoimance iequiiements. At diffeient line voltages, diffeient paiameteis tend to dominate. Table 61.3 shows
typical line insulation levels and the contiolling paiametei.
Dehning Term
Surge impedance loading (SIL): The suige impedance of a tiansmission line is the chaiacteiistic impedance
with iesistance set to zeio (iesistance is assumed small compaied to ieactance). The powei that ows in
a lossless tiansmission line teiminated in a iesistive load equal to the line`s suige impedance is denoted
as the suige impedance loading of the line.
Re!ated Tupics
3.5 Thiee-Phase Ciicuits 55.2 Dielectiic Losses
Relerences
|umnum E|etrta| ConJutor HanJ|oo|, 2nd ed., Aluminum Association, 1982.
J. R. Caison, Wave piopagation in oveihead wiies with giound ietuin," Be|| Sysem Tet|. J., vol. 5, pp. 539-554,
1926.
M. S. Chen and W. E. Dillon, Powei system modeling," Prot. IEEE, vol. 93, no. 7, pp. 901-915, 1974.
E. Claike, Crtu na|yss o[ -C Power Sysems, vols. 1 and 2, New Yoik: Wiley, 1943.
E|etrta| Transmsson anJ Dsr|uon Re[erente Boo|, Cential Station Engineeis of the Westinghouse Electiic
Coipoiation, East Pittsbuigh, Pa.
M. E. El-Hawaiy, E|etrt Power Sysems. Desgn anJ na|yss, ievised edition, Piscataway, N.J.: IEEE Piess, 1995.
Further Inlurmatiun
Othei iecommended publications iegaiding EHV tiansmission lines include Transmsson Lne Re[erente Boo|,
J45 |V anJ |oe, 2nd ed., 1982, fiom Electiic Powei Reseaich Institute, Palo Alto, Calif., and the IEEE Woiking
Gioup on Insulatoi Contamination publication Application guide foi insulatois in a contaminated enviion-
ment," IEEE Trans. Power ar. Sys., Septembei/Octobei 1979.
Reseaich on highei voltage levels has been conducted by seveial oiganizations: Electiic Powei Reseaich
Institute, Bonneville Powei Administiation, and otheis. The use of moie than thiee phases foi electiic powei
tiansmission has been studied intensively by sponsois such as the U.S. Depaitment of Eneigy.
TABLE 61.3 Typical Line Insulation
Line Voltage, kV No. of Standaid Disks Contiolling Paiametei (Typical)
115 7-9 Lightning oi contamination
345 16-18 Lightning, switching suige, oi contamination
500 24-26 Switching suige oi contamination
765 30-37 Switching suige oi contamination
61.2 A!ternating Current Lndergruund: Line Parameters, Mude!s,
Standard Yu!tages, Cab!es
MoS|ng C|en ond K.C. Io
Although the capital costs of an undeigiound powei cable aie usually seveial times those of an oveihead line
of equal capacity, installation of undeigiound cable is continuously incieasing foi ieasons of safety, secuiity,
ieliability, aesthetics, oi availability of iight-of-way. In heavily populated uiban aieas, undeigiound cable
systems aie mostly piefeiied.
Two types of cables aie commonly used at the tiansmission voltage level: pipe-type cables and self-contained
oil-flled cables. The selection depends on voltage, powei iequiiements, length, cost, and ieliability. In the
United States, ovei 90% of undeigiound cables aie pipe-type design.
Cab!e Parameters
A geneial foimulation of impedance and admittance of single-coie coaxial and pipe-type cables was pioposed
by Piof. Akihiio Ametani of Doshisha Univeisity in Kyoto, Japan Ametani, 1980]. The impedance and admit-
tance of a cable system aie defned in the two matiix equations
(61.13)
(61.14)
wheie (V) and (I) aie vectois of the voltages and cuiients at a distance x along the cable and Z] and Y] aie
squaie matiices of the impedance and admittance. Foi a pipe-type cable, shown in Fig. 61.4, the impedance
and admittance matiices can be wiitten as Eqs. (61.15) and (61.16) by assuming:
1. The displacement cuiients and dielectiic losses aie negligible.
2. Each conducting medium of a cable has constant peimeability.
3. The pipe thickness is gieatei than the penetiation depth of the pipe wall.
Z] Z
] - Z
] (61.15)
Y] , uP]
-1
(61.16)
P] P
] - P
]
wheie P] is a potential coeffcient matiix.
Z
] single-coie cable inteinal impedance matiix

(61.17)
Z
] pipe inteinal impedance matiix

J V
Jx
Z I
( )
- ] ( )
J I
Jx
Y V
( )
- ] ( )
1
]
1
1
1
1
] ] ]
] ] ]
] ] ]
Z
Z
Z
n
1
2
0 0
0 0
0 0

(61.18)
The diagonal submatiix in Z
] expiesses the self-impedance matiix of a single-coie cable. When a single-

coie cable consists of a coie and sheath (Fig. 61.5), the self-impedance matiix is given by
(61.19)
wheie
Z
ss,
sheath self-impedance
Z
sheath-out
- Z
sheath/pipe-insulation
(61.20)
Z
ts,
mutual impedance between the coie and sheath
Z
ss,
- Z
sheath-mutual
(61.21)
Z
tt,
coie self-impedance
(Z
coie
- Z
coie/sheath-insulation
- Z
sheath-in
) - Z
ts,
- Z
sheath-mutual
(61.22)
wheie
(61.23)
(61.24)
FIGURE 61.4 A pipe-type cable system. FIGURE 61.5 A single-coie cable cioss section.
1
]
1
1
1
1
1
] ] ]
] ] ]
] ] ]
Z Z Z
Z Z Z
Z Z Z
n
n
n n nn
11 12 1
12 22 2
1 2

] Z
Z Z
Z Z
,
tt, ts,
ts, ss,
1
]
1
1
Z
m
r
I mr
I mr
coie

p
r 2
1
0 1
1 1
( )
( )
Z
, r
r
coie/sheath-insulation

u
r
1 2
1
2
ln
(61.25)
(61.26)
(61.27)
(61.28)
wheie p iesistivity of conductoi, D I
1
(mr
3
)K
1
(mr
2
) - I
1
(mr
2
)K
1
(mr
3
), y Eulei`s constant 1.7811, I

modifed Bessel function of the fist kind of oidei , K
modifed Bessel function of the second kind of oidei

, and m iecipiocal of the complex depth of penetiation.
A submatiix of Z
] is given in the following foim:

(61.29)
Z
,|
in Eq. (61.29) is the impedance between the ,th and |th innei conductois with iespect to the pipe innei
suiface. When , |, Z
,|
Z
pipe-in
; otheiwise Z
,|
is given in Eq. (61.31).
(61.30)
(61.31)
wheie q is the inside iadius of the pipe (Fig. 61.4).
The foimulation of the potential coeffcient matiix of a pipe-type cable is similai to the impedance matiix.
(61.32)
Z
m
r D
I mr K mr K mr I mr
sheath-in
+
p
r 2
2
0 2 1 3 0 2 1 3
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )]
Z
r r D
sheath-mutual

p
r 2
2 3
Z
m
r D
I mr K mr K mr I mr
sheath-out
+
p
r 2
3
0 3 1 2 0 3 1 2
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )]
Z
, q R J
qR

sheath/pipe-insulation

+
_
,
u
r
0 1
2 2 2
2 2
cosh
,u p /
] Z
Z Z
Z Z
,|
,| ,|
,| ,|
1
]
1
1
Z
m
q
K mq
K mq
, J
q
K mq
n K mq mqK mq
n
n
r n n n
pipe-in
+

_
,
1
]
1
1
p
r
u
r 2
0
1
2
1
( )
( )
( )
( ) - ( )
Z
,
q
S mq
K mq
K mq
J J
q
n
K mq
n K mq mqK mq n
,|
,|
r
, |
n
,| r
n
r n n n
+
+

_
,
1
]
1
u
r

0
0
1
2
1
2
2
1
ln
( )
( )
cos( )
( )
( ) - ( )
-
]
] ] ]
] ] ]
] ] ]
P
P
P
P
1
]
1
1
1
1
1
2
0 0
0 0
0 0

(61.33)
The diagonal submatiix in P
] expiesses the potential coeffcient matiix of a single-coie cable. When a single-

coie cable consists of a coie and sheath (Fig. 61.5), the submatiix is given by
(61.34)
wheie
(61.35)
(61.36)
r
0
absolute peimittivity of fiee space, r
s,
ielative peimittivity of insulation outside sheath, and r
t,
ielative
peimittivity of insulation outside coie.
Submatiix P
,|
] of P
] is given by
(61.37)
P
,|
in Eq. (61.37) is the potential coeffcient between the ,th and |th innei conductois with iespect to the
pipe innei suiface. When , |, P
,|
P
pipe-in
; otheiwise P
,|
is given in Eq. (61.39).
(61.38)
(61.39)
wheie r
is the ielative peimittivity of insulation inside the pipe; R
is the outei iadius of cable ; and J
, J
,
, and
J
|
aie the innei iadii of cables , ,, and |.
]
] ] ]
] ] ]
] ] ]
P
P P P
P P P
P P P
n
n
n n nn
1
]
1
1
1
1
1
11 12 1
12 22 2
1 2

] P
P P
P
P
P
,
t, s,
s,
s,
s,
1
]
1
1
P
r
r
s, s,
_
,
1
2
0
4
3
rr r ln
P
r
r
t, t,
_
,
1
2
0
2
1
rr r ln
] P
P
P
P
P
,|
,|
,|
,|
,|
1
]
1
1
P
q
R
J
q
pipe-in

_
,
1
]
1
1
ln - 1
2
2
0
rr r
q
S
J J
q
n
n
, |
, |
, |
n
,|
n
_
,
1
]
1
1
1
1
2
0
2
1
rr r

ln -
cos( )
Mude!s
Refei to Models" in Section 61.1.
Standard Yu!tages
In the United States, the undeigiound tiansmission cables aie iated 69 to 345 kV (iefei to Table 61.2 in
Section 61.1). Cables iated 550 kV aie used commeicially in Japan. In the United States, cables installed at the
550-kV level aie used in ielatively shoit distances, foi example, at the Giand Coulee Dam.
Cab!e Standards
The most univeisal standaidizing authoiity foi cables is the Inteinational Electiotechnical Commission (IEC).
The IEC standaids catei to a laige vaiiety of peimissible options and seive mainly as a basis foi the piepaiation
of national standaids. In the United States, in addition to national standaids foi mateiials and components,
theie aie cable standaids in widespiead use by industiy issued by foui bodies: Undeiwiitei`s Laboiatoiies (UL),
Association of Edison Illuminating Companies (AEIC), and jointly by the Insulated Powei Cables Engineeis
Association and the National Electiical Manufactuieis` Association (IPCEA/NEMA).
Re!ated Tupic
55.5 Dielectiic Mateiials
Relerences
A. Ametani, A geneial foimulation of impedance and admittance of cables," IEEE Trans. Power Sys., vol. PAS-
99, no. 3, pp. 902-910, 1980.
P. Gianeau, UnJergrounJ Power Transmsson, New Yoik: Wiley, 1979.
D. McAllistei, E|etrt Ca||es HanJ|oo|, New Yoik: Gianada Technical Books, 1982.
B. M. Weedy, UnJergrounJ Transmsson o[ E|etrt Power, New Yoik: Wiley, 1980.
Further Inlurmatiun
The development of advanced cable systems is continuously suppoited by goveinment and utilities. Infoimation
and iepoits iegaiding these activities aie available fiom two piincipal funding agencies, the Electiic Powei
Reseaich Institute (EPRI) and the U.S. Depaitment of Eneigy.
61.3 High-Yu!tage Direct-Current Transmissiun
Foo S. T|o||om
The fist commeicial high-voltage diiect-cuiient (HVDC) powei tiansmission system was commissioned in
1954, with an inteiconnection between the island of Gotland and the Swedish mainland. It was an undeisea
cable, 96 km long, with iatings of 100 kV and 20 MW. Theie aie now moie than 50 systems opeiating thioughout
the woild, and seveial moie aie in the planning, design, and constiuction stages. HVDC tiansmission has
become acceptable as an economical and ieliable method of powei tiansmission and inteiconnection. It offeis
advantages ovei alteinating cuiient (ac) foi long-distance powei tiansmission and as asynchionous inteicon-
nection between two ac systems and offeis the ability to piecisely contiol the powei ow without inadveitent
loop ows in an inteiconnected ac system. Table 61.4 lists the HVDC piojects to date (1995), theii iatings, yeai
commissioned (oi the expected yeai of commissioning), and othei details. The laigest system in opeiation,
Itaipu HVDC tiansmission, consists of two 600-kV, 3150-MW-iated bipoles, tiansmitting a total of 6300 MW
powei fiom the Itaipu geneiating station to the Ibiuna (foimeily Sao Roque) conveitei station in southeastein
Biazil ovei a distance of 800 km.
TABLE 61.4 HVDC Piojects Data
HVDC Yeai Powei DC Volts, Line/Cable,
Suppliei1 Commissioned Rating, MW kV km Location
Meicuiy Aic Valves
Moscow-Kashiia
a
F 1951 30 100 100 Russia
Gotland I
a
A 1954 20 100 96 Sweden
English Channel A 1961 160 100 64 England-Fiance
Volgogiad-Donbass
|
F 1965 720 400 470 Russia
Intei-Island A 1965 600 250 609 New Zealand
Konti-Skan I A 1965 250 250 180 Denmaik-Sweden
Sakuma A 1965 300 2125 B-B
[
Japan
Saidinia I 1967 200 200 413 Italy
Vancouvei I A 1968 312 260 69 Canada
Pacifc Inteitie JV 1970 1440 400 1362 USA
1982 1600
Nelson Rivei I
t
I 1972 1620 450 892 Canada
Kingsnoith I 1975 640 266 82 England
Thyiistoi Valves
Gotland Extension A 1970 30 150 96 Sweden
Eel Rivei C 1972 320 2 80 B-B Canada
Skageiiak I A 1976 250 250 240 Noiway-Denmaik
Skageiiak II A 1977 500 250 240 Noiway-Denmaik
Skageiiak III A 1993 440 350 240 Noiway-Denmaik
Vancouvei II C 1977 370 -280 77 Canada
Shin-Shinano D 1977 300 2 125 B-B Japan
1992 600 3 125
Squaie Butte C 1977 500 250 749 USA
David A. Hamil C 1977 100 50 B-B USA
Cahoia Bassa J 1978 1920 533 1360 Mozambique-S. Afiica
Nelson Rivei II J 1978 900 250 930 Canada
1985 1800 500
C-U A 1979 1000 400 710 USA
Hokkaido-Honshu E 1979 150 125 168 Japan
E 1980 300 250
1993 600 250
Acaiay G 1981 50 25.6 B-B Paiaguay
Vyboig F 1981 355 1 170 (85) B-B Russia (tie with Finland)
F 1982 710 2 170
1065 3 170
Dueiniohi J 1983 550 145 B-B Austiia
Gotland II A 1983 130 150 100 Sweden
Gotland III A 1987 260 150 103 Sweden
Eddy County C 1983 200 82 B-B USA
Chateauguay J 1984 1000 2 140 B-B Canada
Oklaunion C 1984 200 82 B-B USA
Itaipu A 1984 1575 300 785 Biazil
A 1985 2383
A 1986 3150 600
A 1987 6300 2 600
Inga-Shaba A 1982 560 500 1700 Zaiie
Pac Inteitie Upgiade A 1984 2000 500 1362 USA
Blackwatei B 1985 200 57 B-B USA
Highgate A 1985 200 56 B-B USA
Madawaska C 1985 350 140 B-B Canada
Miles City C 1985 200 82 B-B USA
Bioken Hill A 1986 40 2 17(8.33) B-B Austialia
Inteimountain A 1986 1920 500 784 USA
Thyiistoi Valves (continued)
Cioss-Channel
Les Mandaiins H 1986 2000 270 72 Fiance
Sellindge I 1986 2000 270 72 England
Descantons-Comeifoid C 1986 690 450 172 Canada-USA
SACOI
J
H 1986 200 200 415 Coisica Island
SACOI
e
1992 300 Italy
Uiguaiana Fieq. Conv. D 1987 53.7 17.9 B-B Biazil (tie with Uiuguay)
Viiginia Smith (Sidney) G 1988 200 55.5 B-B USA
Gezhouba-Shanghai B-G 1989 600 500 1000 China
1990 1200 500
Konti-Skan II A 1988 300 285 150 Sweden-Denmaik
Vindhyachal A 1989 500 2 69.7 B-B India
Pac Inteitie Expansion B 1989 1100 500 1362 USA
McNeill I 1989 150 42 B-B Canada
Fenno-Skan A 1989 500 400 200 Finland-Sweden
Sileiu-Baisooi K 1989 100 -100 196 India
200 -200
400 200
Rihand-Delhi A 1991 750 -500 910 India
1991 1500 500
Hydio Quebec-New Eng. A 1990 2000
g
450 1500 Canada-USA
Welch-Monticello 1995 300 B-B USA
1998 600
Etzeniicht 1993 600 160 B-B Geimany (tie with Czech)
Vienna South-East G 1993 600 160 B-B Austiia (tie with Hungaiy)
DC Hybiid Link AB 1993 992 -270/-350 617 New Zealand
Chandiapui-Padghe 1997 1500 500 900 India
Chandiapui-Ramagundam 1996 1000 2 205 B-B India
Leyte-Luzun 1997 1000 350 440 Philippines
Haenam-Cheju I 1997 300 180 100 South Koiea
Baltic Cable Pioject 1994 600 450 250 Sweden-Geimany
Victoiia-Tasmania 1995 300 300 Austialia
Kontek HVDC Inteicon 1995 600 600 Denmaik
Scotland-N. Iieland 1998 250 150 60 United Kingdom
Gieece-Italy 1998 500 Italy
Tiang-Guang 1998 1800 500 903 China
Visakhapatnam I 1998 500 205 B-B India
Thailand-Malaysia 1998 300 300 110 Malaysia-Thailand
Riveia 1998 70 B-B Uiguay
1A-ASEA; H-CGEE Alsthom;
B-Biown Boveii; I-GEC (foimeily Eng. Elec.);
C-Geneial Electiic; J-HVDC W.G. (AEG, BBC, Siemens);
D-Toshiba; K-(Independent);
E-Hitachi; AB-ABB Biown Boveii;
F-Russian; JV-Joint Ventuie (GE and ASEA).
G-Siemens;
a
Retiied fiom seivice.
|
2 valve gioups ieplaced with thyiistois in 1977.
t
2 valve gioups in Pole 1 ieplaced with thyiistois by GEC in 1991.
J
50-MW thyiistoi tap.
e
Upiate with thyiistoi valves.
[
Back-to-back HVDC system.
g
Multiteiminal system. Laigest teiminal is iated 2250 MW.
Sourte. Data compiled by D. J. Melvold, Los Angeles Depaitment of Watei and Powei.
TABLE 61.4 (continued) HVDC Piojects Data
HVDC Yeai Powei DC Volts, Line/Cable,
Suppliei1 Commissioned Rating, MW kV km Location
Cunhguratiuns ul DC Transmissiun
HVDC tiansmission systems can be classifed into thiee categoiies:
1. Back-to-back systems
2. Two-teiminal, oi point-to-point, systems
3. Multiteiminal systems
These will be biiey desciibed heie.
Back-tu-Back DC System
In a back-to-back dc system (Fig. 61.6), both iectifei and inveitei aie located in the same station, usually in
the same building. The iectifei and inveitei aie usually tied with a ieactoi, which is geneially of outdooi, aii-
coie design. A back-to-back dc system is used to tie two asynchronous ac systems (systems that aie not in
synchionism). The two ac systems can be of diffeient opeiating fiequencies, foi example, one 50 Hz and the
othei 60 Hz. Examples aie the Sakuma and Shin-Shinano conveitei stations in Japan. Both aie used to link the
50- and 60-Hz ac systems. The Acaiay station in Paiaguay links the Paiaguay system (50 Hz) with the Biazilian
system, which is 60 Hz. Back-to-back dc links aie also used to inteiconnect two ac systems that aie of the same
fiequency but aie not opeiating in synchionism. In Noith Ameiica, eastein and westein systems aie not
synchionized, and Quebec and Texas aie not synchionized with theii neighboiing systems. A dc link offeis a
piactical solution as a tie between nonsynchionous systems. Thus to date, theie aie 10 back-to-back dc links
in opeiation inteiconnecting such systems in Noith Ameiica. Similaily, in Euiope, eastein and westein systems
aie not synchionized, and dc offeis the piactical choice foi inteiconnection between them.
Tvu-Termina!, ur Puint-tu-Puint, DC Transmissiun
Two-teiminal dc systems can be eithei bipolar oi monopolai. Bipolai confguiation, shown in Fig. 61.7, is the
commonly used aiiangement foi systems with oveihead lines. In this system, theie will be two conductois, one
foi each polaiity (positive and negative) caiiying neaily equal cuiients. Only the diffeience of these cuiients,
which is usually small, ows thiough giound ietuin.
FIGURE 61.6 Back-to-back dc system.
FIGURE 61.7 Bipolai dc system.
A monopolai system will have one conductoi, eithei positive oi negative polaiity with cuiient ietuining
thiough eithei giound oi anothei metallic ietuin conductoi. The monopolai giound ietuin cuiient confgu-
iation, shown in Fig. 61.8, has been used foi undeisea cable systems, wheie cuiient ietuins thiough the sea.
This confguiation can also be used foi shoit-teim emeigency opeiation foi a two-teiminal dc line system in
the event of a pole outage. Howevei, conceins foi coiiosion of undeigiound metallic stiuctuies and inteifeience
with telephone and othei utilities will iestiict the duiation of such opeiation. The total ampeie-houi opeiation
pei yeai is usually the iestiicting ciiteiion.
In a monopolai metallic ietuin system, shown in Fig. 61.9, ietuin cuiient ows thiough a conductoi, thus
avoiding pioblems associated with giound ietuin cuiient. This method is geneially used as a contingency mode
of opeiation foi a noimal bipolai tiansmission system in the event of a paitial conveitei (one-pole equipment)
outage. In the case of outage of a one-pole conveitei, the conductoi of the affected pole will be used as the
ietuining conductoi. A metallic ietuin tiansfei bieakei will be opened, diveiting the ietuin cuiient fiom the
giound path and into the pole conductoi. This conductoi will be giounded at one end and will be insulated
at the othei end. This system can tiansmit half the powei of the noimal bipolai system capacity (and can be
incieased if oveiload capacity is available). Howevei, the line losses will be doubled compaied to the noimal
bipolai opeiation foi the same powei tiansmitted.
Mu!titermina! DC Systems
Theie aie two basic confguiations in which the dc systems can be opeiated as multiteiminal systems:
1. Paiallel confguiation
2. Seiies confguiation
Paiallel confguiation can be eithei iadial-connected Fig. 61.10(a)] oi mesh-connected Fig. 61.10(b)]. In a
paiallel-connected multiteiminal dc system, all conveiteis opeiate at the same nominal dc voltage, similai to
ac system inteiconnections. In this opeiation, one conveitei deteimines the opeiating voltage, and all othei
teiminals opeiate in a cuiient-contiolling mode.
FIGURE 61.8 Monopolai giound ietuin dc system.
FIGURE 61.9 Monopolai metallic ietuin dc system.
In a seiies-connected multiteiminal dc system (Fig. 61.11), all conveiteis opeiate at the same cuiient. One
conveitei sets the cuiient that will be common to all conveiteis in the system. Except foi the conveitei that
sets the cuiient, the iemaining conveiteis opeiate in voltage contiol mode (constant nring angle oi constant
extinction angle). The conveiteis opeiate almost independently without iequiiement foi high-speed commu-
nication between them. The powei output of a non-cuiient-contiolling conveitei is vaiied by vaiying its voltage.
At all times, the sum of the voltages acioss the iectifei stations must be laigei than the sum of voltages acioss
the inveitei stations. Disadvantages of a seiies-connected system aie (1) ieduced effciency because full line
insulation is not used at all times and (2) opeiation at highei fiing angles will lead to high conveitei losses
and highei ieactive powei iequiiements fiom the ac system.
Theie aie now two tiuly multiteiminal dc systems in opeiation. The Saidinia-Coisica-Italy thiee-teiminal
dc system was oiiginally commissioned as a two-teiminal (Saidinia-Italy) system in 1967 with a 200-MW
iating. In 1986, the Coisica tap was added and the system was upgiaded to a 300-MW iating. The two-teiminal
Hydio Quebec-New England HVDC inteiconnection (commissioned in 1985) was extended to a fve-teiminal
system and commissioned in 1990 (see Table 61.4). The laigest teiminal of this system at Radisson station in
Quebec is iated at 2250 MW. Two moie systems, the Nelson Rivei system in Canada and the Pacifc NW-SW
Inteitie in the United States, also opeiate as multiteiminal systems. Each of these systems has two conveiteis
at each end of the line, but the conveiteis at each end aie constiained to opeiate in the same mode, eithei
iectifei oi inveitei.
FIGURE 61.10 (a) Paiallel-connected iadial MTDC system; (b) paiallel-connected mesh-type MTDC system.
FIGURE 61.11 Seiies-connected MTDC system.
Ecunumic Cumparisun ul AC
and DC Transmissiun
In cases wheie HVDC is selected on technical considei-
ations, it may be the only piactical option, as in the case of
an asynchionous inteiconnection. Howevei, foi long-dis-
tance powei tiansmission, wheie both ac and HVDC aie
piactical, the fnal decision is dependent on total costs of
each alteinative. Total cost of a tiansmission system includes
the line costs (conductois, insulatois, and toweis) plus the
iight-of-way (R-o-W) costs. A dc line with two conductois
can caiiy almost the same amount of powei as the thiee-
phase ac line with the same size of line conductois. How-
evei, dc toweis with only two conductois aie simplei and
cheapei than thiee-phase ac toweis. Hence the pei-mile
costs of line and R-o-W will be lowei foi a dc line. Powei
losses in the dc line aie also lowei than foi ac foi the same
powei tiansmitted. Howevei, the HVDC system iequiies
conveiteis at the two ends of the line; hence the teiminal costs foi dc aie highei than foi ac. Vaiiation of total
costs foi ac and dc as a function of line length aie shown in Fig. 61.12. Theie is a bieak-even distance above
which the total costs of dc option will be lowei than the ac tiansmission option. This is in the iange of 500 to
800 km foi oveihead lines but much shoitei foi cables. It is between 20 and 50 km foi submaiine cables and
twice as fai foi undeigiound cables.
Princip!es ul Cunverter Operatiun
Cunverter Circuit
Since the geneiation and most of the tiansmission and utilization is alteinating cuiient, HVDC tiansmission
iequiies conveision fiom ac to dc (called iectifcation) at the sending end and conveision back fiom dc to ac
(called inveision) at the ieceiving end. In HVDC tiansmission, the basic device used foi conveision fiom ac
to dc and fiom dc to ac is a thiee-phase full-wave biidge conveitei, which is also known as a Giaetz ciicuit.
This is a thiee-phase six-pulse conveitei. A thiee-phase twelve-pulse conveitei will be composed of two thiee-
phase six-pulse conveiteis, supplied with voltages diffeiing in phase by 30 degiees (Fig. 61.13). The phase
diffeience of 30 degiees is obtained by supplying one six-pulse biidge with a Y/Y tiansfoimei and the othei by
Y/A tiansfoimei.
Re!atiunships betveen AC and DC Quantities
Voltages and cuiients on ac and dc sides of the conveitei aie ielated and aie functions of seveial conveitei
paiameteis including the conveitei tiansfoimei. The following equations aie piovided heie foi easy iefeience.
Detailed deiivations aie given in Kimbaik 1971].
E
LL
ims line-to-line voltage of the conveitei ac bus
I
1
ims value of fundamental fiequency component of the conveitei ac cuiient
| haimonic numbei
o valve fiing delay angle (fiom the instant the valve voltage is positive)
u overlap angle (also called commutation angle)
o phase angle between voltage and cuiient
cos o displacement powei factoi
V
J0
ideal no-load dc voltage (at o 0 and u 0)
L
t
commutating ciicuit inductance
180 - o angle of advance foi inveitei
y 180 - (o - u) maigin angle foi inveitei
FIGURE 61.12 Tiansmission cost as function of
line length.
with o 0, u 0,
(61.40)
With o > 0, and u 0
V
J
V
J0
cos o (61.41)
Theoietically o can vaiy fiom 0 to 180 degiees (with u 0); hence V
J
can vaiy fiom -V
J0
to -V
J0
. Since the
valves conduct cuiient in only one diiection, vaiiation of dc voltage fiom V
J0
to -V
J0
means ieveisal of powei
ow diiection and the conveitei mode of opeiation changing fiom iectifei to inveitei.
(61.42)
(61.43)
With o > 0 and 0 < u > 60,
(61.44)
(61.45)
FIGURE 61.13 Basic ciicuit of a 12-pulse HVDC conveitei.
V E E
J LL LL 0
3 2
1 35
r
.
I I I
J J 1
6
0 78
r
.
cos cos o o
V
V
J
J0
V V
u
J J
+ +
0
2
cos cos( ) o o
V E
u
J LL
+ + 3 2
2 r
o o cos cos( )
(61.46)
The eiioi in Eq. (61.46) is only 4.3% at u 60

degiees (maximum oveilap angle foi noimal steady-state
opeiation), and it will be even lowei (1.1%) foi most piactical cases when u is 30 degiees oi less. It can be seen
fiom Eqs. (61.45) and (61.46) that the iatio between ac and dc cuiients is almost fxed, but the iatio between
ac and dc voltages vaiies as a function of o and u. Hence the HVDC conveitei can be viewed as a vaiiable-
iatio voltage tiansfoimei, with almost fxed cuiient iatio.
P
dc
V
J
I
J
(61.47)
P
ac
-3E
LL
I
1
cos o (61.48)
Substituting foi V
J
and I
J
in (61.47) and compaiing with (61.48),
(61.49)
Fiom Eqs. (61.44) and (61.49),
(61.50)
Fiom Eqs. (61.40), (61.44), and (61.49),
V
J
- 1.35E
LL
cos o (61.51)
AC Current Harmunics
The HVDC conveitei is a haimonic cuiient souice on the ac side. Fouiiei analysis of an ac cuiient wavefoim,
shown in Fig. 61.14, shows that it contains the fundamental and haimonics of the oidei 5, 7, 11, 13, 17, 19,
etc. The cuiient foi zeio degiee oveilap angle can be expiessed as
(61.52)
and
(61.53)
wheie I
10
and I
|0
aie the fundamental and haimonic cuiients, iespectively, at o 0 and u 0.
Equation (61.53) indicates that the magnitudes of haimonics aie inveisely piopoitional to theii oidei.
Conveitei ac cuiient wavefoim
a
foi phase a with a Y/A tiansfoimei is also shown in Fig. 61.14. Fouiiei
analysis of this cuiient shows that the fundamental and haimonic components will have the same magnitude
I I
J 1
6
-
r
cos
cos cos( )
o
o o
-
+ + u
2
cos o -
V
V
J
J 0
I

J
( )
cos - cos cos
- cos cos
+
+ +
_
,
2 3
1
5
5
1
7
7
1
11
11
1
13
13
r
u u u
u u
I
I
|
| 0
10

as in the case of the Y/Y tiansfoimei. Howevei, haimonics of oidei 5, 7, 17, 19, etc. aie in phase opposition,
wheieas haimonics of oidei 11, 13, 23, 25, etc. aie in phase with the Y/Y tiansfoimei case. Hence haimonics
of oidei 5, 7, 17, 19, etc. will be canceled in a 12-pulse conveitei and do not appeai in the ac system. In piactice
they will not be canceled completely because of imbalances in conveitei and tiansfoimei paiameteis.
E]]ect v] Over|up. The effect of oveilap due to commutation angle is to deciease the amplitude of haimonics
fiom the case with zeio oveilap. Magnitudes of haimonics foi a geneial case with fnite fiing angle (o) and
oveilap angle (u) aie given by
(61.54)
wheie
NvnchuructerIstIc HurmvnIcs. In addition to the haimonics desciibed above, conveiteis also geneiate othei
haimonics due to nonideal" conditions of conveitei opeiation. Examples of the nonideal conditions aie
conveitei ac bus voltage imbalance, peituibation of valve fiing pulses, distoition of ac bus voltages, and
unbalanced conveitei tiansfoimei impedances. Haimonics geneiated due to these causes aie called nont|ar-
aterst haimonics. These aie usually smallei in magnitude compaied to chaiacteiistic haimonics but can
cieate pioblems if iesonances exist in the ac system at these fiequencies. In seveial instances additional flteis
weie installed at the conveitei ac bus to ieduce levels of these haimonics owing into the ac system.
FIGURE 61.14 AC line cuiient wavefoims,
a
,
|
,
t
with Y/Y tiansfoimei and
a
with Y/A tiansfoimei.
I
I x
B B u
|
| 0
2 2
1 2
1
2 2 + +

- cos( ) o
/
|
u
|
B
|
u
|
x u
+
+

+
sin( ) sin( - )
-
cos - cos( )
1
2
1
1
2
1
o o
Cunverter Cuntru!
The static chaiacteiistic of a HVDC conveitei is shown in Fig. 61.15. Theie aie thiee distinct featuies of this
chaiacteiistic.
Cvnstunt FIrIng Ang|e ChuructerIstIc (A-B). If the conveitei is opeiating undei constant fiing angle contiol,
the conveitei chaiacteiistic can be desciibed by the equation
(61.55)
When the oideied cuiient is too high foi the conveitei to delivei, it will opeiate at the minimum fiing angle
(usually 5 degiees). Then the cuiient will be deteimined by the voltage V
J
and the load. This is also iefeiied
to as the natuial voltage chaiacteiistic. The conveitei in this mode is equivalent to a dc voltage souice with
inteinal iesistance R
t
,

wheie
(61.56)
Cvnstunt Current Cvntrv|. This is the usual mode of opeiation of the iectifei. When the conveitei is opeiating
in constant cuiient contiol mode, the fiing angle is adjusted to maintain dc cuiient at the oideied value. If
the load cuiient goes highei than the oideied cuiient foi any ieason, contiol incieases the fiing angle to ieduce
dc voltage and the conveitei opeiation moves in the diiection fiom B to C. At point C, the fiing angle ieaches
90 degiees (neglecting oveilap angle), the voltage changes polaiity, and the conveitei becomes an inveitei. Fiom
C to D, the conveitei woiks as an inveitei.
Cvnstunt ErtInctIvn Ang|e Cvntrv|. At point D, the inveitei fiing angle has incieased to a point wheie
fuithei inciease can cause commutation failuie. The inveitei foi its safe opeiation must be opeiated with
suffcient angle of advance , such that undei all opeiating conditions the extinction angle y is gieatei than the
valve deionization angle. The deionization angle is defned as the time in electiical degiees fiom the instant
cuiient ieaches zeio in a paiticulai valve to the time the valve can withstand the application of positive voltage.
FIGURE 61.15 HVDC conveitei static chaiacteiistic.
V V
L
I
J J
t
J
0
3
cos - o
u
r
R
L
t
t
3u
r
Typical minimum values of y aie 15 to 20 degiees foi meicuiy aic valves and slightly less foi thyiistoi valves.
Duiing the iange D to E, the inciease of load cuiient incieases the oveilap angle, which ieduces the dc voltage.
This is the negative iesistance chaiacteiistic of the inveitei.
The functional iequiiements foi HVDC conveitei contiol aie:
1. Minimize the geneiation of nonchaiacteiistic haimonics.
2. Safe inveitei opeiation with fewest possible commutation failuies even with distoited ac voltages.
3. Lowest possible consumption of ieactive powei. This iequiies opeiation with smallest possible delay
angle o and extinction angle y without incieased iisk of commutation failuies.
4. Smooth tiansition fiom cuiient contiol to extinction angle contiol.
5. Suffcient stability maigins and iesponse time when the iatio of the ac system shoit-ciicuit stiength and
the iated dc powei (shoit-ciicuit iatio) is low.
Individua! Phase Cuntru!
In the eaily HVDC systems individual phase contiol systems weie used. The fiing angle of each valve is
calculated individually and opeiated eithei as constant o oi constant y contiol.
A schematic of the individual phase contiol system is shown in Fig. 61.16. Six timing voltages aie deiived
fiom the ac bus voltage, and the six giid pulses aie geneiated at nominally identical delay times subsequent to
the iespective voltage-zeio ciossings. The delays aie pioduced by independent delay ciicuits and contiolled by
a common diiect voltage V
t
, which is deiived thiough a feedback loop to contiol constant dc line cuiient oi
constant powei. Seveial vaiiations of this contiol weie used until the late 1960s.
DIsudvuntuges v] 1ndIvIduu| Phuse Cvntrv|. With distoited ac bus voltages, the fiing pulses will be unequally
spaced, thus geneiating nonchaiacteiistic haimonics in ac cuiient. This in tuin will fuithei distoit the ac bus
voltage. This piocess could lead to haimonic instability, paiticulaily with ac systems of low shoit-ciicuit capacity
(high-impedance system). Contiol system flteis weie tiied to solve this pioblem. Howevei, the flteis could
inciease the potential foi commutation failuies and also ieduce the speed of contiol system iesponse foi faults
oi distuibances in the ac system.
Equa! Pu!se Spacing Cuntru!
A contiol system based on the piinciple of equal spacing of fiing pulses at inteivals of 60 degiees (electiical)
independent of ac bus voltages was developed in the late 1960s. The basic components of this system, shown
in Fig. 61.17, consist of a voltage-contiolled oscillatoi and iing countei. The fiequency of the oscillatoi is diiectly
piopoitional to the dc contiol voltage V
t
. Undei steady-state conditions, pulse fiequency is piecisely 6[, wheie
[ is the ac system fiequency. The phase of each giid pulse will have some aibitiaiy value ielative to the ac bus
voltage. If the thiee-phase ac bus voltages aie symmetiical sine waves with no distoition, then o is the same
foi all valves. The oscillatoi will be phase-locked with the ac system fiequency to avoid diifting. The dc contiol
voltage V
t
is deiived fiom a feedback loop foi constant cuiient, constant powei, oi constant extinction angle y.
The contiol systems used in iecent piojects aie digital-based and much moie sophisticated than the eailiei
veisions.
FIGURE 61.16 Constant o contiol.
Deve!upments
Duiing the last two oi thiee decades, seveial developments in HVDC technology have taken place that impioved
viability of the HVDC tiansmission. Piioi to 1970 meicuiy aic valves weie used foi conveiting fiom ac to dc
and dc to ac. They had seveial opeiational pioblems including fiequent aicbacks. Aicback is a iandom phe-
nomenon that iesults in failuie of a valve to block conduction in the ieveise diiection. This is most common
in the iectifei mode of opeiation. In iectifei opeiation, the valve is exposed to inveise voltage foi appioximately
two-thiids of each cycle. Aicbacks iesult in line-to-line shoit ciicuits, and sometimes in thiee-phase shoit
ciicuits, which subject the conveitei tiansfoimei and valves to seveie stiesses.
Thyristurs
Thyristor valves weie fist used foi HVDC tiansmis-
sion in the eaily 1970s, and since then have com-
pletely ieplaced meicuiy aic valves. The teim
thyiistoi valve, caiiied ovei fiom meicuiy aic valve,
is used to iefei to an assembly of seiies and paiallel
connection of seveial thyiistois to make up the
iequiied voltage and cuiient iatings of one aim of
the conveitei. The fist test thyiistoi valve in a HVDC
conveitei station was installed in 1967, ieplacing a
meicuiy aic valve in the Ygne conveitei station on
the island of Gotland (see Gotland I in Table 61.4).
The Eel Rivei back-to-back station in New Biun-
swick, Canada, commissioned in 1972, was the fist
all-thyiistoi HVDC conveitei station. The voltage
and cuiient iatings of thyiistois have incieased
steadily ovei the last two decades. Figuie 61.18 shows
the maximum blocking voltage of thyiistois fiom the
late 1960s to date. The cuiient iatings have also
incieased in this peiiod fiom 1 to 4 kA. Some of the incieased cuiient iatings weie achieved with laige-diametei
silicon wafeis (piesently 100-mm diametei) and with impioved cooling systems. Eailiei piojects used aii-cooled
thyiistois. Watei-cooled thyiistois aie used foi all the iecent piojects.
Othei iecent developments include diiect light-tiiggeied thyiistois and gate tuin-off (GTO) thyiistois. GTO
thyiistois have some advantages foi HVDC conveiteis connected to weak ac systems. They aie now available
in iatings up to 4.5 kV and 4 kA but have not yet been applied in HVDC systems.
DC Circuit Breakers
Inteiiupting the cuiient in ac systems is aided by the fact that ac cuiient goes thiough zeio eveiy half-cycle oi
appioximately eveiy 8 ms in a 60-Hz system. The absence of natuial cuiient zeio in dc makes it diffcult to
develop a dc ciicuit bieakei. Theie aie thiee piincipal pioblems in designing a dc ciicuit bieakei:
1. Foicing cuiient zeio in the inteiiupting element
2. Contiolling the oveivoltages caused by laige J/J in a highly inductive ciicuit
3. Dissipating laige amounts of eneigy (tens of megajoules)
FIGURE 61.17 Equal pulse spacing contiol.
FIGURE 61.18 Maximum blocking voltage development.
The second and thiid pioblems aie solved by the application of zinc oxide vaiistois connected line to giound
and acioss the bieaking element. The fist is the majoi pioblem, and seveial diffeient solutions aie adopted by
diffeient manufactuieis. Basically, cuiient zeio is achieved by inseiting a countei voltage into the ciicuit.
In the ciicuit shown in Fig. 61.19, open-
ing CB (aii-blast ciicuit bieakei) causes
cuiient to be commutated to the paiallel
LC ciicuit. The commutating ciicuit will be
oscillatoiy, which cieates cuiient zeio in the
ciicuit bieakei. The opening of CB incieases
the voltage acioss the commutating ciicuit,
which will be limited by the zinc oxide
vaiistoi ZnO
1
by enteiing into conduction.
The iesistance R is the closing iesistoi in
seiies with switch S.
It should be noted that a two-teiminal
dc system does not need a dc bieakei since
the fast conveitei contiol iesponse can
biing the cuiient quickly to zeio. In multi-
teiminal systems, dc bieakeis can piovide additional exibility of opeiation. The multiteiminal dc systems
commissioned so fai have not employed dc bieakeis.
Dehning Terms
Asynchronous ac systems: AC systems with eithei diffeient opeiating fiequencies oi that aie not in synchio-
nism.
Bipole: DC system with two conductois, one positive and the othei negative polaiity. Rated voltage of a bipole
is expiessed as 100 kV, foi example.
Commutation: Piocess of tiansfeiiing cuiient fiom one valve to anothei.
Commutation angle (overlap angle): Time in electiical degiees fiom the stait to the completion of the
commutation piocess.
Extinction angle: Time in electiical degiees fiom the instant the cuiient in a valve ieaches zeio (end of
conduction) to the time the valve voltage changes sign and becomes positive.
Firing angle (delay angle): Time in electiical degiees fiom the instant the valve voltage is positive to the
application of fiing pulse to the valve (stait of conduction).
Pulse number of a converter: Numbei of iipples in dc voltage pei cycle of ac voltage. A thiee-phase two-way
biidge is a six-pulse conveitei.
Thyristor valve: Assembly of seiies and paiallel connection of seveial thyiistois to make up the iequiied
cuiient and voltage iatings of one aim of the conveitei.
Re!ated Tupic
30.2 Powei Conveision
Relerences
J.D. Ainswoith, The phase locked oscillatoi: A new contiol system foi contiolled static conveiteis," IEEE Trans.
Power ar. Sys., vol. PAS-87, pp. 859-865, Maich 1968.
A. Ekstiom and L. Eklund, HVDC thyiistoi valve development," in Pioceedings of the Inteinational Confeience
on DC Powei Tiansmission, Montieal, pp. 220-227, 1984.
A. Ekstiom and G. Liss, A iefned HVDC contiol system," IEEE Trans. Power ar. Sys., vol. PAS-89, no. 5,
pp. 723-732, May/June 1970.
E. W. Kimbaik, Dret Curren Transmsson, vol. I, New Yoik: Wiley-Inteiscience, 1971.
FIGURE 61.19 DC ciicuit bieakei (one module).
W.F. Long et al., Consideiations foi implementing multiteiminal dc systems," IEEE Trans. Power ar. Sys.,
pp. 2521-2530, Septembei 1985.
K.R. Padiyai, HVDC Power Transmsson Sysems-Tet|no|ogy anJ Sysem Ineratons, New Delhi: Wiley Eastein
Limited, 1990.
J. Reeve and P.C.S. Kiishnayya, Unusual cuiient haimonics aiising fiom high-voltage dc tiansmission," IEEE
Trans. Power ar. Sys., vol. PAS-87, no. 3, pp. 883-893, Maich 1968.
R.S. Thallam and J. Reeve, Dynamic analysis of haimonic inteiaction between AC and DC powei systems,"
IEEE Trans. Power ar. Sys., vol. PAS-93, no. 2, pp. 640-646, Maich/Apiil 1974.
E. Uhlmann, Power Transmsson |y Dret Curren, Beilin: Spiingei-Veilag, 1975.
Further Inlurmatiun
The thiee textbooks cited undei Refeiences aie excellent foi fuithei ieading. The IEEE (USA) and IEE (UK)
peiiodically hold confeiences on DC Tiansmission." The last IEEE confeience was held in 1984 in Montieal,
and the IEE confeience was held in 1991 (conf. publ. no. 345) in London. Pioceedings can be oideied fiom
these oiganizations.
61.4 Cumpensatiun
Mo|omed . |Hovory
The teim tomensaon is used to desciibe the intentional inseition of ieactive powei-pioducing devices, eithei
capacitive oi inductive, to achieve a desiied effect in the electiic powei system. The effects include impioved
voltage piofles, enhanced stability peifoimance, and impioved tiansmission capacity. The devices aie connected
eithei in seiies oi in shunt (paiallel) at a paiticulai point in the powei ciicuit.
Foi illustiation puiposes, we considei the ciicuit of Fig. 61.20, wheie the link has an impedance of R - ,X,
and it is assumed that V
1
> V
2
and V
1
leads V
2
. The coiiesponding phasoi diagiam foi zeio R and lagging load
cuiient I is shown in Fig. 61.21. The appioximate ielationship between the scalai voltage diffeience between
two nodes in a netwoik and the ow of ieactive powei Q can be shown to be Weedy, 1972]
(61.57)
In most powei ciicuits, X >> R and the voltage diffeience AV deteimines Q.
The ow of powei and ieactive powei is fiom to B when V
1
> V
2
and V
1
leads V
2
. Q is deteimined mainly
by V
1
- V
2
. The diiection of ieactive powei can be ieveised by making V
2
> V
1
. It can thus be seen that if a
scalai voltage diffeience exists acioss a laigely ieactive link, the ieactive powei ows towaid the node of lowei
voltage. Looked at fiom an alteinative point of view, if theie is a ieactive powei defcit at a point in an electiic
netwoik, this defcit has to be supplied fiom the iest of the ciicuit and hence the voltage at that point falls. Of
couise, a suiplus of ieactive powei geneiated will cause a voltage iise. This can be inteipieted as pioviding
voltage suppoit by supplying ieactive powei at that point.
FIGURE 61.20 Two nodes connected by a link. FIGURE 61.21 Phasoi diagiam foi system shown in Fig. 61.20.
AV
RP XQ
V
+
2 2
2
Assuming that the link is ieactive, i.e., with R 0, then P
1
P
2
P. In this case, the active powei tiansfeiied
fiom point to point B can be shown to be given by El-Hawaiy, 1995]
P P
max
sin o (61.58)
The maximum powei tiansfei P
max
is given by
(61.59)
It is cleai that the powei tiansfei capacity defned by Eq. (61.59) is impioved if V
2
is incieased.
Series Capaciturs
Seiies capacitois aie employed to neutialize pait of the inductive ieactance of a powei ciicuit, as shown in
Fig. 61.22. Fiom the phasoi diagiam of Fig. 61.23 we see that the load voltage is highei with the capacitoi
inseited than without the capacitoi.
Intioducing seiies capacitois is associated with an inciease in the ciicuit`s tiansmission capacity fiom (61.59)
with a net ieduction in X] and enhanced stability peifoimance as well as impioved voltage conditions on the
ciicuit. They aie also valuable in othei aspects such as:
Contiolling ieactive powei balance
Load distiibution and contiol of oveiall tiansmission losses
Seiies-capacitoi compensation delays investments in additional oveihead lines foi added tiansmission capacity,
which is advantageous fiom an enviionmental point of view.
The fist woildwide seiies-capacitoi installation was a 33-kV 1.25-MVAR bank on the New Yoik Powei &
Light system, which was put in seivice in 1928. Since then, many highei-capacity, highei-voltage installations
have been installed in the United States, Canada, Sweden, Biazil, and othei countiies.
The ieduction in a ciicuit`s inductive ieactance incieases the shoit-ciicuit cuiient levels ovei those foi the
noncompensated ciicuit. Caie must be taken to avoid exposing seiies capacitois to such laige shoit-ciicuit
cuiients, since this causes excessive voltage iise as well as heating that can damage the capacitois. Specially
calibiated spaik gaps and shoit-ciicuiting switches aie deployed within a piedeteimined time inteival to avoid
damage to the capacitois.
The inteiaction between a seiies-capacitoi-compensated ac tiansmission system in electiical resonance and
a tuibine-geneiatoi mechanical system in toisional mechanical iesonance iesults in the phenomenon of sub-
synchronous resonance (SSR). Eneigy is exchanged between the electiical and mechanical systems at one oi
moie natuial fiequencies of the combined system below the synchionous fiequency of the system. The iesulting
mechanical oscillations can inciease until mechanical failuie takes place.
Techniques to counteiact SSR include the following:
FIGURE 61.22 Line with seiies capacitoi. FIGURE 61.23 Phasoi diagiam coiiesponding to Fig. 61.22.
P
VV
X
max

1 2
Su|emenary extaon tonro|. The subsynchionous cuiient and/oi voltage is detected and the exci-
tation cuiient is modulated using high-gain feedback to vaiy the geneiatoi output voltage, which
counteis the subsynchionous oscillations see El-Seiaf and Shaltout, 1979].
Sat f|ers. These aie connected in seiies with each phase of each main geneiatoi. Step-up tiansfoimeis
aie employed. The flteis aie tuned to fiequencies that coiiespond to the powei system fiequency and
the tioublesome machine natuial modes of oscillations see Tice and Bowlei, 1975].
Dynamt f|ers. In a mannei similai to that of excitation contiol, the subsynchionous oscillation is
detected, and a countei emf is geneiated by a thyiistoi cycloconveitei oi a similai device and injected
in the powei line thiough a seiies tiansfoimei see Kilgoie et al., 1975].
Byassng seres taators. To limit tiansient toique buildup, complete oi paitial bypass with the aid of
low set gaps.
Amoitisseui windings on the pole faces of the geneiatoi iotois can be employed to impiove damping.
A moie iecent damping scheme see Hingoiani, 1981] is based on measuiing the half-cycle peiiod of
the seiies-capacitoi voltage, and if this peiiod exceeds a pieset value, the capacitoi`s chaige is dissipated
into a iesistoi shunting the capacitoi thiough two antipaiallel thyiistois.
A passive SSR counteimeasuie scheme see Ediis, 1990] involves using thiee diffeient combinations of
inductive and capacitive elements on the thiee phases. The combinations will exhibit the iequiied equal
degiee of capacitive compensation in the thiee phases at powei fiequency. At any othei fiequency, the
thiee combinations will appeai as unequal ieactances in the thiee phases. In this mannei, asynchionous
oscillations will diive unsymmetiical thiee-phase cuiients in the geneiatoi`s aimatuie windings. This
cieates an mmf with a ciiculai component of a lowei magnitude, compaied with the coiiesponding
component if the cuiients weie symmetiical. The developed inteiacting electiomagnetic toique will be
lowei.
Synchrunuus Cumpensaturs
A synchionous compensatoi is a synchionous motoi iunning without a mechanical load. Depending on the
value of excitation, it can absoib oi geneiate ieactive powei. The losses aie consideiable compaied with static
capacitois. When used with a voltage iegulatoi, the compensatoi can iun automatically oveiexcited at high-
load cuiient and undeiexcited at low-load cuiient. The cost of installation of synchionous compensatois is
high ielative to capacitois.
Shunt Capaciturs
Shunt capacitois aie used to supply capacitive kVAR to the system at the point wheie they aie connected, with
the same effect as an oveiexcited synchionous condensei, geneiatoi, oi motoi. Shunt capacitois supply ieactive
powei to counteiact the out-of-phase component of cuiient iequiied by an inductive load. They aie eithei
eneigized continuously oi switched on and off duiing load cycles.
Figuie 61.24(a) displays a simple ciicuit with shunt capacitoi compensation applied at the load side. The
line cuiient I
L
is the sum of the motoi load cuiient I
M
and the capacitoi cuiient I
t
. Fiom the cuiient phasoi
diagiam of Fig. 61.24(b), it is cleai that the line cuiient is decieased with the inseition of the shunt capacitoi.
Figuie 61.24(c) displays the coiiesponding voltage phasois. The effect of the shunt capacitoi is to ieduce the
souice voltage to V
s1
fiom V
s 0
.
Fiom the above consideiations, it is cleai that shunt capacitois applied at a point in a ciicuit supplying a
load of lagging powei factoi have the following effects:
Inciease voltage level at the load
Impiove voltage iegulation if the capacitoi units aie piopeily switched
Reduce I
2
R powei loss and I
2
X kVAR loss in the system because of ieduction in cuiient
Inciease powei factoi of the souice geneiatois
Deciease kVA loading on the souice geneiatois and ciicuits to ielieve an oveiloaded condition oi ielease
capacity foi additional load giowth
By ieducing kVA load on the souice geneiatois, additional active powei loading may be placed on the
geneiatois if tuibine capacity is available
Reduce demand kVA wheie powei is puichased
Reduce investment in system facilities pei kW of load supplied
To ieduce high iniush cuiients in staiting laige motois, a capacitoi staiting system is employed. This
maintains acceptable voltage levels thioughout the system. The high inductive component of noimal ieactive
staiting cuiient is offset by the addition, duiing the staiting peiiod only, of capacitois to the motoi bus. This
diffeis fiom applying capacitois foi motoi powei factoi coiiection.
When used foi voltage contiol, the action of shunt capacitois is diffeient fiom that of synchionous condens-
eis, since theii ieactive powei vaiies as the squaie of the voltage, wheieas the synchionous machine maintains
appioximately constant kVA foi sudden voltage changes. The synchionous condensei has a gieatei stabilizing
effect upon system voltages. The losses of the synchionous condensei aie much gieatei than those of capacitois.
Note that in deteimining the amount of shunt capacitoi kVAR iequiied, since a voltage iise incieases the
lagging kVAR in the exciting cuiients of tiansfoimei and motois, some additional capacitoi kVAR above that
based on initial conditions without capacitois may be iequiied to get the desiied coiiection. If the load includes
synchionous motois, it may be desiiable, if possible, to inciease the feld cuiients to these motois.
The following aie the ielative meiits of shunt and seiies capacitois:
If the total line ieactance is high, seiies capacitois aie veiy effective.
If the voltage diop is the limiting factoi, seiies capacitois aie effective; also, voltage uctuations aie
evened out.
If the ieactive powei iequiiements of the load aie small, the seiies capacitoi is of little value.
If theimal consideiations limit the cuiient, then seiies capacitois aie of little value since the ieduction
in line cuiient associated with them is small.
Applying capacitois with haimonic-geneiating appaiatus on a powei system iequiies consideiing the potential
of an excited haimonic iesonance condition. Eithei a seiies oi a shunt iesonance condition may take place. In
FIGURE 61.24 (a) Shunt-capacitoi-compensated load; (b) cuiient phasoi diagiam; (c) voltage phasoi diagiam.
actual electiical systems utilizing compensating capacitois, eithei type of iesonance oi a combination of both
can occui if the iesonant point happens to be close to one of the fiequencies geneiated by haimonic souices
in the system. The outcome can be the ow of excessive amounts of haimonic cuiient oi the appeaiance of
excessive haimonic oveivoltages, oi both. Possible effects of this aie excessive capacitoi fuse opeiation, capacitoi
failuie, oveiheating of othei electiical equipment, oi telephone inteifeience.
Shunt Reacturs
Shunt reactor compensation is usually iequiied undei conditions that aie the opposite of those iequiiing shunt
capacitoi compensation (see Fig. 61.25). Shunt ieactois aie installed to iemedy the following situations:
Oveivoltages that occui duiing low load peiiods at
stations seived by long lines as a iesult of the line`s
capacitance (Feiianti effect).
Leading powei factois at geneiating plants iesulting
in lowei tiansient and steady-state stability limits,
caused by ieduced feld cuiient and the machine`s
inteinal voltage. In this case, shunt ieactois aie usu-
ally installed at eithei side of the geneiatoi`s step-up
tiansfoimeis.
Open-ciicuit line chaiging kVA iequiiements in
extia-high-voltage systems that exceed the available
geneiation capabilities.
Coupling fiom neaiby eneigized lines can cause seveie iesonant oveivoltages acioss the shunt ieactois of
uneneigized compensated lines.
Static YAR Cumpensaturs [SYC)
Advances in thyristor technology foi powei systems applications have lead to the development of the static
VAR compensatois (SVC). These devices contain standaid shunt elements (reactors, capacitois) but aie con-
tiolled by thyiistois El-Hawaiy, 1995].
Static VAR compensatois piovide solutions to two types of compensation pioblems noimally encounteied
in piactical powei systems Gyugyi et al., 1978]. The fist is load compensation, wheie the iequiiements aie
usually to ieduce oi cancel the ieactive powei demand of laige and uctuating industiial loads, such as electiic
aic fuinaces and iolling mills, and to balance the ieal powei diawn fiom the ac supply lines. These types of
heavy industiial loads aie noimally concentiated in one plant and seived fiom one netwoik teiminal, and thus
can be handled by a local compensatoi connected to the same teiminal. The second type of compensation is
ielated to voltage suppoit of tiansmission lines at a given teiminal in iesponse to distuibances of both load
and geneiation. The voltage suppoit is achieved by iapid contiol of the SVC ieactance and thus its ieactive
powei output. The main objectives of dynamic VAR compensation aie to inciease the stability limit of the ac
powei system, to deciease teiminal voltage uctuations duiing load vaiiations, and to limit oveivoltages
subsequent to laige distuibances. SVCs aie essentially thyiistoi-contiolled ieactive powei devices.
The two fundamental thyiistoi-contiolled ieactive powei device confguiations aie Olwegaid et al., 1981]:
Thyiistoi-switched shunt capacitois (TSC): The idea is to split a capacitor bank into suffciently small
capacitoi steps and switch those steps on and off individually. Figuie 61.26(a) shows the concept of the
TSC. It offeis stepwise contiol, viitually no tiansients, and no haimonic geneiation. The aveiage delay
foi executing a command fiom the iegulatoi is half a cycle.
Thyiistoi-switched shunt ieactois (TCR): In this scheme the fundamental fiequency cuiient component
thiough the ieactoi is contiolled by delaying the closing of the thyiistoi switch with iespect to the natuial
zeio ciossings of the cuiient. Figuie 61.26(b) shows the concept of the TCR. Haimonic cuiients aie
geneiated fiom the phase-angle-contiolled ieactoi.
FIGURE 61.25 Shunt-ieactoi-compensated load.
The magnitude of the haimonics can be ieduced using two methods. In the fist, the ieactoi is split into
smallei steps, while only one step is phase-angle contiolled. The othei ieactoi steps aie eithei on oi off. This
decieases the magnitude of all haimonics. The second method involves the 12-pulse aiiangement, wheie two
identical connected thyiistoi-contiolled ieactois aie used, one opeiated fiom a wye-connected secondaiy
winding, the othei fiom a delta-connected winding of a step-up tiansfoimei. TCR units aie chaiacteiized by
continuous contiol, and theie is a maximum of one half-cycle delay foi executing a command fiom the iegulatoi.
In many applications, the aiiangement of an SVC consists of a few laige steps of thyiistoi-switched capacitoi
and one oi two thyiistoi-contiolled ieactois, as shown in Fig. 61.26(c). The following aie some piactical
schemes.
Fixed-Capacitur, Thyristur-Cuntru!!ed Reactur [FC-TCR) Scheme
This scheme was oiiginally developed foi industiial applications, such as aic fuinace ickei" contiol Gyugyi
and Tayloi, 1980]. It is essentially a TCR (contiolled by a delay angle o) in paiallel with a fxed capacitoi.
Figuie 61.27 shows a basic fxed-capacitoi, thyiistoi-contiolled ieactoi-type compensatoi and associated wave-
foims. Figuie 61.28 displays the steady-state ieactive powei veisus teiminal voltage chaiacteiistics of a static
VAR compensatoi. In the fguie, B
C
is the imaginaiy pait of the admittance of the capacitoi C, and B
L
is the
imaginaiy pait of the equivalent admittance of the ieactoi L at delay angle o. The ielation between the output
VARs and the applied voltage is lineai ovei the voltage band of iegulation. In piactice, the fxed capacitoi is
usually ieplaced by a fltei netwoik that has the iequiied capacitive ieactance at the powei system fiequency
but exhibits a low impedance at selected fiequencies to absoib tioublesome haimonics.
FIGURE 61.26 Basic static VAR compensatoi confguiations. (a) Thyiistoi-switched shunt capacitois (TSC); (b) thyiistoi-
switched shunt ieactois (TCR); (c) combined TSC/TCR.
FIGURE 61.27 Basic fxed-capacitoi, thyiistoi-contiolled ieactoi-type compensatoi and associated wavefoims.
The behavioi and iesponse of the FC-TCR type of compensatoi undei laige distuibances is uncontiollable,
at least duiing the fist few cycles following the distuibance. The iesulting voltage tiansients aie essentially
deteimined by the fxed capacitoi and the powei system impedance. This can lead to oveivoltage and iesonance
pioblems.
At zeio VAR demand, the capacitive and ieactive VARs cancel out, but the capacitoi bank`s cuiient is ciiculated
thiough the ieactoi bank via the thyiistoi switch. As a iesult, this confguiation suffeis fiom no load (standby)
losses. The losses deciease with incieasing the capacitive VAR output and, conveisely, inciease with incieasing
the inductive VAR output.
Thyristur-Svitched Capacitur, Thyristur-
Cuntru!!ed Reactur [TSC-TCR) Scheme
This hybiid compensatoi was developed specif-
cally foi utility applications to oveicome the disad-
vantages of the FC-TCR compensatois (behavioi
undei laige distuibances and loss chaiacteiistic).
Figuie 61.29 shows a basic ciicuit of this compen-
satoi. It consists in geneial of a thyiistoi-contiolled
ieactoi bank (oi banks) and a numbei of capacitoi
banks, each in seiies with a solid-state switch, which
is composed of eithei a ieveise-paiallel-connected
thyiistoi paii oi a thyiistoi in ieveise paiallel with a diode. The ieactoi`s switch is composed of a ieveise-
paiallel-connected thyiistoi paii that is capable of continuously contiolling the cuiient in the ieactoi fiom
zeio to maximum iated cuiient.
The total capacitive iange is divided into n opeiating inteivals, wheie n is the numbei of capacitoi banks in
the compensatoi. In the fist inteival one capacitoi bank is switched in, and at the same time the cuiient in
the TCR bank is adjusted so that the iesultant VAR output fiom capacitoi and ieactoi matches the VAR demand.
In the th inteival the output is contiollable in the iange ( - 1)VAR
max
/n] to ( VAR
max
/n) by switching in the
th capacitoi bank and using the TCR bank to absoib the suiplus capacitive VARs. This scheme can be consideied
as a conventional FC-TCR, wheie the iating of the ieactoi bank is kept ielatively small (1/n times the maximum
VAR output) and the value of the capacitoi bank is changed in disciete steps so as to keep the opeiation of the
ieactoi bank within its noimal contiol iange.
The losses of the TSC-TCR compensatoi at zeio VARs output aie inheiently low, and they inciease in
piopoition to the VAR output.
FIGURE 61.28 The steady-state ieactive powei veisus teiminal voltage chaiacteiistics of a static VAR compensatoi.
FIGURE 61.29 Basic thyiistoi-switched capacitoi, thyiis-
toi-contiolled ieactoi-type compensatoi.
The mechanism by which SVCs intioduce damping into the system can be explained as a iesult of the change
in system voltage due to switching of a capacitoi/ieactoi. The electiical powei output of the geneiatois is
changed immediately due to the change in powei tiansfei capability and the change in load powei iequiiements.
Among the eaily applications of SVC foi powei system damping is the application to the Scandinavian system
as discussed in Olwegaid et al. 1981]. Moie iecently, SVC contiol foi damping of system oscillations based on
local measuiements has been pioposed. The scheme uses phase-angle estimates based on voltage and powei
measuiements at the SVC location as the contiol signal see Leich et al., 1991].
Foi a geneial mathematical model of an SVC and an analysis of its stabilizing effects, see Hammad 1986].
Repiesenting the SVC in tiansient analysis piogiams is an impoitant consideiation see Gole and Sood, 1990;
Lefebvie and Geiin-Lajoie, 1992].
It is impoitant to iecognize that applying static VAR compensatois to seiies-compensated ac tiansmission
lines iesults in thiee distinct iesonant modes Laisen et al., 1990]:
Shunt-capacitance iesonance involves eneigy exchange between the shunt capacitance (line chaiging
plus any powei factoi coiiection oi SVCs) and the seiies inductance of the lines and the geneiatoi.
Seiies-line iesonance involves eneigy exchange between the seiies capacitoi and the seiies inductance of
the lines, tiansfoimeis, and geneiatois. The iesonant fiequency will depend on the level of seiies
compensation.
Shunt-ieactoi iesonance involves eneigy exchange between shunt ieactois at the inteimediate substations
of the line and the seiies capacitois.
The applications of SVCs aie pait of the bioadei aiea of exible ac tiansmission systems (FACTS) Hingoiani,
1993]
Dehning Terms
Capacitor bank: An assembly at one location of capacitois and all necessaiy accessoiies, such as switching
equipment, piotective equipment, and contiols, iequiied foi a complete opeiating installation.
Reactor: A device whose piimaiy puipose is to intioduce ieactance into a ciicuit. Inductive ieactance is
fiequently abbieviated inductoi.
Resonance: The enhancement of the iesponse of a physical system to a peiiodic excitation when the excitation
fiequency is equal to a natuial fiequency of the system.
Shunt: A device having appieciable impedance connected in paiallel acioss othei devices oi appaiatus and
diveiting some of the cuiient fiom it. Appieciable voltage exists acioss the shunted device oi appaiatus,
and an appieciable cuiient may exist in it.
Shunt reactor: A ieactoi intended foi connection in shunt to an electiic system to diaw inductive cuiient.
Subsynchronous resonance: An electiic powei system condition wheie the electiic netwoik exchanges eneigy
with a tuibine geneiatoi at one oi moie of the natuial fiequencies of the combined system below the
synchionous fiequency of the system.
Thyristor: A bistable semiconductoi device compiising thiee oi moie junctions that can be switched fiom
the off state to the on state, oi vice veisa, such switching occuiiing within at least one quadiant of the
piincipal voltage-cuiient chaiacteiistic.
Re!ated Tupic
1.2 Capacitois and Inductois
Relerences
I.S. Benko, B. Bhaigava, and W.N. Rothenbuhlei, Piototype NGH subsynchionous iesonance damping scheme,
pait II-Switching and shoit ciicuit tests," IEEE Trans. Power Sys., vol. 2, pp. 1040-1049, 1987.
L.E. Bock and G.R. Mitchell, Highei line loadings with seiies capacitois," Transmsson Maga:ne, Maich 1973.
E.W. Bogins and H.T. Tiojan, Application and design of EHV shunt ieactois," Transmsson Maga:ne, Maich 1973.
C.E. Bowlei, D.N. Ewait, and C. Concoidia, Self excited toisional fiequency oscillations with seiies capacitois,"
IEEE Trans. Power ar. Sys., vol. 93, pp. 1688-1695, 1973.
G.D. Biewei, H.M. Rustebakke, R.A. Gibley, and H.O. Simmons, The use of seiies capacitois to obtain
maximum EHV tiansmission capability," IEEE Trans. Power ar. Sys., vol. 83, pp. 1090-1102, 1964.
C. Concoidia, System compensation, an oveiview," Transmsson Maga:ne, Maich 1973.
S.E.M. de Oliveiia, I. Gaidos, and E.P. Fonseca, Repiesentation of seiies capacitois in electiic powei system
stability studies," IEEE Trans. Power Sys., vol. 6, no. 3, pp. 1119-1125, 1991.
A.A. Ediis, Seiies compensation schemes ieducing the potential of subsynchionous iesonance," IEEE Trans.
Power Sys., vol. 5, no. 1, pp. 219-226, 1990.
M.E. El-Hawaiy, E|etrta| Power Sysems. Desgn anJ na|yss, Piscataway, N.J.: IEEE Piess, 1995.
A.M. El-Seiaf and A. A. Shaltout, Damping of SSR Oscillations by Excitation Contiol," IEEE PES Summer
Meeng, Vancouvei, 1979.
A.M. Gole and V.K. Sood, A static compensatoi model foi use with electiomagnetic tiansients simulation
piogiams," IEEE Trans. Power De|ery, vol. 5, pp. 1398-1407, 1990.
L. Gyugyi, R.A. Otto, and T.H. Putman, Piinciples and applications of static thyiistoi-contiolled shunt com-
pensatois," IEEE Trans. Power ar. Sys., vol. PAS-97, pp. 1935-1945, 1978.
L. Gyugyi and E.R. Tayloi, Ji., Chaiacteiistics of static thyiistoi-contiolled shunt compensatois foi powei
tiansmission system applications," IEEE Trans. Power ar. Sys., vol. PAS-99, pp. 1795-1804, 1980.
A.E. Hammad, Analysis of powei system stability enhancement by static VAR compensatois," IEEE Trans. Power
Sys., vol. 1, pp. 222-227, 1986.
J.F. Hauei, Robust damping contiols foi laige powei systems," IEEE Conro| Sysems Maga:ne, pp. 12-18,
Januaiy 1989.
R.A. Hedin, K.B. Stump, and N.G. Hingoiani, A new scheme foi subsynchionous iesonance damping of
toisional oscillations and tiansient toique-Pait II," IEEE Trans. Power ar. Sys., vol. PAS-100, pp.
1856-1863, 1981.
N.G. Hingoiani, A new scheme foi subsynchionous iesonance damping of toisional oscillations and tiansient
toique-Pait I," IEEE Trans. Power ar. Sys., vol. PAS-100, pp. 1852-1855, 1981.
N.G. Hingoiani, B. Bhaigava, G.F. Gaiiigue, and G.D. Rodiiguez, Piototype NGH subsynchionous iesonance
damping scheme, pait I-Field installation and opeiating expeiience," IEEE Trans. Power Sys., vol. 2,
pp. 1034-1039, 1987.
N.G. Hingoiani, Flexible AC tiansmission," IEEE Setrum. vol. 30, no. 4, pp. 40-45, 1993.
IEEE Subsynchionous Resonance Woiking Gioup, Pioposed teims and defnitions foi subsynchionous oscil-
lations," IEEE Trans. Power ar. Sys., vol. PAS-99, pp. 506-511, 1980.
IEEE Subsynchionous Resonance Woiking Gioup, Counteimeasuies to subsynchionous iesonance pioblems,"
IEEE Trans. Power ar. Sys., vol. PAS-99, pp. 1810-1818, 1980.
IEEE Subsynchionous Resonance Woiking Gioup, Seiies capacitoi contiols and settings as counteimeasuies
to subsynchionous iesonance," IEEE Trans. Power ar. Sys., vol. PAS-101, pp. 1281-1287, June 1982.
G. Jancke, N. Fahlen, and O. Neif, Seiies capacitois in powei systems," IEEE Transatons on Power ar.
Sys., vol. PAS-94, pp. 915-925, May/June 1975.
L.A. Kilgoie, D.G. Ramey, and W.H. South, Dynamic fltei and othei solutions to the subsynchionous iesonance
pioblem," ProteeJngs o[ |e mertan Power Con[erente, vol. 37, p. 923, 1975.
E.W. Kimbaik, Power Sysem Sa||y, vol. I, E|emens o[ Sa||y Ca|tu|aons, New Yoik: Wiley, 1948.
E.W. Kimbaik, Impiovement of system stability by switched seiies capacitois," IEEE Trans. Power ar. Sys.,
vol. 85, pp. 180-188, Febiuaiy 1966.
J.J. LaFoiest, K.W. Piiest, Ramiiez, and H. Nowak, Resonant voltages on ieactoi compensated extia-high-
voltage lines," IEEE Trans. Power ar. Sys., vol. PAS-91, pp. 2528-2536, Novembei/Decembei 1972.
E.V. Laisen, D.H. Bakei, A.F. Imece, L. Geiin-Lajoie, and G. Scott, Basic aspects of applying SVC`s to seiies-
compensated ac tiansmission lines," IEEE Trans. Power De|ery, vol. 5, pp. 1466-1472, July 1990.
S. Lefebvie and L. Geiin-Lajoie, A static compensatoi model foi the EMTP," IEEE Trans. Power Sysems, vol.
7, no. 2, pp. 477-486, May 1992.
E. Leich, D. Povh, and L. Xu, Advanced SVC contiol foi damping powei system oscillations," IEEE Trans. Power
Sys., vol. 6, pp. 524-531, May 1991.
S.M. Meiiy and E.R. Tayloi, Oveivoltages and haimonics on EHV systems," IEEE Trans. Power ar. Sys.,
vol. PAS-91, pp. 2537-2544, Novembei/Decembei 1972.
A. Olwegaid, K. Walve, G. Waglund, H. Fiank, and S. Toiseng, Impiovement of tiansmission capacity by
thyiistoi contiolled ieactive powei," IEEE Trans. Power ar. Sys., vol. PAS-100, pp. 3930-3939, 1981.
J.B. Tice and C.E.J. Bowlei, Contiol of phenomenon of subsynchionous iesonance," ProteeJngs o[ |e mertan
Power Con[erente, vol. 37, pp. 916-922, 1975.
B.M. Weedy, E|etrt Power Sysems, London: Wiley, 1972.
Further Inlurmatiun
An excellent souice of infoimation on the application of capacitois on powei systems is the Westinghouse
Transmsson anJ Dsr|uon book, published in 1964. A most ieadable tieatment of impioving system stability
by seiies capacitois is given by Kimbaik`s papei 1966]. Jancke et al. 1975] give a detailed discussion of
expeiience with the 400-kV seiies-capacitoi compensation installations on the Swedish system and aspects of
the piotection system. Hauei 1989] piesents a discussion of piactical stability contiolleis that manipulate seiies
and/oi shunt ieactance.
An excellent summaiy of the state of the ait in static VAR compensatois is the iecoid of the IEEE Woiking
Gioup symposium conducted in 1987 on the subject (see IEEE Publication 87TH0187-5-PWR, Application of
Static VAR Systems foi System Dynamic Peifoimance).
Foi state-of-the-ait coveiage of subsynchionous iesonance and counteimeasuies, two symposia aie available:
IEEE Publication 79TH0059-6-PWR, State-of-the-Ait Symposium-Tuibine Geneiatoi Shaft Toisionals, and
IEEE Publication 81TH0086-9-PWR, Symposium on Counteimeasuies foi Subsynchionous Resonance.
61.5 Fau!t Ana!ysis in Puver Systems
C|or|e Cro
A fault in an electiical powei system is the unintentional and undesiiable cieation of a conducting path (a
s|or trtu) oi a blockage of cuiient (an oen trtu). The shoit-ciicuit fault is typically the most common
and is usually implied when most people use the teim [au|. We iestiict oui comments to the shoit-ciicuit fault.
The causes of faults include lightning, wind damage, tiees falling acioss lines, vehicles colliding with toweis
oi poles, biids shoiting out lines, aiiciaft colliding with lines, vandalism, small animals enteiing switchgeai,
and line bieaks due to excessive ice loading. Powei system faults may be categoiized as one of foui types: single
line-to-giound, line-to-line, double line-to-giound, and balanced thiee-phase. The fist thiee types constitute
seveie unbalanced opeiating conditions.
It is impoitant to deteimine the values of system voltages and cuiients duiing faulted conditions so that
piotective devices may be set to detect and minimize theii haimful effects. The time constants of the associated
tiansients aie such that sinusoidal steady-state methods may still be used. The method of symmetiical com-
ponents is paiticulaily suited to fault analysis.
Oui objective is to undeistand how symmetiical components may be applied specifcally to the foui geneial
fault types mentioned and how the method can be extended to any unbalanced thiee-phase system pioblem.
Note that phase values aie indicated by subsciipts, a, |, t, sequence (symmetiical component) values aie
indicated by subsciipts 0, 1, 2. The tiansfoimation is defned by
V
V
V
a a
a a
V
V
V
T
V
V
V
V
V
V
a a
a a
V
V
a
|
t
1
]
1
1
1

1
]
1
1
1
1
]
1
1
1

1
]
1
1
1
1
]
1
1
1

1
]
1
1
1
1 1 1
1
1
1
3
1 1 1
1
1
2
2
0
1
2
a
|
t
0
1
2
2
2
0
]
1 1
2
1
V
T
V
V
V
a
|
t
1
]
1
1
1

1
]
1
1
1
]
Simp!ihcatiuns in the System Mude!
Ceitain simplifcations aie possible and usually employed in fault analysis.
Tiansfoimei magnetizing cuiient and coie loss will be neglected.
Line shunt capacitance is neglected.
Sinusoidal steady-state ciicuit analysis techniques aie used. The so-called dc offset is accounted foi by
using coiiection factois.
Piefault voltage is assumed to be pei-unit. One pei-unit voltage is at its nominal value piioi to the
application of a fault, which is ieasonable. The selection of zeio phase is aibitiaiy and convenient.
Piefault load cuiient is neglected.
Foi hand calculations, neglect seiies iesistance is usually neglected (this appioximation will not be necessaiy
foi a computei solution). Also, the only diffeience in the positive and negative sequence netwoiks is intioduced
by the machine impedances. If we select the subtiansient ieactance X
J
foi the positive sequence ieactance, the
diffeience is slight (in fact, the two aie identical foi nonsalient machines). The simplifcation is impoitant,
since it ieduces computei stoiage iequiiements by ioughly one-thiid. Ciicuit models foi geneiatois, lines, and
tiansfoimeis aie shown in Figs. 61.30, 61.31, and 61.32, iespectively.
Oui basic appioach to the pioblem is to considei the geneial situation suggested in Fig. 61.33(a). The geneial
teiminals biought out aie foi puiposes of exteinal connections that will simulate faults. Note caiefully the
positive assignments of phase quantities. Paiticulaily note that the cuiients ow ou o[ the system. We can
FIGURE 61.30 Geneiatoi sequence ciicuit models.
1 0 /
constiuct geneial sequente equivalent ciicuits foi the system, and such ciicuits aie indicated in Fig. 61.33(b).
The poits indicated coiiespond to the geneial thiee-phase entiy poit of Fig. 61.33(a). The positive sense of
sequence values is compatible with that used foi phase values.
FIGURE 61.31 Line sequence ciicuit models.
FIGURE 61.32 Tiansfoimei sequence ciicuit models.
The Fuur Basic Fau!t Types
The Ba!anced Three-Phase Fau!t
Imagine the geneial thiee-phase access poit teiminated in a fault impedance as shown in Fig. 61.34(a).
The teiminal conditions aie
FIGURE 61.33 Geneial fault poit in an electiic powei system. (a) Geneial fault poit in phase (a|t) cooidinates;
(b) coiiesponding fault poits in sequence (012) cooidinates.
FIGURE 61.34 Fault types. (a) Thiee-phase fault; (b) single phase-to-giound fault; (c) phase-to-phase fault; (d) double
phase-to-giound fault.
( ) Z
[
V
V
V
Z
Z
Z
I
I
I
a
|
t
[
[
[
a
|
t
1
]
1
1
1

1
]
1
1
1
1
]
1
1
1
0 0
0 0
0 0
Tiansfoiming to Z
012
],
The coiiesponding netwoik connections aie given in Fig. 61.35(a). Since the zeio and negative sequence
netwoiks aie passive, only the positive sequence netwoik is nontiivial.
(61.60)
(61.61)
(61.62)
FIGURE 61.35 Sequence netwoik teiminations foi fault types. (a) Balanced thiee-phase fault; (b) single phase-to-giound
fault; (c) phase-to-phase fault; (d) double phase-to-giound fault.
] ] ] Z T
Z
Z
Z
T
Z
Z
Z
[
[
[
[
[
[
012
1
0 0
0 0
0 0
0 0
0 0
0 0
1
]
1
1
1

1
]
1
1
1
V V
0 2
0
I I
0 2
0
V Z I
[ 1 1

The Sing!e Phase-tu-Gruund Fau!t
Imagine the geneial thiee-phase access poit teiminated as shown in Fig. 61.34(b). The teiminal conditions aie
Theiefoie
oi
Also
oi
(61.63)
Fuitheimoie it is iequiied that
(61.64)
In geneial then, Eqs. (61.63) and (61.64) must be simultaneously satisfed. These conditions can be met by
inteiconnecting the sequence netwoiks as shown in Fig. 61.35(b).
The Phase-tu-Phase Fau!t
Imagine the geneial thiee-phase access poit teiminated as shown in Fig. 61.34(c). The teiminal conditions aie
such that we may wiite
It follows that
(61.65)
(61.66)
(61.67)
In geneial then, Eqs. (61.65), (61.66), and (61.67) must be simultaneously satisfed. The piopei inteiconnection
between sequence netwoiks appeais in Fig. 61.35(c).
I I V I Z
| t a a [
0 0
I a I aI I aI a I
0
2
1 2 0 1
2
2
0 + + + +
I I
1 2
I I a I aI I a a I
|
+ + + +
0
2
1 2 0
2
1
0 ( )
I I I
0 1 2

V Z I
V V V Z I
a [ a
[
+ +
0 1 2 1
3
I I I V Z I V
| t | [ | t 0
0 +
I I I
0 1 2
0 + +
I
0
0
I I
1 2

The Duub!e Phase-tu-Gruund Fau!t
Considei the geneial thiee-phase access poit teiminated as shown in Fig. 61.34(d). The teiminal conditions
indicate
It follows that
(61.68)
(61.69)
and
(61.70)
Foi the geneial double phase-to-giound fault, Eqs. (61.68), (61.69), and (61.70) must be simultaneously
satisfed. The sequence netwoik inteiconnections appeai in Fig. 61.35(d).
An Examp!e Fau!t Study
Case: EXAMPLE SYSTEM
Run :
System has data foi 2 Line(s); 2 Tiansfoimei(s);
4 Bus(es); and 2 Geneiatoi(s)
Tiansmission Line Data
Line Bus Bus Seq R X B Siat
1 2 3 pos 0.00000 0.16000 0.00000 1.0000
zeio 0.00000 0.50000 0.00000
2 2 3 pos 0.00000 0.16000 0.00000 1.0000
zeio 0.00000 0.50000 0.00000
Tiansfoimei Data
Tians- HV LV
foimei Bus Bus Seq R X C Siat
1 2 1 pos 0.00000 0.05000 1.00000 1.0000
Y Y zeio 0.00000 0.05000
2 3 4 pos 0.00000 0.05000 1.00000 1.0000
Y D zeio 0.00000 0.05000
Geneiatoi Data
No. Bus Siated Ra Xd Xo Rn Xn Con
1 1 1.0000 0.0000 0.200 0.0500 0.0000 0.0400 Y
2 4 1.0000 0.0000 0.200 0.0500 0.0000 0.0400 Y
I V V V I I Z
a | t | | t [
+ 0 ( )
I I I
0 1 2
0 + +
V V
1 2
V V Z I
[ 0 1 0
3
The single-line diagiam and sequence netwoiks aie piesented in Fig. 61.36.
Suppose bus 3 in the example system iepiesents the fault location and
[
0. The positive sequence ciicuit
can be ieduced to its Thvenin equivalent at bus 3:
Similaily, the negative and zeio sequence Thvenin elements aie
The netwoik inteiconnections foi the foui fault types aie shown in Fig. 61.37. Foi each of the fault types,
compute the cuiients and voltages at the faulted bus.
Ba!anced Three-Phase Fau!t
The sequence netwoiks aie shown in Fig. 61.37(a). Obviously,
Zeio Sequence Z] Matiix
0.0 - j(0.1144) 0.0 - j(0.0981) 0.0 - j(0.0163) 0.0 - j(0.0000)
0.0 - j(0.0981) 0.0 - j(0.1269) 0.0 - j(0.0212) 0.0 - j(0.0000)
0.0 - j(0.0163) 0.0 - j(0.0212) 0.0 - j(0.0452) 0.0 - j(0.0000)
0.0 - j(0.0000) 0.0 - j(0.0000) 0.0 - j(0.0000) 0.0 - j(0.1700)
Positive Sequence Z] Matiix
0.0 - j(0.1310) 0.0 - j(0.1138) 0.0 - j(0.0862) 0.0 - j(0.0690)
0.0 - j(0.1138) 0.0 - j(0.1422) 0.0 - j(0.1078) 0.0 - j(0.0862)
0.0 - j(0.0862) 0.0 - j(0.1078) 0.0 - j(0.1422) 0.0 - j(0.1138)
0.0 - j(0.0690) 0.0 - j(0.0862) 0.0 - j(0.1138) 0.0 - j(0.1310)
FIGURE 61.36 Example system. (a) Single-line diagiam; (b) zeio sequence netwoik; (c) positive sequence netwoik;
(d) negative sequence netwoik.
Z
E Z ,
T T 1 1
1 0 0 0 1422 . /
.
E Z ,
E Z ,
T T
T T
2 2
0 0

0 0 1422
0 0 0452
.
.
V I V I
I
,
, V
0 0 2 2
1 1
0
1 0
0 1422
7 032 0

/
.
. ; also
To compute the phase values,
FIGURE 61.37 Example system faults at bus 3. (a) Balanced thiee-phase; (b) single phase-to-giound; (c) phase-to-phase;
(d) double phase-to-giound.
I
I
I
T
I
I
I
a a
a a
,
V
V
V
a
|
t
a
|
t
1
]
1
1
1

1
]
1
1
1

1
]
1
1
1

1
]
1
1
1

1
]
1
1
1
] .
.
.
.
/
/
/
0
1
2
2
2
1 1 1
1
1
0
7 032
0
7 032 90
7 032 150
7 032 30
11
]
1
1
1

1
]
1
1
1

1
]
1
1
1
] T
0
0
0
0
0
0
Sing!e Phase-tu-Gruund Fau!t
The sequence netwoiks aie inteiconnected as shown in Fig. 61.37(b).
The sequence voltages aie
The phase voltages aie
Phase-to-phase and double phase-to-giound fault values aie calculated fiom the appiopiiate netwoiks
Figs. 61.37(c) and (d)]. Complete iesults aie piovided.
Faulted Bus Phase a Phase b Phase c
3 G G G
Sequence Voltages
Bus V0 V1 V2
1 0.0000/ 0.0 0.3939/ 0.0 0.0000/ 0.0
2 0.0000/ 0.0 0.2424/ 0.0 0.0000/ 0.0
3 0.0000/ 0.0 0.0000/ 0.0 0.0000/ 0.0
4 0.0000/ 0.0 0.2000/ -30.0 0.0000/ 30.0
Phase Voltages
Bus Va Vb Vc
1 0.3939/ 0.0 0.3939/ -120.0 0.3939/ 120.0
2 0.2424/ 0.0 0.2424/ -120.0 0.2424/ 120.0
3 0.0000/ 6.5 0.0000/ -151.2 0.0000/ 133.8
4 0.2000/ -30.0 0.2000/ -150.0 0.2000/ 90.0
I I I
, , ,
,
0 1 2
1 0
0 0452 0 1422 0 1422
3 034

+ +

/
. . .
.
I
I
I
a a
a a
,
,
,
,
a
|
t
1
]
1
1
1

1
]
1
1
1
1
]
1
1
1

1
]
1
1
1
1 1 1
1
1
3 034
3 034
3 034
9 102
0
0
2
2
.
.
.
.
V , ,
V , ,
V , ,
0
1
2
0 0452 3 034 1371
1 0 0 1422 3 034 0 5685
0 1422 3 034 0 4314

. ( . )
. . ( . ) .
. ( . ) .
V
V
V
a a
a a
a
|
t
1
]
1
1
1

1
]
1
1
1
1
1
]
1
1
1

1
]
1
1
1
1 1 1
1
1
0 1371
0 5685
0 4314
0
0 8901 103 4
0 8901 103 4
2
2
.
.
.
. .
. .
/
/
Sequence Cuiients
Bus to Bus I0 I1 I2
1 2 0.0000/ 167.8 3.0303/ -90.0 0.0000/ 90.0
1 0 0.0000/ -12.2 3.0303/ 90.0 0.0000/ -90.0
2 3 0.0000/ 167.8 1.5152/ -90.0 0.0000/ 90.0
2 3 0.0000/ 167.8 1.5152/ -90.0 0.0000/ 90.0
2 1 0.0000/ -12.2 3.0303/ 90.0 0.0000/ -90.0
3 2 0.0000/ -12.2 1.5152/ 90.0 0.0000/ -90.0
3 2 0.0000/ -12.2 1.5152/ 90.0 0.0000/ -90.0
3 4 0.0000/ -12.2 4.0000/ 90.0 0.0000/ -90.0
4 3 0.0000/ 0.0 4.0000/ -120.0 0.0000/ 120.0
4 0 0.0000/ 0.0 4.0000/ 60.0 0.0000/ -60.0
3 G G G
Phase Cuiients
Bus to Bus Ia Ib Ic
1 2 3.0303/ -90.0 3.0303/ 150.0 3.0303/ 30.0
1 0 3.0303/ 90.0 3.0303/ -30.0 3.0303/ -150.0
2 3 1.5151/ -90.0 1.5151/ 150.0 1.5151/ 30.0
2 3 1.5151/ -90.0 1.5151/ 150.0 1.5151/ 30.0
2 1 3.0303/ 90.0 3.0303/ -30.0 3.0303/ -150.0
3 2 1.5151/ 90.0 1.5151/ -30.0 1.5151/ -150.0
3 2 1.5151/ 90.0 1.5151/ -30.0 1.5151/ -150.0
3 4 4.0000/ 90.0 4.0000/ -30.0 4.0000/ -150.0
4 3 4.0000/ -120.0 4.0000/ 120.0 4.0000/ -0.0
4 0 4.0000/ 60.0 4.0000/ -60.0 4.0000/ -180.0
3 G 0 0
Sequence Voltages
Bus V0 V1 V2
1 0.0496/ 180.0 0.7385/ 0.0 0.2615/ 180.0
2 0.0642/ 180.0 0.6731/ 0.0 0.3269/ 180.0
3 0.1371/ 180.0 0.5685/ 0.0 0.4315/ 180.0
4 0.0000/ 0.0 0.6548/ -30.0 0.3452/ 210.0
Phase Voltages
Bus Va Vb Vc
1 0.4274/ 0.0 0.9127/ -108.4 0.9127/ 108.4
2 0.2821/ 0.0 0.8979/ -105.3 0.8979/ 105.3
3 0.0000/ 89.2 0.8901/ -103.4 0.8901/ 103.4
4 0.5674/ -61.8 0.5674/ -118.2 1.0000/ 90.0
Sequence Cuiients
Bus to Bus I0 I1 I2
1 2 0.2917/ -90.0 1.3075/ -90.0 1.3075/ -90.0
1 0 0.2917/ 90.0 1.3075/ 90.0 1.3075/ 90.0
2 3 0.1458/ -90.0 0.6537/ -90.0 0.6537/ -90.0
2 3 0.1458/ -90.0 0.6537/ -90.0 0.6537/ -90.0
2 1 0.2917/ 90.0 1.3075/ 90.0 1.3075/ 90.0
3 2 0.1458/ 90.0 0.6537/ 90.0 0.6537/ 90.0
3 2 0.1458/ 90.0 0.6537/ 90.0 0.6537/ 90.0
3 4 2.7416/ 90.0 1.7258/ 90.0 1.7258/ 90.0
4 3 0.0000/ 0.0 1.7258/ -120.0 1.7258/ -60.0
4 0 0.0000/ 90.0 1.7258/ 60.0 1.7258/ 120.0
3 G 0 0
Phase Cuiients
Bus to Bus Ia Ib Ic
1 2 2.9066/ -90.0 1.0158/ 90.0 1.0158/ 90.0
1 0 2.9066/ 90.0 1.0158/ -90.0 1.0158/ -90.0
2 3 1.4533/ -90.0 0.5079/ 90.0 0.5079/ 90.0
2 3 1.4533/ -90.0 0.5079/ 90.0 0.5079/ 90.0
2 1 2.9066/ 90.0 1.0158/ -90.0 1.0158/ -90.0
3 2 1.4533/ 90.0 0.5079/ -90.0 0.5079/ -90 0
3 2 1.4533/ 90.0 0.5079/ -90.0 0.5079/ -90 0
3 4 6.1933/ 90.0 1.0158/ 90.0 1.0158/ 90.0
4 3 2.9892/ -90.0 2.9892/ 90.0 0.0000/ -90.0
4 0 2.9892/ 90.0 2.9892/ -90.0 0.0000/ 90.0
3 0 C B
Sequence Voltages
Bus V0 V1 V2
1 0.0000/ 0.0 0.6970/ 0.0 0.3030/ 0.0
2 0.0000/ 0.0 0.6212/ 0.0 0.3788/ 0.0
3 0.0000/ 0.0 0.5000/ 0.0 0.5000/ 0.0
4 0.0000/ 0.0 0.6000/ -30.0 0.4000/ 30.0
Phase Voltages
Bus Va Vb Vc
1 1.0000/ 0.0 0.6053/ -145.7 0.6053/ 145.7
2 1.0000/ 0.0 0.5423/ -157.2 0.5423/ 157.2
3 1.0000/ 0.0 0.5000/ -180.0 0.5000/ -180.0
4 0.8718/ -6.6 0.8718/ -173.4 0.2000/ 90.0
Sequence Cuiients
Bus to Bus I0 I1 I2
1 2 0.0000/ -61.0 1.5152/ -90.0 1.5152/ 90.0
1 0 0.0000/ 119.0 1.5152/ 90.0 1.5152/ -90.0
2 3 0.0000/ -61.0 0.7576/ -90.0 0.7576/ 90.0
2 3 0.0000/ -61.0 0.7576/ -90.0 0.7576/ 90.0
2 1 0.0000/ 119.0 1.5152/ 90.0 1.5152/ -90.0
3 2 0.0000/ 119.0 0.7576/ 90.0 0.7576/ -90.0
3 2 0.0000/ 119.0 0.7576/ 90.0 0.7576/ -90.0
3 4 0.0000/ 119.0 2.0000/ 90.0 2.0000/ -90.0
4 3 0.0000/ 0.0 2.0000/ -120.0 2.0000/ 120.0
4 0 0.0000/ 90.0 2.0000/ 60.0 2.0000/ -60.0
3 0 C B
Phase Cuiients
Bus to Bus Ia Ib Ic
1 2 0.0000/ 180.0 2.6243/ 180.0 2.6243/ 0.0
1 0 0.0000/ 180.0 2.6243/ 0.0 2.6243/ 180.0
2 3 0.0000/ -180.0 1.3122/ 180.0 1.3122/ 0.0
2 3 0.0000/ -180.0 1.3122/ 180.0 1.3122/ 0.0
2 1 0.0000/ 180.0 2.6243/ 0.0 2.6243/ 180.0
3 2 0.0000/ -180.0 1.3122/ 0.0 1.3122/ 180.0
3 2 0.0000/ -180.0 1.3122/ 0.0 1.3122/ 180.0
3 4 0.0000/ -180.0 3.4641/ 0.0 3.4641/ 180.0
4 3 2.0000/ -180.0 2.0000/ 180.0 4.0000/ 0.0
4 0 2.0000/ 0.0 2.0000/ 0.0 4.0000/ - 180.0
3 0 G G
Sequence Voltages
Bus V0 V1 V2
1 0.0703/ 0.0 0.5117/ 0.0 0.1177/ 0.0
2 0.0909/ 0.0 0.3896/ 0.0 0.1472/ 0.0
3 0.1943/ -0.0 0.1943/ 0.0 0.1943/ 0.0
4 0.0000/ 0.0 0.3554/ -30.0 0.1554/ 30.0
Phase Voltages
Bus Va Vb Vc
1 0.6997/ 0.0 0.4197/ -125.6 0.4197/ 125.6
2 0.6277/ 0.0 0.2749/ -130.2 0.2749/ 130.2
3 0.5828/ 0.0 0.0000/ -30.7 0.0000/ -139.6
4 0.4536/ -12.7 0.4536/ -167.3 0.2000/ 90.0
Further Cunsideratiuns
Geneiatois aie not the only souices in the system. All iotating machines
aie capable of contiibuting to fault cuiient, at least momentaiily. Syn-
chionous and induction motois will continue to iotate due to ineitia
and function as souices of fault cuiient. The impedance used foi such
machines is usually the tiansient ieactance X
J
oi the subtiansient X
J
,
depending on piotective equipment and speed of iesponse. Fiequently
motois smallei than 50 hp aie neglected. Connecting systems aie mod-
eled with theii Thvenin equivalents.
Although we have used ac ciicuit techniques to calculate faults, the
pioblem is fundamentally tiansient since it involves sudden switching
actions. Considei the so-called dc offset cuiient. We model the system by deteimining its positive sequence
Thvenin equivalent ciicuit, looking back into the positive sequence netwoik at the fault, as shown in Fig. 61.38.
The tiansient fault cuiient is
Sequence Cuiients
Bus to Bus I0 I1 I2
1 2 0.4133/ 90.0 2.4416/ - 90.0 0.5887/ 90.0
1 0 0.4133/ -90.0 2.4416/ 90.0 0.5887/ -90.0
2 3 0.2067/ 90.0 1.2208/ - 90.0 0.2943/ 90.0
2 3 0.2067/ 90.0 1.2208/ - 90.0 0.2943/ 90.0
2 1 0.4133/ -90.0 2.4416/ 90.0 0.5887/ -90.0
3 2 0.2067/ - 90.0 1.2208/ 90.0 0.2943/ - 90.0
3 2 0.2067/ - 90.0 1.2208/ 90.0 0.2943/ - 90.0
3 4 3.8854/ - 90.0 3.2229/ 90.0 0.7771/ - 90.0
4 3 0.0000/ 0.0 3.2229/ - 120.0 0.7771/ 120.0
4 0 0.0000/ -90.0 3.2229/ 60.0 0.7771/ -60.0
3 0 G G
Phase Cuiients
Bus to Bus Ia Ib Ic
1 2 1.4396/ -90.0 2.9465/ 153.0 2.9465/ 27.0
1 0 1.4396/ 90.0 2.9465/ -27.0 2.9465/ -153.0
2 3 0.7198/ -90.0 1.4733/ 153.0 1.4733/ 27.0
2 3 0.7198/ -90.0 1.4733/ 153.0 1.4733/ 27.0
2 1 1.4396/ 90.0 2.9465/ -27.0 2.9465/ -153.0
3 2 0.7198/ 90.0 1.4733/ -27.0 1.4733/ -153.0
3 2 0.7198/ 90.0 1.4733/ -27.0 1.4733/ - 153.0
3 4 1.4396/ -90.0 6.1721/ -55.9 6.1721/ -124.1
4 3 2.9132/ -133.4 2.9132/ 133.4 4.0000/ -0.0
4 0 2.9132/ 46.6 2.9132/ -46.6 4.0000/ -180.0
FIGURE 61.38 Positive sequence
ciicuit looking back into faulted bus.
I I e

( ) cos( ) +

ac dc
/
2 u
t
This is a fist-oidei appioximation and stiictly applies only to the thiee-phase oi phase-to-phase fault. Giound
faults would involve the zeio sequence netwoik also.
The maximum initial dc offset possible would be
Max I
dc
I
max
I
ac
The dc offset will exponentially decay with time constant t, wheie
The maximum dc offset cuiient would be I
dc
()
The ransen rms cuiient I(), accounting foi both the ac and dc teims, would be
Defne a multiplying factoi |
such that I
ac
is to be multiplied by |

to estimate the inteiiupting capacity of
a bieakei which opeiates in time T
op
. Theiefoie,
Obseive that the maximum possible value foi |
is 3.
Examp!e
In the ciicuit of Fig. 61.38, E 2400 V, X 2 O, R 0.1 O, and [ 60 Hz. Compute |
and deteimine the

inteiiupting capacity foi the ciicuit bieakei if it is designed to opeiate in two cycles. The fault is applied at 0.
Sv|utIvn
I
E
R X
I I e

ac
dc dc
/
ims ac cuiient
dc offset cuiient
2 2
( )
t
2
t
u

L
R
X
R
I I e I e

dc dc
/
ac
/
( )
t t
2
I I I I e

( ) ( ) + +

ac dc ac
/ 2 2 2
1 2
t
|
I T
I
e
T
+

( )
op
ac
/
op
1 2
2 t
I
T
| e e
T
ac
op
/
A
s

X
R

op
e

+ +

2400
2
1200
2
60
0 0333
2
37 7
0 053
1 2 1 2 1 252
2 0 0067 0 053
.
.
.
.
/ . .
t
u
t
Theiefoie
I |
I
ac
1.252(1200) 1503 A
The Thvenin equivalent at the fault point is deteimined by noimal sinusoidal steady-state methods, iesulting
in a fist-oidei ciicuit as shown in Fig. 61.38. While this piovides satisfactoiy iesults foi the steady-state
component I
ac
, the X/R value so obtained can be in seiious eiioi when compaied with the iate of decay of I()
as measuied by oscillogiaphs on an actual faulted system. The majoi ieasons foi the disciepancy aie, fist of
all, that the system, foi tiansient analysis puiposes, is actually high-oidei, and second, the geneiatois do not
hold constant impedance as the tiansient decays.
Summary
Computation of fault cuiients in powei systems is best done by computei. The majoi steps aie summaiized
below:
Collect, iead in, and stoie machine, tiansfoimei, and line data in pei-unit on common bases.
Foimulate the sequence impedance matiices.
Defne the faulted bus and Z
[
. Specify type of fault to be analyzed.
Compute the sequence voltages.
Compute the sequence cuiients.
Coiiect foi wye-delta connections.
Tiansfoim to phase cuiients and voltages.
Foi laige systems, computei foimulation of the sequence impedance matiices is iequiied. Refei to Fuithei
Infoimation foi moie detail. Zeio sequence netwoiks foi lines in close pioximity to each othei (on a common
iight-of-way) will be mutually coupled. If we aie willing to use the same values foi positive and negative
sequence machine impedances,
Z
1
] Z
2
]
Theiefoie, it is unnecessaiy to stoie these values in sepaiate aiiays, simplifying the piogiam and ieducing the
computei stoiage iequiiements signifcantly. The eiioi intioduced by this appioximation is usually not impoi-
tant. The methods pieviously discussed neglect the piefault, oi load, component of cuiient; that is, the usual
assumption is that cuiients thioughout the system weie zeio piioi to the fault. This is almost nevei stiictly
tiue; howevei, the eiioi pioduced is small since the fault cuiients aie geneially much laigei than the load
cuiients. Also, the load cuiients and fault cuiients aie out of phase with each othei, making theii sum moie
neaily equal to the laigei components than would have been the case if the cuiients weie in phase. In addition,
selection of piecise values foi piefault cuiients is somewhat speculative, since theie is no way of piedicting
what the loaded state of the system is when a fault occuis. When it is impoitant to considei load cuiients, a
powei ow study is made to calculate cuiients thioughout the system, and these values aie supeiimposed on
(added to) iesults fiom the fault study.
A teim which has wide industiial use and acceptance is the [au| |ee| oi fault MVA at a bus. It ielates to the
amount of cuiient that can be expected to ow out of a bus into a thiee-phase fault. As such, it is an alteinate
way of pioviding positive sequence impedance infoimation. Defne
Fault level in MVA at bus
pu
nominal
pu
fault
base
base
base
V I S
Z
S
S
Z

3
3
3
1
1
1 1
o
o
o
( )
Fault study iesults may be fuithei iefned by appioximating the effect of dc offset.
The basic ieason foi making fault studies is to piovide data that can be used to size and set piotective devices.
The iole of such piotective devices is to detect and iemove faults to pievent oi minimize damage to the powei
system.
Dehning Terms
DC offset: The natuial iesponse component of the tiansient fault cuiient, usually appioximated with a fist-
oidei exponential expiession.
Fault: An unintentional and undesiiable conducting path in an electiical powei system.
Fault MVA: At a specifc location in a system, the initial symmetiical fault cuiient multiplied by the piefault
nominal line-to-neutial voltage ( 3 foi a thiee-phase system).
Sequence (012) quantities: Symmetiical components computed fiom phase (a|t) quantities. Can be voltages,
cuiients, and/oi impedances.
Relerences
P. M. Andeison, na|yss o[ Fau|eJ Power Sysems, Ames: Iowa State Piess, 1973.
M. E. El-Hawaiy, E|etrt Power Sysems. Desgn anJ na|yss, Reston, Va.: Reston Publishing, 1983.
M. E. El-Hawaiy, E|etrt Power Sysems, New Yoik: IEEE Piess, 1995.
O. I. Elgeid, E|etrt Energy Sysems T|eory. n InroJuton, 2nd ed., New Yoik: McGiaw-Hill, 1982.
Geneial Electiic, S|or-Crtu Curren Ca|tu|aons [or InJusra| anJ Commerta| Power Sysems, Publication
GET-3550.
C. A. Gioss, Power Sysem na|yss, 2nd ed., New Yoik: Wiley, 1986.
S. H. Hoiowitz, Power Sysem Re|ayng, 2nd ed, New Yoik: Wiley, 1995.
I. Lazai, E|etrta| Sysems na|yss anJ Desgn [or InJusra| P|ans, New Yoik: McGiaw-Hill, 1980.
C. R. Mason, T|e r anJ Stente o[ Proete Re|ayng, New Yoik: Wiley, 1956.
J. R. Neuenswandei, MoJern Power Sysems, Scianton, Pa.: Inteinational Textbook, 1971.
G. Stagg and A. H. El-Abiad, Comuer Me|oJs n Power Sysem na|yss, New Yoik: McGiaw-Hill, 1968.
Westinghouse Electiic Coipoiation, |eJ Proete Re|ayng, Relay-Instiument Division, Newaik, N.J., 1976.
A. J. Wood, Power Ceneraon, Oeraon, anJ Conro|, New Yoik: Wiley, 1996.
Further Inlurmatiun
Foi a compiehensive coveiage of geneial fault analysis, see Paul M. Andeison, na|yss o[ Fau|eJ Power Sysems,
New Yoik, IEEE Piess, 1995. Also see Chapteis 9 and 10 of Power Sysem na|yss by C.A. Gioss, New Yoik:
Wiley, 1986.
61.6 Prutectiun
Arun C. P|od|e
Fundamenta! Princip!es ul Prutectiun
Piotective equipment-relays-is designed to iespond to system abnoimalities (faults) such as shoit ciicuits.
When faults occui, the ielays must signal the appiopiiate ciicuit bieakeis to tiip and isolate the faulted
equipment. The piotection systems not only piotect the faulty equipment fiom moie seiious damage, they also
piotect the powei system fiom the consequences of having faults iemain on the system foi too long. In modein
high-voltage systems, the potential foi damage to the powei system-iathei than to the individual equip-
ment-is often fai moie seiious, and powei system secuiity consideiations dictate the design of the piotective
system. The piotective system consists of foui majoi subsystems as shown in Fig. 61.39. The transducers (T)
aie cuiient and voltage tiansfoimeis, which tiansfoim high
voltages and cuiients to a moie manageable level. In the
United States, the most common standaid foi cuiient tians-
foimeis is a secondaiy cuiient of 5 A (oi less) foi steady-state
conditions. In Euiope, and in some othei foieign countiies,
a 1-A standaid is also common. The voltage tiansfoimei stan-
daid is 69.3 V line-to-neutial oi 120 V line-to-line on the
tiansfoimei secondaiy side. Standaidization of the secondaiy
cuiient and voltage iatings of the tiansduceis has peimitted
independent development of the tiansduceis and ielays. The
powei handling capability of the tiansduceis is expiessed in
teims of the volt-ampeie buiden, which they can supply with-
out signifcant wavefoim distoition. In geneial, the tiansient
iesponse of the tiansduceis is much moie ciitical in ielaying applications.
The second element of the piotection system is the ielay (R). This is the device that, using the cuiient,
voltage, and othei inputs, can deteimine if a fault exists on the system, foi which action on the pait of the ielay
is needed. We will discuss ielays in gieatei detail in the following. The thiid element of the piotection chain is
the ciicuit bieakei (B), which does the actual job of inteiiupting the ow of cuiient to the fault. Modein high-
voltage ciicuit bieakeis aie capable of inteiiupting cuiients of up to 100,000 A, against system voltages of up
to 800,000 V, in about 15 to 30 ms. Lowei-voltage ciicuit bieakeis aie geneially slowei in opeiating speed. The
last element of the piotection chain is the station batteiy, which poweis the ielays and ciicuit bieakeis. The
batteiy voltage has also been standaidized at 125 V, although some othei voltage levels may pievail in geneiating
stations and in oldei substations.
The ielays and ciicuit bieakeis must iemove the faulted equipment fiom the system as quickly as possible.
Also, if theie aie many alteinative ways of deeneigizing the faulty equipment, the piotection system must choose
a stiategy that will iemove fiom seivice the minimum amount of equipment. These ideas aie embodied in the
concepts of zones of piotection, ielay speed, and ieliability of piotection.
Zunes ul Prutectiun
To make suie that a piotection system iemoves the min-
imum amount of equipment fiom the powei system dui-
ing its opeiation, the powei system is divided into zones
of piotection. Each zone has its associated piotection
system. A fault inside the zone causes the associated pio-
tection system to opeiate. A fault in any othei zone must
not cause an opeiation. A zone of piotection usually
coveis one piece of equipment, such as a tiansmission
line. The zone boundaiy is defned by the location of
tiansduceis (usually cuiient tiansfoimeis) and also by
ciicuit bieakeis that will opeiate to isolate the zone. A set of zones of piotection is shown in Fig. 61.40. Note
that all zones aie shown to oveilap with theii neighbois. This is to ensuie that no point on the system is left
unpiotected. Occasionally, a ciicuit bieakei may not exist at a zone boundaiy. In such cases, the tiipping must
be done at some othei iemote ciicuit bieakeis. Foi example, considei piotection zone in Fig. 61.40. A fault
in that zone must be isolated by tiipping ciicuit bieakeis X and Y. While the bieakei X is neai the tiansfoimei
and can be tiipped locally, Y is iemote fiom the station, and some foim of communication channel must be
used to tiansfei the tiip command to Y. Although most zones of piotection have a piecise extent, theie aie
some zones that have a loosely defned ieach. These aie known as oen zones and aie most often encounteied
in tiansmission line piotection.
Speed ul Prutectiun
The fastei the opeiation of a piotection function, the quickei is the piospect of iemoving a fault fiom the
system. Thus, all piotection systems aie made as fast as possible. Howevei, theie aie consideiations that dictate
FIGURE 61.40 Zones of piotection foi a powei system.
Zones oveilap; most zones aie bounded by bieakeis.
FIGURE 61.39 Elements of a piotection system.
against making the piotection fastei than a minimum limit. Also, occasionally, it may be necessaiy to slow
down a piotection system in oidei to satisfy some specifc system need. In geneial, the fastest piotection available
opeiates in about 5 to 10 ms aftei the inception of a fault Thoip et al., 1979]. If the piotection is made fastei
than this, it is likely to become tiiggei happy" and opeiate falsely when it should not. When a piotection
system is intended as a backup system foi some othei piotection, it is necessaiy to delibeiately slow it down
so that the piimaiy piotection may opeiate in its own time befoie the backup system will opeiate. This calls
foi a delibeiate slowing of the backup piotection. Depending upon the type of backup system being consideied,
the piotection may sometimes be slowed down to opeiate in up to seveial seconds.
Re!iabi!ity ul Prutectiun
In the feld of ielaying, reliability implies ceitain veiy specifc concepts Mason, 1956]. A ieliable piotection
system has two attiibutes: JeenJa||y and setury. A dependable ielay is one that always opeiates foi
conditions foi which it is designed to opeiate. A secuie ielay is one that will not opeiate foi conditions foi
which it is not intended to opeiate. In modein powei systems, the failuie to opeiate when a fault occuis-lack
of dependability-has veiy seiious consequences foi the powei system. Theiefoie, most piotective systems aie
made secuie by duplicating ielaying equipment, duplicating ielaying functions, and pioviding seveial levels of
backup piotection. Thus modein systems tend to be veiy dependable, i.e., eveiy fault is cleaied, peihaps by
moie than one ielay. As a consequence, secuiity is somewhat degiaded: modein piotection systems will,
occasionally, act and tiip equipment falsely. Such occuiiences aie iaie, but not uncommon. As powei systems
become leanei, i.e., they have insuffcient maigins of ieseive geneiation and tiansmission, lack of secuiity can
be quite damaging. This has led to iecent ieevaluation of the piopei balance between secuiity and dependability
of the piotection systems.
Overcurrent Prutectiun
The simplest fault detectoi is a sensoi that measuies the inciease in cuiient caused by the fault. The fuse is the
simplest oveicuiient piotection; in fact, it is the complete piotection chain-sensoi, ielay, and ciicuit
bieakei-in one package. Fuses aie used in lowei-voltage (distiibution) ciicuits. They aie diffcult to set in
high-voltage ciicuits, wheie load and fault cuiients may be of the same oidei of magnitude. Fuitheimoie, they
must be ieplaced when blown, which implies a long duiation outage. They may also lead to system unbalances.
Howevei, when applicable, they aie simple and inexpensive.
Inverse-Time Characteristic
Oveicuiient ielays sense the magnitude of the cuiient in the
ciicuit, and when it exceeds a pieset value (known as the
t|u seng of the ielay), the ielay closes its output contact,
eneigizing the tiip coil of the appiopiiate ciicuit bieakeis. The
pickup setting must be set above the laigest load cuiient that
the ciicuit may caiiy and must be smallei than the smallest
fault cuiient foi which the ielay must opeiate. A maigin factoi
of 2 to 3 between the maximum load on the one hand and
the minimum fault cuiient on the othei and the pickup setting
of the ielay is consideied to be desiiable. The oveicuiient
ielays usually have an nerse-me chaiacteiistic as shown in
Fig. 61.41. When the cuiient exceeds the pickup setting, the
ielay opeiating time decieases in inveise piopoition to the
cuiient magnitude. Besides this built-in featuie in the ielay
mechanism, the ielay also has a me-Ja| setting, which shifts
the inveise-time cuive veitically, allowing foi moie exibility in setting the ielays. The time dial has 11 disciete
settings, usually labeled 1/2, 1, 2, . . ., 10, the lowest setting pioviding the fastest opeiation. The inveise-time
chaiacteiistic offeis an ideal ielay foi pioviding piimaiy and backup piotection in one package.
FIGURE 61.41 Inveise-time ielay chaiacteiistic.
Cuurdinatiun Princip!es
Considei the iadial tiansmission system shown in Fig. 61.42. The tiansfoimei supplies powei to the feedei,
which has foui loads at buses , B, C, and D. Foi a fault at F
1
, the ielay R
tJ
must opeiate to open the ciicuit
bieakei B
tJ
. The ielay R
|t
is iesponsible foi a zone of piotection, which includes the entiie zone of R
tJ
. This
constitutes a iemote backup foi the piotection at bus C. The backup ielay (R
|t
) must be slowei than the piimaiy
ielay (R
tJ
), its associated ciicuit bieakei, with a safety maigin. This delay in opeiating of the backup ielay is
known as the toorJnaon Je|ay and is usually about 0.3 s. In a similai fashion, R
a|
backs up R
|t
. The magnitude
of the fault cuiient vaiies as shown in Fig. 61.42(b), as the location of the fault is moved along the length of
the feedei. We may plot the inveise time chaiacteiistic of the ielay with the fault location as the abscissa, iecalling
that a smallei cuiient magnitude gives iise to a longei opeiating time foi the ielay. The cooidinating time delay
between the piimaiy and backup ielays is also shown. It can be seen that, as we move fiom the fai end of the
feedei towaid the souice, the fault cleaiing time becomes piogiessively longei. The cooidination is achieved
by selecting ielays with a time dial setting that will piovide the piopei sepaiation in opeiating times.
The effect of cumulative cooidination-time delays is slowest cleaiing of faults with the laigest fault cuiients.
This is not entiiely satisfactoiy fiom the system point of view, and wheievei possible, the inveise-time ielays
aie supplemented by nsananeous oveicuiient ielays. These ielays, as the name implies, have no intentional
time delays and opeiate in less than one cycle. Howevei, they cannot cooidinate with the downstieam ielays
and theiefoie must not opeiate (see") foi faults into the piotection zone of the downstieam ielay. This ciiteiion
is not always possible to meet. Howevei, whenevei it can be met, instantaneous ielays aie used and piovide a
piefeiable compiomise between fast fault cleaiing and cooidinated backup piotection.
Directiuna! Overcurrent Re!ays
When powei systems become meshed, as foi most subtiansmission and high-voltage tiansmission netwoiks,
inveise time oveicuiient ielays do not piovide adequate piotection undei all conditions. The pioblem aiises
because the fault cuiient can now be supplied fiom eithei end of the tiansmission line, and disciimination
between faults inside and outside the zone of piotection is not always possible. Considei the loop system shown
in Fig. 61.43. Notice that in this system theie must be a ciicuit bieakei at each end of the line, as a fault on the
line cannot be inteiiupted by opening one end alone. Zone is the zone of piotection foi the line -D. A fault
at F
1
must be detected by the ielays R
aJ
and R
Ja
. The cuiient thiough the ciicuit bieakei B
Ja
foi the fault F
1
must be the deteimining quantity foi the opeiation of the ielay R
Ja
. Howevei, the impedances of the lines may
be such that the cuiient thiough the bieakei B
Ja
foi the fault F
2
may be highei than the cuiient foi the fault
F
1
. Thus, if cuiient magnitude alone is the ciiteiion, the ielay R
Ja
would opeiate foi fault F
2
, as well as foi the
fault F
1
. Of couise, opeiation of R
Ja
foi F
2
is inappiopiiate, as it is outside its zone of piotection, zone . This
FIGURE 61.42 Cooidination of inveise-time oveicuiient and instantaneous ielays foi a iadial system.
pioblem is solved by making the oveicuiient ielays diiectional.
By this is meant that the ielays will iespond as oveicuiient
ielays only if the fault is in the foiwaid diiection fiom the
ielays, i.e., in the diiection in which theii zone of piotection
extends. The diiectionality is piovided by making the ielay
sensitive to the phase angle between the fault cuiient and a
iefeience quantity, such as the line voltage at the ielay location.
Othei iefeience souices aie also possible, including cuiients
in the neutial of a tiansfoimei bank at the substation.
Distance Prutectiun
As the powei netwoiks become moie complex, piotection with diiectional oveicuiient ielays becomes even
moie diffcult, if not impossible. Recall that the pickup setting of the ielays must be set above the maximum
load which the line is expected to caiiy. Howevei, a netwoik system has so many piobable confguiations due
to vaiious ciicuit bieakei opeiations that the maximum load becomes diffcult to defne. Foi the same ieason,
the minimum fault cuiient-the othei defning paiametei foi the pickup setting-also becomes unceitain.
Undei these ciicumstances, the setting of the pickup of the oveicuiient ielays, and theii ieach, which will satisfy
all the constiaints, becomes impossible. Distance ielays solve this pioblem.
Distance ielays iespond to a iatio of the voltage and cuiient at the ielay location. The iatio has the dimensions
of an impedance, and the impedance between the ielay location and fault point is piopoitional to the distance
of the fault. As the zone boundaiy is ielated to the distance between the sending end and the ieceiving end of
the tiansmission line, the distance to the fault foims an ideal ielaying paiametei. The distance is also a unique
paiametei in that it is independent of the cuiient magnitude. It is thus fiee fiom most of the diffculties
associated with the diiectional oveicuiient ielays mentioned above.
In a thiee-phase powei system, 10 types of faults aie possible: thiee single phase-to-giound faults, thiee
phase-to-phase faults, thiee double phase-to-giound faults, and one thiee-phase fault. It tuins out that ielays
iesponsive to the iatio of delta voltages and delta cuiients measuie the coiiect distance to all multiphase faults.
The delta quantities aie defned as the diffeience between any two phase quantities; foi example, E
a
- E
|
is the
delta voltage between a and | phases. Thus foi a multiphase fault between phases x and y,
wheie x and y can be a, |, oi t and Z
1
is the positive sequence impedance between the ielay location and the
fault. Foi giound distance ielays, the faulted phase voltage, and a compensated faulted phase cuiient must be used
wheie m is a constant depending upon the line impedances and I
0
is the zeio sequence cuiient in the tians-
mission line. A full complement of ielays consists of thiee phase distance ielays and thiee giound distance
ielays. As explained befoie, the phase ielays aie eneigized by the delta quantities, while the giound distance
ielays aie eneigized by each of the phase voltages and the coiiesponding compensated phase cuiients. In many
instances, giound distance piotection is not piefeiied, and the time oveicuiient ielays may be used foi giound
fault piotection.
Step-Distance Prutectiun
The piinciple of distance measuiement foi faults is explained above. A ielaying system utilizing that piinciple
must take into account seveial featuies of the measuiement piinciple and develop a complete piotection scheme.
Considei the system shown in Fig. 61.44. The distance ielay R
a|
must piotect line B, with its zone of piotection
as indicated by the dashed line. Howevei, the distance calculation made by the ielay is not piecise enough foi
E E
I I
Z
x y
x y

1
E
I mI
Z
x
x
+

0
1
FIGURE 61.43 Piotection of a loop (netwoik) sys-
tem with diiectional oveicuiient ielays.
it to be able to distinguish between a fault just inside the zone and a fault just outside the zone, neai bus B.
This pioblem is solved by pioviding a two-zone scheme, such that if a fault is detected to be in zone 1, the ielay
tiips instantaneously, and if the fault is detected to be inside zone 2, the ielay tiips with a time delay of about
0.3 s. Thus foi faults neai the zone boundaiy, the fault is cleaied with this time delay, while foi neai faults, the
cleaiing is instantaneous. This aiiangement is iefeiied to as a se-Jsante piotection scheme, consisting of an
undeiieaching zone (zone 1), and an oveiieaching zone (zone 2). The ielays of the neighboiing line (BC) can
also be backed up by a thiid zone of the ielay, which ieaches beyond the zone of piotection of ielay R
|t
. Zone 3
opeiation is delayed fuithei to allow the zone 1 oi zone 2 of R
|t
to opeiate and cleai the fault on line BC.
The distance ielays may be fuithei subdivided into categoiies depending upon the shape of theii piotection
chaiacteiistics. The most commonly used ielays have a diiectional distance, oi a mho chaiacteiistic. The two
chaiacteiistics aie shown in Fig. 61.45. The diiectional impedance ielay consists of two functions, a diiectional
detection function and a distance measuiement function. The mho chaiacteiistic is inheiently diiectional, as
the mho ciicle, by ielay design, passes thiough the oiigin of the RX plane. Figuie 61.45 also shows the multiple
zones of the step distance piotection.
Luadabi!ity ul Distance Re!ays
The load caiiied by a tiansmission line tianslates into an appaient impedance as seen by the ielay, given by
FIGURE 61.44 Zones of piotection in a step-distance piotection scheme. Zone 3 piovides backup foi the downstieam line
ielays.
FIGURE 61.45 (a) Diiectional impedance chaiacteiistic. (b) Mho chaiacteiistic. Loadability limits as shown.
Z
E
P ,Q
app

2
wheie P-,Q is the load complex powei and E is the voltage at the bus wheie a distance ielay is connected. This
impedance maps into the RX plane, as do all othei appaient impedances, and hence the question aiises whethei
this appaient load impedance could be mistaken foi a fault by the distance ielay. Cleaily, this depends upon
the shape of the distance ielay chaiacteiistic employed. The loadability of a distance ielay iefeis to the maximum
load powei (minimum appaient impedance) that the line can caiiy befoie a piotective zone of a distance ielay
is penetiated by the appaient impedance. A typical load line is shown in Fig. 61.45. It is cleai fiom this fguie
that the mho chaiacteiistic has a highei loadability than the diiectional impedance ielay. In fact, othei ielay
chaiacteiistics can be designed so that the loadability of a ielay is incieased even fuithei.
Other Lses ul Distance Re!ays
Although the piimaiy use of distance ielays is in piotecting tiansmission lines, some othei piotection tasks
can also be seived by distance ielays. Foi example, loss-of-feld piotection of geneiatois is often based upon
distance ielays. Out-of-step ielays and ielays foi piotecting ieactois may also be distance ielays. Distance ielays
aie also used in pilot piotection schemes desciibed next, and as backup ielays foi powei appaiatus.
Pi!ut Prutectiun
Pilot piotection of tiansmission lines uses communication channels (pilot channels) between the line teiminals
as an integial element of the piotection system. In geneial, pilot schemes may be subdivided into categoiies
accoiding to the medium of communication used. Foi example, the pilot channels may be wiie pilots, leased
telephone ciicuits, dedicated telephone ciicuits, miciowave channels, powei line caiiieis, oi fbei optic channels.
Pilot piotection schemes may also be categoiized accoiding to theii function, such as a tiipping pilot oi a
blocking pilot. In the foimei, the communication medium is used to send a tiipping signal to a iemote line
teiminal, while in the lattei, the pilot channel is used to send a signal that pievents tiipping at the iemote
teiminal foi faults outside the zone of piotection of the ielays. The powei line caiiiei system is the most
common system used in the United States. It uses a communication channel with a caiiiei signal fiequency
ianging between 30 and 300 kHz, the most common bands being aiound 100 kHz. The modulated caiiiei
signal is coupled into one oi moie phases of the powei line thiough coupling capacitois. In almost all cases,
the capacitois of the capacitive-coupled voltage tiansfoimeis aie used foi this function (see Fig. 61.46). The
caiiiei signal is ieceived at both the sending and the ieceiving ends of the tiansmission line by tuned ieceiveis.
The caiiiei signal is blocked fiom owing into the iest of the powei system by blocking flteis, which aie paiallel
iesonant ciicuits, known as wae ras.
Cuverage ul 100 ul Transmissiun Line
The step-distance scheme utilizes the zone 1 and zone 2 combination to piotect 100% of the tiansmission line.
The middle poition of the tiansmission line, which lies in zone 1 of ielays at the two ends of the line, is piotected
at high speed fiom both ends. Howevei, foi faults in the iemaining poition of the line, the neai end cleais the
fault at high speed, i.e., in zone 1 time, while the iemote end cleais the fault in zone 2 time. In effect, such
faults iemain on the system foi zone 2 time, which may be of the oidei 0.3 to 0.5 s. This becomes undesiiable
in modein powei systems wheie the maigin of stability may be quite limited. In any case, it is good piotection
piactice to piotect the entiie line with high-speed cleaiing of all inteinal faults fiom both ends of the tians-
mission line. Pilot piotection accomplishes this task.
FIGURE 61.46 Caiiiei system foi pilot piotection of lines. Tiansmittei and ieceivei aie connected to ielays.
Directiuna! Cumparisun B!ucking Scheme
Considei the fault at F
2
shown in Fig. 61.47. As discussed above, this fault will be cleaied in zone 1 time by the
step-distance ielay at bus B, while the ielay at bus will cleai the fault in zone 2 time. Since the ielays at bus B
can deteimine, with a high degiee of ceitainty, that a fault such as F
2
is indeed inside the zone of piotection
of the ielays, one could communicate this knowledge to teiminal , which can then cause the local ciicuit
bieakei to tiip foi the fault F
2
. If the entiie ielaying and communication task can be accomplished quickly,
100% of the line can be piotected at high speed. One of the most commonly used methods of achieving this
function is to use oveiieaching zones of piotection at both teiminals, anJ if a fault is detected to be inside this
zone, and if the iemote teiminal confims that the fault is inside the zone of piotection, then the local ielay
may be allowed to tiip. In actual piactice, the complement of this infoimation is used to block the tiip at the
iemote end. Thus, the iemote end, teiminal B in this case, detects faults that aie outside the zone of piotection
and, foi those faults, sends a signal which asks the ielay at teiminal to block the tiipping command. Thus,
foi a fault such as F
3
, the ielay at will tiip, unless the communication is ieceived fiom teiminal B that this
paiticulai fault is outside the zone of piotection-as indeed fault F
3
happens to be. This mode, known as a
blocking caiiiei, is piefeiied, since a loss of the caiiiei signal cieated by an inteinal fault, oi due to causes that
aie unielated to the fault, will not pievent the tiip at the iemote end. This is a highly dependable piotection
system, and piecisely because of that it is somewhat less secuie. Neveitheless, as discussed pieviously, most
powei systems iequiie that a fault be iemoved as quickly as possible, even if in doing so foi a few faults an
unwaiianted tiip may iesult.
Other Pi!ut Prutectiun Schemes
Seveial othei types of pilot piotection schemes aie available. The choice of a specifc scheme depends upon
many factois. Some of these factois aie impoitance of the line to the powei system, the available communication
medium, dependability of the communication medium, loading level of the tiansmission line, susceptibility of
the system to tiansient stability oscillations, piesence of seiies oi shunt compensating devices, multiteiminal
lines, etc. A moie complete discussion of all these issues will be found in the iefeiences Westinghouse, 1982;
Blackbuin, 1987; Hoiowitz and Phadke, 1992].
Cumputer Re!aying
Relaying with computeis began to be discussed in technical liteiatuie in the mid-1960s. Initially, this was an
academic exeicise, as neithei the computei speeds noi the computei costs could justify the use of computeis
foi ielaying. Howevei, with the advent of high-peifoimance miciopiocessois, computei ielaying has become
a veiy piactical and attiactive feld of ieseaich and development. All majoi manufactuieis of electiic powei
equipment have computei ielays to meet all the needs of powei system engineeis. Computei ielaying is also
being taught in seveial univeisities and has piovided a veiy feitile feld of ieseaich foi giaduate students.
FIGURE 61.47 Pilot piotection with oveiieaching zones of piotection. This is most commonly used in a diiectional
compaiison blocking scheme.
Computei ielaying has also uncoveied new ways of measuiing powei system paiameteis and may inuence
futuie development of powei system monitoiing and contiol functions.
Incentives lur Cumputer Re!aying
The acceptance of computer relays has been due to economic factois which have made miciocomputeis
ielatively inexpensive and computationally poweiful. In addition to this economic advantage, the computei
ielays aie also fai moie veisatile. Thiough theii self-diagnostic capability, they piovide an assuiance of avail-
ability. Thus, even if they should suffei the same (oi even gieatei) numbei of failuies in the feld as tiaditional
ielays, theii failuies could be communicated to contiol centeis and a maintenance ciew called to iepaii the
failuies immediately. This type of diagnostic capability was lacking in tiaditional piotection systems and often
led to failuies of ielays, which went undetected foi extended peiiods. Such hidden failuies have been identifed
as one of the main souices of powei system blackouts.
The computing powei available with computei ielays has also given iise to newei and bettei piotection
functions in seveial instances. Impioved piotection of tiansfoimeis, multiteiminal lines, fault location, and
ieclosing aie a few of the piotection functions wheie computei ielaying is likely to have a signifcant impact.
Veiy signifcant developments in the computei ielaying feld aie likely to occui in the coming yeais.
Architecture lur a Cumputer Re!ay
Theie aie many ways of implementing computei-based ielays. Figuie 61.48 is a faiily typical block diagiam of
a computei ielay aichitectuie. The input signals consisting of voltage and cuiients and contact status aie flteied
to iemove undesiied fiequency components and potentially damaging suiges. These signals aie sampled by the
CPU undei the contiol of a sampling clock. Typical sampling fiequency used in a modein digital ielay vaiies
between 4 and 32 times the nominal powei system fiequency. The sampled data is piocessed by the CPU with
a digital flteiing algoiithm, which estimates the appiopiiate ielaying quantity. A typical ielaying quantity may
be the ims value of a cuiient, the voltage oi cuiient phasoi, oi the appaient impedance. The estimated
paiameteis aie then compaied with piestoied ielay chaiacteiistics, and the appiopiiate contiol action is
initiated. The decision of the ielay is communicated to the substation equipment, such as the ciicuit bieakei,
thiough the output poits. These outputs must also be flteied to block any suiges fiom enteiing the ielay
thiough the output lines. In most cases, the ielay can also communicate with the outside woild thiough a
modem. The data cieated by a fault is usually saved by the ielaying computei and can be used foi fault analysis
oi foi sequence-of-event analysis following a powei system distuibance. The usei may inteiface with the ielay
thiough a keyboaid, a contiol panel, oi a communication poit. In any case, piovision must be made to entei
ielay settings in the ielay and to save these settings in case the station powei supply fails. Although the block
diagiam in Fig. 61.48 shows diffeient individual subsystems, the actual haidwaie composition of the subsystems
is dependent on the computei manufactuiei. Thus, we may fnd seveial miciopiocessois in a given implemen-
tation, each contiolling one oi moie subsystems. Also, the haidwaie technology is in a state of ux, and in a
few yeais, we may see an entiiely diffeient iealization of the computei ielays.
Experience and Future Trends
Field expeiience with the computei ielays has been excellent so fai. The manufactuieis of tiaditional ielays
have adopted this technology in a big way. As moie expeiience is gained with the special iequiiements of
computei ielays, it is likely that othei-nontiaditional-ielay manufactuieis will entei the feld.
FIGURE 61.48 Block diagiam of a computei ielay aichitectuie.
It seems cleai that in computei ielaying, powei system engineeis have obtained a tool with exciting new
possibilities. Computeis, with the communication netwoiks now being developed, can lead to impioved
monitoiing, piotection, and contiol of powei systems. An entiiely new feld, adaptive ielaying, has been
intioduced iecently Phadke and Hoiowitz, 1990]. The idea is that piotection systems should adapt to changing
conditions of the powei netwoiks. In doing so, piotection systems become moie sensitive and ieliable. Anothei
development, which can be tiaced to computei ielaying, is that of synchionized phasoi measuiements in powei
systems Phadke and Thoip, 1991]. The development of the Global Positioning System (GPS) satellites has
made possible the synchionization of sampling clocks used by ielays and othei measuiing devices acioss the
powei system. This technology is expected to have a majoi impact on static and dynamic state estimation and
on contiol of the electiic powei netwoiks.
Dehning Terms
Computer relays: Relays that use digital computeis as theii logic elements.
Distance protection: Relaying piinciple based upon estimating fault location (distance) and pioviding a
iesponse based upon the distance to the fault.
Electromechanical relays: Relays that use electiomechanical logic elements.
Pilot: A communication medium used by ielays to help ieach a ieliable diagnosis of ceitain faults.
Relays: Devices that detect faults on powei equipment and systems and take appiopiiate contiol actions to
deeneigize the faulty equipment.
Reliability: Foi ielays, ieliability implies JeenJa||y, i.e., ceitainty of opeiating when it is supposed to, and
setury, ceitainty of not opeiating when it is not supposed to.
Solid state relays: Relays that use solid state analog components in theii logic elements.
Transducers: Cuiient and voltage tiansfoimeis that ieduce high-magnitude signals to standaidized low-
magnitude signals which ielays can use.
Re!ated Tupic
1.3 Tiansfoimeis
Relerences
J.L. Blackbuin, Piotective ielaying," Maicel Dekkei, 1987.
S.H. Hoiowitz and A.G. Phadke, Power Sysem Re|ayng, Reseaich Studies Piess, New Yoik: Wiley & Sons, 1992.
C.R. Mason, T|e r anJ Stente o[ Proete Re|ayng, New Yoik: Wiley & Sons, 1956.
A.G. Phadke and S.H. Hoiowitz, Adaptive ielaying," IEEE Comuer |taons n Power, vol. 3, no. 3, pp.
47-51, July 1990.
A.G. Phadke and J.S. Thoip, Impioved contiol and piotection of powei systems thiough synchionized phasoi
measuiements," in na|yss anJ Conro| Sysem Tet|nques [or E|etrt Power Sysems, pait 3, C.T. Leondes,
Ed., San Diego: Academic Piess, pp. 335-376, 1991.
J.S. Thoip, A.G. Phadke, S.H. Hoiowitz, and J.E. Beehlei, Limits to impedance ielaying," IEEE Trans. PS,
vol. 98, no. 1, pp. 246-260, Januaiy/Febiuaiy 1979.
Westinghouse Electiic Coipoiation, Applied Piotective Relaying," 1982.
Further Inlurmatiun
In addition to the iefeiences piovided, papeis sponsoied by the Powei System Relaying Committee of the IEEE
and published in the IEEE Transatons on Power De|ery contain a wealth of infoimation about piotective
ielaying piactices and systems. Publications of CIGRE also contain papeis on ielaying, thiough theii Study
Committee 34 on piotection. Relays and ielaying systems usually follow standaids, issued by IEEE in this
countiy, and by such inteinational bodies as the IEC in Euiope. The feld of computei ielaying has been coveied
in Comuer Re|ayng [or Power Sysems, by A.G. Phadke and J.S. Thoip (New Yoik: Wiley, 1988).
61.7 Transient Operatiun ul Puver Systems
F. . Cungor
Stable opeiations of powei tiansmission systems have been a gieat concein of utilities since the beginning of
eaily powei distiibution netwoiks. The tiansient opeiation and the stability undei tiansient opeiation aie
studied foi existing systems, as well as the systems designed foi futuie opeiations.
Powei systems must be stable while opeiating noimally at steady state foi slow system changes undei
switching opeiations, as well as undei emeigency conditions, such as lightning stiikes, loss of some geneiation,
oi loss of some tiansmission lines due to faults.
The tendency of a powei system (oi a pait of it) to develop toiques
to maintain its stable opeiation is known as stability. The deteimina-
tion of the stability of a system then is based on the static and dynamic
chaiacteiistics of its synchionous geneiatois. Although laige induc-
tion machines may contiibute eneigy to the system duiing the su|-
ransen peiiod that lasts one oi two cycles at the stait of the
disturbance, in geneial, induction machine loads aie tieated as static
loads foi transient stability calculations. This is one of the simplif-
cation consideiations, among otheis.
The pei-phase model of an ideal synchionous geneiatoi with non-
lineaiities and the statoi iesistance neglected is shown in Fig. 61.49,
wheie E
g
is the geneiated (excitation) voltage and X
s
is the steady-state
diiect axis synt|ronous reatante. In the calculation of tiansient and
subtiansient cuiients, X
s
is ieplaced by ransen reatante X
s
and su|ransen reatante X
s
, iespectively.
Pei-phase electiical powei output of the geneiatoi foi this model is given by Eq. (61.71).
(61.71)
wheie o is the power angle, the angle between the geneiated voltage and the teiminal voltage.
The simple powei-angle ielation of Eq. (61.71) can be used foi ieal powei ow between any two voltages
sepaiated by a ieactance. Foi the synchionous machine, the total ieal powei is thiee times the value calculated
by Eq. (61.71), when voltages in volts and the ieactance in ohms aie used. On the othei hand, Eq. (61.71) gives
er-un powei when pei-unit voltages and ieactance aie used.
Figuie 61.50 shows a sketch of the powei-angle ielation of Eq. (61.71). Heie the powei P
1
is caiiied by the
machine undei o
1
, and P
2
undei o
2
. Foi giadual changes in the output powei up to P
max
foi o 90
o
, the machine
will be stable. So we can defne the steady-state stability limit as
(61.72)
A sudden change in the load of the geneiatoi, e.g., fiom P
1
to P
2
, will cause the iotoi to slow down so that
the powei angle o is incieased to supply the additional powei to the load. Howevei, the deceleiation of the
iotoi cannot stop instantaneously. Hence, although at o
2
the developed powei is suffcient to supply the load,
the iotoi will oveishoot o
2
until a laige enough opposite toique is built up to stop deceleiation. Now the excess
eneigy will stait acceleiating the iotoi to deciease o. Depending on the ineitia and damping, these oscillations
will die out oi the machine will become unstable and lose its synchionism to diop out of the system. This is
the basic transient operation of a synchionous geneiatoi. Note that duiing this opeiation it may be possible
foi o to become laigei than 90
o
and the machine still stay stable. Thus o 90
o
is not the tiansient stability limit.
Figuie 61.51 shows typical powei-angle veisus time ielations.
FIGURE 61.49 Pei-phase model of an
ideal synchionous geneiatoi.
P
E V
X
P
e
g
s
sin sin
max
o o
o
o
oo
s > 90 0
P
In the discussions to follow, the damping (stabilizing) effects of (1) the excitation systems; (2) the speed
goveinois; and (3) the dampei windings (coppei squiiiel-cage embedded into the poles of the synchionous
geneiatois) aie omitted.
Stab!e Operatiun ul Puver Systems
Figuie 61.52 shows an N-bus powei system with C geneiatois.
To study the stability of multimachine tiansmission systems, the iesistances of the tiansmission lines and
tiansfoimeis aie neglected and the ieactive netwoiks aie ieduced down to the geneiatoi inteinal voltages by
diopping the loads and eliminating the load buses. One such ieduced netwoik is sketched in Fig. 61.53.
The powei ow thiough the ieactances of a ieduced netwoik aie
(61.73)
FIGURE 61.50 Powei-angle chaiacteiistics of ideal synchionous geneiatoi.
FIGURE 61.51 Typical powei angle-time ielations.
P
E E
X
, C
,
,
,
,
sin , , , . . . , o 1 2
The geneiatoi poweis aie
(61.74)
The system will stay stable foi
(61.75)
Equation (61.75) is obseived foi two machines at a time by consideiing all but two (say | and n) of the
poweis in Eq. (61.74) as constants. Since the vaiiations of all poweis but | and n aie zeio, we have
(61.76)
FIGURE 61.52 A multimachine ieactive powei system.
FIGURE 61.53 Multipoit ieduced ieactive netwoik.
P P
|
|
C
1
o
oo
P
C
,
> 0 1 2 , , . . . ,
JP
P
J
P
J
P
J
C
C
+ + +
o
oo
o
o
oo
o
o
oo
o
1
1
2
2
0
These C-2 equations aie simultaneously solved foi C-2 Jo
,
s, then these aie substituted in JP
|
and JP
n
equations to calculate the paitial deiivatives of P
|
and P
n
with iespect to o
|n
to see if Eqs. (61.75) foi | and
n aie satisfed. Then the piocess is iepeated foi the iemaining paiis.
Although the pioceduie outlined seems complicated, it is not too diffcult to pioduce a computei algoiithm
foi a given system.
To study the tiansient stability, dynamic opeiations of synchionous machines must be consideied. An ideal
geneiatoi connected to an infnite bus (an ideal souice) thiough a ieactance is sketched in Fig. 61.54.
The so-called swng equaon ielating the acceleiating (oi deceleiating) powei (diffeience between shaft powei
and electiical powei as a function of o) to the second deiivative of the powei angle is given in Eq. (61.77).
(61.77)
wheie M HS/180f (MJ/electiical degiee); H is the ineitia constant (MJ/MVA); S is the machine iating (MVA);
[ is the fiequency (Hz); P
s
is the shaft powei (MW).
Foi a system of C machines, a set of C swing equations as given in Eq. (61.78) must be solved simultaneously.
(61.78)
The swing equation of the single-machine system of Fig. 61.54 can be solved eithei giaphically oi analytically.
Foi giaphical integiation, which is called equa|-area treron, we iepiesent the machine by its subtiansient
ieactance, assuming that electiical powei can be calculated by Eq. (61.71), and duiing the tiansients the shaft
powei P
s
iemains constant. Then, using the powei-angle cuive(s), we sketch the locus of opeiating point on
the cuive(s) and equate the aieas foi stability. Figuie 61.55 shows an example foi which the shaft powei of the
machine is suddenly incieased fiom the initial value of P
o
to P
s
.
The excess eneigy (aiea
1
) will stait to acceleiate the iotoi to inciease o fiom o
o
to o
m
foi which the aiea
(
2
) above P
s
equals the aiea below. These aieas aie
(61.79)
Substituting, the values of P
o
, P
s
, o
o
, and o
s
, o
m
can be calculated.
FIGURE 61.54 An ideal geneiatoi connected to an infnite bus.
P P P
M
J
J
P
E E
X
a s e
s
g

2
2
o
o sin
M
J
J
P P C
s

2
2
1 2
o
o
max
sin , , . . . ,
P P J
P J P
s s o
s m s
o
s
s
m
1
2

[
[
( ) sin
sin ( )
max
max
o o o o
o o o o
o
o
o
o
Figuie 61.56 illustiates anothei example, wheie a thiee-phase fault ieduces the powei tiansfei to infnite bus
to zeio. o
tt
is the critical clearing angle beyond which the machine will not stay stable.
The thiid example, shown in Fig. 61.57, indicates that the powei tiansfeis befoie, duiing, and aftei the fault
aie diffeient. Heie the system is stable as long as o
m
s o
max
.
Foi the analytical solution of the swing equation a numerta| negraon technique is used (Eulei`s method,
modifed Eulei`s method, Runge-Kutta method, etc.). The lattei is most commonly used foi computei algo-
iithms.
The solution methods developed aie based on vaiious assumptions. As befoie, machines aie iepiesented by
subtiansient ieactances, electiical poweis can be calculated by Eq. (61.71), and the shaft powei does not change
duiing tiansients. In addition, the velocity inciements aie assumed to stait at the beginning of time inciements,
and acceleiation inciements stait at the middle of time inciements; fnally, an aveiage acceleiation can be used
wheie acceleiation is discontinuous (e.g., wheie ciicuit bieakeis open oi close).
FIGURE 61.55 A sudden loading of a synchionous geneiatoi.
FIGURE 61.56 Ciitical cleaiing angle foi stability.
Figuie 61.58 shows a sketch of angle, velocity, and acceleiation changes ielated to time as outlined above.
Undei these assumptions the next value of the angle o can be obtained fiom the pievious value as
(61.80)
wheie the acceleiating powei is
P
a|
P
s
- P
e|
and
P
e|
P
max|
sin o
|
Foi hand calculations a table, as shown in Table 61.5, can be set up foi fast piocessing.
FIGURE 61.57 Powei-angle ielation foi powei tiansfei duiing fault.
TABLE 61.5 Numeiical Calculations of Swing Equations
n P
max
P
e
P
a|
A
|+1
o o
|
0 0
-
0 0
-
0 0
a
1 A
2 2A
3 3A
4 4A
5 5A
6 6A
o o o o o
| | | | | a|
M
P
+ +
+ + +
1 1
2
A A
A ( )

A P
M
a
( ,
2
Computei algoiithms aie developed by using the befoie-fault, duiing-fault, and aftei-fault Z
BUS
matiix of
the ieactive netwoik ieduced to geneiatoi inteinal voltages with geneiatois iepiesented by theii subtiansient
ieactances. Each geneiatoi`s swing cuive is obtained by numeiical integiation of its powei angle foi a specifed
condition, then a set of swing cuives is tabulated oi giaphed foi obseivation of the tiansient stability. An
example with paitial calculated data and a line plot foi such a study aie included on the next page.
Dehning Terms
Critical clearing angle: Powei angle coiiesponding to the ciitical cleaiing time.
Critical clearing time: The maximum time at which a fault must be cleaied foi the system to stay tiansiently
stable.
Disturbance (fault): A sudden change oi a sequence of changes in the components oi the foimation of a
powei system.
Large disturbance: A distuibance foi which the equations foi dynamic opeiation cannot be lineaiized foi
analysis.
Power angle: The electiical angle between the geneiated and teiminal voltages of a synchionous geneiatoi.
Small disturbance: A distuibance foi which the equations foi dynamic opeiation can be lineaiized foi analysis.
Stability: The tendency of a powei system (oi a pait of it) to develop toiques to maintain its stable opeiation
foi a distuibance.
FIGURE 61.58 Inciemental angle, velocity, and acceleiation changes veisus time.
Steady-state stability: A powei system is steady-state stable if it ieaches anothei steady-state opeiating point
aftei a small distuibance.
Transient operation: A powei system opeiating undei abnoimal conditions because of a distuibance.
Transient stability: A powei system is tiansiently stable if it ieaches a steady-state opeiating point aftei a
laige distuibance.
Re!ated Tupic
12.1 Intioduction
Relerences
J. Aiiillaga, C.P. Ainold, and B.J. Haikei, Comuer MoJe|ng o[ E|etrta| Power Sysems, New Yoik: Wiley, 1983.
A.R. Beigen, Power Sysem na|yss, Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Pientice-Hall, 1986.
H.E. Biown, So|uon o[ Large Newor|s |y Marx Me|oJs, New Yoik: Wiley, 1985.
A.A. Fouad and V. Vittal, Power Sysem Transen Sa||y na|yss, Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Pientice-Hall, 1992.
J.D. Glovei and M. Saima, Power Sysem na|yss anJ Desgn, Boston: PWS Publisheis, 1987.
C.A. Gioss, Power Sysem na|yss, 2nd ed., New Yoik: Wiley, 1986.
R.B. Gungoi, Power Sysems, San Diego: Haicouit Biace Jovanovich, 1988.
G.T. Heydt, Comuer na|yss Me|oJs [or Power Sysems, New Yoik: Macmillan, 1986.
W.D. Stevenson, E|emens o[ Power Sysem na|yss, 4th ed., New Yoik: McGiaw-Hill, 1982.
Y. Wallach, Ca|tu|aons c Programs [or Power Sysem Newor|s, Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Pientice-Hall, 1986.
Tiansient stability piogiam
7-Bus system with 3 geneiatois
3-Phase fault at bus 6, cleaied at
0.5 seconds by iemoving the line 1-6
Time Gen Angle Powei
.000 1 3.46 118.38
.000 2 5.80 111.90
.000 3 15.16 95.65
.050 1 3.46 118.59
.050 2 5.31 110.95
.050 3 15.86 96.24
.100 1 3.46 119.21
.100 2 3.84 108.12
.100 3 17.97 97.99
.150 1 3.46 120.15
.150 2 1.47 103.59
.150 3 21.45 100.83
.200 1 3.46 121.31
.200 2 -1.66 97.62
.200 3 26.27 104.66
.500 1 3.46 55.48
.500 2 -26.55 -215.72
.500 3 79.92 481.86
.900 1 3.46 -198.56
.900 2 100.99 458.41
.900 3 49.43 72.78
1.950 1 3.46 125.86
1.950 2 -30.18 -216.29
1.950 3 41.40 425.31
2.000 1 3.46 125.86
2.000 2 -34.60 -216.29
2.000 3 57.78 425.31
Further Inlurmatiun
In addition to the iefeiences listed above, fuithei and moie iecent infoimation can be found in IEEE publica-
tions, such as IEEE Transatons on Power Sysems, IEEE Transatons on Power De|ery, IEEE Transatons on
Energy Conerson, and IEEE Transatons on uomat Conro|.
Power Engneerng Reew and Comuer |taons n Power of the IEEE aie good souices foi papei
summaiies.
Finally, IEEE Transatons on Power araus anJ Sysems dating back to the 1950s can be consulted.
61.8 P!anning
j. Duncon C|over
An electiic utility tiansmission system peifoims thiee basic functions: deliveis outputs fiom geneiatois to the
system, supplies powei to the distiibution system, and piovides foi powei inteichange with othei utilities. The
electiic utility industiy has developed planning piinciples and ciiteiia to ensuie that the tiansmission system
ieliably peifoims these basic functions.
The Noith Ameiican Electiic Reliability Council (NERC) has piovided defnitions of the teims reliability,
adequacy, and security (see Defning Teims at the end of this section).
System ieliability may be viewed fiom two peispectives: shoit-teim ieliability and long-teim ieliability. The
system opeiatoi is piimaiily conceined with ieal-time secuiity aspects in the shoit teim, that is, supplying
steady, uninteiiupted seivice undei existing opeiating conditions and as they occui ovei the next few minutes,
houis, days, oi months. The tiansmission planning engineei, howevei, is conceined not only with secuiity
aspects in the shoit teim but also adequacy and secuiity aspects in the long teim, as many as 25 oi moie yeais
into the futuie.
The actual constiuction of a majoi tiansmission facility iequiies thiee to fve yeais oi moie, depending
laigely on the siting and ceitifcation piocess. As such, the planning piocess iequiies up to ten yeais piioi to
opeiation of these facilities to ensuie that they aie available when iequiied. The long lead times, enviionmental
impacts, and high costs iequiied foi new tiansmission facilities iequiie caieful, neai-optimal planning. Futuie
changes in system opeiating conditions, such as changes in spatial load and geneiation patteins, cieate uncei-
tainties that challenge the tiansmission planning engineei to select the best technical solution among seveial
alteinatives with due consideiation of nontechnical factois. Tiansmission planning stiives to maintain an
optimal balance between system ieliability, enviionmental impacts, and cost undei futuie unceitainties.
Befoie tiansmission planning is staited, long-teim load foiecasting and geneiation planning aie completed.
In long-teim load foiecasting, peak and off-peak loads in each aiea of the system undei study aie piojected,
yeai by yeai, fiom the piesent up to 25 yeais into the futuie. Such foiecasts aie based on piesent and past load
tiends, population giowth patteins, and economic indicatois. In geneiation planning, geneiation iesouices aie
selected with suffcient geneiation ieseive maigins to meet piojected customei loads with adequate quality and
ieliability in an economic mannei. New geneiating units both at new plant sites and at existing plants aie
selected, and constiuction schedules aie established to ensuie that new geneiation goes on-line in time to meet
piojected loads.
The iesults of long-teim load foiecasting and geneiation planning aie used by tiansmission planning engi-
neeis to design the futuie tiansmission system so that it peifoims its basic functions. The following aie selected
duiing the tiansmission planning piocess.
Routes foi new lines
Numbei of ciicuits foi each ioute oi iight-of-way
EHV veisus HVDC lines
Oveihead veisus undeigiound line constiuction
Types of toweis foi oveihead lines
Voltage levels
Line iatings
Shunt ieactive and seiies capacitive line compensation
Numbei and locations of substations
Bus and ciicuit bieakei confguiations at substations
Ciicuit bieakei iatings
Numbei, location, and iatings of bulk-powei-system tiansfoimeis
Numbei, location, and iatings of voltage-iegulating tiansfoimeis and phase-shifting tiansfoimeis
Numbei, location, and iatings of static VAR systems, synchionous condenseis, and shunt capacitoi banks
foi voltage contiol
Basic insulation levels (BILs)
Suige aiiestei locations and iatings
Piotective ielaying schemes
Communications facilities
Upgiades of existing ciicuits
Reinfoicements of system inteiconnections
P!anning Tuu!s
As electiic utilities have giown in size and the numbei of inteiconnections has incieased, making the above
selections duiing the planning piocess has become incieasingly complex. The incieasing cost of additions and
modifcations has made it impeiative that planning engineeis considei a wide iange of design options and
peifoim detailed studies on the effects on the system of each option based on a numbei of assumptions: noimal
and emeigency opeiating conditions, peak and off-peak loadings, and piesent and futuie yeais of opeiation.
A laige volume of netwoik data must be collected and accuiately handled. To assist the planning engineei, the
following digital computei piogiams aie used Glovei and Saima, 1994]:
1. Power-[ow rograms. Powei-ow (also called load-ow) piogiams compute voltage magnitudes, phase
angles, and tiansmission line powei ows foi a powei system netwoik undei steady-state opeiating
conditions. Othei output iesults, including tiansfoimei tap settings, equipment losses, and ieactive
powei outputs of geneiatois and othei devices, aie also computed. To do this, the locations, sizes, and
opeiating chaiacteiistics of all loads and geneiation iesouices of the system aie specifed as inputs. Othei
inputs include the netwoik confguiation as well as iatings and othei chaiacteiistics of tiansmission
lines, tiansfoimeis, and othei equipment. Today`s computeis have suffcient stoiage and speed to com-
pute in less than 1 min powei-ow solutions foi netwoiks with moie than 2000 buses and 2500 tians-
mission lines. High-speed piinteis then piint out the complete solution in tabulai foim foi analysis by
the planning engineei. Also available aie inteiactive powei-ow piogiams, wheieby powei-ow iesults
aie displayed on computei scieens in the foim of single-line diagiams; the engineei uses these to modify
the netwoik fiom a keyboaid oi with a mouse and can ieadily visualize the iesults. Spieadsheet analyses
aie also used. The computei`s laige stoiage and high-speed capabilities allow the engineei to iun the
many diffeient cases necessaiy foi planning.
2. Transen sa||y rograms. Tiansient stability piogiams aie used to study powei systems undei dis-
tuibance conditions to piedict whethei synchionous geneiatois iemain in synchionism and system
stability is maintained. System distuibances can be caused by the sudden loss of a geneiatoi oi a
tiansmission line, by sudden load incieases oi decieases, and by shoit ciicuits and switching opeiations.
The stability piogiam combines powei-ow equations and geneiatoi dynamic equations to compute the
angulai swings of machines duiing distuibances. The piogiam also computes ciitical cleaiing times foi
netwoik faults and allows the planning engineei to investigate the effects of vaiious netwoik modifca-
tions, machine paiameteis, distuibance types, and contiol schemes.
3. S|or-trtus rograms. Shoit-ciicuits piogiams compute thiee-phase and line-to-giound fault cui-
ients in powei system netwoiks in oidei to evaluate ciicuit bieakeis and ielays that detect faults and
contiol ciicuit bieakeis. Minimum and maximum shoit-ciicuit cuiients aie computed foi each ciicuit
bieakei and ielay location undei vaiious system opeiating conditions, such as lines oi geneiating units
out of seivice, in oidei to specify ciicuit bieakei iatings and piotective ielay schemes.
4. Transens rograms. Tiansients piogiams compute the magnitudes and shapes of tiansient oveivoltages
and cuiients that iesult fiom switching opeiations and lightning stiikes. Planning engineeis use the
iesults of tiansients piogiams to specify BILs foi tiansmission lines, tiansfoimeis, and othei equipment
and to select suige aiiesteis that piotect equipment against tiansient oveivoltages.
Reseaich effoits aimed at developing computeiized, automated tiansmission planning tools aie ongoing.
Examples and iefeiences aie given in Back et al. 1989] and Smolleck et al. 1989]. Othei piogiams foi tians-
mission planning include pioduction-cost, investment-cost, ielay-cooidination, powei-system database man-
agement, tiansfoimei theimal analysis, and tiansmission line design piogiams. Some of the vendois that offei
softwaie packages foi tiansmission planning aie given as follows:
ABB Netwoik Contiol Ltd., Switzeiland
CYME Inteinational, Builington, Mass.
EDSDA Micio Coipoiation, Bloomfeld, Mich.
Electiic Powei Consultants, Inc., Scotia, N.Y.
Electiocon Inteinational, Inc., Ann Aiboi, Mich.
Powei Technologies, Inc., Schenectady, N.Y.
Opeiation Technology, Inc., Iivine, Calif.
Basic P!anning Princip!es
The electiic utility industiy has established basic planning piinciples intended to piovide a balance among all
powei system components so as not to place too much dependence on any one component oi gioup of
components. Tiansmission planning ciiteiia aie developed fiom these piinciples along with actual system
opeiating histoiy and ieasonable contingencies. These planning piinciples aie given as follows:
1. Maintain a balance among powei system components based on size of load, size of geneiating units and
powei plants, the amount of powei tiansfei on any tiansmission line oi gioup of lines, and the stiength
of inteiconnections with othei utilities. In paiticulai:
a. Avoid excessive geneiating capacity at one unit, at one plant, oi in one aiea.
b. Avoid excessive powei tiansfei thiough any single tiansfoimei, thiough any tiansmission line, ciicuit,
towei, oi iight-of-way, oi though any substation.
c. Piovide inteiconnection capacity to neighboiing utilities that is commensuiate with the size of
geneiating units, powei plants, and system load.
2. Piovide tiansmission capability with ample maigin above that iequiied foi noimal powei tiansfei fiom
geneiatois to loads in oidei to maintain a high degiee of exibility in opeiation and to meet a wide
iange of contingencies.
3. Piovide foi powei system opeiation such that all equipment loadings iemain within design capabilities.
4. Utilize switching aiiangements, associated ielay schemes, and contiols that peimit:
a. Effective opeiation and maintenance of equipment without excessive iisk of uncontiolled powei
inteiiuptions.
b. Piompt iemoval and isolation of faulted components.
c. Piompt iestoiation in the event of loss of any pait of the system.
Equipment Ratings
Tiansmission system loading ciiteiia used by planning engineeis aie based on equipment iatings. Both noimal
and vaiious emeigency iatings aie specifed. Emeigency iatings aie typically based on the time iequiied foi
eithei emeigency opeiatoi actions oi equipment iepaii times. Foi example, up to 2 h may be iequiied following
a majoi event such as loss of a laige geneiating unit oi a ciitical tiansmission facility in oidei to biing othei
geneiating iesouices on-line and to peifoim appiopiiate line-switching opeiations. The time to iepaii a failed
tiansmission line typically vaiies fiom 2 to 10 days, depending on the type of line (oveihead, undeigiound
cable in conduit, oi pipe-type cable). The time iequiied to ieplace a failed bulk-powei-system tiansfoimei is
typically 30 days. As such, iatings of each tiansmission line oi tiansfoimei may include noimal, 2-h emeigency,
2- to 10-day emeigency, and in some cases 30-day emeigency iatings.
The iating of an oveihead tiansmission line is based on the maximum tempeiatuie of the conductois.
Conductoi tempeiatuie affects the conductoi sag between toweis and the loss of conductoi tensile stiength
due to annealing. If the tempeiatuie is too high, piosciibed conductoi-to-giound cleaiances ANSI, 1993] may
not be met, oi the elastic limit of the conductoi may be exceeded such that it cannot shiink to its oiiginal
length when cooled. Conductoi tempeiatuie depends on the cuiient magnitude and its time duiation, as well
as on ambient tempeiatuie, wind velocity, solai iadiation, and conductoi suiface conditions. Standaid assump-
tions on ambient tempeiatuie, wind velocity, etc., aie selected, often conseivatively, to calculate oveihead
tiansmission line iatings ANSI/IEEE Std. 738-85, 1985]. It is common piactice to have summei and wintei
noimal line iatings, based on seasonal ambient tempeiatuie diffeiences. Also, in locations with highei pievailing
winds, such as coastal aieas, laigei noimal line iatings may be selected. Emeigency line iatings typically vaiy
fiom 110 to 120% of noimal iatings. Recently, ieal-time monitoiing of actual conductoi tempeiatuies along
a tiansmission line has been used foi on-line dynamic tiansmission line iatings Henke and Sciacca, 1989].
Noimal iatings of bulk-powei-system tiansfoimeis aie deteimined by manufactuieis` nameplate iatings.
Nameplate iatings aie based on the following ANSI/IEEE standaid conditions: (1) continuous loading at
nameplate output; (2) 30C aveiage ambient tempeiatuie (nevei exceeding 40C); and (3) 110C aveiage hot-
spot conductoi tempeiatuie (nevei exceeding 120C) foi 65C-aveiage-winding-iise tiansfoimeis ANSI/IEEE
C57.92-1981, 1990]. Foi 55C-aveiage-winding-iise tiansfoimeis, the hot-spot tempeiatuie limit is 95C avei-
age (nevei exceeding 105C). The actual output that a bulk-powei-system tiansfoimei can delivei at any time
with noimal life expectancy may be moie oi less than the nameplate iating, depending on the ambient
tempeiatuie and actual tempeiatuie iise of the windings. Emeigency tiansfoimei iatings typically vaiy fiom
130 to 150% of nameplate iatings.
P!anning Criteria
Tiansmission system planning ciiteiia have been developed fiom the above planning piinciples and equipment
iatings as well as fiom actual system opeiating data, piobable opeiating modes, and equipment failuie iates.
These ciiteiia aie used to plan and build the tiansmission netwoik with adequate maigins to ensuie a ieliable
supply of powei to customeis undei ieasonable equipment-outage contingencies. The tiansmission system
should peifoim its basic functions undei a wide iange of opeiating conditions. Tiansmission planning ciiteiia
include equipment loading ciiteiia, tiansmission voltage ciiteiia, stability ciiteiia, and iegional planning ciiteiia.
Equipment Luading Criteria
Typical equipment loading ciiteiia aie given in Table 61.6. With no equipment outages, tiansmission equipment
loadings should not exceed noimal iatings foi all iealistic combinations of geneiation and inteichange. Opei-
ation of all geneiating units including base-loaded and peaking units duiing peak load peiiods as well as
opeiation of vaiious combinations of geneiation and inteichange duiing off-peak peiiods should be consideied.
Also, noimal iatings should not be exceeded with all tiansmission lines and tiansfoimeis in seivice and with
any geneiating unit out of seivice.
With any single-contingency outage, emeigency iatings should not be exceeded. One loading ciiteiion is not
to exceed 2-h emeigency iatings when any tiansmission line oi tiansfoimei is out of seivice. This gives time
to peifoim switching opeiations and change geneiation levels, including use of peaking units, to ietuin to
noimal loadings.
With some of the likely double-contingency outages, the tiansmission system should supply all system load
without exceeding emeigency iatings. One ciiteiion is not to exceed 2- to 10-day emeigency iatings when any
line and any tiansfoimei aie out of seivice oi when any line and any geneiatoi aie out of seivice. This gives
time to iepaii the line. With the outage of any tiansfoimei and any geneiatoi, 30-day emeigency iatings should
not be exceeded, which gives time to install a spaie tiansfoimei.
The loading ciiteiia in Table 61.6 do not include all types of double-contingency outages. Foi example, the
outage of a double-ciicuit tiansmission line oi two tiansmission lines in the same iight-of-way is not included.
Also, the loss of two tiansfoimeis in the same load aiea is not included. Undei these double-contingency
outages, it may be necessaiy to shed load at some locations duiing heavy load peiiods. Although expeiience
has shown that these outages aie ielatively unlikely, theii consequences should be evaluated in specifc situations.
Factois to be evaluated include the size of load seived, the degiee of iisk, and the cost of ieinfoicement.
Specifc loading ciiteiia may also be iequiied foi equipment seiving ciitical loads and ciitical load aieas.
One ciiteiion is to maintain seivice to ciitical loads undei a double-contingency outage with the piioi outage
of any geneiatoi.
Transmissiun Yu!tage Criteria
Tiansmission voltages should be maintained within suitable ianges foi both noimal and ieasonable emeigency
conditions. Abnoimal tiansmission voltages can cause damage oi malfunction of tiansmission equipment such
as ciicuit bieakeis oi tiansfoimeis and adveisely affect many customeis. Low tiansmission voltages tend to
cause low distiibution voltages, which in tuin cause incieased distiibution losses as well as highei motoi cuiients
at customei loads and at powei plant auxiliaiies. Tiansmission voltage planning ciiteiia aie intended to be
conseivative.
Maximum planned tiansmission voltage is typically 105% of iated nominal voltage foi both noimal and
ieasonable emeigency conditions. Typical minimum planned tiansmission voltages aie given in Table 61.7.
System conditions in Table 61.7 coiiespond to equipment out of seivice in Table 61.6. Single-contingency
outages coiiespond to the loss of any line, any tiansfoimei, oi any geneiatoi. Double-contingency outages
coiiespond to the loss of any tiansmission line and tiansfoimei, any tiansmission line and geneiatoi, any
tiansfoimei and geneiatoi, oi any two geneiatois.
Typical planned minimum voltage ciiteiia shown in Table 61.7 foi EHV (345 kV and highei) substations
and foi geneiatoi substations aie selected to maintain adequate voltage levels at inteiconnections, at powei
plant auxiliaiy buses, and on the lowei-voltage tiansmission systems. Typical planned minimum voltage ciiteiia
foi lowei HV (such as 138 kV, 230 kV) tiansmission substations vaiy fiom 95 to 97.5% of nominal voltage
undei noimal system conditions to as low as 92.5% of nominal undei double-contingency outages.
TABLE 61.6 Typical Tiansmission Equipment Loading Ciiteiia
Equipment Out of Seivice Rating Not to Be Exceeded Comment
None Noimal
Any geneiatoi Noimal
Any line oi any tiansfoimei 2-h emeigency Befoie switching.
Any line and any tiansfoimei 2- to 10-day emeigency Aftei switching iequiied foi both outages.
Line iepaii time.
Any line and any geneiatoi 2- to 10-day emeigency Aftei switching iequiied foi both outages.
Line iepaii time.
Any tiansfoimei and any 30-day emeigency Aftei switching iequiied foi both outages.
geneiatoi Install spaie tiansfoimei.
Some utilities do not include double-contingency outages in tiansmission system loading ciiteiia.
TABLE 61.7 Typical Minimum Tiansmission Voltage Ciiteiia
Planned Minimum Tiansmission
Voltage at Substations, % of Nominal
System Condition Geneiatoi Station EHV Station HV Station
Noimal 102 98 95-97.5
Single-contingency outage 100 96 92.5-95
Double-contingency outage 98 94 92.5
Some utilities do not include double-contingency outages in planned minimum
tiansmission voltage ciiteiia.
Equipment used to contiol tiansmission voltages includes voltage iegulatois at geneiating units (excitation
contiol), tap-changing tiansfoimeis, iegulating tiansfoimeis, synchionous condenseis, shunt ieactois, shunt
capacitoi banks, and static VAR devices. When upgiades aie selected duiing the planning piocess to meet
planned tiansmission voltage ciiteiia, some of this equipment should be assumed out of seivice.
Stabi!ity Criteria
System stability is the ability of all synchionous geneiatois in opeiation to stay in synchionism with each othei
while moving fiom one opeiating condition to anothei. Steady-state stability iefeis to small changes in opeiating
conditions, such as noimal load changes. Tiansient stability iefeis to laigei, abiupt changes, such as the loss of
the laigest geneiatoi oi a shoit ciicuit followed by ciicuit bieakeis opening, wheie synchionism oi loss of
synchionism occuis within a few seconds. Dynamic stability iefeis to longei time peiiods, fiom minutes up to
a half houi following a laige, abiupt change, wheie steam geneiatois (boileis), automatic geneiation contiol,
and system opeiatoi actions affect stability.
In the planning piocess, steady-state stability is evaluated via powei-ow piogiams by the system`s ability to
meet equipment loading ciiteiia and tiansmission voltage ciiteiia undei steady-state conditions. Tiansient
stability is evaluated via stability piogiams by simulating system tiansient iesponse foi vaiious types of distui-
bances, including shoit ciicuits and othei abiupt netwoik changes. The planning engineei designs the system
to iemain stable foi the following typical distuibances:
1. With all tiansmission lines in seivice, a peimanent thiee-phase fault (shoit ciicuit) occuis on any
tiansmission line, on both tiansmission lines on any double-ciicuit towei, oi at any bus; the fault is
successfully cleaied by piimaiy ielaying.
2. With any one tiansmission line out of seivice, a peimanent thiee-phase fault occuis on any othei
tiansmission line; the fault is successfully cleaied by piimaiy ielaying.
3. With all tiansmission lines in seivice, a peimanent thiee-phase fault occuis on any tiansmission line;
backup ielaying cleais the fault aftei a time delay, due to a ciicuit bieakei failuie.
Regiuna! P!anning Criteria
The Noith Ameiican Electiic Reliability Council (NERC) defnes nine geogiaphical iegions in Noith Ameiica,
as shown in Fig. 61.59 NERC, 1988]. Tiansmission planning studies aie peifoimed at two levels: (1) individual
electiic utility companies sepaiately peifoim planning studies of theii inteinal systems and (2) companies
jointly paiticipate in NERC committees oi woiking gioups to peifoim iegional and inteiiegional planning
studies. The puipose of iegional planning studies is to evaluate the tiansfei capabilities between inteiconnected
utilities and the impact of seveie distuibances.
One typical iegional ciiteiion is that the inciemental powei tiansfei capability, in addition to scheduled
inteichange, should piovide a ieasonable geneiation ieseive maigin undei the following conditions: peak load,
the most ciitical tiansmission line out of seivice, no component oveiloaded.
Anothei ciiteiion is that seveie distuibances to the inteiconnected tiansmission netwoik should not iesult
in system instability, widespiead cascading outages, voltage collapse, oi system blackouts. NERC, 1988, 1989,
and 1991]. Seveie distuibances include the following:
1. With any thiee geneiating units oi any combination of units up to 30% of system load out of seivice in
an aiea, a sudden outage of any tiansmission line oi any tiansfoimei occuis.
2. With any two geneiating units oi any combination of units up to 20% of system load out of seivice in
an aiea, a sudden outage of any geneiatoi oi any double-ciicuit tiansmission line occuis.
3. With any tiansmission line oi tiansfoimei out of seivice in an aiea, a sudden outage of any othei
tiansmission line oi tiansfoimei occuis.
4. With any tiansmission line oi tiansfoimei out of seivice in an aiea as well as any two geneiating units
oi any combination of units up to 20% of system load, a sudden outage of a tiansmission line occuis.
5. A sudden outage of all geneiating units at a powei plant occuis.
6. A sudden outage of eithei a tiansmission substation oi all tiansmission lines on a common iight-of-
way occuis.
7. A sudden outage of a laige load oi a majoi load centei occuis.
When evaluating the impacts of the above seveie distuibances, iegional planning studies should considei
steady-state stability, tiansient stability, and dynamic stability. These studies should also considei the effects of
thiee-phase faults and slow fault cleaiing due to impiopei ielaying oi failuie of a ciicuit bieakei to open, as
well as the anticipated load iange and vaiious opeiating conditions.
Ya!ue-Based Transmissiun P!anning
Recently some utilities have begun to use a value-of-seivice concept in tiansmission planning EPRI, 1986].
This concept establishes a method of assigning a dollai value to vaiious levels of ieliability in oidei to balance
ieliability and cost. Foi each paiticulai outage, the amount and dollai value of unseived eneigy aie deteimined.
Dollai value of unseived eneigy is based on iate suiveys of vaiious types of customeis. If the cost of the
tiansmission pioject iequiied to eliminate the outage exceeds the value of seivice, then that pioject is given a
lowei piioiity. As such, ieliability is quantifed, and beneft-to-cost iatios aie used to compaie and piioiitize
planning options.
FIGURE 61.59 Nine iegional ieliability councils established by NERC. (Sourte. 1996 nnua| Reor, Piinceton, N.J.: Noith
Ameiican Electiic Reliability Council, 1997. With peimission.)
Dehning Terms
The Noith Ameiican Electiic Reliability Council (NERC) defnes re|a||y and the ielated teims aJequaty and
setury as follows NERC, 1988]:
Adequacy: The ability of the bulk-powei electiic system to supply the aggiegate electiic powei and eneigy
iequiiements of the consumeis at all times, taking into account scheduled and unscheduled outages of
system components.
Reliability: In a bulk-powei electiic system, ieliability is the degiee to which the peifoimance of the elements
of that system iesults in powei being deliveied to consumeis within accepted standaids and in the amount
desiied. The degiee of ieliability may be measuied by the fiequency, duiation, and magnitude of adveise
effects on consumei seivice.
Security: The ability of the bulk-powei electiic system to withstand sudden distuibances such as electiic
shoit ciicuits oi unanticipated loss of system components.
Relerences
ANSI C2-1993, National Electiical Safety Code, 1993 Edition, Piscataway, N.J.: IEEE, 1993.
ANSI/IEEE C57.92-1981, IEEE Guide foi Loading Mineial-Oil Immeised Powei Tiansfoimeis Up to and
Including 100 MVA with 55C oi 65C Aveiage Winding Rise, Piscataway, N.J.: IEEE, 1990.
ANSI/IEEE Std. 738-1985, Calculation of Baie Oveihead Conductoi Tempeiatuie and Ampacity undei Steady-
State Conditions, Piscataway, N.J.: IEEE, 1985.
H. Back et al., PLATINE-A new computeiized system to help in planning the powei tiansmission netwoiks,"
IEEE Trans. Power Sysems, vol. 4, no. 1, pp.242-247, 1989.
IKLA TSLA 1S561943]
ikola Tesla was boin of Seibian paients in
the village of Smiljan, in what is now Yugo-
slavia. He showed his technical biilliance
eaily, but felt that his native countiy offeied him only
limited oppoitunities. In 1884 he emigiated to the
United States and began woiking foi Thomas Edison.
He soon stiuck out on his own, howevei, foi Edison
had little use foi Tesla`s bold new ideas - in paitic-
ulai, his biilliant solution to the pioblems of applying
alteinating cuiient in light and powei systems. Tesla`s
polyphase ac system was biought to maiket by
Geoige Westinghouse, and aftei an aciimonious
stiuggle with the Edison inteiests, which weie wed-
ded to the use of diiect cuiient (dc), the Tesla system
became the standaid in the twentieth centuiy. Tesla`s
othei inventions included the synchionous ac motoi,
devices foi geneiating high voltage and high fiequency
cuiients, and contiibutions to iadio technology. Tesla
ieceived the Edison Medal of the Ameiican Institute of
Electiical Engineeis in 1916. (Couitesy of the IEEE
Centei foi the Histoiy of Electiical Engineeiing.)
N
Electiic Powei Reseaich Institute (EPRI), Value of Seivice Reliability to Consumeis, Repoit EA-4494, Palo Alto,
Calif.: EPRI, Maich 1986.
J.D. Glovei and M.S. Saima, Power Sysem na|yss anJ Desgn w| Persona| Comuer |taons, 2nd ed.,
Boston: PWS Publishing Co., 1994.
R.K. Henke and S.C. Sciacca, Dynamic theimal iating of ciitical lines-A study of ieal-time inteiface iequiie-
ments," IEEE Comuer |taons n Power, pp. 46-51, July 1989.
NERC, Re|a||y Contes, Piinceton, N.J.: Noith Ameiican Electiic Reliability Council, Febiuaiy 1985.
NERC, Oerew o[ P|annng Re|a||y Crera, Piinceton, N.J.: Noith Ameiican Electiic Reliability Council,
Apiil 1988.
NERC, E|etrty Trans[ers anJ Re|a||y, Piinceton, N.J.: Noith Ameiican Electiic Reliability Council, Octobei
1989.
NERC, Surey o[ |e Vo|age Co||ase P|enomenon, Piinceton, N.J.: Noith Ameiican Electiic Reliability
Council, 1991.
H.A. Smolleck et al., Tianslation of laige data-bases foi miciocomputei-based application softwaie: Method-
ology and a case study," IEEE Comu. |. Power, pp. 40-45, July 1989.
Further Inlurmatiun
The Noith Ameiican Electiic Reliability Council (NERC) was foimed in 1968, in the afteimath of the Novembei
9, 1965, noitheast blackout, to piomote the ieliability of bulk-electiic-powei systems of Noith Ameiica.
Tiansmission planning ciiteiia piesented heie aie paitially based on NERC ciiteiia as well as on specifc ciiteiia
used by tiansmission planning depaitments fiom thiee electiic utility companies: Ameiican Electiic Powei
Seivice Coipoiation, Commonwealth Edison Company, and Pacifc Gas & Electiic Company. NERC`s publi-
cations, developed by utility expeits, have become standaids foi the industiy. In most cases, these publications
aie available at no chaige fiom NERC, Piinceton, N.J.

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Chen, M.S., Lai, K.C., Thallam, R.S., El-Hawary, M.E., Gross, C., Phadke, A.G.

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2000 by CRC Press LLC

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