Biology

23
Diversity in the Living World

When you look around you see a large variety of living things. There are all kinds of birds, trees, insects, dogs, spiders, lizards and so on. In the countryside, you would see a still larger variety of organisms. There are all kinds of crop plants like wheat, maize and sugarcane. Then, there are wild plants growing of their own like keekar. In a forest you would see strange wild animals and plants. In a pond, one can see a variety of fishes, snails, waterweeds and even some water birds. If you dig out the soil you may find earthworms, beetles, ants, etc. In the sea, there are whales, sharks, corals, sea anemones and so on. Then, there is any number of parasites (like the tapeworms or bacteria) inside our own body and inside, practically, all other animals. All these living forms show similarities indicating mutual relationships. At the same time every kind of organism is very different from the other. Such a study amounts to classifying living organisms on the basis of their wide similarities and subtle differences, in other words, the study of their diversity. OBJECTIVES After completing this lesson, you will be able to: recognize the vast diversity in the living world both in size and complexity; explain the need for classifying living organisms; argue in favour of binomial nomenclature over common names with examples; outline the 5-kingdom classification mentioning its different basis; classify the kingdom Plantae up to divisions, giving their characteristics and examples; classify the kingdom Animalia up to phyla giving their characteristics and examples; classify the phylum Chordata up to classes giving their characteristic features and examples. 23.1 DIVERSITY OF LIVING THINGS IN SIZE AND COMPLEXITY 23.1.1 Variety in size Think of the following: There are huge trees like banyan, peepal, pine, tamarind and so on. They have profuse branches and lots of leaves. There are tall trees like palms and coconuts with almost no branches.
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There are medium to small-sized plants like guava, banana, rose, sugarcane, wheat and the almost shortest lawn grass. There are animals ranging from huge elephants or still larger whales in the sea through the medium-sized cow to the small insects like butterflies or ants. A full-grown whale may weigh as much as 30 adult elephants. There are such tiny organisms like the Amoeba and bacteria, which you can see only under microscope. Hundreds and thousands of bacteria will occupy a space hardly larger than the head of an ordinary pin.
23.1.2 Variety in complexity Human body is extremely complex with so many different organs, each composed of a variety of cells performing different tasks. The human brain coordinates the thousands of activities going on inside the body. A birds body is complex in some other ways. Birds have wings supported by bones and covered by feathers. A frogs body is less complex than ours. Frogs have a 3-chambered heart whereas we have a four-chambered one. Fishes have no legs; instead they have fins to swim in water. The fish heart is only two-chambered. Amongst plants, there are trees with tough wood and those producing flowers, fruits and seeds, there are trees like the pine tree which produce seeds but no fruits. There are plants like ferns that produce neither seeds nor fruits but they do have leaves and roots. There are single-celled organisms as opposed to the ones having trillions of cells. There are organisms, which have neither leaves nor any stem nor roots. They only have a network of filaments. These are the fungi. On one hand, there are green plants that have chlorophyll and can produce their own food. On the other hand, there are non-green plants like fungi and mushrooms, which decompose organic food and straightaway absorb it. Similarly, there are animals having no mouth or food canal like the tapeworm, which absorb the predigested food from the intestines of their host. CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 23.1 1. Mention if the following statements are true (T) or false (F). (i) Mouse is the smallest animal and the banana tree is the smallest plant. T/F (ii) Some animals have no food canal. T/F (iii) Mushrooms and bread mould are non-living things. T/F (iv) Some organisms are made of just one cell. T/F
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23.2 THE NEED TO CLASSIFY LIVING ORGANISMS There are different kinds of living organisms found on the earth. Some are closely similar to each other, some are distantly similar and some are very different. Still all of them are similar in being living organisms as distinct from the non-living objects. Grouping or classifying the organisms on the basis of their similarities and differences helps us to know about them even if we have not seen them directly Classification is the arrangement of organisms into groups or sets on the basis of their similarities and differences To illustrate the concept of classification look at the organisms shown in the figure (Fig. 23.1) given below.
Fig 23.1 Some familiar living organisms
Can you recognize all the organisms shown in the figure? Think of features common to all of them? Yes, they grow and reproduce. Can you group them into any two clear categories in some way? Yes, one way could be that some are animals and others are plants. Can you further divide the animals into two groups. Yes, one way is that some of them have bones while the others do not have them. How are the three animals (rabbit, dog and horse) similar to each other? These are hairy, they give birth to young ones, and they suckle their babies on the milk they secrete from their milk glands. If we say that the whales and bats too belong to the same group as that of rabbits and dogs, can you mention some features you would expect to find
both in the whale and bat? These features could be giving birth to young ones and having milk glands. That was about animals in the diagram. Now let us take the case of plants. What is common between grass, rose and the tree? They all have green leaves. Again, how is grass different from a rose plant or a jamun, guava or any other tree? Guess your own answer. Thus, what we did in the above-mentioned exercise was a kind of classification. 23.2.1 Advantages of classification Classification makes the study of such a large number of living organisms easy. It presents before us the vast variety of life at a glance. It helps us in understanding the relationships among the organisms. It helps to give an idea of evolution. It serves as a basis for several allied branches of biology 23.3 NAMING AN ORGANISM BINOMIAL NOMENCLATURE The common names of organisms are variable and very often confusing. Can you think of any animal or plant, which in India is known by several names? Ask your friends what they call the common vegetable pumpkin in different Indian languages. To mention a few of such names in Hindi belt alone are sitaphal, kashiphal, kumhra, petha, kaddu, and so on. Can you think of any more names in other Indian languages or in the languages of the different countries? Communicating any scientific information throughout the world by such local names as for the pumpkin would be impossible. Hence, arose the need of evolving scientific names for uniformity. The scientific name of pumpkin is Cucurbita pepo. ACTIVITY 23.1 Ask your friends and relatives about the names of any other common animal and a common plant in a few Indian languages. Judge for yourself the relevance of using the international scientific names instead of the local ones. 23.3.1 Two part scientific names The scientific names of all kinds of organisms are composed of two parts: the genus (group) name, and the species (particular organism) name. For pumpkin, the genus name is Cucurbita, which is the group of cucumbers and gourds, and the species (individual type) name is pepo the particular type of the cucurbit, here the pumpkin. Carl Linnaeus started the practice of using binomial nomenclature. Species is a group of individuals having common characteristics and which can interbreed to produce fertile offspring.
Take the example of crow. We have two types of crows. One is the common house crow found in plains around our houses. The other is the hill or the jungle crow. The two crows differ in the intensity of black colour on the neck, and in the size and shape of the beak (Fig. 23.2). Both are crows but they cannot interbreed. Thus, they are different species. Do you know? Mule is the offspring (hybrid) of a cross between a male donkey and a female horse. It is sterile and cannot reproduce. Thus, the mule is not a species.
House crow (Corvus splendens)
Jungle crow (Corvus macrorhynchos)
Fig. 23.2 Two common Indian crows
Table 23.1 Scientific names of some common animals and plants Animals
Common Name Scientific Name
Plants
Common Name Scientific Name
Man Cat Tiger Honey bee Housefly House crow
Homo sapiens Felis domesticus Felis tigris Apis indica Musca domestica Corvus splendens
Peepal Banyan Rubber plant Mango Ladys finger Lentil (masoor)
Ficus religiosa Ficus bengalensis Ficus elastica Mangifera indica Hibiscus esculenta Lens esculenta
Usually, scientific names are given with some appropriate meaning. In the above examples, domesticus refers to home, esculenta to eating, religiosa to sacred, sapiens to wise/intelligent, etc. Thus, the two categories of the Indian crow are: Corvus splendens (house crow) (Gk. corvus: crow, splendens: shining) Corvus macrorhynchos (jungle crow) (Gk. macro: large, rhynchos: beak/snout) 23.3.2 Categories higher than the genus and the species Family: A group of two more genera (plural of genus) with common characteristics make a family. For example, lion (Panthera leo), tiger (Panthera tigris) and the domestic cat (Felis domesticus) make the family Felidae. Order: A group of related families. For example, the family of cats (Felidae) and the family of dogs, foxes, etc. (Canidae) is grouped under the order Carnivora. Class: Related orders make a class. For example, several orders like those of the tigers, cats, dogs, monkeys, bats and humans belong to the class Mammalia.
Phylum: A phylum is the largest category with related classes grouped together. For example, the classes of mammals, birds, reptiles, amphibians and fishes together constitute the phylum Chordata. In plants, the corresponding category is named division. Kingdom: Kingdom is the largest group of organisms differentiated on very general similarities. For example, plant and animal kingdoms. CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 23.2 1. Mention if the following statements are true (T) or false (T). (i) Classification means grouping the items according to some criteria. T/F (ii) Scientific names of all species consist of three components. T/F (iii) The scientific names are written in capital letters. T/F (iv) Horse, donkey and mule are three different species. T/F (v) Classification of the organisms gives an idea of their relationships. T/F 2. Rewrite the following scientific names in their correct form: Sapiens homo, Felis Domesticus, ficus religiosa 3. Rearrange the following in their correct sequence starting from the smallest category upwards to the highest: genus, species, class, family, kingdom, phylum, order 23.4 THE FIVE KINGDOM CLASSIFICATION Until some time ago we had been classifying the organisms into two primary categoriesthe Plant kingdom and the Animal kingdom. But this had some serious problems, such as: Mushrooms and the bread moulds were grouped under plants. But we know that they have no leaves and no chlorophyll. Thus, it is incorrect to consider them as plants. Many organisms like the singlecelled bacteria and Euglena (Fig. 23.3) could neither fit properly with animals nor with plants. The bacteria have cell walls (as found in all plant cells) but they have no chlorophyll. Euglena-like organisms have only cell membrane and no cell wall (like the animal cells) but they have chlorophyll (a plant characteristic).
Cell mouth Flagellum
Eye spot Contractile vacuole
Chloroplasts Nucleus
Fig. 23.3 Euglena a single-celled microscopic organism (highly magnified)
To overcome such problems a new scheme of classification was recommended by R.A. Whittaker (1969). This scheme of classification comprises five kingdoms instead of two. The five kingdoms according to the new system of classification are Monera, Protista, Fungi, Plantae and Animalia. The main criteria in this classification are as follows: Whether the organisms are single-celled or multi-celled. Whether the genetic material (chromosome) of the cell is enclosed within a nuclear membrane or lies freely in the cytoplasm. Mode of nutrition whether produces food (autotrophic) by photosynthesis or dependant on others, either by eating them up (heterotrophic), or sucking or absorbing the food from them (saprotrophic). Let us now study the five kingdoms one by one.
23.4.1 Kingdom Monera (bacteria) It includes bacteria and blue green algae (not really algae). Monera are single-celled. Their chromosome material is not enclosed within a nuclear membrane. It means that they have no compact nucleus. The Monera are described as prokaryotes meaning that their nuclear material is in a primitive form (pro: primitive, karyon: nucleus). As opposed to these, all other organisms from Protista onwards, are described as eukaryotes (eu: true) meaning that they have true nucleus. Characteristic features of bacteria Size: Microscopic, rarely more than 0.01mm in length Cell wall: Not made of cellulose Chromosome material: Not enclosed in a nuclear membrane Coccus Shapes: Spherical (cocci), rod-like (Sphericals) (bacilli), or spiral (spirilli) (Fig. 23.4) Nutrition: Absorb food from the surroundings after digesting it by pouring out enzymes Reproduction: Mostly by division into two Bacillus Occurrence: Almost everywhere in soil, (Rod-like) in water, outside or inside the body of plants and animals Some of the bacteria are useful such as those making curd and the vinegar. Some are used in making antibiotics. And, many are beneficial in nature as in the carbon and the nitrogen cycles.
Spirillum (Spirals)
Fig. 23.4 Common types of bacteria spherical, spiral and
Many bacteria are harmful. They cause diseases, such as tuberculosis and typhoid. Some bacteria spoil foodstuff. 23.4.2 Kingdom Protista These are single-celled (unicellular) organisms, and have a well-defined membrane-bound nucleus. Their modes of nutrition may be quite varied. ! Active feeders: Some protists like Amoeba and Paramecium (Fig. 23.5) ingest food like most animals. Very often these are also referred to as Protozoa (protos: primitive, zoon: animal). ! Photosynthesizers: Some protists like Euglena (Fig. 23.3) have chlorophyll and manufacture their own food like the plants. ! Reproduction: Mostly asexual reproduction by fission and some reproduce sexually. ! Occurrence: Many protists live freely in water or in soil and many are harmful parasites which cause diseases. Some of the protists are pathogenic, such as Entamoeba histolytica that causes dysentery and Plasmodium vivax that causes malaria.
Paramecium
Amoeba
Fig. 23.5 Two examples of freshwater protists: Amoeba and Paramecium
Bracket Fungus
Mushroom
Yeast
Fig. 23.6 Some examples of fungi
23.4.3 Kingdom Fungi Common bread moulds (Rhizopus and Mucor), mushrooms and toadstools are some common types of fungi. Most of these are mildly or severely poisonous. Most fungi are made of thread-like structures called hyphae (as in bread mould). The hyphae grow in the form of a mat-like structure called mycelium. Hyphae possess rigid cell walls not made of cellulose (the cell walls of the true plant cells are made of cellulose). Multicellular in nature. Absorb nutrients from dead or living organisms. Produce spores in special rounded bodies called spore heads (sporangia) as in the common bread mould. One variety of mushrooms is edible, and it is grown in mushroom culture. Many moulds grow on fruits and vegetables, such as Penicillium notatum and Aspergilllus. Penicillium was the source of the first discovered antibiotic, penicillin. Yeasts (Saccharomyces) are widely used in baking bread and in winemaking, etc. Some fungi produce diseases, such as ringworm.
23.4.4 Kingdom Plantae These are multicellular forms. Many of the body cells contain the green pigment chlorophyll for photosynthesis. Cells have a cell wall made of cellulose. Kingdom Plantae is very large. It is divided into four divisions Algae, Bryophyta, Pteridophyta and Spermatophyta. Division Algae Found in all kinds of water No proper roots, stem or leaves Derive nutrition by simply absorbing mineral nutrients from the surrounding water. Some of the algal seaweeds may be very tall. Laminaria (Fig 23 .7) can reach a length of two meters or even more. Some algal seaweeds that are popularly called kelp are used as sources of food for humans and cattle.
Fig. 23.7 Laminaria an alga
Division Bryophyta You must have often seen green velvety layers growing on damp soil, or on walls or inside the flowerpots. These are bryophytes, e.g. mosses and Liverwort liverworts (Fig.23.8). Moss Mosses are generally small. Fig. 23.8 Types of bryophytes mosses They possess some root-like structures but not and liverworts the true roots. They have small green leaves. Some of the mosses may show long slender stalks growing out from them. Each such stalk ends in a capsule full of spores. After getting discharged from the capsule and settling at suitable damp places the spores germinate to produce new plants. The liverworts grow as spreading patches of green, forked or ribbon-like structures lying flat on moist ground. The liverworts are common on the shady moist slopes of hills. Division Pteridophyta Ferns are very commonly grown in gardens (Fig. 23.9). Ferns have a single underground stem with true roots. Their green leaves are often quite large. The leaves bear spores for reproduction.
Fig.23.9 Fern a pteridophyte
The first three divisions of Plantae, namely Algae, Bryophyta and Pteridophyta are often collectively called non-flowering plants. They do not produce any flowers or seeds. Division Spermatophyta It includes a great variety of the seed-producing plants, such as pines, mango, maize, lotus, peas, etc. These are of two types: plants that produce seeds openly (not contained inside the fruit) (Gymnosperms), and plants that produce seeds contained inside the fruit (Angiosperms). a) Gymnosperms (Gk. gymno : naked, sperm: seed) Gymnosperms include conifers (cone bearing plants) like the pines (Fig. 23.10). They produce naked seeds, which are not enclosed in a fruit. Fig. 23.10 The pine tree (a gymnosperm) and its cone The pinecone consists of hardmodified scale-like leaves, which support the seeds borne on their upper surface. Many species grow on mountains and hills including the Himalayas. They constitute the conifer forests. Such forests are useful in many ways. They provide wood for construction, packing, plywood, etc. Provide oils, such as the turpentine oil. The edible chilgoza is the seed of a particular species of pine (Pinus gerardiana). Some are the sources of drugs, such as ephedrine, from the plants of the genus Ephedra. b) Angiosperms (Gk. angio: a case or vessel, sperm: seed) These are flowering plants in which seeds are always contained inside the fruit (fig. 23.11). Flower is a special organ in which the male and female reproductive organs are grouped together. The seed contains an embryo together with the nourishment-containing cotyledons (one in some and two in others). The angiosperms with one cotyledon are called monocots, such as grass, maize and rice. The angiosperms with two cotyledons are called dicots, such as gram, mango, rose, etc.
Fig. 23.11 An angiosperm (flowering plant)
SUMMARY OF THE CLASSIFICATION OF THE KINGDOM PLANTAE PLANTAE [Multicellular with chlorophyll, cell wall made of cellulose] ALGAE BRYOPHYTA PTERIDOPHYTA
[Underground stem; true roots; leaves bear spores]
SPERMATOPHYTA
[Seed bearing plants]
[No proper roots, [Root-like structures; stem or leaves] no true roots; green leaflets in some]
GYMNOSPERMS [No true flowers, seeds naked, not enclosed in fruit]
ANGIOSPERMS [Flowering plants; true flowers; seeds enclosed in fruit]
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 23.3 1. What are the three basic criteria that have been taken into consideration for the five-kingdom classification of the living organism? 2. The five kingdoms of living organisms are __________, Protista, __________, __________ and__________ (Fill in the blanks). 3. Name the kingdoms to which the following belong: i) Mushrooms __________ ii) Algae__________ iii) Ferns__________ iv) Bacteria__________ v) Flowering plants__________ 4. Name the groups of angiosperms with one cotyledon and two cotyledons, respectively. 23.5 KINGDOM ANIMALIA Animals include a vast variety of organisms, such as sponges, fishes, insects, frogs, snakes, feathery birds, and hairy mammals including humans and, so on. Some of the characteristics of all animals in general: All animals are multicellular, eukaryotic (true nucleus), heterotrophic (obtaining food by methods other than photosynthesis) Almost all animals move about (locomotion) in the search of food or for other needs. Most animals possess a nervous system with sense organs.
Animals are found in all types of places in water, on land, in soil, and in air, many are found as parasites living either inside the body of other animals and plants or on their body. [A point to remember The heterotrophic unicellular Protistans like Amoeba used to be described as Protozoans under the animals. But according to the new five-kingdom classification. They to no longer belong the animal kingdom.] The kingdom Animalia is very vast and highly varied. It is subdivided into nine phyla (singular: phylum). i. ii. iii. iv. v. vi. vii. viii. ix. Porifera (sponges) Cnidaria (jellyfishes, corals, etc.) Platyhelminthes (flat worms) Aschelminthes ( round worms) Annelida (earthworms) Arthropoda (insects, spiders, crabs, etc.) Mollusca (snails, oysters, etc.) Echinodermata (starfishes, sea urchins, etc.) Chordata (animals with backbone) 23.5.1 Phylum Porifera (sponges) Most organisms are found in the sea but a few are found in fresh water. Body consists of a hollow tube, fixed to the substratum. A vast number of pores are present in the body wall for the entry of water carying food and oxygen and a single large opening for the exit of water. Body is supported by a skeleton of minute spicules or special kind of fibres. Examples: Sycon, bath sponge 23.5.2 Phylum Cnidaria (hydra, jellyfishes) Body somewhat tubular or umbrella-like with a single (digestive) cavity that has a single opening the mouth at one of the ends. Tentacles that surround the mouth capture the prey paralyzed by their stinging cells and push it into the mouth. The same mouth throws the undigested left out food out of the body again. Some members like the corals develop hard skeleton of calcium carbonate. Reproduction is by budding as well as by sexual method.
Sycon
Bath sponge
Fig. 23.12 Examples of Porifera
Sea anemone
Hydra
Jelly fish Sea coral
Fig. 23.13 Examples of Cnidaria
Hydra is a fresh water form found usually attached to the submerged rocks and plants in lakes, ponds and streams. It reaches a length of about 1cm when fully extended. 23.5.3 Phylum Platyhelminthes (flat worms) Small, soft, flattened unsegmented worms Alimentary canal with only a single opening, the mouth or no mouth at all. Mostly parasites, either external or internal, but a few are free-living forms found in the sea or in fresh water (Fig. 23.14).
Liver fluke Tapeworm
Fig. 23.14 Examples of Platyhelminthes

Mouth Exeretory pore
Examples: Liver fluke (in the liver of sheep), tapeworm (Taenia sp.) which is a parasite of the human intestine in case of non vegetarians who eat pork or beef), Planaria (freeliving aquatic form) (ctiofig. 23.14). Tapeworms appear to be segmented, but in reality they are not. In them, new segments continue to add on the front in the neck region while the old ones at the back continue to shed one after another. 23.5.4 Phylum Aschelminthes (round worms) Long cylindrical and unsegmented body Alimentary canal open at both ends (mouth and anus) Mostly parasitic but some live freely in the soil Examples: Ascaris (Fig. 23.15) is found in human intestine. Eelworm is a parasite of potato plant. 23.5.5 Phylum Annelida (segmented worms) Long cylindrical body divided into ring-like segments Well-developed digestive system, alimentary canal open at both ends (mouth and anus)
Cloaca
Curved tail Anus
Fig. 24.15 Ascaris an Aschelminth
Earthworm
Examples: Common earthworm Pheretima posthuma (Fig. 23.16) found in the burrows in damp soil, and the common leech Hirudinaria medicinalis found in ponds but readily sticks to the body of cattle and even human beings.
Leech
Fig.23.16 Examples of Annelida
23.5.6 Phylum Arthropoda (joint-legged animals) Jointed appendages, one pair each on some or all body segments
Crab
Body covered by a hard chitinous skeleton During the growth period the exoskeleton is shed off (moulting) and a new one is produced
Millipede
This is the biggest phylum with four major kinds of organisms. i. Insects, such as cockroaches and butterflies, have three pairs of legs and usually two pairs of wings. Spiders and scorpions have four pairs of legs. Prawns and crabs have many pairs of legs. Centipedes and millipedes have paired legs on each body segment.
ii.
Butterfly
iii. iv.
Scorpion
23.5.7 Phylum Mollusca (snails, oysters) Soft unsegmented body enclosed in a hard calcareous shell Muscular foot for creeping or for other kinds of locomotion
Fig.23.17 Examples of Arthropoda
Examples: Snails, slugs, oysters, and octopuses and cuttlefish (foot divided into arms for swimming). 23.5.8 Phylum Echinodermata (starfishes) Usually thorn-like spines on the body
Water snail Octopus
Fig.24.18 Examples of Mollusca
Body radially symmetrical having similar parts (usually five) arranged regularly around a central region
Examples: Starfish, brittle star, sea urchin, sea cucumber, etc.
23.5.9 Phylum Chordata (animals with backbone and some others) Possess a flexible rod-like notochord along the mid-dorsal axis of the body in the embryos of all chordates including humans. The notochord is later replaced by a backbone (vertebral column). Possess a hollow dorsal nerve cord. Paired gill slits (in the pharynx) present either throughout life or at least in the embryonic stages of all chordates. All possess a tail extending behind the anal opening. (In some cases, as in humans, the tail in the embryo gets lost before birth). The phylum Chordata is divided into three subphyla. a) Subphylum Urochordata (uro: tail)
Starfish
Sea urchin
Brittle star Sea cucumber
Fig.24.19 Examples of Echinodermata
Notochord is confined to the tail region only and, that too, in the larval stages only. All forms are marine. Example: Herdmania b) Subphylum Cephalochordata (cephalo: head) Notochord extends up to the front end of the body. No head is formed. Single example: marine Amphioxus c) Subphylum Vertebrata Organisms possess a vertebral column (notochord replaced) and the head is well differentiated. Vertebrata is the largest group in Chordata. It is divided into five very distinct classes. a) Pisces (fishes) b) Amphibia (frogs) c) Reptilia (lizards) d) Aves (birds) e) Mammalia (animals with milk glands) i. Class Pisces (fishes) Body covered with scales Have fins and no limbs Breathe by gills, no lungs 2-chambered heart Fishes are mainly of two types cartilaginous fishes and bony fishes. Cartilaginous fishes, such as the sharks, have their skeleton made of cartilage and their gills are exposed (not covered by any gill-cover).
Amphibian Mammal Bird
Reptile Fish
Fig. 23.20 Examples of the five classes of Chordata
Bony fishes, such as rohu, catla, herring and trout, have their skeleton made of bones and their gills are covered by a gill-cover (operculum). ii. Class Amphibia (frogs, toads) Live both in water and on land Smooth moist skin without scales Aquatic respiration by skin (when under water) as well as by lungs (when on land) All larval stages as well as some adults breathe by gills. Heart 3-chambered Cold blooded (body temperature changes with that of the surroundings) Ear drum (tympanum) on the surface of the skin Eggs laid in water, no eggshell, larvae undergo metamorphosis iii. Class Reptilia (lizards, crocodiles) Completely adapted to living on land, some secondarily aquatic (like the turtles) Cold blooded (therefore live in warmer regions only) Eggs with a leathery (non-calcareous) shell Breathe by lungs right from birth Rough horny scales on the skin 3-chambered heart, but the ventricle is partially divided in crocodiles Ear drum sunken into a tubular depression Examples: Lizards, snakes, tortoises, crocodiles, gharial, etc. (Gharial is found in India and in some adjoining countries of the east.) iv. Class Aves (birds) Body covered with feathers Only the two hindlegs present, forelegs are modified into wings. Scaly legs 4-chambered heart
Bones with air cavities to lighten the body weight for flight Warm blooded (maintain constant body temperature, usually 380- 410C) Lay eggs with calcareous shell
Examples: Pigeon, sparrow, crow, owl, penguin, ostrich, emu, etc. v. Class Mammalia (mammae: breasts) Most mammals give birth to young ones. Very few mammals lay eggs. All feed their babies on the milk produced in their milk (mammary) glands Possess hairy skin Have projecting external ears (pinna) Testes are external contained in the scrotal sacs 4-chambered heart Warm-blooded Mature red blood cells without nucleus (except only in camels, a surprising situation difficult to explain). Examples: Cat, dog, cow, sheep, rat, bat, seal, monkey, apes and man CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 23.4 1. Name the phylum of each of the following animals: i) Sponge_____________ ii) Earthworm_____________ iii) Tapeworm_____________ iv) Cockroach_____________ v) Starfish_____________ 2. Name the phylum showing the following characteristics: i) Body flattened and the food canal with only one opening__________ ii) Body divided into ring-like segments and the food canal is open at both ends_____________ iii) Soft body enclosed in a hard calcareous shell_____________ iv) Body supported by a flexible rod like notochord_____________ 3. Tick-mark the correct matching pairs of an example and its Phylum / Class. i) Frog Chordata ii) Whale Pisces iii) Crocodile Amphibia iv) Bat Mammalia v) Pigeon Reptilia LET US REVISE The living world varies in size from the tiny microscopic organisms to the very huge ones like the elephant and the whale. Organisms are varied in structure, made of either just one cell performing all the activities or of numerous highly complex tissues with different functions.
Classification is the arrangement of organisms into groups or sets on the basis of similarities and differences. Classification helps us in understanding the inter-relationships among the organisms leading to the idea about of evolution. Species is the lowest category in the classification and the kingdom is the highest with family, order, class and phylum in-between. Species is a group of individuals that can successfully breed among themselves to produce fertile young ones. Every organism is given a scientific name (binomial nomenclature) consisting of two components (genus and species). Scientific names of living organisms are universal and they remove any confusion arising from the local names in the different languages. The five-kingdom classification is based on three main criteria : whether the organisms are single-celled or multicellular, whether the genetic (chromosomal material) is enclosed by a nuclear membrane or not, whether the nutrition is of autotrophic (photosynthetic) type or of heterotrophic or saprotrophic (eating, sucking, or absorbing) type. The five kingdoms are: Monera (single-celled, no nuclear membrane) containing bacteria, Protista (single-celled, nuclear membrane) with forms, such as Amoeba and Paramecium, Fungi (no chlorophyll) with forms like bread mould and yeasts, Plantae (photosynthetic) that consist of the divisions Algae, Bryophyta (mosses), Pteridophyta (ferns) and Spermatophyta (seedbearers), and Animalia that includes all animals from sponges up to humans. The Spermatophyta are subdivided into Gymnosperms (naked seeds, and no fruit) and Angiosperms (seeds contained in the fruit). The kingdom Animalia includes nine phyla: Porifera (sponges), Cnidaria (hydra, jellyfishes), Platyhelminthes (flat worms), Aschelminthes (round worms), Annelida (earthworms), Arthropoda (prawns, spiders, insects), Mollusca (snails), Echinodermata (star fishes), and Chordata (animals with backbone) The phylum Chordata is composed of five classes: Pisces (fishes), Amphibia (frogs), Reptilia (lizards), Aves (birds) and Mammalia (cow, dog, monkey, man).
TERMINAL EXERCISES A. Multiple choice type questions. 1. Which one of the following names is written in the correct form? a) PANTHERA TIGRIS b) Mangifera Indica c) Homo sapiens d) ficus religiosa 2. Mushrooms belong to the kingdom a) Protista b) Spermatophyta
c) Pteridophyta d) Fungi 3. Presence of hyphae and mycelium is a characteristic feature of one of the following kingdoms: a) Fungi b) Protista c) Monera d) Plantae 4. The seeds of angiosperms and gymnosperms differ in the aspect that: a) Angiosperms do not produce seeds but gymnosperms produce seeds. b) Gymnosperms do not produce seeds but angiosperms produce seeds. c) Angiosperms have naked seeds but gymnosperms have seeds enclosed inside the fruit. d) Gymnosperms have naked seeds but angiosperms have seeds enclosed inside the fruit. 5. The alimentary canal has a single opening in one of the following: a) Aschelminthes b) Annelida c) Arthropoda d) Platyhelminthes B. Descriptive type questions. 1. With the help of any two examples describe how the five-kingdom classification is better than the old system of just two kingdoms (plants and animals). 2. Match the items in column I (organisms) with their group in column II (draw connecting lines). Underline the items that do not match. Column I (Organisms) Fern Dog Yeast Fish Pine Mushroom Bacteria Sponge Spider Column II (Group) Arthropoda Monera Bryophyta Amphibia Pteridophyta Porifera Reptilia Mammalia Fungi
3. Why are scientific names of the living beings preferred over the local names? 4. Write two identification characteristics of each of the following: i) Chordata ii) Arthropoda iii) Pteridophyta iv) Monera 5. Given below is a list of some organisms each followed by three-characteristics/
classification etc. Identify the correct one in each case and underline. i) Amoeba nuclear membrane, Monera, segmented ii) Earthworm Arthropoda, Chordata, Annelida iii) Pine cone, flower, parasite iv) Bread mould chlorophyll, spores, Bryophyta v) Whale Pisces, milk glands, gills vi) Bacteria Protista, Pteridophyta, Monera 6. List any three characteristics of the phylum Chordata. Classify it further into classes. 7. Differentiate between the following: i) Gymnosperms and Angiosperms ii) Amphibia and Reptilia iii) Protista and Fungi iv) Mollusca and Annelida 8. List the characteristics of Kingdom Plantae. Classify it into its various subdivisions. ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 23.1 1. 23.2 1. 2. 3. 23.3 1. 2. 3. 4. 23.4 1. 2. 3. (i) F, (ii) T , (iii) F, (iv) T
(i) T , (ii) F, (iii) F, (iv) F, (v) T Homo sapiens, Felis domesticus, Ficus religiosa Species, genus, family, order, class, phylum, kingdom Whether single-celled or many celled, nucleus or no well defined nucleus, autotrophs or heterotrophs or saprotrophs. Monera, Fungi, Plantae, Animalia (i) Fungi, (ii) Plantae, (iii) Plantae, (iv) Monera, (v) Plantae Monocots, dicots Porifera, Annelida, Platyhelminthes, Arthropoda, Echinodermata Platyhelminthes, Annelida, Mollusca, Chordata (i) and (iv)
GLOSSARY Classification: Arrangement of organisms into groups or sets on the basis of their similarities and differences. Class: A group of related orders. Family: A group of two or more genera with common characteristics. Kingdom: A group of organisms differentiated on very widespread similarities. Order: A group of related families. Phylum: A group of related classes. Species: A group of individuals having common characteristics that can interbreed to produce fertile offsprings.
Cells,Tissues and Organs - The Building Blocks of the Body : 155 :
24
Cells, Tissues and Organs The Building Blocks of the Body

If we pull out or pinch off any tiniest bit from any part of a plant or an animal and examine it under microscope we will find hundreds and thousands of unit structures of well-defined shapes the cells. In fact, every organism including human beings starts life only as a single microscopic cell. This single cell undergoes repeated divisions to produce more and more cells, which acquire different shapes to suit a variety of functions. OBJECTIVES After completing this lesson, you will be able to: recognize that cell is the unit of structure and function of all forms of life; draw and describe the structural details of a cell that are common to both plant and animal cells and state their functions; differentiate between a plant cell and an animal cell; recognize that basic functions of life occur both at the level of a cell as well as an organism; explain the need for cell division as related to growth, development and reproduction; describe and draw sketches of the different stages of mitosis in an animal cell; explain briefly the role of meiosis (no description is required); give a brief account of animal tissues epithelial, connective, muscular and nervous tissues; differentiate between protective (covering) and conducting tissues in plants (excluding finer details); trace the increasing complexity of organization of life from cell to organ, to organ system and to the organism. 24.1 CELL: THE UNIT OF STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION OF LIFE All plants and all animals, whether tiny or large, are made of small units the cells. Every function of the body is basically the outcome of the activity of the cells comprising the body.
: 156 : Cells,Tissues and Organs - The Building Blocks of the Body
24.1.1 Function of cells in living beings Growth: Growth is the result of new cells being produced by cell division. Any substance added to increase the bulk of the body of the organism is also due to the activity of the cells. Reproduction: No matter how an organism reproduces, whether sexually or asexually, it is again the cells that carry out the process. The male sperm is a cell and so is the female egg. When you grow a new plant from a cutting, such as rose or sugarcane, it is again the cells in the cutting that re-divide and result in growth of a new plant. 24.1.2 Functions of cells in plants Absorption of water and minerals from soil: Even the tiniest parts of the root are made of cells and these cells absorb water and minerals from the soil. Production of food (starch): The food (starch), which the plant produces, is through the activity of the green cells of the leaf. The green cells contain a green pigment, chlorophyll, which traps sunlight for food synthesis. Produce colourful flowers: The colour of flowers is due to the pigments developed inside the cells. 24.1.3 Function of cells in human beings Movement: The movement of the limbs or the body as a whole (locomotion) is the result of contraction of muscle cells. Tasting food while eating: Taste of any food that you have, is the result of the taste cells (sensory) of your tongue. Digestion of food and its absorption: The enzymes produced by cells of the digestive glands digest food, and the intestinal cells absorb it. Transport of oxygen in the body: The oxygen, supplied to the body parts, is absorbed by the red blood cells from inside the lungs and then transported to all parts of the body.
Similarly, you think of any activity inside a plant, an animal or a human being, you will find that there is always a cell carrying it out. CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 24.1 1. Mention whether the following statements are true (T) or false (F). i) Skin is made up of cells. T/F ii) Tears are secretions of the tear gland cells. T/F iii) Bones are made up of hard material without any cells. T/F iv) Petals have no cells. T/F v) Sperm is a cell but the egg is not. T/F 24.2 STRUCTURE OF A CELL All kinds of cells, whether in plants or in animals, contain the same basic structures. Each such structure also has the same basic function. A generalized cell consists of three main parts: plasma membrane, cytoplasm and nucleus (Fig. 24.1).
a) Plasma membrane: It is the outermost membrane enclosing the cell. It holds within and protects all the cell contents. It is very thin and flexible. It is a living membrane full of activity. It allows some substances to pass inward or outward while preventing the others. Thus, it is selectively permeable.
Chloroplast Vacuole Mitochondrion Cell membrane Cytoplasm Nucleolus Nucleus Golgi bodies Lysosome Endoplasmic reticulum Cell wall
Fig. 24.1 A generalized animal cell
b) Cytoplasm: Cytoplasm is the living part of the cell enclosed by the plasma membrane excluding the nucleus. It contains several structures that behave like mini-organs in the cell, each performing a particular task. Such structures are called organelles meaning little organs. An organelle is any structure in a cell in which certain functions and processes are localized. c) Nucleus: The nucleus is a small ovoid or spherical mass located somewhat in the centre of the cytoplasm. This is the largest organelle. It is bounded by a nuclear membrane. The nuclear membrane surrounds a semi-solid substance, the nucleoplasm. The nucleoplasm contains a network of darker fibres (chromosomes) called chromatin network. Nucleus contains one or more rounded nucleoli (sing. nucleolus). Functions of the nucleus i) The nucleus coordinates the activities of the entire cell. ii) It plays an important part in cell division. iii) It contains genes, which determine the inheritance of characteristics from the parents to the offspring. 24.2.1 Organelles in the cytoplasm The main organelles found in the cytoplasm are: endoplasmic reticulum, ribosomes, mitochondria, golgi bodies, lysosomes, centrosome (in animal cells only) and plastids (in plant cells only) (Fig. 24.2). a) Endoplasmic reticulum (ER): An irregular network of double membrane distributed in the entire cytoplasm. It provides a supportive framework to the cell. It helps in the transport of various products from one part of the cell to the other or from within the cell to the outside.

Cell membrane
Vacuole
Ground substance
Mitochondrion Centrioles Nucleolus Nuclear membrane Lysosome Golgi complex Secretory granules
b) Ribosomes: These are granules either scattered freely in the cytoplasm or attached to the endoplasmic reticulum. Ribosomes are the sites for the synthesis of proteins. c) Mitochondria: These are minute bodies scattered in the cytoplasm. They carry out cellular respiration. They breakdown glucose by using oxygen and release energy in the form of a compound, adenosine triphosphate (ATP), for the activities of the cell.
Ribosomes
Fig. 24.2 A generalized animal cell showing finer details (organelles) as observed under an electron microscope.
d) Golgi bodies (also called Golgi apparatus or Golgi complex): Very small vesicles of various shapes generally located near the nucleus (similar structures in a plant cell are called dictyosomes). These produce secretions of the cell such as enzymes, hormones, etc. e) Lysosomes: These are small vesicles of different shapes. They contain digestive enzymes, which destroy and digest the worn out cell organelles or any foreign substances like bacteria that may enter the cell. They help to digest stored food during the starvation of the cell. Too many damaged cells are rapidly destroyed by the cells own lysosomes a kind of self-destruction and hence these are also known as suicide bags. f) Centrosome (in animal cells only): It is located near the nucleus and contains 1 or 2 centrioles. ! It initiates and regulates cell division. g) Plastids (in plant cells only): These are of various shapes oval, spherical or disc-like. The most common ones are chloroplasts that contain chlorophyll. 24.2.2 Parts other than the organelles The vacuoles and granules are the non-living parts of a cell. a) Vacuoles: These are clear spaces with water or other substances in solution. ! Plant cells often have several and more number of large-sized vacuoles while the animal cells have smaller and fewer ones. ! Vacuoles help in storage of water and other substances.
b) Granules: These are small particles, crystals or droplets. ! Granules containing starch, fat, etc. serve as food for the cell. Table 24.1 : Basic differences between plant and animal cells Plant cell (special features not found in animal cells) Cell Wall: Rigid protective layer present outside the plasma membrane. Chiefly made of cellulose Supports and protects the cell Freely permeable allowing substances to pass through in and out without any hindrance Chloroplasts: Oval-shaped green structures containing chlorophyll Trap sunlight for preparing food (starch) Vacuoles: Very big and numerous and act as storage areas Animal cell (special features not found in plant cells) Centrioles: 1 or 2 centrioles enclosed in a centrosome located just near the nucleus, which participates in cell division
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 24.2 1. Mention whether the following statements are true (T) or false (F). i) Cell division is necessary for the movement of the body. ii) Cell membrane permits inflow and outflow of all molecules. iii) Chloroplast and not chlorophyll is an organelle. iv) Ribosomes are often called suicide bags.
T/F T/F T/F T/F
2. Fill in the blanks. i) The cell wall is mainly formed of____________ ii) The _________ is selectively permeable. iii) Centrioles are found only in ______________ cells. iv) Inside nucleoplasm is the _____________network of _____________ 24.3 CELL DIVISION THE NEED TO PRODUCE NEW CELLS New cells need to be produced for many reasons. a) Growth: To increase the number of cells for the growth in size of the organs as well as that of the body as a whole. b) Replacement: To replace the cells that are normally dying. For example, 20 million red blood cells in our body are destroyed every minute. These are replaced by new cells formed by the division of their parent cells in the bone marrow. Similarly, dead skin cells on the body surface are being replaced regularly by new cells.
c) Repair: There may be cuts or injuries in the body. New cells produced by cell division of the bordering cells fill up the gap to repair these cuts or wounds. d) Reproduction: To produce sex cells in which the number of chromosomes is reduced to half of that of the normal body cells. When the sex cells (egg and sperm) fuse, the normal number of the chromosomes is restored. 24.3.1 Types of cell division There are two types of cell division. Mitosis: Cell division leading to growth and repair Meiosis: Cell division leading to the production of sex cells
a) Mitosis: Mitosis is the kind of cell division that occurs in all body cells, while meiosis takes place in sex cells only. Its major events are largely similar in both animal and plant cells but for the sake of simplicity, we will describe mitosis in an animal cell. The sequence of events in mitosis is as follows: The chromosomal material (chromatin network) inside the nucleus condenses to form the chromosomes (the number specific for the species, e.g. 46 in humans) The centrosome (in animal cell) divides into two equal parts called centrioles, each of which migrates to the opposite poles of the cell. A spindle of ray-like fibres is formed between the centriole. The chromosomes duplicate themselves to form chromatids. Each chromosome consists of two chromatids held by a centromere. The nuclear membrane disappears. The chromatids (daughter chromosomes) of each chromosome separate from each other, move to the opposite poles of the spindlechromosomes then turn into a network of chromatin threads at the two poles. The nuclear membrane reappears around each of the two new clusters of the chromatin material. A furrow appears in the cell membrane at the two sides in the middle of the cell, which deepen to divide the parent cell completely into two new daughter cells.
Two main differences in mitosis in a plant cell and an animal cell In plant cells, there is no centrosome and no centrioles inside it. However, the spindle is formed. Upon the completion of mitosis, the cytoplasm in plant cell does not constrict (furrow is not formed). Instead, a cell plate or a new cell wall is laid down in the cytoplasm at the middle of the cell. It divides the original cell into two daughter cells.

ANIMAL CELL Cytoplasm Nucleus Chromatin threads A Centrosome Nucleus Nucleolus Interphase (Resting stage) Interphase (Resting stage) Centromere B Centrosomes moving apart Early prophase Chromosomes lie along the equatorial plane of the cell C Chromatin threads Nucleolus PLANT CELL
Chromatids Early prophase
Metaphase Chromatids separate and move to opposite poles D
Metaphase
Anaphase Cell plate forming
Anaphase
Daughter chromosomes Telophase
Furrow in cytoplasm Telophase
Cytokinesis Daughter cells Daughter cells
Fig. 24.3 Comparison of mitotic division in a plant cell and an animal cell
b) Meiosis: This type of cell division occurs in cells involved in sexual reproduction. Meiosis takes place in reproductive organs, such as the testis and the ovary, in animals that produce eggs and sperms, and in the anthers and the ovary, in flowering plants to produce pollen grains and the ovule, respectively. During meiosis the number of the chromosomes is halved in the resulting sex cells so that when the male cell and the female cell combine during fertilization, the normal number of chromosomes in the species is restored.
Chromosomes
2n
Chromosomes in homologous pairs
Stages in meiosis Broadly, meiosis is completed in two phases or stages (Fig. 24.4). Stage I: A reduction division that involves production of two cells with half the number of chromosomes in each. Stage II: The immediately following second division is mitotic and produces four cells at the end.
Characteristic features of the first meiotic division Chromatin fibres condense into Splitting of C chromosomes. chromosomes (still in pairs) The chromosomes arrange in matching (or homologous) pairs . A matching pair 2n means one chromosome having been First division received from the mother and the (chromosome D pairs separated) corresponding one received from the father. n n Each chromosome in such a pair is made Second division of two chromatids. Thus, each pair of (mitotic type) chromosomes is now a group of four n n n n chromatids. Fig. 24.4 Meiosis: The cell division that The nuclear membrane disappears, the leads to formation of the sex cells homologous chromosomes separate and move apart. Thus, the pairs are broken. The cytoplasm divides into two cells, each of which now has half the number of original chromosomes. At the same time, each chromosome is already split into two chromatids still held together by a centromere. The two chromatids of each chromosome in the two cells separate and move apart to become surrounded by nuclear membranes and thus, four cells are formed.
2n
Meiosis in a human cell The 46 chromosomes organise in homologous pairs (23 pairs). Each pair breaks, but each separated chromosome is already split into two chromatids that are still held together. The cell divides into two daughter cells (this is the first meiotic division which actually is a reduction division) and now each of the two resulting cells has only 23 single chromosomes. Each of the two resulting cells undergoes the second (mitotic) type of division in which the two chromatids of each of the 23 chromosomes separate apart (just as in mitosis) and the two cells divide to form four cells (these are the sex cells).
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 24.3 1. List the four basic needs of organisms for which cell division is necessary. 2. Name the type of cell division that occurs during the following events: i) repair of skin and injury ii) formation of eggs and sperms in animals iii) increase in the length of the stem in plants 24.4 SPECIALIZATION OF CELLS FORMATION OF TISSUES Most organisms are made of more than one cell, actually in millions and millions. These cells are variously specialized in their shape, size and function. Such specialized cells are called tissues. Groups of similar cells with similar functions are called tissues. All animals and plants have a large variety of tissues. Here, we shall describe the more common types of these tissues. 24.4.1 Animal tissues Animal tissues are grouped under four main categories: epithelial, connective, muscular and nervous tissues. a) Epithelial tissue Thin protective layer (or layers) of cells Generally located on the outer surface of the body, on the surface of the internal organs and the lining of the body cavities There are three distinct types of epithelial tissues (Table 24.2, Fig. 24.5). Table 24.2 Different types of epithelial tissues
Type Nature of cells Example/location Cells of the outermost layer of skin Function Protection of underlying parts in the body from injury, harmful substances and from drying up Secretion
Squamous Thin plates of somewhat epithelium hexagonal or irregular cells
Cuboidal epithelium
Thick and cuboidal cells
Columnar Tall-elongated cells epithelium arranged in a straight or folded row. At some places these cells have cilia at their free ends (ciliated columnar epithelium)
Some parts in kidney tubules and in glandular ducts Inner lining of the stomach and the intestine Inner lining of trachea (wind pipe)
Secretion, absorption
Lashing movement of cilia pushes the material forward
Squamous
Cuboidal
Columnar
Ciliated columnar
Fig. 24.5 Different types of epithelial tissue
b) Connective tissue Connect various tissues and organs or support them to keep them in position. The various types of connective tissues are given below (Table 24.3, Fig. 24.6). Table 24.3 Subcategories of connective tissue
Subcategory Nature of tissue Example/Location Tendon Ligament Adipose (fat) tissue Function Fibrous tissue Cells usually separated from one another by intercellular spaces. This space is filled with solid or liquid material Non-porous tissue, Cartilage thickened intercellular substance Semi-transparent and elastic Hard and porous, consists Bone of both living cells and rigid mass of non-living salts Contains both cellular and Fluid liquid parts connective tissue Connect muscle to bone Connect two bones Packing and binding of most organs, store fat In nose, ears, walls of Provide support and windpipe and at ends strength of long bones
Ribs, thigh bone, Provide support and backbone, etc. strength, help in movement Blood and lymph Transport of gases and chemical substances, protection from diseasecausing germs
Cell Matrix
Matrix
Fibres
Nucleus Cell Cartilage
[
(b)
Empty Lacuna
(a)
Fig. 24.6 Types of connective tissue (a) fibrous tissue (b) cartilage
Haversian Canal Concentric rings
Bone Bone cell Bone cell
Fig. 24.6 Types of connective tissue (c) Bone
c) Muscular tissue Brings about all kinds of movements in the body. The various subcategories of muscular tissue are listed in Table 24.4 (Fig. 24.7). Table 24.4 Subcategories of muscular tissue
Subcategory Striped or striated (Voluntary) Nature of muscle Occur in groups of fibres, cells are multinucleated, show bundles of light and dark bands Slender tapering cells Example/Location Function Muscles of arms, legs, face, Cause movements that are under the neck, etc. control of will
Unstriped or unstriated (Involuntary)
Cardiac (heart Specialized striped muscles, short muscles) and branched (Involuntary)
Wall of blood vessels, urinary bladder, uterus, etc. Iris muscles regulate the size of pupil of the eye Only heart muscles
Movement of the parts or contents of the part not under the control of will Contract without will and without any outward stimulation, do not get tired
Nucleus Sarcolemma
Dark band Light band Nucleus
(c) (a) (b)
Fig. 24.7 Different types of muscular tissue (a) Striped muscle, (b) Unstriped muscle, (c) Cardiac muscle
d) Nervous tissue Nervous tissue constitutes the nervous system (brain, spinal cord, sense receptors etc.) The nerve cells are called neurons. These are highly specialized. Each nerve cell consists of a cell body called cyton (or perikaryon) containing a nucleus in the centre and one or more elongated hair-like extensions called dendrons (or dendrites). One of these extensions, the axon, may be very long. It is usually covered by a medullary sheath, which is not continuous, the gaps in it are called the Nodes of Ranvier.
C Y T O N Nucleus Cytoplasm
Dendrons Neurilemma Myelin sheath Nucleus A X O N
Branch
Node of Ranvier
Terminal branches
Fig. 24.8 The nervous tissueA nerve cell (neuron) and a nerve
A bundle of axon fibres forms a nerve. The dendrites carry the impulse (message) towards the cell while the axon carries the message away from the cell. The function of nervous tissue is perception of the stimuli from the environment and responding to them. 24.4.2 Plant tissues Plant tissues are basically of two types meristematic and permanent. a) Meristematic tissue: It is found at the growing points of a plant such as at the tips of the roots, stems and branches. The chief characteristics of meristematic tissue are as follows: The cells are small and have large nuclei. The cells divide actively and add new cells to the plant. The new cells produced are transformed into mature permanent tissues. b) Permanent tissue: It is made up of cells, which have lost their ability to multiply. According to their function, the permanent tissues are of three types. i. Protective tissue: This tissue is found on the surface of plant organs like the leaves, stem, roots, etc. The cells have thick walls. For example,
ii.
iii.
epidermis (outermost layer of cells) of leaves, which secretes a waxy Sieve cell waterproof covering. Phloem Supporting tissue: It provides parenchyma support to various parts of the plant. cell It is of several types, such as cells that fill up the interior of Companion cells potatoes, which store food, Seive plate cells that provide temporary support to the plant, such as in the pith (central region) of roots A and stem, and those that fill up a) Longitudinal section the interior of the leaf (the chlorophyll-containing cells), Seive cell cells that are more elongated Phloem and thick at the corners; found parenchyma Sieve plate in the leaf stalks and in the stems below the outer epidermis B Sieve and provide support, pits have long, narrow and thick Companion cell cells, which have become dead, b) Transverse section have very thick walls , and Fig. 24.9 Conducting tissue in plants phloem provide strength to the plant. Conducting tissue: It is also called the vascular tissue. It provides passage for the fluids to move up and down in the plant. It is of two typesxylem and phloem (Fig. 24.9). Xylem is located more towards the centre of the stem. It allows water and minerals absorbed from the soil to travel upwards in the plant. Phloem is located outward of the xylem and serves to conduct the food (sugar) synthesized in the leaves to flow downward and upward so as to reach all other regions.
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 24.4 1. Choose the most appropriate answer. i. A tissue is a group of cells with a) same structure but different functions. b) different structures but similar function. c) same structure and same function. d) different structures and different functions. ii. Which one of the following is a matching pair of an example and its kind of tissue? a) Blood Epithelial tissue b) Muscle Connective tissue c) Cartilage Nervous tissue d) Bone Connective tissue
Cells
The plant tissue which transports prepared food material from the leaves to other parts of the plant is called i) parenchyma. ii) collenchyma. iii) xylem. iv) phloem. 2. Name the kind of tissue found at the following places: i) Surface of the human skin ii) Inside the salivary glands iii) In the brain iv) Inner lining of the wind pipe 24.5 LEVELS OF ORGANIZATION INCREASING COMPLEXITY FROM CELL TO ORGANISM There are various levels of organisation which increase in their complexity from the cell stage to the organismic level (Fig. 24.10). Cell is the lowest level of organization in all living beings. Every action of the organism is ultimately the outcome of the activity of the cell. Every cell has its own life. It feeds, respires, excretes, responds and even reproduces, and after getting old and aged it dies.
iii.
Tissue
Organ
Tissue is a group of similar cells that perform a particular function. Human body, for example, has a muscular tissue made of muscle cells, which brings about movement by contraction. Organ is formed of many tissues, which work in a cooperative and a coordinated manner to perform a specific function in the body. For example, the heart is an organ consisting of the muscle, nerve, and blood. But as a whole it is concerned with one or more very specific tasks. Similarly, the plant leaf is an organ formed of several tissues but its one main task is to manufacture food. Organ system is formed of many organs that act together to perform a specific life process, such as digestion. All the organs concerned with one specific process collectively constitute an organ system. The digestive system, respiratory system or the reproductive system are some of the organ systems in animal body. In plants, there are only two organ systems the root system and the shoot system.
Organ system
Fig. 24.10 Levels of organisation in the living world
Organism is the whole living being by which different life processes are performed.
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 24.5 1. Circle the organs out of the following: tongue, blood, bone, lungs, leaf, xylem, flower, finger
2. Name any three organ systems found in the human body. 3. Which are the two organ systems found in a maize plant. 4. Rearrange the following in their correct sequence from the lowest to the highest level of organisation: organ, cell, organ system, organism, tissue LET US REVISE Cell is the smallest unit of structure and function in an organism. Every organism starts as a single cell. A cell primarily consists of cell membrane, cytoplasm and nucleus. Plant cells have an extra rigid cell wall made up of cellulose. Cytoplasm contains several organelles, each of which has a specific function. Ribosomes are the site of protein synthesis, mitochondria produce chemical energy (ATP), golgi apparatus produces secretions, lysosomes destroy foreign substances around them. Plant cells have plastids as very special organelles. The chloroplasts among them are concerned with production of food (starch). Nucleus contains the genetic material in the chromosomes. Also, it controls the activities of the cell. Similar cells with similar functions packed together form a tissue. Different tissues arranged together to perform some specific activities make up an organ. Related organs together constitute an organ system. Animal tissues constitute epithelial, connective, muscular and nervous tissues. Epithelial tissue consists of squamous epithelium, cuboidal epithelium, columnar epithelium, ciliated epithelium and glandular epithelium. Connective tissue consists of cartilage, bone, fat, blood, etc. Muscular tissue consists of striped, unstriped and cardiac muscles. Nervous tissue consists of neurons whose long axons are bundled together to form a nerve. Plant tissues are of two types meristematic (actively dividing cells) and permanent. Permanent tissues include protective tissue (epidermis) and supporting tissues (parenchyma, collenchyma, sclerenchyma) and conducting tissues (xylem, phloem).
TERMINAL EXERCISES A. Multiple choice type questions. 1. The structural and functional unit of the living body is a) Lungs b) Cell c) Stomach d) Tissue
2. Transport of substances within the cell is performed by a) Nucleus b) Chromosomes c) Endoplasmic reticulum d) Lysosomes 3. Division of a cell into two daughter cells by the formation of a cell plate occurs in the body of a) Human beings b) Apple tree c) Cat d) Elephant 4. The connective tissue that connects muscles to bones is a) Tendon b) Ligament c) Blood d) Cartilage 5. Meristematic tissue in a plant is found in one of the following parts a) Tip of the leaf b) Tip of the root c) Base of the stem d) Base of the flower B. Descriptive type questions. 1. List any common three features found both in plant and animal cells. 2. Mention three features found only in plant cells and one found only in animal cells. 3. Differentiate between the following: i) Centrosome and chromosome ii) Nucleolus and nucleus iii) Organ and tissue iv) Conducting and protective tissue in plants v) Chromosome and chromatid vi) Cell and tissue vii) Organ and organelles viii) Organ and organism ix) Organ and organ system 4. State the major functions of the following: i) Plasma membrane ii) Lysosome iii) Golgi apparatus iv) Ribosomes v) Mitochondria
5. First meiotic division is the reduction division. What does the word reduction refer to in this statement? 6. Why is it necessary that the sex cells (gametes) must be produced by meiosis? 7. The diagram alongside represents a stage in the mitotic type of the cell division. i) Is it a plant cell or an animal cell? ii) Which stage does it represent? iii) How many chromosomes have been shown in it? iv) Name the stage that precedes it and the one that follows it. 8. Given below are the jumbled spellings of some of the cell structures and tissues. A special point about each of them is also given on the side. Write the correct name of each of the item in the jumbled spellings. a) b) c) d) e) f) Organelles found only in plant cells HCRMOOOEMS ( ___________ ) Carriers of heredity LEMYX ( ___________ ) A conducting tissue ILIAC ( _________ ) Structures present on a kind of epithelial cells SOLESOMY ( ___________ ) An organelle that destroys foreign substances SUNCLUE ( ___________ ) The cell organelle that regulates cell activities ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 24.1 1. i) ii) iii) iv) v) i) ii) iii) iv) i) ii) iii) iv) T T F F F F F T F Cellulose Plasma membrane or cell membrane Animal Chromatin, chromosomes SPASDITL ( ___________ )
24.2 1.
2.
24.3 1.
2.
i) ii) iii) iv) i) ii) iii) i) ii) iii) i) ii) iii) iv)
growth repair replacement reproduction mitosis meiosis mitosis c) d) d) Epithelial (squamous) Epithelial (columnar) Nervous Epithelial (ciliated)
24.4 1.
2.
24.5 1. 2. 3. 4.
Tongue, lungs, leaf, flower, finger Nervous system, digestive system, respiratory system, etc. Shoot system, root system Cell, tissue, organ, organ system, organism
GLOSSARY Axon: The process of a neuron that conducts impulses away from the cell. Cell: The structural and functional unit of the living body. Cell wall: A layer that surrounds the plant cells. Chlorophyll: The green-coloured matter contained in the chloroplast of plant cells. Chloroplast: The plant cell organelle that contains chlorophyll. Egg: The female sex cell also called the ovum or the female gamete. Heredity: Transmission of characteristics from parent to the offspring. Nucleolus: A well-defined part inside the nucleus. Pith: The soft spongy tissue in the centre of most stems. Tissue: A group of structurally similar cells that perform the same function.
25
Food and Nutrition

Why do we have food? We have food because we feel hungry. I s n t i t ?B e i n g h u n g r yi st h eb o d y s w a yo fs a y i n gt h a ti tn e e d sm o r ef u e lt ok e e pg o i n g .T h ef o o d we eat provides energ yf o ra l lb o d yf u n c t i o n sa n di sa l s ou s e dt of o r mn e wc e l l s f o rt h eb o d y. We e a tav a r i e t yo ff o o da c c o r d i n gt oo u rt a s t e ,b o d yr e q u i r e m e n t a n da v a i l a b i l i t y. S o m eo fu sm a yp r e f e rt oe a tr i c et ob r e a do rc h a p a t t i s .O t h e r s m a yl i k et oh a v ed o s a s ,i d l i s ,b u rg e r s ,n o o d l e s ,e t c . We m a yb eav e g e t a r i a no ra n o n v e g e t a r i a n .A l ll i v i n gb e i n g s ,b o t hp l a n t sa n da n i m a l sn e e df o o df o rg r o w t h , repair and maintenance. OBJECTIVES A f t e rc o m p l e t i n gt h i sl e s s o n ,y o uw i l lb ea b l et o : d e s c r i b ev a r i o u sm o d e so fn u t r i t i o ni no rganisms; d e f i n et h et e r mp h o t o s y n t h e s i s ,a n dl i s ti t sr a wm a t e r i a l sa n dp r o d u c t s ; e x p l a i nt h ei m p o r t a n c eo fp h o t o s y n t h e s i sa sas o u r c eo ff o o df o ra l ll i f eo ne a r t h ; l i s ta n dd e s c r i b et h ef a c t o r sa ff e c t i n gp h o t o s y n t h e s i s ; l i s tt h ec o m p o n e n t so fab a l a n c e dd i e ta n ds t a t et h ef u n c t i o n so fe a c ho ft h e m ; d r a wt h ep a r t so ft h ea l i m e n t a r yc a n a la n dd e s c r i b et h ef u n c t i o n so fe a c h ; d e s c r i b es o m en u t r i t i o n a ld i s o r d e r s ,t h e i rc a u s e sa n dp r e v e n t i o n ; define food adulteration, and list some common food adulterants. 25.1 FOOD Food provides the essential raw material our body needs to grow and stay healthy. 25.1.1 The need for Food How do you feel if you do not have food for a day or two? You may feel exhausted and weak. Think of a young child who is deprived of food for a few days. Wi l lt h e c h i l ds u r v i v ea n dg r o w ?T h ea n s w e ri s N o .A l ll i v i n gb e i n g sn e e df o o dt os u r v i v e . Food serves the following purposes: p r o v i d e se n e rg yf o rv a r i o u sm e t a b o l i ca c t i v i t i e s( b i o c h e m i c a lr e a c t i o n st a k i n g p l a c ei nt h eb o d y ) ,s u c ha sr e s p i r a t i o na n dd i g e s t i o n . h e l p si ng r o w t ho ft h eb o d ya n dr e p a i ro fw o r n o u tt i s s u e s . p r o t e c t su sf r o md e f i c i e n c yd i s e a s e s .
:174 : F o o da n dN u t r i t i o n
25.1.2 Nutrition Yo u rf o o dm a yi n c l u d ean u m b e ro fi t e m s ,i fi tm e e t sy o u re n t i r eb o d y s r e q u i r e m e n t a n di su t i l i z e db yt h eb o d y, i ti sc a l l e dn u t r i t i o n (n u t r i n e: t on o u r i s h ) . The process by which, org a n i s m so b t a i na n du t i l i s ef o o df o rt h e i rg r o w t ha n d d e v e l o p m e n t( f r o mt h e i re n v i r o n m e n t )i sc a l l e dn u t r i t i o n . 2 5 . 1 . 3 Types of nutrition Depending upon the mode of food uptake, nutrition could be of two b r o a dt y p e s autotrophic n u t r i t i o n a n dh e t ro t rophic nutrition. a ) Autotrophic nutrition ( a u t o s :s e l f ;t ro p h o s : food) You must have noticed a gardener w a t e r i n gt h ep l a n t so ro c c a s i o n a l l y p r o v i d i n gt h e mw i t hf e r t i l i z e r s .A r e w a t e ra n df e r t i l i z e r sf o o df o rt h e m ? I si ta l lt h a ta l lp l a n t sn e e d ?
From soil through absorption
C O2 f r o ma i r Sun Chlorophyll + Wa t e r ! Glucose + Oxygen R e l e a s e di n t ot h ea i r
L i g h te n e rgy
To d i ff e r e n tp a r t so ft h ep l a n t
Fig. 25.1 Gre e np l a n t ss y n t h e s i s et h e i r
Green plants synthesize their own food food from water and carbon dioxide, i nt h ep r e s e n c eo fs u n l i g h t .T h i sp r o c e s si sc a l l e dp h o t o s y n t h e s i s . The gre e np l a n t s and certain bacteria which can manufacture t h e i ro w nf o o dw i t h i nt h e m s e l v e s , a re c a l l e da u t o t rophs, a n dt h e i rm o d eo fn u t r i t i o ni sc a l l e da u t o t r o p h i cn u t r i t i o n ( F i g .2 5 . 1 ) . b ) Hetro t rophic nutrition(h e t e ro s :d i ff e r e n t ;t ro p h o s :f o o d ) W e cannot make food inside our own body. All animals including man and nongreen plants cannot make their food and depend on green plants. The organisms, which depend on other org a n i s m sf o rt h e i rf o o d ,a re c a l l e dh e t e ro t rophs a n dt h e i r m o d eo fn u t r i t i o ni sc a l l e dh e t r o t r o p h i cn u t r i t i o n . O nt h eb a s i so ft h e i rf e e d i n gh a b i t sh e t e r o t r o p h sm a yb ec l a s s i f i e da s sapro t rophs a n d parasites. i ) Sapro t rophic nutrition: You must have seen a white cottony growth developing on your wet leather shoes or belts especially when they get wet during rainy days. This is a fungal growth. The fungus grows and feeds on s u b s t a n c e s ,w h i c hw e r eo n c ep a r to ft h el i v i n go rg a n i s m s ,s u c ha ss t o r e df o o d , wood, leather and rotten plant products. Some common examples are bacteria, mushrooms, yeast, bread mould, etc. Org a n i s m st h a td e r i v et h e i rf o o df rom dead and ro t t e no rganisms are c a l l e ds a p ro t rophs ( F i g .2 5 . 2 ) .S a p r o t r o p h s help in cleaning the environment by decomposing the dead and recycling the n u t r i e n t s .
F o o da n dN u t r i t i o n : 175 :
Fungal spots S l i c eo fb r e a d
Fig. 25.2 Some sapro t rophs
i i ) P a r a s i t i cn u t r i t i o n : Have you ever been bitten by a head louse or a bed bug? Have you heard of some children having worms inside their body? These o rg a n i s m st h a tl i v eo no ri n s i d eo t h e rl i v i n go rg a n i s m s ,t od e r i v et h e i rf o o d a re c a l l e dp a r a s i t e s. S u c ham o d eo fn u t r i t i o ni sk n o w na sp a r a s i t i cn u t r i t i o n . Bed bug, head louse and leech remain outside the body. S o m eb a c t e r i a ,a n d worms, such as tapeworm and roundworm, live inside the body (Fig. 25.3). Dodder plant (Amar bel) i sap a r a s i t eo ng r e e np l a n t s .
Mouth Gut Mosquito Ovary Hookworm Head Mouth Sucker
Rare Sucker Tapeworm Leech
Fig. 25.3 Some parasites on human body
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 25.1 1 . Which are the two major groups of org a n i s m so nt h eb a s i so fn u t r i t i o n ? 2 . Give two examples of saprotrophs. 3 . Which group of org a n i s m si sc a p a b l eo fp r e p a r i n gi t so w nf o o da sw e l la s nourishing others? 4 . D i ff e r e n t i a t eb e t w e e np a r a s i t i ca n ds a p r o t r o p h i cm o d eo fn u t r i t i o n . 5 . C l a s s i f yt h ef o l l o w i n ga ss a p r o t r o p h so rp a r a s i t e s : leech, yeast, head louse, mushroom 6 . Name one parasitic plant. 25.2 NUTRITION IN PLANTS Yo um u s th a v es e e na n i m a l s ,s u c ha sc o w s ,h o r s e s ,s h e e p ,e t cg r a z i n gi nt h ef i e l d s for food. How do plants get their food? Yo uh a v ea l r e a d ys t u d i e dt h a ta u t o t r o p h s ,
s u c ha sg r e e np l a n t s ,c a ns y n t h e s i z et h e i ro w nf o o d .G r e e np l a n t su t i l i z ee n e rg y from sunlight to prepare food. The food that humans and animals eat, consists of p l a n tp r o d u c t s ,o rp r o d u c t so fa n i m a l st h a te a tp l a n t s . The process by which green plants manufacture food from carbon dioxide a n dw a t e ri nt h ep r e s e n c eo fs u n l i g h ti sc a l l e dp h o t o s y n t h e s i s ( photos:l i g h t ;s y n t h e s i s: t oc o m b i n e ) . 25.2.1 Where does photosynthesis occur? I to c c u r si nt h ec e l l so fg r e e nl e a v e sa n do t h e rg r e e np a r t so ft h ep l a n tt h a ta r e e x p o s e dt ol i g h t .T h e s ec e l l sp o s s e s st i n ys t r u c t u r e sc a l l e d chloro p l a s t s. T h e s e structures remain packed with chlorophyll, a green pigment, about which you h a v ea l r e a d ys t u d i e di nl e s s o n2 4 .P l a n t sr e q u i r ee n e rg yf o rp h o t o s y n t h e s i s .L e tu s s e eh o wp l a n t sh a r v e s t( g a t h e r )t h i se n e rg yf o rt h ep r o c e s so fm a k i n gf o o d . 25.2.2 How does photosynthesis occur? I nt h i sp r o c e s s ,p l a n t su s ec a r b o nd i o x i d ea n dw a t e ra sr a wm a t e r i a l st ob u i l d e n e rgy containing chemical compounds. Glucose is one such compound. Such compounds are needed by all living beings for energy production. The process of photosynthesis is completed in two steps l i g h t reaction a n d dark reaction.
C O2 Sun Chlorophyll Glucose + Wa t e r + Oxygen Glucose + Wa t e r + Oxygen Sun
Wa t e r
F i g .2 5 . 4T h ep ro c e s so f p h o t o s y n t h e s i si nal e a f
F i g .2 5 . 5T h e products o fp h o t o s y n t h e s i s
i )
Light re a c t i o n : T h ef i r s ts t e po fp h o t o s y n t h e s i so c c u r si nt h ep r e s e n c eo f l i g h t .D u r i n gt h i ss t e p ,c h l o r o p h y l lc o n t a i n e di nt h ec h l o r o p l a s to fp l a n tc e l l s a b s o r b sl i g h te n e rg y. T h i se n e rgy is converted into another form, which can b es u p p l i e df o rt h ec o m p l e t i o no ft h ed a r kr e a c t i o n .
i i ) Dark re a c t i o n : T h i ss e c o n ds t e po fp h o t o s y n t h e s i sd o e sn o tr e q u i r el i g h t , a n di sc a l l e dd a r kr e a c t i o n .I tc a na l s oc a r r yo ni nt h ep r e s e n c eo fl i g h t .D u r i n g t h i ss t e p ,e n e rgy generated during light reaction is used to combine carbon dioxide and water molecules to form energy rich compounds, such as glucose. O x y g e ni sa l s or e l e a s e di nt h i sp r o c e s s .
Green plants The green lungs Green plants constantly absorb carbon dioxide from the environment and r e t u r ne n o u g ho x y g e ni n t oi t .I si tn o tw o r t ha p p r e c i a t i n gt h a tw ed on o th a v et o b u yo x y g e nf i l l e dc y l i n d e r sf o ro u rs u r v i v a l !O x y g e ni sn a t u r a l l ya d d e dt o the environment by the plants. They are sometimes called the g reen lungs a st h e y help in keeping the environment clean by maintaining low levels of carbon dioxide. The following equation summarizes the raw materials and products of photosynthetic process: R AW M ATERIALS 6CO2 + 12H2O c a r b o n w a t e r d i o x i d e s u n l i g h t c h l o r o p h y l l PRODUCTS C 6H 12O 6 + 6H2O + 6O2 g l u c o s e w a t e r o x y g e n
(Wa t e ra n dc a r b o nd i o x i d ea r eu s e di ne q u a lp r o p o r t i o n si nt h es y n t h e s i so f o rganic compounds.) 25.2.3 Factors that influence photosynthesis T h er a t eo fp h o t o s y n t h e s i si si n f l u e n c e db y external a n d internalf a c t o r s . a ) External factors These include l i g h t ,c a r b o nd i o x i d e ,w a t e ra n dt e m p e r a t u r e . " " L i g h t :T h er a t eo fp h o t o s y n t h e s i sd e p e n d sd i r e c t l yo nt h ei n t e n s i t yo fl i g h t . G l u c o s ei sn o tf o r m e di nt h ea b s e n c eo fl i g h t . Carbon dioxide: H i g hc a r b o nd i o x i d ec o n c e n t r a t i o ni n c r e a s e st h er a t eo f p h o t o s y n t h e s i su pt oac e r t a i ne x t e n t .G l u c o s ec a n n o tb es y n t h e s i z e di ni t s a b s e n c e . Wa t e r :I ti sa ne s s e n t i a lr a wm a t e r i a l ,i t sl o wa v a i l a b i l i t yr e d u c e st h er a t eo f photosynthesis, whereas the excess present is removed by transpiration. Temperature :M o s to ft h ep l a n t sw o r kb e s ta ta no p t i m u mt e m p e r a t u r eo f2 5oC . o Ar i s ea b o v e3 5 Cl e a d st oad e c r e a s ei nt h er a t eo fp h o t o s y n t h e s i s .P l a n t st h a t g r o wi nt h et r o p i c sc a ne ff i c i e n t l yp r o d u c es t a r c he v e na tah i g h e rt e m p e r a t u r e .
" "
b ) Internal factors These include chlorophyll content, number of stomata, and the shape, structure a n da g eo ft h el e a f .C h l o r o p h y l li st h em o s ti m p o r t a n ti n t e r n a lf a c t o r. T h er a t eo f p h o t o s y n t h e s i sd e c r e a s e sw i t ha ni n c r e a s ei nt h ea g eo fl e a f . T h ec y c l eo fl i f e L o o ka tt h eF i g u r e2 5 . 6 . Yo uh a v ea l r e a d ys t u d i e dt h es t r u c t u r ea n df u n c t i o n s o fm i t o c h o n d r i aa n dc h l o r o p l a s t s .L e tu ss t u d yt h ew a yt h e ya r ef u n c t i o n a l l y i n t e r r e l a t e d .
T h ea c t i v i t i e st h a t o c c u r i n c h l o r o p l a s t a n d Sun mitochondria make life Oxygen Mitochondrion possible. Inside the chloroplast, energy Chloroplast f r o mt h es u ni sc a p t u r e d and stored in the Carbon dioxide AT Pf o rc e l la c t i v i t i e s : A c t i v et r a n s p o r t and water glucose molecules, P l a n t s Movement Animals Growth with the release of Reproduction Fig.25.6 Chloroplasts and mitochondria Repair oxygen. Inside the t h e i ri n t e rr e l a t i o n s h i p mitochondria, the energy stored in g l u c o s ei su s e dt oc a r r yo u to t h e rc e l la c t i v i t i e s .I na d d i t i o n ,o x y g e np r o d u c e d i nt h ec h l o r o p l a s ti su s e di nt h eb r e a k d o w no fg l u c o s e .
Photosynthesis Respiration Glucose
25.2.4 Materials synthesized by plants as a sourc eo ff o o d You may have seen farmers caring for their crops. Young plants of wheat, maize a n dp a d d yg r o wt oy i e l dg r a i n s .T h i sp r o d u c t i o no ff o o dg r a i n so rg r o w t ho ff r u i t s and vegetables is a result of photosynthesis. Products of photosynthesis are i m p o r t a n tf o rt h en o u r i s h m e n ta n ds u r v i v a lo fa l ll i f ef o r m so nt h ee a r t h . Glucose formed during photosynthesis is converted into starch and a number of other useful forms by undergoing chemical changes or combining with other molecules. Following table indicates materials synthesized by green plants and t h e i ru s ea sas o u r c eo ff o o d . Ta b l e2 5 . 1 : Nutrients synthesized by plants that are used as food Type of nutrient Carbohydrates
l l l l l
Food source ( some examples ) Grapes A l lf r u i t st h a tt a s t es w e e t Sugarcane and beet root, common sugar P e e l so ff r u i t sa n dv e g e t a b l e s ,w h o l eg r a i n s( b r a ng o o d source of roughage) Cereals (wheat, rice, maize, barley), and vegetables (potato, sweet potato, tapioca, onion, banana, water c h e s t n u to r singhara) P u l s e s( s o y a b e a n ,b e a n s ,p e a s ,l e n t i l s ,g r a m ) ,n u t s Groundnut, mustard seeds, coconut
Glucose Fructose Sucrose C e l l u l o s e S t a r c h
Pro t e i n s Oil and fats
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 25.2 1 . W h e r ed o e sp h o t o s y n t h e s i st a k ep l a c ei nt h ep l a n tc e l l ? 2 . During which step of photosynthesis are carbohydrates synthesized light or d a r kr e a c t i o n ?
3 . N a m ea n yt w op l a n t st h a ta r ear i c hs o u r c eo fs t a r c h ? 4 . W h i c hf o r mo fs u g a ri sp r e s e n ti ns u g a r c a n ea n db e e t r o o t ? 5 . G i v et h eo v e r a l lc h e m i c a lr e a c t i o ni n v o l v e dd u r i n gp h o t o s y n t h e s i s . 25.3 OUR DIET The food that we have on regular basis forms our diet. You may have diff e r e n t t y p e so ff o o di ny o u rd i e t . You may prefer to take more of one and less of another. D o e sy o u rd i e tf u l f i l ly o u rb o d y s r e q u i r e m e n t s ?S h o u l di ts a t i s f yy o u rt a s t eb u d s or body needs? For healthy growth and development of the body, y o un e e dt oe a tf o o d st h a t provide enough of the essential nutrients. What does the term nutrient mean? Nutrients are the chemical constituents present in our food that arerequire d for the nourishment of our body. 25.3.1 Components of diet and their functions From the wide variety of food items that we consume, we get mainly six types of n u t r i e n t s .M o s tf o o d sp r o v i d e ,a tl e a s t ,s m a l la m o u n t so fe a c hk i n do fn u t r i e n t . T h e s en u t r i e n t sa r ec a r b o h y d r a t e s ,f a t s ,p r o t e i n s ,v i t a m i n s ,m i n e r a l sa n dw a t e r. a ) Carbohydrates Carbohydrates are compounds made up of three elements carbon,hydrogen a n d oxygen. These are the main source of energy in our diet. One gram of carbohydrates on complete oxidation yields 17 kJ ( 4k i l o c a l o r i e s )o fe n e rg y. Carbohydrates may be in the form of s u g a r s ,s t a rc ho rc e l l u l o s e. Sugars a r ea v a i l a b l ei nt h ef o l l o w i n gf o r m s :g l u c o s e ,f r u c t o s e( f r u i ts u g a r ) , lactose (natural sweetness in milk) and sucrose (common sugar made f rom sugarc a n ej u i c e ). G l u c o s ep r o v i d e sa l m o s ti n s t a n te n e rg y. I ti sa l s o g i v e nt ot h ep a t i e n t sw h oc a n n o td i g e s tf o o d . Starc hc a nb ee a s i l yd i g e s t e di no u rb o d y. I tf o r m st h eb u l ko fo u rd i e t .P o t a t o , wheat, rice, sweet potato and banana are few good sources of starch. C e l l u l o s ec a n n o tb ed i g e s t e di no u rb o d yy e t ,i ti si m p o r t a n tt oh a v es o m ec e l l u l o s e ( i nt h ef o r mo f roughage) i nt h ed i e t .R o u g h a g eh e l p si ne a s ym o v e m e n to f f o o dt h r o u g ht h ef o o dc a n a lp r e v e n t sc o n s t i p a t i o na n dh e l p si nd i g e s t i o n .W h o l e g r a i n s ,p e e l so fm o s tf r u i t sa n dv e g e t a b l e sa r eg o o ds o u r c e so fr o u g h a g e .
b ) Fats Much like carbohydrates, fats are composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen but i nd i ff e r e n tp r o p o r t i o n s .Af a tm o l e c u l ec o n s i s t so ft w op a r t s : glycero la n df a t t y a c i d s . On complete oxidation each gram of fat provides around 37 kJ ( 9 k i l o c a l o r i e s )o fe n e rg yt ot h eb o d y. F a t sp e r f o r mt h ef o l l o w i n gf u n c t i o n s : Keep body warm by providing extra energ y F a td e p o s i t si nt h eb o d yp r e v e n tl o s so fb o d yh e a t
A c ta ss h o c ka b s o r b e ra n dp r o t e c ti n t e r n a lo r g a n sa g a i n s ti n j u r y H e l pi nt h et r a n s p o r to ff a t s o l u b l ev i t a m i n s S o m ec o m m o ns o u r c e so ff a t sa r ee d i b l eo i l ,g h e e ,b u t t e r, m e a ta n dn u t sl i k eg r o u n d n u t s . c ) Proteins Yo um u s th a v eo f t e nh e a r dy o u rm o t h e ri n s i s t i n go nh a v i n gag l a s so fm i l ko rab o w lo f c o o k e dp u l s e s (d a l s) o re v e na ne g g .A l lt h e s ea r er i c hi np r o t e i n s .P r o t e i n sa r em a d e up of molecules of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen, and sometimes sulphur a l s o .G r o w t ho fb o d yt i s s u e si st h em a i nf u n c t i o no fp r o t e i n s .D u r i n gs t a r v a t i o np r o t e i n s a l s os e r v ea sas o u r c eo fe n e rg y. O nt h eb a s i so ff u n c t i o np e r f o r m e dp r o t e i n sm a yb eo f f o l l o w i n gs i xt y p e s : Structural proteins h e l pb u i l du pt i s s u e sa n dr e p l a c ew o r no u tc e l l s ,f o re x a m p l e c o l l a g e na n de l a s t i n . Enzymes r e g u l a t et h ec h e m i c a lr e a c t i o n sg o i n go ni n s i d eo u rb o d yl i k ed i g e s t i o n a n dr e s p i r a t i o n ,f o re x a m p l ep e p s i na n dt r y p s i n . P r o t e c t i v ep r o t e i n sp r o v i d ep r o t e c t i o nt ob o d ya g a i n s ti n f e c t i o n sw i t ht h eh e l po f a n t i b o d i e s ,f o re x a m p l eg a m m ag l o b u l i n s . C o n t r a c t i l ep r o t e i n sh e l pi nm o v e m e n ta n dl o c o m o t i o no fb o d yp a r t s ,f o re x a m p l e a c t i na n dm y o s i n . Transportp ro t e i n sc a r r yd i ff e r e n ts u b s t a n c e si nt h eb l o o dt ob o d yt i s s u e s ,f o r e x a m p l eh a e m o g l o b i ni nt h eb l o o dt r a n s p o r t so x y g e n . Hormones serve as chemical messengers, which regulate body functions, for example insulin and thyroxine.
d ) Vitamins You have often heard your mother saying Eat carrots and your eyesight will improve. This is because carrots contain vitamin A. What are vitamins? Vi t a m i n s ( v i t a: e s s e n t i a lo ri m p o r t a n t )a r ec o m p l e xo rg a n i cc o m p o u n d se s s e n t i a lf o rl i f e . W e cannot make vitamins for ourselves and so must get them from our diet. Ta b l e 2 5 . 2l i s t sc e r t a i nv i t a m i n st h a ta r ee s s e n t i a lf o rh u m a n s .T h e ya r en e c e s s a r yf o r normal growth, and maintenance of the body, a n da r er e q u i r e di nr e l a t i v e l ys m a l l a m o u n t s .D e f i c i e n c yo fap a r t i c u l a rv i t a m i nf o ral o n gp e r i o dc a u s e sd i s e a s e . Overdose of certain vitamins, such as vitamins A and D, also proves harmful. O nt h eb a s i so fs o l u b i l i t yi nw a t e rv i t a m i n sm a yb ew a t e r s o l u b l eo rf a t s o l u b l e . VITAMINS
Wa t e r s o l u b l e Vitamins B-complex n dC ( B1,B2,B4,B12) a
F a t s o l u b l e Vitamins A, D, E and K
Ta b l e2 5 . 2 : Types of vitamins, their sources, functions and deficiency diseases

Vitamin A Retinol B1 Thiamine B2 Riboflavin B4 Niacin Sourc e s Milk, green leafy vegetables, b u t t e r, c a r r o t s ,t o m a t o e s , c o d l i v e ro i l ,e g g Milk, peas, cereals, green vegetables, sea food, meat Peas, yeast, egg, meat, Whole cereals, potatoes, tomatoes, meat, fish Functions Deficiency disease Normal growth, keeps Night blindness (poor eyes and skin healthy v i s i o ni nd i ml i g h t ) Growth and development Healthy skin, growth Healthy skin, digestive and nervous system Formation of red blood corpuscles Healthy growth, strong blood vessels Formation of strong bones and teeth Beri-beri (a disease which a ffects the nervous system) Skin disease and retarded growth Pellagra (a disease which a ff e c t st h es k i n , alimentary canal and nervous system) Anaemia (deficiency of red blood corpuscles) Scurvy (a disease in which gums swell up and bleed) Rickets (a disease which a ffects bones in children making them soft and deformed) Aff e c t sf e r t i l i t yt os o m e e x t e n t Excessive bleeding from wounds
B 12 Liver, e g g s ,m i l k ,f i s h Cyanocobalamine C Amla, tomatoes, green leafy Ascorbic acid v e g e t a b l e s ,c i t r u sf r u i t s ,w a t e r chestnut D Sunlight, milk, butter, whole Calciferol grains and vegetables
E Tocopherol K Phylloquinone
Ve g e t a b l eo i l s ,m i l k ,b u t t e r, whole grains, vegetables
P r o t e c t st h ec e l l membranes
Green vegetables like spinach H e l p si nt h ec l o t t i n g and cabbage, soya bean oil of blood
e ) Minerals M i n e r a l sa r ei n o rg a n i cs u b s t a n c e sr e q u i r e db yt h eb o d yi ns m a l lq u a n t i t i e s .M i n e r a l s , s u c ha si r o n ,c a l c i u m ,p h o s p h o r u s ,i o d i n e ,s o d i u ma n dp o t a s s i u m ,a r ee s s e n t i a lf o r t h ef o r m a t i o no fb o d yt i s s u e s .T h e ya l s oh e l pi nr e g u l a t i n gb o d yf u n c t i o n sa n d m e t a b o l i s m ,i . e .t h ev a r i o u sc h e m i c a lr e a c t i o n st a k i n gp l a c ei nt h eb o d y. F o l l o w i n g t a b l ei n d i c a t e st h es o u r c e sa n df u n c t i o n so fs o m ei m p o r t a n tm i n e r a l s . Ta b l e2 5 . 3 : Some important minerals, their sources and functions

Mineral I r o n Calcium Phosphorus Potassium Sodium Iodine Sourc e s Functions Green vegetables, turnip, Formation of haemoglobin, which is the oxygens p r o u t s ,y e a s t ,l i v e r, e g g s , m e a t carrying pigment in RBCs Milk and milk products Formation of strong bones and teeth, muscle contraction, clotting of blood Tapioca, green leafy vegetables For the development of strong bones, teeth, making n e rgy-rich compounds in our bodies Whole grains, meat, eggs, fish e For growth and keeping osmotic balance of cells and Green and yellow vegetables blood Proper functioning of the nervous system, osmotic Common salt balance Sea food, iodized salt Body metabolism, development of brain
) f Wa t e r Wa t e ri sa ni m p o r t a n tp a r to fo u rd i e t .I tm a k e s6 5 7 0 %o fo u rb o d yw e i g h t . Wa t e r does not provide any energ y, y e ti ti sc o n s i d e r e da ni m p o r t a n tc o n s t i t u e n to f b a l a n c e dd i e t .I th a st h ef o l l o w i n gf u n c t i o n s : Wa t e rr e g u l a t e st h eb o d yt e m p e r a t u r e . Provides means of excretion of body wastes. P r o v i d e sm e d i u mf o rb i o c h e m i c a lr e a c t i o n s ,s u c ha sd i g e s t i o n ,r e s p i r a t i o n . P l a y sa ni m p o r t a n tr o l ei na b s o r p t i o n ,t r a n s p o r t a t i o na n du s eo fn u t r i e n t s . 25.3.2 Balanced diet Now that you are aware of the components of diet, try to analyze your own food intake. Do you include all the components in your diet? For healthy growth and development of the body, y o un e e dt oe a tf o o d st h a t p r o v i d ee n o u g ho fa l lt h ee s s e n t i a ln u t r i e n t s .E a t i n gav a r i e t yo ff o o d si np r o p e r q u a n t i t ye v e r yd a yp r o v i d e s a balanced diet.A balanced diet contains adequate a m o u n to fe s s e n t i a ln u t r i e n t ss u c ha sc a r b o h y d r a t e s ,f a t s ,p ro t e i n s ,v i t a m i n s , minerals and water.The amount of these nutrients in diet depends upon a number o ff a c t o r s ,s u c ha sa g e ,s e xa n dn a t u r eo fw o r ka ni n d i v i d u a lp e r f o r m s . CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 25.3 1 . S u g g e s to n eu s eo fi n c l u d i n gr o u g h a g ei no u rd i e t . 2 . Which group of functional proteins serves as chemical messengers? 3 . Which of the two will provide greater amount of energy one gram of starchy food or one gram of fatty food? 4 . C a t e g o r i z ev i t a m i n so nt h eb a s i so ft h e i rs o l u b i l i t y. 5 . H i g h l i g h to n ed i fference between vitamins and minerals. 25.4 THE PROCESS OF NUTRITION IN HUMAN BEINGS T h ef o o dt h a tw ee a ti si nq u i t ead i ff e r e n ts t a t ef r o mt h eo n et h a tc a nb eu s e db y t h ec e l l si nt h eb o d y.Conversion of complex food material into smaller units so t h a tt h ec e l l sc a na b s o r bi ti sc a l l e dd i g e s t i o n . The digestive system enables c o n v e r s i o no fi n g e s t e df o o di n t oi t ss i m p l e rf o r m .D i g e s t i o nr e q u i r e ss p e c i f i c c o n d i t i o n sf o rd i ff e r e n tn u t r i e n t sp r e s e n ti nt h ed i e t . The digestive system includes the food canal (mouth, pharynx, esophagus, s t o m a c h ,s m a l li n t e s t i n e ,l a rg ei n t e s t i n e , rectum), and the glandular organs ( s a l i v a ry g l a n d s ,l i v e ra n dp a n c re a s ). T h el o n gt u b e ,s t a r t i n gf r o mt h em o u t ht o t h ea n u s ,i sc a l l e d alimentary canal a n dt h ed i g e s t i v ep r o c e s si sc a l l e d e x t r a c e l l u l a rd i g e s t i o n. Digested food is transferred from the external environment to bodysi n t e r n a l e n v i r o n m e n t .H e r ei tc a nb ed i s t r i b u t e dt oa l lb o d yc e l l sb yt h ec i r c u l a t o r ys y s t e m . 25.4.1 Enzymes The process of digestion requires a number of enzymes for the conversion of complex molecules into simpler ones.
E n z y m e sa r ec h e m i c a l sn e e d e df o rt h ec o m p l e t i o no fc h e m i c a l r e a c t i o n st a k i n gp l a c ei na l ll i v i n gc e l l s . A l le n z y m e sa r ec o m p l e xp r o t e i n sa n dr e m a i nu n c h a n g e dd u r i n gt h er e a c t i o n .T h e y c a nb eu s e dr e p e a t e d l y. S i n c et h e ys p e e du pt h er a t eo fc h e m i c a lr e a c t i o n si nt h eb o d y t h e ya r ea l s ok n o w na sb i o c a t a l y s t s .E n z y m e sm a yh e l pi nj o i n i n go rs p l i t t i n go f b i o m o l e c u l e s . 2 5 . 4 . 2N u t r i t i o n S u mt o t a lo fc e r t a i np r o c e s s e st h a te n a b l eac e l lt ou t i l i z en u t r i e n t si sc a l l e dn u t r i t i o n . T h ee n t i r ep r o c e s so fn u t r i t i o ni n c l u d e st h ef o l l o w i n gs t e p s :i n g e s t i o n ,d i g e s t i o n , absorption, assimilation and egestion. a ) I ngestion and digestion T h ep r o c e s so ft a k i n gi no ff o o dt h r o u g h t h em o u t hi sc a l l e di n g e s t i o n .T h e d i g e s t i o no ff o o ds t a r t sf r o mt h em o u t h Mouth Salivary gland a n de n d si nt h ei n t e s t i n e s .
Wi n dp i p e
) i
i i )
i i i )
Mouth: The food is (trachea) Oesophagus ingested through the Diaphragm mouth. Carbohydrates, Spleen s u c ha ss t a r c h ,a r eb r o k e n Liver Stomach down or digested to form Gall bladder Pancreas Ascending colon s u g a r. T h es a l i v ac o n t a i n s Transverse colon S m a l li n t e s t i n e an enzyme salivary Descending colon Appendix amylase t h a th e l p si nt h e Rectum d i g e s t i o no fs t a r c hi n t o sugar. The saliva also Fig. 25.7 Alimentary canal in human beings h e l p si nl u b r i c a t i n gt h ef o o d a n dm a k i n gi te a s i e rf o rs w a l l o w i n g .T h et o n g u eh e l p si nr o l l i n ga n dp u s h i n g o ff o o di n t ot h eo e s o p h a g u s . S a l i v a r ya m y l a s e S t a r c h M a l t o s e Oesophagus: T h eo e s o p h a g u so rt h ef o o dp i p eh e l p si np u s h i n gt h ef o o d into the stomach. The expansion and contraction of muscles of the o e s o p h a g u si sc a l l e dp e r i s t a l s i so rp e r i s t a l t i cm o v e m e n t . Stomach: T h es t o m a c hi sah i g h l ym u s c u l a ro r g a n .T h eg a s t r i cg l a n d sp r e s e n t i ni t sw a l l ss e c r e t eg a s t r i cj u i c e sa n dh e l pi nt h ed i g e s t i o no ff o o d .T h e s e j u i c e sc o n t a i nh y d r o c h l o r i ca c i d( H C l )a n de n z y m e sl i k ep e p s i n. H C lc r e a t e s a na c i d i cm e d i u mf o rt h ea c t i v a t i o no fe n z y m e sa n dk i l l sb a c t e r i a .T h e s e e n z y m e sb r e a kd o w nt h ep r o t e i n si n t os m a l l e rf r a g m e n t sc a l l e d peptones. T h em u s c l e so ft h es t o m a c hh e l pi nc h u r n i n gt h ef o o ds ot h a ti ti sp r o p e r l y m i x e dw i t ht h ed i g e s t i v ej u i c e s . Pepsin Pro t e i n s P e p t o n e s( p a r t l yd i g e s t e dp r o t e i n s )
Pepsin i v ) Milk pro t e i n s Calcium paracaseinate Small intestine: The food moves from the stomach to duodenum, w h i c hi st h eu p p e rp a r to ft h es m a l li n t e s t i n e .H e r et h ee m u l s i f i c a t i o n o ff a t( f a ti sb r o k e ni nt of a td r o p l e t s )t a k e sp l a c ew i t ht h eh e l po ft h e b i l ej u i c es e c r e t e db yt h el i v e r. T h eb i l ej u i c ei ss t o r e di nt h eg a l lb l a d d e r. P a n c r e a ss e c r e t e st r y p s i n,amylase a n dl i p a s e( p a n c r e a t i cj u i c e s )w h i c h are poured into the duodenum. Trypsin P e p t o n e s Amino acids ( c o m p l e t e l yd i g e s t e dp r o t e i n s ) Amylase Glucose Maltose and Sugars Lipase F a t s Fatty acids + Glycero l
T h ef o o dm o v e st oi l e u m ,w h i c hi st h el o w e rp a r to ft h es m a l li n t e s t i n e . T h ei n n e rs u r f a c eo ft h ei l e u mc o n t a i n st h i nf i n g e r l i k ep r o j e c t i o n sc a l l e d v i l l i. T h e s ea r er e s p o n s i b l ef o ri n c r e a s i n gt h es u r f a c ea r e ao fa b s o r p t i o n o fd i g e s t e df o o di nt ot h eb l o o d .T h eb l o o dt h e nc a r r i e st h ea b s o r b e d f o o dt od i ff e r e n tp a r t so ft h eb o d ya n du n d i g e s t e df o o di sp u s h e di n t o t h el a rg ei n t e s t i n e . v ) Large intestine: T h i sp a r to ft h eb o d ya b s o r b sw a t e rf r o mt h eu n d i g e s t e d f o o da n ds o l i dw a s t ei sl u b r i c a t e dt of o r mt h ef a e c e s .T h ef a e c e sp a s s o nt ot h el o w e rp a r to ft h el a rg ei n t e s t i n e ,c a l l e dt h er e c t u m ,a n dt h r o w n o u to ft h eb o d yt h r o u g ht h ea n u s . b ) Absorption The simple soluble food molecules are absorbed from the small intestine into the b l o o dw h i c ht a k e st h e mt oa l lt h ec e l l so ft h eb o d y. T h i si sk n o w na sa b s o r p t i o n . c ) Assimilation The absorbed food supplied to cells is used to release energy and build up the cell components. This is called assimilation. For example, glucose from digested food is broken down into carbon dioxide and water along w i t ht h er e l e a s eo fe n e rgy. Amino acids are used to make proteins required b yt h ec e l l s . d ) Egestion The process by which the undigested food material or waste is released from the b o d yi sc a l l e de g e s t i o n . CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 25.4 1 . W h a ta r et h ef i n g e r l i k ep r o j e c t i o n sp r e s e n ti ns m a l li n t e s t i n e sc a l l e d ? 2 . Name the enzyme that converts proteins into peptones in the stomach? 3 . What is the movement of muscles of oesophagus that pushes down food called? 4 . Name the two glands associated with digestion.
5 . N a m et h ea c i dt h a tt a k e sp a r ti nd i g e s t i o np r o c e s s . 25.5 DEFICIENCY DISEASES OR NUTRITIONAL DISORDERS Ad i s e a s et h a to c c u r sd u et ol a c ko fa d e q u a t ea n db a l a n c e dd i e ti s c a l l e dd e f i c i e n c yd i s e a s e . E a t i n gt o om u c ho fan u t r i e n to rd e f i c i e n c yo fan u t r i e n tm a yl e a dt oan u m b e ro f nutritional disorders.Intake of improper or inadequate diet in human beings is c a l l e d malnutrition. I n a b i l i t yo ft h eb o d yt oa b s o r bn u t r i e n t sp r o p e r l ym a ya l s o l e a dt om a l n u t r i t i o n .M a l n u t r i t i o ni sh a r m f u lf o rc h i l d r e na si tr e t a r d st h e i rp h y s i c a l growth and may cause mental disabilities. Deficiency diseases caused due to m a l n u t r i t i o na r eo ft h r e et y p e s : " Protein Energy Malnutrition (PEM) " Mineral deficiency diseases " Vi t a m i nd e f i c i e n c yd i s e a s e s 2 5 . 5 . 1 Protein energy malnutrition (PEM) D e f i c i e n c yo fp r o t e i n si nt h ed i e tm a yl e a dt om a l n u t r i t i o n i nc h i l d r e n .T h i si st h ep r i m er e a s o nw h yy o u rp a r e n t si n s i s t t h a ty o us h o u l dd r i n km i l k ,e a tp u l s e sa n do t h e rs o u r c e so f proteins. PEM is the most common nutritional disorder among children. Two diseases caused due to PEM are marasmus and kwashiorkor.
( a )
( b )
F i g .2 5 . 8E f f e c to f
(a) Marasmus, and a ) Marasmus (b) Kwashiorkor I ta ff e c t sc h i l d r e nu pt oo n ey e a ro fa g e .T h i so c c u r si n deprived children of mother s milk. The symptoms of this disease include: l o s so rw a s t i n go fm u s c l e s , b o d yd e v e l o p sl o o s ef o l d so fs k i n , ribs become prominent, digestion becomes weak, body growth and development slows down. I tc a nb ec u r e db ye n s u r i n gm o t h e r sm i l kf o ri n f a n t s ,b yd e l a y i n ga n o t h e rp r e g n a n c y i nc o n t i n u a t i o na n db yh a v i n gad i e tr i c hi np r o t e i n ,c a r b o h y d r a t e s ,f a t s ,v i t a m i n s a n dm i n e r a l s .
b ) Kwashiorkor Amongst children of age group 1-5 years protein deficiency causes kwashiorkor. The symptoms of this disease are: e n l a rg e m e n to fl i v e rd u et ow a t e rr e t e n t i o n , darkening of the skin with scaly appearance, hair become reddish-brown, legs become thin, and r e t a r d a t i o no fp h y s i c a la sw e l la sm e n t a lg r o w t h . E a t i n gap r o t e i n r i c hd i e tt h a tc o n s i s t so fm i l k ,m e a t ,g r o u n d n u t ,s o y a b e a n , j a g g e r y, e t c .c a nc u r ei t .
25.5.2 Mineral deficiency diseases Yo ua r ea w a r eo ft h ei m p o r t a n c eo fc e r t a i nm i n e r a l si ny o u rd i e t( r e f e r Ta b l e2 5 . 3 ) d e f i c i e n c yo ft h e s em i n e r a l si ny o u rd i e tm a yl e a dt oc e r t a i nd e f i c i e n c yd i s e a s e s . Let us study about two common mineral deficiency diseases goitre and anaemia. a ) Goitre I o d i n ei sr e q u i r e df o rt h es y n t h e s i so fh o r m o n e ,t h y r o x i n e ,p r o d u c e db yt h et h y r o i d g l a n dl o c a t e di no u rn e c kr e g i o n .P r o l o n g e di o d i n ed e f i c i e n c y c a u s e se n l a rg e m e n to ft h y r o i dg l a n di . e .g o i t r e .S e a f o o di sa g o o ds o u r c eo fi o d i n e .P e o p l el i v i n gi nc o a s t a lr e g i o nd o n o ts u ff e rf r o mi o d i n ed e f i c i e n c y. I o d i z e ds a l t ,e s p e c i a l l y f o rp e o p l el i v i n gi nt h eh i l l yr e g i o n so re v e np l a i n si s recommended to reduce incidence of goitre. b ) Anaemia This is a very common diet related condition in which the level of haemoglobin becomes lower than normal. Iron is F i g .2 5 . 9G o i t re : e n l a rgement an important constituent of haemoglobin, the respiratory o ft h et h y roid gland pigment of our blood. Iron deficiency causes deficient production of haemoglobin, resulting in the following symptoms: Body becomes pale, l a c ko fa p p e t i t e , e x h a u s t i o n , l o s so fb o d yw e i g h t , retarded growth. A ni r o n r i c hd i e tc o n s i s t i n go fs p i n a c h ,a p p l e ,b a n a n a ,g u a v a ,e g g s ,g r o u n d n u t s , e t c .c a nh e l pt oc u r ea n a e m i a . 25.5.3 Vitamin deficiency diseases a ) Xerophthalmia Lack of Vitamin A leads to Xerophthalmia, a disease in which the following symptoms are observed: cornea (white area of the eye ball) may become dry, foggy or cloudy and may u l t i m a t e l yl e a dt ot o t a lb l i n d n e s s , retarded growth, d r ys c a l ys k i n ,a n d n i g h tb l i n d n e s s( i m p r o p e rv i s i o ni nd i ml i g h t ) .
T h i sc a nb ea v o i d e db yp r o p e ri n t a k eo fg r e e nl e a f yv e g e t a b l e sl i k eS p i n a c h ,y e l l o w vegetables and fruits, such as carrots, pumpkin, papaya and ripe mango. Liver, c o dl i v e ro i l ,b u t t e ra n dg h e e also provide vitamin A. b ) Rickets Milk and liver are good sources of vitamin D, calcium and phosphorus. Beans, green vegetables, whole gram and tapioca are other sources of calcium.
P h o s p h o r u si sa l s oi nb a j r a ,g r e e nl e a f yv e g e t a b l e sa n d n u t s .C a l c i u ma n dp h o s p h o r u sa r et h em a j o rc o n s t i t u e n t so f b o n e sa n dt e e t h .T h e i rd e f i c i e n c ym a yr e s u l ti nad i s e a s e c a l l e dr i c k e t si nc h i l d r e n . Symptoms of this disease are pigeon chests and bone d e f o r m i t i e s ,p a r t i c u l a r l yo ft h el o n gb o n e s ,a st h e yc a n n o t s u s t a i nb o d yw e i g h t ,l i k eb o wl e g s . c ) Beri-beri Deficiency of Vitamin B1 i nt h ed i e tl e a d st ob e r i F i g .2 5 . 1 0R i c k e t s: b e r i .I ti sad i s e a s eo fh e a r ta n dn e r v e s .T h es y m p t o m so f d e f o r m i t i e si nl e g s t h i sd i s e a s ei n c l u d e : s w e l l i n go ft i s s u e sa n dw a t e ra c c u m u l a t i o ni nt h e body, extreme weakness, headache, p a r a l y s i sa n de v e nh e a r tf a i l u r e . This disease is observed more in people consuming more of polished rice in t h e i rd i e t . d ) Pellagra Deficiency of vitamin B4 r e s u l t si np e l l a g r a .T h i sd i s e a s ec a u s e s : reddening and drying of skin (eczema), swelling of gums and tongue, along with diarrhoea, and m e n t a ld i s o r i e n t a t i o n . Consuming a lot of maize interferes with the absorption of Vitamin B4 i nt h eb o d y. P e l l a g r ac a nb ea v o i d e db yh a v i n ga d i e tf u l lo fw h o l eg r a i nc e r e a l s ,b e a n s ,g r e e nv e g e t a b l e s ,t o m a t o , p o t a t o ,f i s ha n de g g s .
Normal hand
P e l l a g r av i c t i m s h a n d
25.6 FOOD ADULT E R ATION p e r s o ns u f f e r i n gf rom W h yd ow ep r e f e rt ob u yf o o dp r o d u c t ss o l di ns e a l e dp a c k e t s ? pellagra Why do we prefer to buy items made by a standard reliable c o m p a n y ?As i m p l ea n s w e ri st h a tt h em a n u f a c t u r e rs e l l i n gi t sp r o d u c t si ns e a l e d p a c k e t so rb r a n d se n s u r e sd e l i v e r yo fq u a l i t yo fi t sc o n t e n t st ot h ec o n s u m e r.Any a t t e m p tt om i xp u re f o o ds u b s t a n c e sw i t hc h e a p e r, s u b s t a n d a rd ,e d i b l eo ri n e d i b l e s u b s t a n c e si sc a l l e d food adulteration. Adulterants n o to n l yd e t e r i o r a t et h eq u a l i t ya n df o o dv a l u eo ft h ep r o d u c t b u tm a ya l s oc a u s es e v e r ei l le ffects. Mixing water in milk may reduce its food value. Mixing colour (complex org a n i cd y e s ) ,s t o n e s ,t o x i cc e r e a l sa n dr o t t e n ingredients in grains and pulses causes severe damage to body parts and hence s i c k n e s s . Ta b l e2 5 . 4g i v e nb e l o wl i s t ss o m eo ft h ea d u l t e r a n t su s e di nd i ff e r e n t f o o dm a t e r i a l s .
F i g .2 5 . 11 Hands of a
Table 25.4 : Some food items and their common adulterants Food item C e r e a l s P u l s e s Wheat flour,maida, s u j i,e t c . Milk E d i b l eo i l s Honey Tu r m e r i c( h a l d i ) Coriander Black pepper C h i l l i e s Common adulterants Straw, h u s k ,m u d ,s t o n e s ,g r i t ,i n f e r i o rq u a l i t yg r a i n s , i n f e c t e do ri n s e c ti n f e s t e dg r a i n s Straw, k e s a r id a l ,i n f e r i o rq u a l i t yg r a i n s ,i n f e c t e d grains, metanil yellow dye G r i t ,i n f e s t e ds t o c k ,e x c e s so fb r a n S t a r c h ,w a t e r, m i l ko fo t h e ra n i m a l s ,e x t r a c t i o no f f a t s ,s y n t h e t i cm i l k M i n e r a lo i l ,a rg e m o n eo i l ,a r t i f i c i a lc o l o r s Sugar syrup, jaggery Starch coloured with chromate or metanil yellow dye Powdered cow/horse dung, saw dust, starch Dried papaya seeds Saw dust, colour dust
25.6.1 Prevention of food adulteration To p r e v e n ta d u l t e r a t i o no ff o o dp r o d u c t s ,o u rg o v e r n m e n th a si s s u e dc e r t a i nl a w s . T h e s ei n c l u d e : Prevention of Food Adulteration Act and Rules a n d Food Product Orders w h i c hs e r v et h ef o l l o w i n gf u n c t i o n s : lay a minimum standard for the quality of food requires date of manufacture and expiry to be mentioned on the packet of the food item q u a n t i t yo ft h ec o n t e n tt ob ei n d i c a t e d
I nI n d i a ,t h e Bureau of Indian Standards c a r r i e so u tt h ec e r t i f i c a t i o no f food products at the manufacturer se n d . CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 25.5 1 . Give the full form of PEM. 2 . Name any two diseases caused due to lack of vitamins. 3 . W h i c ht y p eo fs a l ti n t a k ec a np r e v e n to c c u r r e n c eo fg o i t r e ? 4 . List any two symptoms of anaemia. 5 . Name one common adulterant used in edible oils. 6 . Name the org a n i z a t i o nt h a tc e r t i f i e sf o o dq u a l i t yi nI n d i a . LET US REVISE Food is the raw material that our body needs to grow and stay healthy. Nutrition amongst org a n i s m sc o u l db ea u t o t r o p h i co rh e t e r o t r o p h i c( p a r a s i t i c a n ds a p r o t r o p h i c ) . The process by which green plants synthesize their food is called p h o t o s y n t h e s i s .
T h er a wm a t e r i a l so fp h o t o s y n t h e s i sa r ec a r b o nd i o x i d ea n dw a t e r. T h ee n dp r o d u c t s a r eg l u c o s ea n do x y g e n . E x t r ag l u c o s em a yg e tc o n v e r t e di n t os u c r o s e ,f r u c t o s e ,c e l l u l o s e ,s t a r c h ,f a t s , o i l s ,p r o t e i n s ,e t c .i no u rb o d y. Ab a l a n c e dd i e ti n c l u d e sa l lt h ee s s e n t i a ln u t r i e n t s ,i nt h er e q u i r e dp r o p o r t i o n , along with water and roughage. Components of balanced diet are carbohydrates, proteins, fats, vitamins and m i n e r a l s .T h er a t i oo ft h ea b o v e m e n t i o n e di t e m s ,i nt h ed i e t ,n e e d st oc h a n g e w i t ht h ea g e ,s e xa n dp r o f e s s i o n . L a c ko fb a l a n c e dd i e tl e a d st ov a r i o u sn u t r i t i o n a ld i s o r d e r s . T h ep r o c e s so fn u t r i t i o ni n c l u d e ss t e p so fi n g e s t i o n ,d i g e s t i o n ,a b s o r p t i o n , a s s i m i l a t i o na n de g e s t i o n . C o n v e r s i o no fc o m p l e xf o o dm a t e r i a li n t os m a l l e ru n i t ss ot h a ti tc a ne n t e rt h e c e l l si sc a l l e dd i g e s t i o n . Certain chemicals called enzymes play an important role in the process of d i g e s t i o n. Hormones are the chemical messengers, which regulate body functions. S a l i v a r yg l a n d si nt h em o u t h ,l i v e ra n dp a n c r e a sh e l pi nd i g e s t i o na n da r e c a l l e dg l a n d u l a ro rg a n so ra s s o c i a t e dg l a n d s . D i g e s t i o no fp r o t e i n sy i e l d sa m i n oa c i d s .D i g e s t i o no fo i l sa n df a t sg i v e sf a t t y a c i d sa n dg l y c e r o l . D i g e s t i o ns t a r t si nt h em o u t ha n dc o n t i n u e su pt ot h el a rg ei n t e s t i n e . T h el o n gt u b eo rc a n a lo ft h ed i g e s t i v es y s t e mi sc a l l e da l i m e n t a r yc a n a l . L a c ko fb a l a n c e dd i e tm a yl e a dt on u t r i t i o n a ld i s o r d e r s . D e f i c i e n c yd i s e a s e sm a yb ed u et op r o t e i n s ( k w a s h i o r k o ra n dm a r a s m u s ) ,m i n e r a l s ( g o i t r ea n da n a e m i a ) o rv i t a m i n s (x e r o p h t h a l m i a ,b e r i b e r i ,p e l l a g r a ,r i c k e t s ) Mixing pure food substances with cheaper, s u b s t a n d a r d ,e d i b l eo ri n e d i b l e s u b s t a n c e si sc a l l e df o o da d u l t e r a t i o n . TERMINAL EXERCISES A. Multiple choice type questions. 1 . O n eo ft h ef o l l o w i n gi sn o tas t e po fn u t r i t i o n a ) I n g e s t i o n b ) Assimilation c ) S e c r e t i o n d ) Egestion 2 . R i c k e t si sc a u s e dd u et od e f i c i e n c yo f a ) I r o n b ) Vitamin D c ) P r o t e i n s d ) Carbohydrates
3 . One gram of a substance was oxidized. The energy released amounted to 9.0 Kcal. The substance was of the type: a ) Carbohydrates b ) F a t s c ) Vi t a m i n s d ) P r o t e i n s 4 . Ap e r s o nl i v i n gi nt h eh i l l yr e g i o n so fS h i m l ad e v e l o p e ds w e l l i n gi nh i sn e c k region. The doctor said his thyroid gland got swelled up. Can you name the n u t r i e n td e f i c i e n ti nh i sd i e t ? a ) Calcium b ) I r o n c ) Phosphorus d ) I o d i n e 5 . T h ev i t a m i nt h a th e l p si nt h ec l o t t i n go fb l o o di s a ) Vitamin A b ) Vitamin D c ) Vitamin E d ) Vitamin K B. Descriptive type questions. 1 . List the major components of food. 2 . D e f i n eb a l a n c e dd i e t . 3 . If equal amounts of fats or carbohydrates were oxidized, which of them would yield more energy? 4 . How would you establish the presence of starch in a given sample? 5 . What are vitamins? Name the diff e r e n tt y p e so ff a t s o l u b l ev i t a m i n s . 6 . L i s tt h ef u n c t i o n so ff o o d ? 7 . D e f i n ea d u l t e r a t i o ni nf o o d .N a m ea na g e n c yt h a tc e r t i f i e sr e l i a b i l i t yo ff o o d produced. 8 . Name five common adulterants in food. 9 . D i ff e r e n t i a t eb e t w e e np a r a s i t i ca n ds a p r o p h y t i cn u t r i t i o n . 1 0 . What are the main steps of photosynthesis? Is sunlight essential for photosynthesis and why? 11 . Give the chemical equation of photosynthesis. 1 2 . Ap a t i e n tc o m p l a i n so fl a c ko fa p p e t i t e ,e x h a u s t i o na n di sl o s i n gw e i g h t . Diagnose the deficiency. W h a tk i n do fd i e tw o u l dy o us u g g e s tf o rt h ep a t i e n t ? 1 3 . Deficiency of which vitamin causes night blindness. What would you suggest t op r e v e n tt h i sd e f i c i e n c y ? 1 4 . W h yi sw a t e ra ne s s e n t i a ln u t r i e n to fab a l a n c e dd i e t ? 1 5 . Draw a neat and labelled diagram of the human alimentary canal.
1 6 .D i s c u s st h ef i v es t e p si n v o l v e di nt h ep r o c e s so fn u t r i t i o n . 1 7 .W h e r ed o e st h ed i g e s t i o no fs t a r c h ,p r o t e i n sa n df a t st a k ep l a c ea n dw h a ti st h e r o l ep l a y e db yt h ea s s o c i a t e dg l a n d s ? 1 8 . Which component in your diet will not be digested if the enzyme lipase is not s e c r e t e d ?A l s on a m et h es e c r e t i o nt h a th e l p si nt h ea c t i v i t yo ft h i se n z y m e . 1 9 .W h a ta r et h eb u i l d i n gb l o c k so fp r o t e i n s ?C l a s s i f yp r o t e i n so nt h eb a s i so f their functions along with one example. ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 2 5 . 1 1 . 2 . 3 . 4 . 5 . 6 . 2 5 . 2 1 . 2 . 3 . 4 . 5 . Autotrophs and heterotrophs Mushrooms, bread mould, bacteria, yeast (any two) Autotrophs/plants P a r a s i t e s :L i v eo no ri n s i d eo t h e rl i v i n go rg a n i s m st od e r i v et h e i rf o o d Saprophytes: Derive their food from dead and rotten organisms P a r a s i t e s :l e e c h , Cuscuta ( d o d d e rp l a n t ) ,h e a dl o u s e Saprotrophs: yeast and mushroom D o d d e rp l a n to r Amar bel Chloroplast Dark reaction P o t a t o ,o n i o n ,t a p i o c a( a n yt w o ) Sucrose s u n l i g h t 6CO2 + 12H2O c a r b o n w a t e r c h l o r o p h y l l d i o x i d e
C 6H 12O 6 + 6H2O + 6O2 g l u c o s e w a t e r o x y g e n
2 5 . 3 1 . 2 . 3 . 4 . 5 . 2 5 . 4 1 . 2 . 3 . 4 . 5 .
Roughage adds bulk to the food and helps in digestion. Hormones, such as insulin, growth hormone, thyroxine One gram of fatty substance yeilds more energy upon oxidation; Carbohydrates: 4.2 Kcal/g; Fats: 9 Kcal/g Wa t e rs o l u b l e : Vitamins B and C; Fat soluble: Vitamins A, D, E and K Vi t a m i n sa r eo rganic molecules, while minerals are inorg a n i cs a l t s . Vi l l i(s i n g.Vi l l u s ) Pepsin P e r i s t a l s i s S a l i v a r yg l a n d s ,l i v e ra n dp a n c r e a s HCl (hydrochloric acid)
2 5 . 5 1 . 2 . 3 . 4 . 5 . 6 .
P r o t e i nE n e r g yM a l n u t r i t i o n N i g h tb l i n d n e s s ,p e l l a g r a ,b e r i b e r i ,r i c k e t s( a n yt w o ) U s eo fi o d i z e ds a l t L a c ko fa p p e t i t e ,l o s so fb o d yw e i g h t M i n e r a lo i l ,a rgemone oil (any one) Bureau of Indian Standards
GLOSSARY Nutrition: The process by which org a n i s m so b t a i nm a t e r i a lf o rt h e i rg r o w t h and development (from their environment). Autotrophs: O rganisms that can manufacture their own food. Hetero t rophs: O rganisms that depend upon other org a n i s m sf o rt h e i rf o o d . Sapro t rophs: O rganisms that derive their food from dead and rotten o rganisms. P a r a s i t e s :O rg a n i s m st h a tl i v eo no ri n s i d et h eb o d yo fo t h e rl i v i n go rganisms t od e r i v et h e i rf o o d . Photosynthesis: The process by which green plants manufacture food from c a r b o nd i o x i d ea n dw a t e ri nt h ep r e s e n c eo fs u n l i g h t . Nutrients: C h e m i c a lc o n s t i t u e n t sp r e s e n ti no u rf o o da n dr e q u i r e df o rt h e nourishment of our body. Balanced diet: D i e tt h a tc o n t a i n sa d e q u a t ea m o u n t so fe s s e n t i a ln u t r i e n t s , s u c ha sc a r b o h y d r a t e s ,f a t s ,p r o t e i n s ,m i n e r a l s ,v i t a m i n sa n dw a t e r. D i g e s t i o n :C o n v e r s i o no fc o m p l e xf o o dm a t e r i a li n t os m a l l e ru n i t ss ot h a ti t c a nb ea b s o r b e db yt h ec e l l s .
26
Transport of Materials in Plants and Animals

All plants need water. The wilted leaves recover when water is added to the soil, which means that water has been conducted upward into the leaves. You have also learnt that the leaves for photosynthesis need water. Likewise, the food produced in the leaves has to be transported to other parts of the plant including the stem, the roots flowers and fruits etc. All this transportation is the function of conducting tissues. Similarly, in animals, the food absorbed by the gut has to be carried to all the body parts, oxygen absorbed in the lungs has to be transported to every cell of the body, the carbon dioxide produced in the cells has to be carried to the lungs for elimination, and the poisonous body wastes like urea has to be transported to the kidneys for elimination in urine, and so on. All such functions are the outcome of a transport system. You will read about these aspects of plant and animal life in this lesson. OBJECTIVES After completing this lesson, you will be able to: explain the need for a system of transport in plants and animals; list and explain mechanism for movement of molecules such as diffusion, osmosis and active transport; explain the structure and function of xylem and phloem in plants; recognise the importance of blood as a medium of transport; explain the structure and function of human heart; describe the composition of blood; differentiate between arteries, veins, and capillaries; list the major blood groups and state the matching groups for blood transfusion; mention disorders of circulatory system. 26.1 MECHANISMS FOR MOVEMENT OF MOLECULES Molecules move in and out of a cell through the cell membrane, which forms the boundary of each cell. The cell membrane is selectively permeable to substances, which means that it permits entry and exit of certain molecules only. The movement of molecules takes place by diffusion, osmosis, and active transport
: 194 : Transport of Materials in Plants and Animals
26.1.1 Diffusion Molecules move out from their region of higher concentration to the region of lower concentration. For example, during respiration, oxygen-laden air in lungs being at a higher concentration moves into blood capillaries having lower concentration of oxygen in them. Such movement of particles or molecules from a region of their higher concentration to a region of their lower concentration is termed diffusion.
Semi-permeable membrane Sugar molecule
Watar molecule
Watar Watar molecules at high concentration
Sugar solution Watar molecules at low concentration
26.1.2 Osmosis Osmosis is the movement of water molecules from a region having more water molecules to a region having less water molecules when separated by a semipermeable membrane. Semipermeable membrane means a membrane, which allows some molecules (e.g. water molecules) to pass through it but not some other larger molecules (Fig. 26.1). No energy is spent during diffusion or osmosis.
Fig. 26.1 The process of osmosis
26.1.3 Active transport In active transport, molecules have to move (against concentration gradient) i.e., from a region of their lower concentration to a region of their higher concentration. Energy is required in active transport. 26.2 TRANSPORT OF MATERIALS IN PLANTS
26.2.1 Transport of water Roots of plants take up water and minerals from the soil. How does this water move up from roots to leaves for needs like photosynthesis? You have already learnt about conducting tissues of plants xylem and phloem in lesson 24. Tracheids and vessels (Fig. 26.2), which are non-living cells of xylem, transport water picked up by root hairs (Fig. 26.3) from soil to the leaves.
Open end of vessel
Lignified wall Lignified thickening to give the wall extra strength Root hair
Cavity carries water and mineral salts
Root tip
Root cap
Fig. 26.2 Vessels in xylem
Fig. 26.3 Root hairs
Transport of Materials in Plants and Animals : 195 :
The upward movement of water and minerals termed ascent of sap is against gravity and is due to transpiration pull. Transpiration is the process in which a lot of water evaporates (as water vapour) from pores on the surface of leaf called stomata (Fig. 26.4). This evaporation creates a vacuum and pulls up water through the xylem. 26.2.2 Transport of food material Sugars and other food molecules synthesised in the leaves are transported to other parts of the plant through phloem. Sieve tubes are living cells of the phloem, which transport food (Fig. 26.5). Transport of food material from leaves to other parts of the plant is called translocation. This food may be stored in fruits, stem or roots. CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 26.1 1. In which type of molecular movement is energy required? 2. Define osmosis. 3. Name the two kinds of cells of xylem. 4. Which cells of phloem pass on food from one part of the plant to another? 5. Which out of the following are non-living parts: tracheids, vessels, sieve tubes?
Fig. 26.4 Structure of stomata
Nucleus
Stomatal pore
Guard cell epidermal cell
Chloroplast
End wall perforated by pores
26.3 TRANSPORT OF MATERIALS IN ANIMALS In the body of majority of animals, substances are transported from one part of the body to another through blood. Thus blood is the tissue for transport and circulates throughout the body. Circulatory system consists of organs, which make blood circulate throughout the body. Blood transports nutrients, respiratory gases, hormones and waste material from one part of the body to another.
Cellulose wall
Cavity contains very fine strands of cytoplasm
26.3.1 Human circulatory system Fig. 26.5 Sieve tubes in phloem Human circulatory system consists of (i) Centrally located muscular pump called heart, and (ii) Blood vessels, which are tube-like structures, connected to the heart (Fig. 26.6). Blood vessels are of three kinds: Arteries: Carry blood from heart to various parts of body. Veins: Bring blood from various parts of body to the heart. Capillaries: Thin vessels between the artery and the vein. The capillaries allow the exchange of materials between blood and tissues.
Jugular vein
Carotid artery Subclavian artery Aorta
Subclavian vein
Pulmonary vein
Heart
Vena cava Hepatic vein
Pulmonary artery Lung
Liver Hepatic portal vein Gut Renal vein
Hepatic artery
Kidney
renal artery
mesenteric artery Iliac vein Iliac artery
Fig. 26.6 Circulatory system in human beings
Sinoatrial node
Left auricle
Right auricle
26.3.2 Heart a) Structure: Heart is a powerful muscular organ lying between lungs in the upper part of thorax of our body. It is four-chambered- two (right and left) atria (sing. atrium, also called auricles), and two (right and left) ventricles. (Fig. 26.7). The heart is made of specialised muscle cells (also called cardiac muscle fibers), which contract and relax all the time without getting tired. The contraction and relaxation follows a rhythm called heartbeat to pump blood into the vessels.
Right ventricle
Left ventricle
Fig. 26.7 The human heart
Rhythmic heart beat results in the proper transport of substances to the various organs. In one minute, normal human heart beats about 72 times. Abnormalities in heartbeat can be seen by taking ECG or Electrocardiography (Fig. 26.8).
b) Functions of heart: A large vein, the vena cava collects impure or deoxygenated blood (blood low in oxygen and high in carbon dioxide) through veins from all parts of the body and empties into the right atrium. At the same time vein from the lungs brings oxygen-laden blood to left atrium. At this time all the four chambers of the heart are relaxed. Then the atria contract and impure blood (blood full of carbon-dioxide) from right atrium enters the right ventricle and purified blood (blood full of oxygen) from left atrium enters the left ventricle. Valves within the heart prevent blood from flowing back. Next, the ventricles contract while the atria relax. Blood to be purified is transported to the lungs from right ventricle through two pulmonary arteries. The oxygen laden blood from the left ventricle gets pumped into a large artery called aorta. It carries oxygenated blood to all parts of the body (Fig. 26.9). You must have noticed that veins bring impure blood to the heart and the arteries take the pure blood away from the heart. But here are two exceptions the pulmonary artery carries impure blood and the pulmonary vein carries pure blood.
Fig. 26.8 Electrocardiograph
Head
Anterior vena cava
Lungs Pulmonary vein
Carotid artery
Great veins (venae cavae)
Pulmonary artery Heart
RA LA
RV LV Aorta Posterior vena cava Hepatic vein Liver Hepatic artery
Hepatic portal vein Gut
Rest of Body
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 26.2 Fig. 26.9 General plan of the human 1. What are the different parts of human circulatory system circulatory system? 2. What are capillaries? 3. In which category of blood vessels exchange of nutrients and respiratory gases occur between blood and tissues? 4. Name the kind of muscle fibres that make the heart? 5. What is the function of valves in the heart? 26.3.3 Blood Blood is a connective tissue that circulates throughout the body. It is made up of a fluid medium called plasma in which float three types of blood cells, called red blood cells, white blood cells and blood platelets. Blood cells are manufactured in the bone marrow. (Fig. 26.10) a) Red blood cells (RBC or Erythrocytes)
These are circular in shape, and contain a red coloured pigment called haemoglobin No nucleus is present in RBCs RBC carry oxygen to tissues and bring back carbon dioxide from tissues About 5 million mm 3 erythrocytes occur in circulating blood
Section through red cell (a) Red cells
Blood platelets Bacteria
Nucleus
Phagocyte
Lymphocyte (c) White cell engulfing bacteria
(b) Two types of white cells
Fig. 26.10 Types of blood cells
b) White blood cells (WBC or Leucocytes)
In the circulating blood 5000 to 7000 mm3 WBCs are present Since they carry no pigments, therefore, they so are colourless WBC have irregular shape They prevent body from infections by eating up germs or by producing antibodies
c) Blood platelets (Thrombocytes) These are very small fragments of cells They have no nuclei They participate in clotting of blood Functions of blood: Blood carries nutrients, oxygen, carbon dioxide, hormones and waste material to the relevant parts of the body. Some medicines when taken in the body are also distributed through blood. 26.4 BLOOD GROUPS AND BLOOD TRANSFUSION You must have heard that blood has to be arranged for a person undergoing a surgery (operation) or in the case of an accident. This arrangement is to replace blood lost from the patient. Injecting blood into the body from outside is called blood transfusion. Blood transfusion is successful only when the blood of donor (who gives blood) and of the recipient (who receives blood) match. Unmatched blood transfusion causes agglutination (clumping together) of red cells due to which the recipient may even die. Blood of all human beings belongs to one of four blood groups named A, B, AB and O. the blood group is inherited from parents. Table 26.1 shows the matching blood groups. Table 26.1 : Various blood groups in humans
BloodGroup A B AB O
Can donate to blood group A, AB B, AB AB A, B, AB, O
Can receive blood from blood group A, O B, O A, B, AB, O O
The same may be depicted in a simple form as follows: You must have noticed that persons with blood group O can donate blood to all and O group is called universal donor and AB group can receive blood from all and is called universal recipient.
A
Universal donor
AB
Universal recepient
26.5 LYMPHATIC SYSTEM B Lymph is also a circulatory fluid and flows in the lymph vessels. ! It is light yellow in colour. ! It always flows only in one direction from tissues to heart. ! Cells called lymphocytes present in lymph eat up germs and prevent body from infections. ! Lymph carries digested fats from intestine to other parts. ! It returns proteins and fluid from circulation to tissues. 26.6 DISORDERS RELATED TO CIRCULATORY SYSTEM 1. Heart attack: Like all other organs, heart also needs food and oxygen. When arteries supplying the heart become thick due to age or faulty diet consisting of excessive fatty food, muscle cells of the heart cannot beat in the proper rhythm. Heart attack occurs which can be detected in an abnormal ECG and there are methods of treatment. 2. Anaemia: When haemoglobin level falls below a certain point the condition is called anaemia. It makes the person weak and look pale and inactive. Iron in the diet helps remove anaemia. 3. Leukemia: This is blood cancer. The bone narrow makes excessive WBCs at the cost of RBCs. 4. Hypertension: It is high blood pressure and leads to headache, dizziness and fatigue. Normal blood pressure is 120/80. High blood pressure is caused by anxiety also. Proper diet, exercise, medicines and tension free mind helps to cure high blood pressure. CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 26.3 1. What are the components of blood? 2. State one function each of RBC, WBC, and blood platelets. 3. Which category of blood cells do not have nuclei? 4. Which blood group is called universal donor? 5. In which direction does lymph flow? LET US REVISE
Molecules move in and out of cells by diffusion, osmosis or active transport. Diffusion is movement of molecules from region of their higher concentration to the region of their lower concentration. In osmosis, water molecules move from their region of higher concentration to that of their lower concentration. In active transport, molecules move against concentration gradient. Energy is required for active transport. In plants, water is absorbed from soil by root hairs and reach leaves and other parts through xylem vessels. Tracheids and vessels are cells of xylem. They are non-living. Ascent of sap is facilitated by transpiration pull. Food in plants is translocated by phloem. Sieve tubes, the cells of phloem are living structures. In most animals, blood circulates through heart and blood vessels to reach all parts of body. Blood flowing through the body transports food, nutrients, oxygen, hormones, metabolic waste and carbon dioxide. Heart in humans is four-chambered, two upper chambers are called atria and lower chambers are ventricles. Heart is made of cardiac muscle fibres. Heart pumps blood into blood vessels for transport by relaxing and contracting in a rhythmic manner called heartbeat. Heartbeat is recorded as ECG or Electrocardiogram. Of the blood vessels, artery carries blood away from heart, vein carries blood towards heart. Capillaries are thin blood-vessels between an artery and a vein. Blood is made of plasma, a fluid and three types of blood cells called RBC, WBC and blood platelets (cell fragments). RBCs are circular, non nucleated and carry respiratory gases. They contain a red pigment, haemoglobin. WBCs are colourless and of varied shape. They protect the body from infections. Blood platelets play a role in blood clotting. Blood transfusion can save life when blood loss occurs due to accident or surgery. Every human being belongs to one of four blood groups: A, B, AB and O. Blood transfusion can be between matching blood groups. O group is universal donor and AB blood group is universal recipient. Lymphatic system is made of lymph vessels in which a colourless fluid called lymph flows. Lymph flows only from tissues to heart and serves to transport proteins and digested fat. TERMINAL EXERCISES
A. Multiple choice type questions. 1. Which cells of conducting tissues of plants are dead? a) Sieve tubes b) Tracheids c) Stomata d) Phloem 2. Which kind of muscle fibres is found in the human heart? a) Striated b) Unstriated c) Cardiac d) Voluntary 3. What is a lymph? a) A fluid which flows in one direction only b) A fluid which carries material from heart to tissues c) Another name for blood d) A fluid with red coloured cells 4. What happens when the atria contract? a) Blood from left ventricle flows into aorta. b) Blood from right ventricle flows into pulmonary artery. c) Blood from pulmonary vein enters left atrium. d) Blood which is almost without oxygen flows from right atrium to right ventricle. 5. Pulmonary artery carries carbon dioxide laden blood while all other arteries carry oxygenated blood. It is still called an artery because, a) its structure is like that of a artery b) it carries blood away from heart c) it transports blood towards the heart d) it brings blood from lungs to heart B. Descriptive type questions. 1. Name the three kinds of blood cells. 2. How many chambers does the human heart have? What are the lower chambers called? 3. Name the two kinds of cells of xylem. 4. Through which pores on the leaf does transpiration occur? 5. Mention one point of distinction between (a) artery and vein(b) vein and capillary 6. What happens to blood when (a) right atrium contracts (b) left ventricle contracts 7. From donor of which blood group can a person with blood group O receive blood? 8. State two functions of lymph. 9. In plants, where is food synthesised and through which tissue is it translocated? 10. What does ascent of sap mean?
11. Describe the events in the heartbeat. 12. Make a flow chart to show the flow of blood from one chamber of heart to the other and to the lungs and other parts of the body. 13. Draw a simple labelled diagram of the internal structure of human heart. 14. Write a note on lymph. 15. Write a note on composition of blood. 16. Name two disorders related to the circulatory system and write a note on any one of them. C. Difficult but try Rahuls blood group is A, Gitas blood group is AB and Ravis blood group is O. Who can donate blood to whom in case of an emergency? ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 26.1 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 26.2 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 26.3 1. 2. Active transport Net movement of water molecules from a region of higher concentration of water to a region of lower concentration of water. Tracheids and vessels. Sieve tubes Tracheids, vessels Heart and blood vessels like artery, vein and capillaries Thin walled blood vessels through which exchange of material takes place. Capillaries connect artery to vein. Capillaries Cardiac muscle fibres To permit blood to flow only in one direction / to prevent back flow of blood. Plasma and blood cells like RBC, WBC and blood platelets. RBC To carry oxygen to tissues from lungs / carbon dioxide from tissues to lungs. WBC To eat up foreign particles, to produce antibodies, to fight against disease Blood platelets Factor required for blood clotting RBC Group O From tissues to heart GLOSSARY
3. 4. 5.
Selectively permeable: That membrane which permits transport of only certain molecules through it and not others. Diffusion: Process of movement of molecules from the region of their higher concentration to the region of their lower concentration. Osmosis: Process of movement of molecules of water from region of their higher concentration to a region of lower concentration of water. Active transport: Movement of molecules, with consumption of energy against the concentration gradient that is from a region of their lower concentration to that of their higher concentration. Transpiration pull: Ascent of water against gravity because of pull exerted by transpiration of water from leaves. Translocation: Transport of food materials in plants from leaves to other parts. Atria: Upper chambers of the human heart. Ventricles: Lower chambers of the human heart. Blood transfusion: Introduction of blood from one person into another. Universal donor: A blood group in whose case blood can be donated to all other groups. Blood group O is considered as the universal donor. Universal recipient: A blood group in whose case blood from any other group can be received during blood transfusion. Heart attack: A condition of the muscles of heart in which rhythm of heartbeat becomes abnormal. Leukemia: Blood cancer in which the number of WBCs increase in blood beyond normal number. Hypertension: High blood pressure.
: 204 : Respiratory Gaseous Exchange and Elimination of Body Wastes
27
Respiratory Gaseous Exchange and Elimination of Body Wastes

We can live without food for several days but we cannot live without breathing even for a short while. Breathing provides oxygen to the cells of our body for oxidation of food in order to generate energy for various activities. Breathing along with utilization of oxygen in the cells and release of carbon dioxide is included in the process of respiration. Another vital function of life is excretion. Excretion is the process of eliminating certain body waste, which if retained in the body would act like a poison and make us ill or even kill us. In this lesson, you shall learn how oxygen reaches all the cells and how carbon dioxide and other wastes are removed from our body. Plants too need to respire as well as need to remove wastes from their body. You will also learn about respiration in plants in this lesson. OBJECTIVES After completing this lesson, you will be able to: distinguish between breathing and respiration; explain the need for respiratory gaseous exchange; explain the structure of stomata and their role in respiratory gaseous exchange in plants; sketch the human respiratory organs; explain the mechanism of breathing in the human body; explain briefly the exchange of gases at the level of tissues; name few respiratory disorders; define the term excretion; give a brief account of excretion in plants; list the different parts of human excretory system and draw them; explain briefly the mechanism of waste formation and its elimination; suggest a treatment for kidney failure.
Respiratory Gaseous Exchange and Elimination of Body Wastes : 205 :
27.1 NEED FOR RESPIRATORY GASEOUS EXCHANGE Every cell of our body needs to produce energy for its activities. This energy is produced by oxidising the food (glucose), which the cell receives as product of digestion. Oxygen is required for oxidation of glucose in the cell. The intake of oxygen for the release of energy by its action on glucose is termed as respiration. 27.2 BREATHING AND RESPIRATION The mechanism by which organisms obtain oxygen from the environment and release carbon dioxide into it is termed breathing. Respiration in ordinary sense is a wider term, it includes breathing as well as (i) exchange of oxygen and carbondioxide in the tissues, and (ii) action of oxygen on glucose inside the cell to release energy (oxidation). 27.3 RESPIRATION IN PLANTS Plants do not have any special respiratory organs. Roots take up oxygen by means of root hair (Fig. 27.1). Root hair are embedded in the soil. Oxygen in the air surrounding them diffuses into the root hair and from there into Lateral root the roots. The carbon dioxide given out, similarly, diffuses out through roots. You may check the mechanism of diffusion in the lesson Primary root 26 on transportation.
Root hairs
Apical meristem Root cap
Tiny apertures called stomata (Fig. 27.2) are found on the surface of the leaf. They have a mechanism for opening and closing. They open to let in oxygen and release carbon dioxide. In the older parts of roots or bark of woody plants, tiny openings called lenticels are present. It is through these lenticels that oxygen reaches the Thick cell wall inner living tissues and carbon dioxide moves out. CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 27.1 1. Roots are present below the soil. Do they pick up oxygen from air surrounding the root hair or from the water surrounding them? 2. Name the apertures found on the green stems and leaves that let in oxygen.
Fig. 27.1 Root hairs

Flaccid guard cell Closed Turgid guard cell Open
Stoma closed
Stoma open
Thin cell wall When a plant has plenty of water, the guard cells become turgid. The cell wall on the inner surface is very thick, so it cannot stretch as much as the outer surface. So as the guard cells swells up, they curve away from each other, opening the stoma.
When a plant is short of water, the guard cells become flaccid closing the stoma.
Fig.27.2 Opening and closing of stomata
3.
The bark of woody plants is dead but the inner layers inside the bark are living. How do they get oxygen and release carbon dioxide? 4. Differentiate between breathing and respiration. 5. How does respiration help in the release of energy? 27.4 RESPIRATION IN ANIMALS
Animals have special organs for respiration. Most aquatic animals have gills (e.g. fish, prawn). The major organs for respiration in land animals are the lungs.
Nostril Tongue Trachea (windpipe)
Rib Bronchiole
Left lung Bronchi
(a) Fish (gill breather)
Diaphragm (b) Human (lung breather)
Heart
Fig. 27.3 Gill and lung breather
27.4.1 Respiration in human beings Like other land animals, human beings take in oxygen from the surrounding air and release carbon dioxide into it. 27.4.1a Respiratory system Respiratory system of human beings has the following parts (Fig. 27.4). External nares or nostrils Nasal cavities inside the nose Internal nostrils opening into pharynx Pharynx that leads into the wind pipe or trachea Trachea divides into two bronchi (sing bronchus) which lead into the two lungs
Branch of pulmonary artery
Bronchiole
Alveoli covered with capillaries
Branch of pulmonary vein
Voice box
Alveoli Wind pipe Alveoli cut open Bronchus Ribs Right lung Bronchiole Heart Rib
Diaphargm
Fig. 27.4 Respiratory system in human beings
The opening of the pharynx into the trachea is called glottis. Trachea is thin walled but its walls do not collapse even when there is negligible amount of air in it as it is supported by rings of cartilage. Lungs enclose within them branches of bronchi called bronchioles which branch further and end in very thin walled sac-like structures called air sacs or alveoli (sing. alveolus). 27.4.1b Mechanism of breathing or Ventilation of lungs Lungs are located in the chest cavity or the thoracic cavity. Below the chest cavity is the abdominal cavity. These two cavities are separated from each other by a dome-shaped (upwardly arched) muscular sheet called diaphragm (see figure). The movements of this diaphragm help in breathing. Breathing, also called ventilation of the lungs involves two processes inhalation (taking the air inside) exhalation (forcing the air out) (i) Inhalation (drawing the air inwards) (Fig. 27.5a) is the result of increase in the volume of the thoracic cavity. This increase is caused by the changes that take place in the position of diaphragm and ribs. Diaphragm straightens out Ribs are raised upward and outward and volume of chest cavity increases. The air drawn in brings in oxygen which diffuses into the alveolar air. (ii) Exhalation (Fig. 27.5b) is the result of decrease in the volume of the thoracic cavity. This decrease in the volume is caused due to the following: Diaphragm relaxes and resumes its domeshape arching upwards.
Diaphargm springs up Volume of thorax decreases, forcing air out of the lungs
Rib cage is raised
Volume of thorax increases, so air is drawn into the lungs Diaphargm is pulled down
(a) Inhalation Trachea
Rib cage drops down
Ribs are lowered downward and inward. The thoracic cavity is compressed and the pressure inside the lungs is increased. Air is pushed out through the trachea and nose. The alveolar carbon dioxide diffuses out. This breathing out of carbon dioxide laden air is called exhalation. You can breathe heavily and feel your chest go up and down.
(a) Exhalation
Fig. 27.5 How the thorax changes shape during breathing
Breathing rate When at rest, an adult human breathes about 16 to 18 times per minute. Breathing rate increases during physical exercise, disease, fever, pain and under stress. Exchange of gases between blood and tissues Inhalation fills in the alveoli of lungs with oxygenated air. This oxygen has to reach the various tissues of the body. Thus as the first step, blood capillaries on alveoli (Fig 27.6) pick up oxygen from alveoli and carbon dioxide brought by the capillaries from the tissues is exchanged for oxygen and diffuses into alveoli.
Air moves in and out Bronchiole Cell in wall of capillary Wall of alveolus Wall of capillary
Cell in wall of alveolus CO2 diffuse O2 diffuse in out Alveolus

Blood vessels bring blood without much oxygen from the pulmonary veins
Air space in alveolus

Blood vessels return oxygenated blood to the pulmonary veins
Red blood Elastic fibre cell

White blood cell, which can destroy bacteria that get into the alveolus
Layer of moisture
Red blood cell
(a) Alveoli
(b) Section through part of a lung (magnified)
(c) Gaseous exchange in an alveolus
Fig. 27.6 Exchange of gases between blood and alveoli
In the tissues, oxygen gets used up and carbon dioxide is accumulated which is now exchanged for oxygen. The carbon dioxide picked up by blood from tissues is carried to the heart through veins. 27.4.1c Cellular respiration Once inside the tissues, oxygen acts upon the digested food (glucose) which has reached the cells of the tissues. As a result energy and carbon dioxide are released. This occurs in the mitochondria of the cells and is called cellular respiration. Respiration suffers at high altitudes and great depths. Do you know why mountaineers and sea divers carry oxygen cylinders and wear oxygen masks? As we climb higher and higher altitudes, the air pressure becomes lower and lower. Reduced oxygen supply causes breathing troubles and oxygen masks facilitate breathing. People living in hilly areas have evolved adaptation such as increased number of red blood corpuseles and large thoracic cavity. Divers carry oxygen masks because we derive our respiratory oxygen from air and not water.
27.4.1d Artificial respiration A victim of an accident like drowning, electric shock or inhalation of poisonous gas suffers from asphyxia or the condition of lack of oxygen. The symptoms are blueing of lips, fingernails, tongues and stoppage of breathing. In such cases mouth-to-mouth respiration is given. You must have realised how important respiration is for survival. Medical technology has introduced certain gadgets like the oxygen mask and ventilators which aid in respiration when a patient develops breathing problems. Often these help the patient to overcome respiratory problems. 27.4.2 Respiratory disorders Two common diseases of the respiratory system are bronchitis and pneumonia. 27.4.2a Bronchitis In bronchitis, the bronchi and bronchioles get inflamed and their cavities become narrow so that air cannot pass in and out of lungs easily. The pathway gets constricted either due to accumulation of mucus on the walls of the bronchi or bronchioles. This happens due to excessive smoking. Also infection of the accumulated mucus leads to inflammation of walls of the lungs and bronchi, which narrow the airways and cause difficulty in breathing. 27.4.2b Pneumonia Pneumonia is caused by pneumococci bacteria. These bacteria attack the trachea and bronchi and spread to the terminal bronchi. Symptoms of pneumonia are shivering, vomiting and continuous fever. Antibiotics have to be administered to cure bronchitis and pneumonia. CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 27.2 1. Why does the trachea not deflate (collapse) when the air is pushed out? 2. Name the parts of the human respiratory system in a sequence starting from the nose. 3. State the events which occur during inhalation. 4. In which organelle of the cell does cellular respiration occur? 5. Why are the alveoli supplied with capillaries? 27.5 EXCRETION Many chemical reactions take place inside the body cells. Some products of these chemical reactions are not needed by the body. They may even be harmful. Most of these waste products contain nitrogen and therefore they are termed nitrogenous waste products. Their removal from the body is called excretion. We shall now learn about the excretory organs and mechanism of excretion. 27.5.1 Excretion in plants In plants, breakdown of substances is much slower than in animals. Hence accumulation of waste is much slower and there are no special organs of excretion
in plants. Carbon dioxide released during respiration gets utilized during photosynthesis. However, a number of chemical substances which are formed as byproducts during certain activities of plants, are known to be thrown out of the plant and deposited on the bark, old wood, old leaves etc. These substances may be nitrogenous such as alkaloids, or non-nitrogenous such as oils, resins and crystals of silica. The alkaloids include Quinine, which deposits in the bark of the cinchona tree and is a medicine for malaria; Morphine in poppy fruits was used as an anaesthetic. Caffeine, which yields the beverage coffee is deposited in coffee leaves. The non-nitrogenous substance exuded by plants include: tannins found in tea leaves, essential oils such as are deposited in leaves of tulsi and lemon and Eucalyptus, resins thrown out are deposited on the bark of pine trees. We use resins in varnish and polish. In certain grasses crystals of silica are deposited by the plant. 27.5.2 Human excretory system In human beings, excretion is carried out by an organ system known as the urinary system or the excretory system. See the figure (Fig.27.7) and locate the following parts: Two bean shaped kidneys, located below the diaphragm in the abdomen and towards the back. Two excretory tubes or ureters, (one from each kidney). One urinary bladder, ureters open into it. A muscular tube called urethra arises from the bladder. The urinary opening is at the end of urethra.
Blood vessels Diaphragm
Kidney (makes urine)
Ureter (carries urine to the bladder) Bladder (stores urine)
Sphincter muscle (when relaxed urine can leave body)
Urethra tube (leading from bladder out of body)
27.5.2a Structural and functional unit Fig.27.7 Human excretory system of the kidney Nephron Each kidney is made of tube like structures called nephrons (renal tubules). A nephron is the structural and functional unit of the kidney. The cup-shaped upper end called Bowmans capsule, has a network of capillaries within it called glomerulus. Glomerulus is a knot of capillaries formed from the artery which brings blood containing wastes and excess of water to the kidney. Bowmans capusle leads into a tubular structure. The tubular part of the nephron or renal tubule has three sub-parts, the proximal convoluted tubule (PCT), a thinner tube called loop of Henle and the
distal convoluted tubule (DCT) (Fig. 27.8). Blood capillaries surround these tubules.
Renal artery
Renal vein
27.5.2b Mechanism of excretion Blood leading into the glomerulus gets filtered in the Bowmans capsule and is called the nephric filtrate. The red blood corpuscles and proteins do not filter out. The filtrate which now comes into the renal tubule not only contains waste but also useful substances. The useful substances get reabsorbed from the tubule into the blood capillaries surrounding the tubule. Excess water and salts like sodium and chloride also get reabsorbed into the blood from the renal tubule. Thus, the waste alone which is primarily in the form of urea enters into collecting tubules from various renal tubules. It is the urine. From the kidneys, the urine enters the ureters to reach the urinary bladder where it is stored temporarily. The urine is thrown out periodically through the urinary opening.
Ureter (a) A Kidney
Urine
Branch of renal artery Glomerulus Bowmans capsule

Distal convoluted tubule Proximal convoluted tubule
Capillaries Branch of renal vein Loop of Henle Collecting duct Capillaries
27.5.2c Functions of the kidneys Fig. 27.8 Structural and functional Excretion of nitrogenous wastes, unit of the kidney Nephron Regulating the water content of the body (osmoregulation), and Keeping the normal mineral balance in the blood. When this balance is upset, a person can fall sick. 27.5.3 Other organs that remove waste from our body Apart from kidneys, some other organs of the body also remove waste from the body. These organs are as follows (Fig. 27.9)
Skin Liver Amino acids Blood Excess Heat Kidney Urea Excess water and minerals Oxygen Glucose Heat Cells Lungs
(b) One nephron (highly magnified)
Carbon dioxide
Fig. 27.9 Some organs of our body that remove waste
Sweat glands in the skin remove excess salts when we perspire. Lungs remove carbon dioxide. Rectum (large intestine) removes undigested food. 27.5.4 Maintenance of the internal environment A person gets sick if the balance of substances such as mineral ions, water or even hormones inside the body is upset. Maintenance of the correct amount of water and mineral ions in the blood is termed osmoregulation. Osmoreulation is a function of the kidney. Homeostasis means maintaining a steady state inside the body. It requires the regulation of all substances inside the body in the correct amount and proportion. Kidneys and liver play an important role in maintenance of homeostasis. 27.5.5 Kidney failure, dialysis and kidney transplant Certain diseases or sometimes an accident may lead to kidney failure. Since the number of nephrons is as large as almost one million in each kidney, a person can survive even with one kidney. However, in case both the kidneys are damaged, it is difficult to remain alive. Modern technology can now save such patients with the helps of new techniques like dialysis and kidney transplant. As shown in the figure (Fig. 27.10) an artificial kidney is employed. A tube is inserted in an artery in the patients arm or leg. The tube is connected to the kidney machine. This plastic tube has two membranes so as to form one tube within the other. In the inner tube flows blood from patients artery. This blood is surrounded by fluid (dialysis fluid) in the outer tube, separated from it by the membrane of the inner tube. Wastes move out of blood into the fluid. The blood cleaned of its waste goes back from the kidney machine into the vein in the arm or leg and back into the body. The kidney dialysis fluid carrying waste is removed from the machine. This technique is termed dialysis. Nowadays, surgeon sometimes remove a nonfunctioning kidney from a patient and replace it with a kidney donated by another person. Care, however, has to be taken so that a foreign kidney gets accepted by the body. CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 27.3 1. Define excretion. 2. Name the organ of the excretory system, which stores urine before its removal from the body.
Line from apparatus to vein Line from artery to apparatus Pump Tubing made of a selectively permeable membrane
Dialyzing solution
Fresh dialyzing solution
Fig. 27.10 Kidney dialysis
Used dialyzing solution (with urea and excess salts)
3. In which part of the nephron does filtration occur? 4. What happens to the useful substances that get filtered into the renal tubule? 5. What is osmoregulation? TERMINAL EXERCISES A. Multiple choice type questions. Select the most appropriate answer of the following. 1. Which of the following is NOT a step in the process of respiration? (a) Breathing (b) Diffusion of oxygen from blood to tissues (c) Diffusion of oxygen from tissues to blood (d) Production of energy 2. From which part of the respiratory system is oxygen picked up by the blood? (a) Trachea (b) Bronchus (c) Alveolus (d) Nostrils 3. Which one of the following is not a part of nephron? (a) Loop of Henle (b) Proximal Convoluted tubule (PCT) (c) Distal Convoluted Tubule (DCT) (d) Seminiferous tubules. 4. Identify the process involved in the functioning of the artificial kidney. (a) Renal transport (b) Dialysis (c) Renal failure (d) Catalysis 5. Which is the correct sequence of the following parts of the urinary system? (A) Kidney (B) Ureter (C) Urethra (D) Urinary bladder (a) B A C D ( b) D C B A (c) A B C D (d) A B D C B. Fill in the blanks. 1. Excretion is a process of removal of _______________ waste. 2. Nephrons are the functional units of __________________ 3. The main excretory nitrogenous product in human beings is _____________ 4. The openings in plant leaves through which gaseous exchange takes place are called _____________________ C. Descriptive type questions. 1. State one point of difference between each of the following: (i) Breathing and respiration (ii) Inhalation and exhalation (iii) Ureter and urethra (iv) Homeostasis and osmoregulation (v) Bowmans capsule and glomerulus (vi) Bronchi and bronchioles 2. Which step occurs earlier than the other - breathing or cellular exchange of gases? 3. What happens to the size of thoracic cavity when we breathe in air? 4. Describe the mechanism of breathing in human beings.
5. 6. 7. 8. 9.
How are respiratory gases exchanged between blood and tissues? Draw the urinary system in the human body and label its parts. What is glottis? Mention its function. Explain the mechanism of excretion. Write notes on the following: (i) artificial kidney (ii) glomerular filtrate (iii) organs of excretion in human beings ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
27.1 1. Air 2. Stomata 3. Through lenticels 4. Breathing is the mechanism for obtaining oxygen from the environment and release carbon dioxide into it / respiration is the intake of oxygen as also its utilization by cells for release of energy. 5. Energy is released through oxidation of food (glucose) during respiration in cells. 27.2 1. The cartilaginous rings around the trachea prevent its collapse. 2. External nostrils, nasal cavity, internal nostrils, pharynx, trachea, bronchi, lungs. 3. The diaphragm contracts, thoracic cavity increases in volume, air from outside rushes into lungs. 4. Mitochondria 5. They pick up oxygen from alveoli and carbon dioxide carried by them diffuses into alveoli. 27.3 1. Excretion is the process of removal of nitrogenous waste products. 2. Urinary bladder 3. Glomerulus 4. They are reabsorbed into blood 5. Maintaining the normal amount of water and mineral ions in blood is termed Osmoregulation GLOSSARY Bowmans capsule: Thin walled cup-shaped part of the nephron with the glomerulus lying within the cup. Bowmans capsule leads into the renal tubule. Breathing: The mechanism in which oxygen from the environment is taken into the lungs and carbon dioxide present in the lungs removed.
Bronchitis: A respiratory disease in which the air passages in lungs become inflamed. Cellular respiration: The oxidation of glucose in the mitochondria of the cell. Dialysis: The mechanism of cleansing the blood of its waste outside the body by using a kidney machine. Diaphragm: A muscular partition between the thoracic cavity and abdominal cavity of mammals which participates in breathing. Excretion: The process of elimination of nitrogenous waste products from the body. Exhalation: Removal of carbon dioxide from the lungs during breathing. Glomerulus: A network of capillaries, which is a part of nephron. Inhalation: Intake of oxygen-laden air into the lungs during breathing. Lenticels: Tiny openings in older parts of roots and bark of woody plants for exchange of gases. Nephron: The structural and functional unit of the kidney. It is made of glomerulus and renal tubule. Pneumonia: The inflammation of lungs due to fluid accumulation in the alveoli caused by bacterial infection. Stomata: Openings in leaves which open and close for exchange of gases. Respiration: The intake and utilization of oxygen for oxidation of glucose in the cells for the liberation of energy. Renal tubule: The tubular part of the nephron.
:216: Control and Coordination
28
Control and Coordination

In the earlier lessons you have studied that the body of all living organisms is made up of cells. These cells aggregate and differentiate to form tissues and assembly of different tissues forms different organs. The various organs perform their functions at the right time so that they can work together efficiently. Therefore, some form of control is needed to coordinate their functions. For example, when we eat food, our eyes help in locating the food, our nose senses the food, our hand brings the food to our mouth and our jaw muscles help the teeth to chew the food. All these activities occur in a coordinated manner, and if any of these activities misses or does not occur in time then the body will not get nutrition. In case of animals, including man, the chemicals produced by ductless (endocrine) glands also bring about coordination. This coordination by chemicals is brought about by the endocrine system. On the other hand the nervous system consists of a series of nerve cells throughout the body. Signals from one part of the body are transmitted to another part through these nerve cells. You know that our sense organs are gateways for receiving information or stimuli from the environment and help in maintaining a state of stability between the internal conditions of an organism and its external environment. In this lesson we will learn about the nervous system, the endocrine system and sense organs of our body. OBJECTIVES After completing this lesson, you will be able to: relate nervous system and endocrine system with the function of control and coordination; recognise sense organs as gateways for receiving information from the environment; recall nerve cell as the basic structural and functional unit of nervous system and explain the terms synapse and nerve; define nerve impulse; identify the components of central nervous system and explain what is grey matter and white matter; describe the major regions of human brain and list their functions;
Control and Coordination: 217:
describe the location and structure of spinal cord and recognise its function relating to reflex action; name the parts of the eye and explain vision in simple terms; explain accommodation of the eye and give reasons for short sightedness (myopia), long sightedness (hypermetropia) and their correction; explain the structure and working of the ear; describe various ways of taking care of sense organs; draw an outline diagram of human body and show the location of various endocrine glands; list the hormones secreted by pituitary, thyroid and pancreas; give a brief idea of feedback mechanism in hormonal activity; state the symptoms and cause of cretinism, goitre and diabetes mellitus.
28.1 NERVOUS SYSTEM The organ system in an animal that serves to coordinate and control the functioning of all other organ systems in the body is known as nervous system. Nervous system works with the endocrine system to communicate, integrate and coordinate the functions of various organs and systems in our body and helps the body to respond to the external stimuli. In humans, the nervous system has two main divisions: The central nervous system (CNS) The peripheral nervous system (PNS) The central nervous system consists of brain and spinal cord. It is regarded as the thinker or information processor in the body. The peripheral nervous system includes the sensory and motor nerves and connects the central nervous system with the sense organs, muscles and glands of the body. The peripheral nervous system is regarded as actor or performer in the body. The organisation of nervous system is given in Fig. 28.1. NERVOUS SYSTEM Central nervous system Brain Spinal cord Peripheral nervous system Sensory (afferent) nerves Motor (efferent) nerves Autonomic nervous system Parasympathetic
Somatic nervous system Sympathetic
Fig. 28.1 Organisation of nervous system in humans

Dendrites Nucleus Cytoplasm
Cell body
Schwann Cell nucleus Node of Ranvier Myelin sheath Axon Neurofibrils
Nissl granules
28.1.1a Structure of the neuron Each neuron has a central area Fig. 28.2 A neuron (highly magnified) called the cell body or cyton. The cell body has a large central nucleus and cytoplasm. Several short, thread like branches called dendrites arise from the cell body. One branch arising out of the cell body is very long in comparison to others. This branch is called axon or nerve fibre. Axon may or may not be covered by a fatty sheath called myelin sheath. This covering is missing at intervals. These gaps on the sheath are known as nodes of Ranvier. 28.1.1b Types of neurons
Sensory nerve ending e.g. in skin Motor nerve ending in muscle (or gland)
Motor nerve ending in muscle (or gland)
28.1.1 Nerve cell or neuron A neuron is the basic unit of nervous tissue. Our nervous system contains about 10 billion nerve cells, which communicate with each other in a specific manner.
i.
Sensory neurons, which transmit impulse from receptor (sense organ) to coordinator (brain or spinal cord).
Nerve fibre or axon
Sensory neuron
ii. Motor neurons, which transmit impulse from modulator to effectors (muscle or glands). iii. Connecting neurons, which connect sensory and motor neurons, found in the grey matter. 28.1.2 Nerves Nerves are thread like structures, which emerge from brain and spinal cord and branch out to almost all parts of the body. The nerves are composed of axons or nerve fibres bundled together like the strands of an electric cable (Fig. 28.4).
Nerve fibre with cover (sheath) of fat
Motor neuron Sheath of electrical insulating material
Cell body (cyton)
Dendrites
Connector neuron
CNS (brain or spinal cord)
Connective tissue
Fig. 28.3 Types of neurons
Fig. 28.4 A nerve is a bundle of nerve fibres
28.1.2a Kinds of nerves There are three kinds of nerves. These are: i. Sensory nerves: These nerves contain sensory fibres. Sensory nerves bring impulse from sense organs to the brain or the spinal cord. ii. Motor nerves: These nerves contain motor fibres. Motor nerves carry impulse from brain or spinal cord to the effector organ like muscle or glands. iii. Mixed nerves: These nerves contain both sensory and motor nerve fibres and perform a mixed function. 28.2 FUNCTIONING OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM The nervous system functions in a coordinated manner. It receives a stimulus through a receptor organ like eye, ear, tongue, etc. The stimulus through sensory nerves reaches the brain and spinal cord, which integrates it and give action. The motor nerves pass on the action to the required organ (muscle or gland) and this way a response is generated.
Stimulus Sense organ Nerves Central Nervous System (CNS) Receives information makes a plan of action Nerves Effector Response
Red hot object
Temperature Nerves sensory cells in skin
Nerves Sends instructions
Muscles of arm and shoulder
Hand pulled away
Fig. 28.5 Nervous system works in a coordinated manner
28.3 NERVE IMPULSE 28.3.1 What is an impulse? Let us understand this by an example. Suppose your finger is pricked, you have felt the sensation. Then your brain senses the prick and generates a response and you withdraw your hand. This flow of message through the nerve is called impulse. Nerve impulse upon generation passes along a neuron in only one direction. The neuron is connected to a sensory receptor that receives the message or stimulus and converts it into electrochemical waves. These electrochemical waves are carried by the neuron. The stimulus from the receptor organ is received by the dendrites, conducted to cell body (cyton) of the neuron and finally to the effector organ. 28.3.2 Synapse The axon of one neuron is close to the dendrites of cell body of the next neuron. This junction of two neurons is called synapse. There is a space at the synapse between the end of axon of first neuron and cell body or dendrite of the next neuron. This is called synaptic cleft.
Axon Synaptic vesicle containing neurotransmitters
Mitochondrion Synaptic bulb
Through the synapse the impulse passes from one neuron to the next neuron. There are many synapses between the millions of nerve cells. When the impulse reaches the end of axon of first neuron, a neurotransmitter (a chemical substance) is released in the synaptic cleft of the synapse, which helps in passage of nerve impulse from one neuron to the next neuron.
Presynaptic membrane Postsynaptic membrane Synaptic cleft
Dendrite
Fig. 28.6 A synapse
28.3.3 What does a synapse do? It allows the information to pass from one neuron to another. It ensures the passage of nerve impulse in one direction only. It helps in information processing by combining the effects of all impulses received. It filters out low-level stimuli. 28.4 CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM- BRAIN AND SPINAL CORD 28.4.1 Brain The human brain is a highly developed organ situated in the skull. It weighs about 1200-1400g in an adult. It has three main parts: Cerebrum Cerebellum Medulla oblongata a) Cerebrum The cerebrum is the largest and most prominent part of the brain. Among all vertebrates cerebrum of humans is most highly developed. It is divided into left and right hemispheres by a deep median longitudinal groove. Each hemisphere contains two regions - the outer region and the inner region. The outer region of cerebrum contains grey matter, which contains cell bodies of the neuron. The inner region of cerebrum contains white matter, which contains nerve fibres or axons of the neurons. The cerebrum performs the following functions: i. It governs our mental abilities like thinking, reasoning, learning, memorising and intelligence. ii. It controls our will, emotions and speech. iii. It controls feeling of love, admiration and hatred. iv. It controls all involuntary functions. b) Cerebellum It is a small area of brain lying below the mid-brain which is under the large cerebrum. Like cerebrum, it also has grey matter in its outer region and white matter in the inner region.
Brain
Spinal nerves
Spinal cord Hole between vertebrea from which spinal nerves emerge
Spinal cord
Nerves (b) Vertebral column (enlarged view)
Dorsal root of spinal nerve (Sensory) Dorsal root ganglion
Grey matter
White matter
Ventral root of spinal nerve (Motor)
(c) Transverse section of spinal cord (a) The nervous system in human beings
Fig. 28.7 Components of the human nervous system
The cerebellum performs the following functions: i. It maintains equilibrium (balance) of the body. ii. It controls posture of the body. iii. It coordinates muscular movement. c) Medulla oblongata It is the lowermost part of the brain located at the base of the skull. The medulla oblongata performs the following functions: i. It controls the internal organs like movement of lungs, heart etc., by regulating breathing and heart-beat. ii. It controls vital reflex centres such as cardiac centre, respiratory centre and centres for swallowing, sneezing, coughing and vomiting (Fig. 28.8).
Do you know? Our brain sends out certain waves, which are different in nature at different times depending on our body activity. An instrument called electroencephalograph can record this activity of our brain. For doing this, electrodes are taped on different parts of the scalp and the activity is recorded in the form of an electrocephalogram (EEG).
Cerebrum Thalamus
28.4.2 Spinal cord The spinal cord is a long cord that extends from the medulla oblongata and continues downward inside the vertebral column. Spinal cord has within it a narrow canal and this central canal of the spinal cord is filled with cerebrospinal fluid. The arrangement of the grey and white matter is just reversed in the spinal cord. The grey matter lies on the inner side while the white matter on the outer side. The spinal cord performs the following functions:
Cerebellum
Hypothalamus Pituitary gland Medulla
Spinal cord
Fig. 28.8 Different parts of the brain
i. It controls the reflexes below the neck region. ii. It conducts sensory impulses from the skin and muscles to the brain. iii. It conducts motor response from brain to the muscles of trunk and limbs. CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 28.1 1. Fill in the blanks. i) ii) iii) iv) The central nervous system consists of _________ and ___________ Pathway meant for transmission of the message from the receptors to modulators is called _____________ pathway. ___________________ nerves carry impulse from brain or spinal cord to the effectors. The stimulus from the receptor organ is received by the __________, conducted to the cell body of neuron and finally to the __________ organ. A synapse is the point of contact between the terminal branches of the _________ of one neuron with the _________ of another neuron.
v)
2. List any two functions of cerebellum. 3. Name the main organs of our body regulated by medulla oblongata.
28.5 PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM The peripheral nervous system includes nerves that carry impulse to and from the central nervous system. These nerves are of two types: Afferent or sensory nerves, which carry information from sensory receptors into central nervous system, and Efferent or motor nerves which carry information from the central nervous system to the effector organ. The peripheral nervous system is further subdivided into two systems: a) Somatic nervous system It receives and processes information from receptors in the skin, voluntary muscles, tendons, joints, eyes, tongue, nose and ears and thus gives an organism the sensation of touch, pain, heat, cold, balance, sight, taste, smell and sound. It also controls voluntary actions like movement of arms and legs. b) Autonomic nervous system or visceral nervous system It consists of a pair of chains of ganglion (a ganglion is a group of cell bodies of neurons) and nerves found on either side of the backbone. It is subdivided into sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems. It controls the involuntary actions of the internal organs of the body like heart etc. You will learn more about autonomic nervous system in higher classes. 28.6 REFLEX ACTION AND REFLEX ARC There are many actions in our body which are spontaneous and do not require any processing by brain. These responses are called reflex actions. Reflex actions are controlled by spinal cord. For example, we blink our eyes in response to high beam of light that falls on our eyes. Similarly we withdraw our hand immediately if we prick our finger or touch a hot object. A reflex action may be defined as a spontaneous, autonomic and mechanical response to a stimulus controlled by the spinal cord without the involvement of brain. 28.6.1 Components of a reflex arc A reflex arc has the following components: i. a receptor or sensory neuron which perceives the stimulus, ii. a sensory nerve which carries the message from sensory neuron to spinal cord, iii. a relay or intermediate neuron of spinal cord which transmits the impulse from sensory to motor neuron, and iv. motor nerve which carries the message from spinal cord to effector organmuscle or gland.
Stimulus (a short blow below the knee cap) Sensory organ Motor neuron Spinal cord Response (leg straightens)
Sensory neuron
Effector organ
Fig. 28.9 Components of a reflex arc
!Stimulus received by the sensory receptors in the sensory organ! !Impulse generated and carried along by the sensory neuron toward the"spinal cord! !Impulse arrives at the nerve endings of sensory neuron in the grey matter of spinal cord!
" "
!Neurotransmitter released at nerve endings! !Impulse pass across the relay neuron to motor neuron! !Impulse travels away from spinal cord along motor neuron! !The nerve endings of motor neuron connect effector organ like muscle! !Response produced by effector organ!
Fig. 28.10 Sequence of events in a reflex arc
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 28.2 1. Fill in the blanks. ii. __________ carry information from sensory receptors to central nervous system. iii. iiii. __________________ system receives and processes information from receptors in the skin, voluntary muscles and eyes. The pathway followed by sensory or motor nerves in a reflex action is called __________________
2. Define reflex action. 3. What are the various components of a reflex arc? 28.7 OUR SENSE ORGANS What are sense organs? Sense organs are the organs through which we sense or feel change in the external environment.
We all touch, taste, smell, hear and see because of our sense organs. When a sense organ detects a stimulus it sends messages along the nerves to brain. The brain gives us feelings or sensations. Our sense organs and their functions are given in Table 28.1. Table 28.1: Different sense organs in our body Sense organ Skin Tongue Nose Ears Eyes Sensitive to stimuli Pressure, heat and cold, pain Chemicals in food and drink Chemicals in air Sound and movement Light Senses Touch Taste Smell Hearing and balance Sight
28.7.1 Skin The sense of touch is produced by the ends of nerve cells called nerve endings or receptors because they receive stimulation from the outside world. These nerve endings are of different types for different stimulations. Touch and pressure: These receptors are concentrated on fingertips. They detect the texture of objects, whether they are rough, smooth, hard or soft. Touch receptors are attached to hair. Pain: Pain receptors are evenly distributed over the skin. Temperature: There are separate cold and heat receptors. These detect changes in temperature. The fingertips can detect temperature differences as small as 0.5 oC. In a human adult the surface area of the skin is 1.5 to 1.7 sq. meters. The thickness of the skin varies from about 0.5 to 3 mm. The skin is composed of two distinct layers: i) epidermis, which contains hair, nails, sweat glands, etc. ii) dermis, which is made up of connective tissue mixed with blood vessels and nerves. 28.7.1.a Functions of skin Skin protects the body from mechanical injuries, bacterial infections, heat and cold. Skin is sensory to touch, pain and temperature. Skin regulates our body temperature. Excessive heat is lost through evaporation of sweat otherwise it is conserved by fat and hair in the skin.
Cold
Light/ Touch
Pain
Pressure
Heat
Fig. 28.11 Different types of sensory cells of skin
Oily substances are freely absorbed by skin. The excess of water, salts and waste products are excreted through the sweat. Vitamin D is synthesized in the skin. Table 28.3: Common skin diseases Nature Disease
Fungal Allergic Ring worm Eczema, dermatitis
Symptoms
Itching/rashes/burning sensation Itching, scaly skin
Prevention Personal hygiene Most of the allergy can be prevented by avoiding offending substances Personal hygiene and domestic hygiene
Parasitic Scabies
Itching
Eyebrow
Tear gland Duct Upper lid Eye lash
We should take care of our skin! The skin must be washed daily because it gets dirty by dust and sweat. It should be protected from injury. It should be protected from sun rays and fire.
Cornea
28.7.2 Eyes Eyes are well-protected organs of our body through which we see. The eyes are lodged within the skull. When we close our Iris Lower lid Pupil eyes a layer of skin with hair (eye lashes) in its margin covers each eye. It is an eyelid. Fig. 28.12 The human eye This eyelid protects our eye from an external discomfort. Different parts of the eye are cornea, iris, pupil, retina etc. as shown in fig. 28.12. How do we see? The light rays enter our eyes through transparent structures (conjunctiva, cornea, aqueous humour, lens and vitreous humour). The curvature of cornea and lens bend the light rays to form an image on the retina. The image formed on retina is inverted and real. The nerve impulses are produced in retina, which are transmitted to the brain (visual area of cerebrum). The brain interprets the image and the image that was formed inverted on the retina is viewed or perceived here correct and upright. 28.7.2a Focusing and accommodation (i) Eye focused on a distant object Lens is less convex (somewhat flattened) due to being stretched by suspensory ligament, the ciliary (circular) muscles along the suspensory ligament are relaxed.
(Fig. 28.13a). (ii) Eye focused on a near object Ciliary (circular) muscles contract. This reduces tension of the suspensory ligament and the lens turns thicker and more convex (Fig. 28.13b).
Radial muscle (contracted) Circular muscle relaxed Suspensory ligament Lens Pupil (wide) Radial muscle (relaxed) Pupil (narrow) Circular muscle(cntracted) Suspensory ligament Lens
Light from a distant object
(a)
Light from a near object
(b)
Fig. 28.13 Focussing and accomodation of the eye a) Distant object b) Near object
28.7.2b Defects of the eye i) First, understand the normal sight Both distant and near objects can be focused on the retina (Fig 28.14a). (ii) Long sightedness or hypermetropia It occurs when the eyeball is shorter than normal. In this defect distant objects can be focused properly, but the point of focus for an object close to the eye is behind the retina (Figs. 28.14 b,c).
Small short eye ball
Focus behind retina
(a) Normal sight

Eye ball
(b)Long sightedness or hypermetropia

Long, oval eyeball Eye ball
Convex lens
Focus in front of retina
Concave lens
Fig. 28.14 The normal sight and the defects of vision (c) Correcting hypermetropia using convex lens (d) Short sightedness or myopia, (e) Correcting myopia using concave lens
(iii) Short sightedness or myopia It occurs when the eye-ball is longer than normal. In this defect objects close to the eye can be focussed properly, but the point of focus for distant objects is in front of the retina (Fig. 28.14 d,e). We should take care of our eyes! Do not read in the dark or when the light is too bright. You must keep your book at a proper distance from your eyes. While reading, maintain correct posture. Do not rub your eyes with unclean hands because germs can enter into your eyes. When dust, insects or other object goes into your eyes, do not rub them. Rinse the objects away with plenty of clean water. Wash eyes daily carefully. Eyes should be protected from direct sunlight sparkling and injuries. In case of an injury consult the doctor immediately.
Semi-circular canals External ear Nerve to brain
Ear canal Ear drum
Eustachian tube
Sacculus
Fig. 28.15 Structure of the ear
28.7.3 Ears Ears help us in hearing different sounds and balancing our body. The air around us is full of vibrations called sound waves. We have one ear on each side of the head. Ears change vibrations in the air into nerve impulses, which travel to brain where they are interpreted as sound.
28.7.3a Functions of ears The part, which we call our ear, is a flap of skin in the shape of a funnel. This is the external ear. This leads to a tunnel the ear canal, at the end of which is a thin sheet of skin called the eardrum. Sound waves are collected by the outer ear and directed inside the ear canal, where they set the eardrum vibrating. The eardrum is connected to the inner ear by three small bones or semicircular canals called ear ossicles. These are hammer (malleus), anvil (incus) and stirrup (stapes). These bones transmit and amplify the vibrations increasing their force by about 20 times. The ossicles are connected to an oval window. Due to vibrations, oval window moves in and out causing vibrations through the cochlea. The cochlea contains a carpet of tiny hair like structures, which are connected to nerves. They are actually sensory cells which help us to hear the sound.
Our ears helps us to balance Our ears tell us if we are standing upright or not. The semicircular canals of our inner ear tell us to keep balance or to move. The semicircular canals are three tubes full of liquid. When we move the liquid moves. Sensitive hair cells inside the tubes detect this movement and send impulses along nerves to the brain. Our brain detects loss of our balance and sends impulses to muscles to keep us upright. 28.7.3b Deafnessdisorder of the ears The vibrations of the eardrum cause disturbance within the middle ear. This space is linked with the back of a canal the Eustachian tube. We know that when the air pressure changes, we feel a strong sensation in our ears until we open our mouth, and the air in the mouth and the pressure is equalized. Unfortunately, the Eustachian tube may become a channel for infection. This may happen for a brief period during a cold and if neglected the infection may spread to the middle ear and cause inflammation. The eardrum may become thickened and the little bones may have Bitter their articulations affected. This may cause deafness. Deafness may also be due to the injury to the ear nerve. Sweet Sour We must take care of our ears! We should clean our ears with towel after bath every day. Never use a pin or stick to remove wax from the ear. We should protect our ear from injury, cold and dirt.
Sour
Sweet and salt
Fig. 28.16 Our tongue
28.7.4 Tongue You know that your tongue helps you to talk and helps in moving food inside the mouth and swallowing the food. Tongue is a sense organ, which distinguishes different tastes. Our tongue contains taste buds. Taste buds are groups of sensory cells. These are sensitive to chemicals, which must dissolve in saliva, before we can taste them. Taste buds send messages to brain by taste nerves for analysis, resulting in the sensations. This is why dry food has no taste until we chew it with saliva. We must take care of our tongue! It should be cleaned daily by tongue cleaner. If there are any rashes or cut on the tongue it should be treated as per doctors advice.
28.7.5 Nose We can detect about 3000 different kinds of smells. Smell helps animals to hunt food and find their way. Smell can also warn if there is certain danger. Our nose is sensitive to smell. Smell is basically detecting chemicals in the air. The chemicals dissolve in moisture on lining of our nose. The stimulation of nerve endings in our nose send message to the brain which produces the sensation of smell. Smell receptors are called olfactory receptors. CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 28.3 1. Name the five sense organs in our body. 2. Fill in the blanks. i) Skin is made up of ________________ and ____________________ ii) Oily substances are freely absorbed by __________________ 3. Match the items in column A with those in column B:
A B
i) ii) iii) iv)
Eustachian tube Cornea Nerve ending Olfactory organ
a) b) c) d)
Eye Nose Ear Skin
Hypothelamus Pineal gland Pituitary gland
Parathyroid gland
Thyroid gland
Thymus
Kidney Pancreas
28.8 ENDOCRINE SYSTEM Our body has a number of organs called endocrine glands. Their main function is to produce chemical secretions and these secretions are known as hormones. The term hormone has been derived from the Greek word hormaein meaning to set in motion or to spur on. Hormones play an important role in control, coordination and regulation of the functioning of tissues and organs in the body. For the smooth and normal functioning of the body, different hormones are required in different quantities. Hormones are secreted by ductless glands or endocrine glands (Greek: endo means within, krinein means to separate). The endocrine system is responsible for chemical coordination in the animals including man.
Ovary (in females) Testis (in males)
Fig. 28.17 Location of various endocrine glands in the human body
What are hormones? A hormone is a chemical secreted by an endocrine gland and carried by blood or lymph to a target organ elsewhere in the body to stimulate a specific activity. There are different endocrine glands for secretion of different hormones (Fig. 28.17). Table 28.2 lists some important hormones, glands secreting them and their effects on the functioning of our body. Did you know? Hyperactivity (overactivity) or hypoactivity (underactivity) of endocrine glands cause disease. 28.8.1 Pituitary gland Hyperactivity of cells of pituitary gland cause Cushings disease. In this disease excessive growth of hair occurs in males. In some cases this disease may even cause atrophy of testes leading to impotency. In females, this disease causes sterility, musculisation, growth of beard, moustaches, etc. Deficiency (hypoactivity) of growth hormone (GH) or somatotrophic hormone (STH) secreted by pituitary gland causes dwarfism (retarded growth of the long bones) while its excessive secretion or hyperactivity causes gigantism (excessive growth of long bones) making a person very tall. 28.8.2 Thyroid gland Hypoactivity of thyroid gland causes hypothyroidism causing cretinism in young children. In this disease the child has stunted growth, short club like fingers, deformed bones and teeth. The skin becomes rough, dry and wrinkled with scanty hair growth. The abdomen gets pot-bellied and the child is mentally retarded. Hypoactivity of thyroid gland also causes abnormal swelling of thyroid called goitre. 28.8.3 Pancreas Hyposecretion of insulin secreted from pancreas, causes diabetes mellitus, in which glucose present in excess in the blood sometimes appears in urine. Table 28.2: Major hormones secreted in the human body, their sources and effects Endocrine glands and their location
Pituitary gland
Hormone secreted
Effects
(It is attached to the lower surface of the brain. It has three lobes-anterior lobe, Adenocorticotropic hormone Controls the growth and functioning of middle lobe and posterior (ACTH) adrenal cortex. Stimulates adrenal cortex lobe) to produce steroid hormones called glucocorticoids.
Growth hormone (GH) or Controls the overall growth of the body, Somatotrophic hormone (STH) muscles and bones.
:232: Control and Coordination Thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH) Follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) Controls the growth and functioning of thyroid gland. Stimulates thyroid gland to produce thyroxin. Stimulates the maturation of ovarian follicle and secretion of estrogen by ovary in females; and in males stimulates the process of spermatogenesis. In females stimulates the ovulation and secretion of progesterone and hence helps in preparation and maintenance of pregnancy. In males it stimulates the secretion of testosterone. Enhances development of mammary glands and milk production in females. Controls the production of melanin pigment in skin. Controls the uterine muscle contraction at the time of child birth (parturition). Controls reabsorption of water in kidney tubules. Stimulates the cellular metabolism and oxidation. In general it controls the growth and metabolism of the body.
Luteinizing hormone (LH)
Prolactin (PRL) Melanocyte stimulating hormone (MSH) Oxytocin Antidiuretic hormone (ADH) Thyroid gland (It is situated in the neck region on the ventral side of the body. It has two lateral lobes,one on either side of the trachea). Pancreas (Situated in the abdominal region. Its endocrine cells - Islets of Langerhans secrete hormones. Thyroxin
Insulin
Regulates the conversion of glucose to glycogen. Regulates the conversion of glycogen and some non-carbohydrates back to glucose.
Glucagon
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 28.4 1. Fill in the blanks. i) ii) iii) iv) v) A hormone is carried by _________ or ________ to the target organ. Thyroid stimulating hormone is secreted by ___________ ________ hormone regulates the conversion of glucose to glycogen. ___________________ hormone controls the reabsorption of water in kidney tubules. Hypoactivity of thyroid gland leads to__________
LET US REVISE Nervous system works with the endocrine system to communicate, integrate and coordinate the functions of various organs and systems in our body and responds to the external stimuli.
In humans the nervous system has two divisions, the central nervous system and the peripheral nervous system. The central nervous system comprises of brain and the spinal cord, while the peripheral nervous system includes the nerves, which connect the central nervous system with sense organs, muscles and the glands in the body. Nerves are thread like structures that emerge from brain and spinal cord and branch out to almost all parts of the body. A neuron is the basic unit of nervous system. There are three types of neurons - sensory neurons, motor neurons and connecting relay or intermediate neurons. A synapse is the junction of the terminal branches of the axon of one neuron with the dendrites or cell body of another neuron. It is the site of transfer of nerve impulse from one neuron to another. The brain has three parts - cerebrum, cerebellum and medulla oblongata. A reflex action is a spontaneous, autonomic and mechanical response to a stimulus controlled by the spinal cord without the involvement of the brain. The pathway followed by sensory or motor nerves in a reflex action is called reflex arc. Sense organs are the organs by which you detect changes in the external environment. The five sense organs are eyes, ears, skin, tongue and nose. Messages from the sense organs are carried to the brain by nerves. Brain analyses these messages and as a result the sensations are produced. Without our sense organs we would know nothing about our environment. Therefore we should take care of them and protect them from injury and disease. TERMINAL EXERCISES
A. Multiple choice type questions. Tick the most appropriate answer of the following. 1. Which of the following carry impulse from brain to effector? a) Sensory neuron b) Motor neuron c) Connecting neuron d) Mixed nerve 2. Short thread like branches of nerve cell are called a) dendrites b) synapse c) nodes of Ranvier d) neuron 3. A chemical known as neurotransmitter is released from the ends of a) axon b) synapse c) nodes of Ranvier d) neuron
4. The pituitary gland is found a) in the neck c) beneath the stomach
b) d)
at the base of the brain near the kidneys
5. The transparent window at the front of the eyeball is called a) cornea b) iris c) cone d) retina 6. Hormones are carried around in the body by a) blood b) nerves c) lymph d) both blood and lymph 7. Which of the following glands secretes the hormone thyroxin? a) Pituitary gland b) Thyroid gland c) Brain d) Pancreas 8. Which of the following hormones is secreted by the pancreas? a) Growth hormone b) Thyroxin c) Insulin d) Prolactin 9. The disease cretinism is caused due to a) hypoactivity of pituitary gland b) c) hypoactivity of thyroid gland d) 10. Hyposecretion of insulin causes a) Goitre c) Diabetes insipidus B. Descriptive type questions. 1. Define the following: (i) central nervous system, (iii) receptor (v) nodes of Ranvier, (vii) synapse, (ix) reflex arc, and b) d) hyperactivity of pituitary gland hyperactivity of thyroid gland Cretinism Diabetes mellitus
(ii) (iv) (vi) (viii) (x)
hormone, neuron, impulse, reflex action, power of accommodation
2. Differentiate between the following: i) Sensory nerve and motor nerve ii) Cerebrum and cerebellum iii) Somatic nervous system and autonomic nervous system iv) Grey matter and white matter v) Hypermetropia and myopia vi) Insulin and glucagon 3. What are nerves? Classify nerves into different types stating their functions. 4. What are sensory neurons? How do they help in transmission of nerve impulse in our body? 5. What is a synapse? What is the main function of a synapse? 6. State the main functions of cerebrum and medulla oblongata.
7. Mention one function of each of the five sense organs of our body. 8. Draw a labelled diagram of the human eye. 9. What is the function of sweat glands? 10. What are endocrine glands? How do their secretions reach various parts of our body? 11. Name various hormones secreted by pituitary gland stating functions of each one of them. 12. Endocrine glands are ductless glands, then how do their secretions reach the target site? 13. Name the hormone secreted by thyroid gland and state its main functions. 14. What is Cushings disease? Name the endocrine gland responsible for this disease. ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 28.1 1. i) ii) iii) iv) v) brain and spinal cord sensory pathway motor dendrites, effector axon, dendrites
2.
Any two functions of cerebellum like, maintenance of equilibrium of the body, controlling the posture of the body, coordinating muscular movement, etc. Internal organs of the body like lungs, heart, etc.
3. 28.2 1.
i) Afferent nerves ii) Somatic nervous system iii) Reflex arc A spontaneous, autonomic and mechanical response to a stimulus controlled by the spinal cord without the involvement of brain is called reflex action. Components of a reflex arc i) A receptor or sensory organ which perceives the stimulus, ii) A sensory nerve which carries message from receptor to spinal cord, iii) A relay neuron of spinal cord which transmits the impulse from sensory to motor neuron, and iv) Motor nerve which carries the message from spinal cord to effector organ - muscle or gland.
2.
3.
28.3 1. Eyes, Nose, Ear, Skin and Tongue 2. (i) Dermis, epidermis (ii) Skin 3. (i) (c) (ii) (a) (iii) (d) (iv) (b) 28.4 1. i) ii) iii) iv) v)
Blood, lymph Pituitary gland Insulin Antidiuretic hormone Goitre
GLOSSARY Nervous system : The organ system in an animal that serves to coordinate and control all the physiological systems in its body. Neurons : The nerve cells that transmit messages throughout the body. Nerves : Thread like structures that emerge from brain and spinal cord and branch out to almost all parts of the body. They are bundles of axons or nerve fibres enclosed in a sheath. Synapse : The junction between the terminal branches of the axon of one neuron with the dendrites or cell body of another neuron. Nodes of Ranvier : Regular gaps on the medullary sheath covering the axon. Neurotransmitter : A chemical released at the synapse which helps in the transmission of nerve impulse from one neuron to another. Cerebrum : The largest and most prominent part of the brain. It controls intelligence activities, motor activities, etc. Cerebellum : The region of the brain under the large cerebrum which controls balance of the body. Medulla oblongata : The lowermost part of the brain located at the base of the skull. It controls cardiac and respiratory activities. Spinal cord : A long cord that extends from the medulla oblongata and runs inside the vertebral column. Reflex action : The action in our body which are spontaneous and do not require any processing by brain. Sense organs : The organs through which we sense or feel change in the external environment.
Hypermetropia : The defect of the eye in which the eye can focus the distant objects clearly but the point of focus for an object close to the eye is behind the retina. Myopia : The defect of the eye in which the eye ball is longer than normal. In this defect objects close to the eye can be focused properly but the point of focus for distant objects is in front of the retina. Hormone : A chemical secreted by an endocrine gland and carried by blood or lymph to a target organ elsewhere in the body to stimulate a specific activity.
: 238 : Reproduction
29
Reproduction
Reproduction is the process by which a living organism is able to produce more of its own kind. The continuity of life on earth, from its origin to the present day, has been possible only because of reproduction. Living organisms reproduce in two waysasexual and sexual reproduction. In this lesson we will learn about the modes of reproduction in plants and animals especially humans, population growth and its control and sexually transmitted diseases. OBJECTIVES After completing this lesson, you will be able to: define reproduction and differentiate between asexual and sexual reproduction; describe different modes of reproduction in plants; illustrate male and female reproductive systems in humans and state functions of each part; describe the physical and physiological changes occurring during puberty and menstrual cycle; describe the main events in the process of reproduction in humans starting from the production of gametes to pregnancy and parturition; recognize the factors responsible for the growth of population and explain the consequences of rapid increase in population; reason out the importance of contraception and suggest methods for control of population growth; emphasize the importance of reproductive health and suggest ways to prevent transmission of sexually transmitted diseases. 29.1 TYPES OF REPRODUCTION Living organisms reproduce in two waysasexual and sexual reproduction. 29.1.1 Asexual reproduction Asexual reproduction involves the production of an offspring from body parts other than reproductive organs. It is a common process of reproduction in lower plants and animals.
Reproduction : 239 :
Basic features of asexual reproduction i) It involves only one organism i.e. different sexes are not involved. ii) The cell divisions during this type of reproduction are either mitotic or amitotic. iii) New individuals produced are genetically identical to the single parent. iv) It is a fast mode of multiplication. 29.1.2 Sexual reproduction Sexual reproduction is a type of reproduction in which two sexes, the male and the female, are involved. This type of reproduction occurs both in plants and animals. Basic features of sexual reproduction i) It is the production of offspring by the fusion of egg and sperm, which are the sex cells or gametes. ii) Upon fertilization, the male and female gametes unite to form a zygote, which develops into a mature organism. iii) It results in the combination of genetic material from two parents. 29.2 REPRODUCTION IN PLANTS Like animals plants also reproduce both asexually and sexually. Asexual reproduction in plants is either by fission, budding, fragmentation and regeneration, spore formation or by vegetative propagation or vegetative reproduction of plant parts. Sexual reproduction is by fusion of male and female gametes and it occurs in flowering plants. 29.2.1 Asexual reproduction 1. Fission Fission is of two types: Binary fission and multiple fission. Binary fission: In binary fission, two individuals are formed from a single parent. This type of reproduction is found in organisms like bacteria, yeast and Amoeba (Fig. 29.1).
Divison of nucleus Division of cytoplasm
Daughter cells
Mother cell
Fig. 29.1 Binary fission in Amoeba
Multiple fission: In multiple fission, many individuals are formed from a single parent. This type of reproduction by multiple fission occurs during unfavourable conditions.
Cyst
Parent cell
Daughter cells
Fig. 29.2 Multiple fission in Plasmodium
In this type of reproduction, the unicellular organism develops a protective covering called cyst over the cell. The nucleus of the cell divides repeatedly producing many nuclei. Many daughter cells are produced within the cyst. The cyst breaks and small offsprings are liberated. This type of reproduction is seen in many algae and in some protozoans, such as the malarial parasite (Plasmodium) (Fig. 29.2). 2. Budding In this type of reproduction, a bulb-like projection or outgrowth arises from the parent body known as bud, which detaches and forms a new organism.
Hypostome Parent Hydra Parent Hydra Bud (Protuberance)
Daughter Hydra
Tentacles
Basal disc
For example, Hydra Fig. 29.3 Budding in Hydra reproduces by budding (Fig. 29.3). A small protruberance arises from one side of its body, which grows, develops tentacles and gets detached to lead an independent life. 3. Regeneration or Fragmentation In this type of reproduction, the body of an individual breaks up into two or more parts and each part develops into a complete individual. Examples: Spirogyra, and Planaria. 4. Spore formation In lower forms of life like the alga, Chlamydomonas, the protoplast of the cell divides to form 48 spores. These being motile are termed as zoospores. When spores are released in the surrounding medium they develop into new plants. 5. Vegetative propagation or vegetative reproduction in plants Vegetative reproduction (or vegetative propagation) is a form of asexual reproduction in plants in which a bud grows and develops into a new plant. In this type of reproduction, any vegetative part of the plant body like leaf, stem or root develops into a complete new plant. Vegetative reproduction can take place by two methodsnatural and artificial.
I) Vegetative reproduction by natural methods This type of vegetative reproduction can involve roots, stem or leaves. Some common modes of vegetative reproduction are given below: i) By roots The roots of sweet potato and mint bear adventitious buds. When these roots are planted in the soil, new plants are produced
ii) By stem In many plants the stem develops buds on it. The part of the stem that bears buds serves as an organ for vegetative multiplication, e.g. the modified parts of stem, such as runners of grass, suckers of mint and Chrysanthemum, bulbs of onion and tulip, rhizomes of ginger, corms of gladiolus and Colocasia, and tubers of potato, etc.
Stem Scale leaves Scale leaves Storage leaves Auxillary buds Roots Stem Stem Adventitious roots Old corn (previous year)
Fig. 29.4 Vegetative propagation by bulb in onion
Fig. 29.5 Vegetative propagation by corm in Gladiolus
Node
Bud
Germinating bud Scale leaf
Young plant Potato tuber
Fig. 29.6 Vegetative propagation by rhizome in ginger
Fig. 29.7 Vegetative propagation by tuber in potato
New plant Parent plant
Stem of parent plant
New plant
Runner
Scale leaf Sucker Tap root
Tap root Lateral roots Adventitious roots
Lateral roots
Fig. 29.8 Vegetative propagation by runner in grass
Fig.29.9 Vegetative propagation by sucker in mint
iii) By leaves In some plants, e.g. in Bryophyllum and Bigonia, adventitious buds are developed in the margins of their leaves. When the leaf falls on moist soil, these buds develop into small plantlets, which can be separated and grown into independent plants (Fig. 29.10). b) Vegetative propagation by artificial methods Some plants can be propagated artificially. The methods of artificial propagation include grafting, layering, cutting and tissue culture. i) Grafting: It is the method of obtaining a superior quality plant from two different plants, taking the root system of one plant and the shoot system of another plant. The plant whose root system is taken is called stock. The plant whose shoot system is taken is called scion. The ends to be grafted, of the stock and the scion, are cut obliquely and placed face to face and are bound firmly with tape (Fig. 29.11). The stock supplies all the desired nutrients to the scion. This technique has been used in raising superior quality plants of mango, apples, roses, rubber and citrus..
Obliquely cut ends of stems Cambia of each stem in close contact Stock and scion bound firmly
Bud
New plant
Fig. 29.10 Vegetative propagation by leaves of Bryophyllum
Fig. 29.11 Vegetative propagation by grafting
ii) Cutting: In some plants like rose, sugarcane, Bougainvillaea, etc. this method is used quite frequently. Stem cuttings with nodes and internodes are placed
in moist soil which give rise to adventitious roots, and grow into new plants. iii) Layering: Layering is the development of roots on a stem while it is still attached to the parent plant. The stem or the branch that develops adventitious roots while still attached to the parent plant is called a layer. It is a means of reproduction in black raspberries, jasmine (Jasminum), Magnolia, etc. iv) Tissue culture: This is a modern technique of vegetative propagation. In this technique, a small piece of tissue is cut from a plant and is transferred to a container with nutrient medium under aseptic conditions. The tissue utilizes nutrients from the medium, divides and re-divides, and forms a callus. Small portions of this callus are transferred to another medium which induces differentiation and plantlets are produced. These plantlets are transplanted in soil to form an adult plant. Orchids, Chrysanthemum, Asparagus and many other plants are now being grown by using plant tissue culture technique. CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 29.1 1. Name the two main methods of reproduction found in living organisms. 2. Give one example each of organisms which reproduce by (a) binary fission (b) multiple fission (c) budding (c) fragmentation (d) vegetative propagation by leaf 29.2.2 Sexual reproduction in plants In flowering plants, flower is the reproductive part of a plant. Most flowers have both male and female reproductive organs. A typical flower has four whorlscalyx (sepals), corolla (petals), androecium (stamens) and gynoecium (carpels) (Fig. 29.12). The androecium and gynoecium are directly concerned with sexual reproduction.
Gynoecium Androecium Corolla Thalamus Calyx Pedicel (a) Section through a flower (b) Stamen (magnified view) (c) Section through a stamen Filament Filament Anther Connective Pollen grain Pollen sac
Fig. 29.12 Parts of a flower
The androecium is the male part of the flower. It consists of stamens. Each stamen has anther and a filament. Each anther possesses many pollen grains, which are the male gametes in pollen sacs. Gynoecium is the female reproductive part of a flower. The female part
contained in this whorl is called pistil. Each pistil consists of three partsan upper flat stigma, a medial, long, cylindrical style, and a lower, swollen ovary.
The stigma receives pollen grains during pollination. The style bears the stigma at a suitable position to receive the pollen grains. The ovary contains ovules that are found attached to the placenta. Ovules are the structures in which embryo sacs develop, and mature into seeds after fertilization. The arrangement of ovules in the ovary is called placentation.
Pollination Pollination is the process of transfer of pollen grains from the anther to the stigma of a flower. It is of two types: i) Self-pollination: If the pollen grains from the anther of a flower are transferred to the stigma of the same flower, it is termed as self-pollination or autogamy (auto: self; gamy: marriage) e.g. pea and china rose. ii) Cross pollination: If the pollen grains from anther of one plant reach the stigma of a flower on another plant of the same species, then this is called as cross pollination or allogamy (allos: other; gamy: marriage). Cross pollination has the advantage of increasing the chances of variations.
Fertilization After pollination, the pollen grains Germinating germinate on the stigma to produce a pollen grains Stigma pollen tube. This tube grows down through the style Style Pollen tubes and finally reaches the ovule. The ovule contains the egg cell inside the embryo sac. The tip of the pollen tube ruptures in the Ovary ovule and discharges two male gametes wall Ovule into it. Embryo sac One of the male gametes fuses with the egg to form the zygote. This fusion is called fertilization. Secondary nucleus The other male gamete fuses with the Egg nucleus diploid secondary nucleus and forms the endosperm nucleus. Male nuclei The zygote that is formed as a result of Tube nucleus fertilization divides several times and gives rise to an embryo. The endosperm nucleus grows to form the endosperm of the seed. Fig. 29.13 Zygote formation Following fertilization, the sepals, petals, style and stigma degenerate and usually fall off. The ovary wall ripens and forms the pericarp of the fruit. Each ovule develops into a seed. The seed contains a potential plant or embryo. The whole ovary after fertilization changes into a fruit.
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 29.2 1. Define the following terms. (a) Self-pollination (b) Cross-pollination 2. Name the specialized organs meant for sexual reproduction in flowers. 3. Which part of the flower usually changes into fruit? 29.3 REPRODUCTION IN HUMANS Humans reproduce sexually. Reproductive organs in humans are described below. 29.3.1 Male reproductive system
Urinary bladder Ureter Ejaculatory duct Seminal vesicle Vas deferens Epididymis
Prostate gland Urethra Penis
The male reproductive system in humans consists of the following organsa pair of testes, a pair of epididymis, a pair of vasa deferentia, an ejaculatory duct, a urethra, penis and accessory glands (Fig. 29.14).
The testes produce, sperms, the male gametes. The process of Erectile tissue formation of sperms in the testes of Testis Prepuce an organism is called Scrotal sac Glans penis spermatogenesis . Each testis Fig. 29.14 Male reproductive contains certain coiled tubes called system in humans seminiferous tubules that are actually responsible for the production of sperms. These sperms are released from the testes and stored in the epididymis until mating. At the time of mating, the sperms are passed from the epididymis through the vas deferens to the ejaculatory duct. The ejaculatory duct opens into the urethra. In human males, the urethra is a common passage for sperms and urine. The urethra passes through an organ called penis, which is the copulatory organ (organ for transfer of sperms during mating or copulation) in humans. During their passage from the epididymis to the urethra, the sperms are mixed with certain secretions from the accessory glands. The sperms along with the secretions form the semen. During copulation, semen is discharged. The process of discharging of semen is called ejaculation. In one ejaculation about 200,000,000 (2 108) sperms are discharged. 29.3.2 Female reproductive system The female reproductive system consists of a pair of ovaries, a pair of oviducts (or fallopian tubes), uterus and vagina(Fig. 29.15). A pair of ovaries lies in the lower part of the abdominal cavity, one on each side of the body. Ovaries produce ova and secrete female sex hormones, oestrogen and progesterone. The process of formation of egg in the ovary is known as
oogenesis. There is a pair of oviducts or fallopian tubes in the human female reproductive system. One end of each oviduct is funnel-shapped. It collects the eggs released by the ovary. Both fallopian tubes open into the uterus. The uterus is a pear-shaped, muscular, thick-walled organ. the lower end of the uterus opens into the vagina that opens to the outside by a genital opening. Vagina is the organ where the penis is inserted during coitus for the discharge of semen. It serves as the birth canal during childbirth. In a human female, the urethra and the genital duct have separate openings.
Oviduct Ovary
Space in which th baby develops
Uterus
Funnel of the oviduct Cervical canal
Cervix Vagina
Vulva
Hymen
Fig. 29.15 Female reproductive system in humans
29.3.3 Puberty The reproductive organs in human beings become functional at an age of 1314 years in males and 1213 years in case of females. This age is known as puberty. During sexual maturity, hormonal changes take place in males and females, and under the influence of these hormones secondary sexual characteristics are developed. Development of secondary sexual characteristics in males include deepening of voice, widening of shoulders, appearance of beard and moustaches, and growth of axillary and pubic hair. Development of secondary sexual characteristics in females include growth of axillary and pubic hair, widening of pelvis and hip, enlargement of breasts and initiation of the menstrual cycle. CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 29.3 1. At what age do human males and females attain puberty? 2. Name the tubules present in the human testis. 3. Name the various parts of the following. i) Human male reproductive system ii) Human female reproductive system 4. Describe three secondary sexual characteristics each in human male and human female. 29.4 SEXUAL CYCLE IN HUMAN FEMALES (MENSTRUAL CYCLE) The period of life during which a female has the capacity to produce young ones is called the fertility period. In human females, it extends from about 1213 years (puberty) up to 4550 years (menopause). Between puberty and menopause, the female reproductive system passes through a regular monthly sequence of events called the menstrual cycle (Fig. 29.16). The events of menstrual cycle are given here.
During each menstrual cycle, an ovum matures and is released once every 28 days. The menstrual cycle starts with menstrual flow, during which cellular lining of the uterus is shed off alongwith blood flow. This process continues for 34 days. From the 5th up to the 13th day of the onset of menstrual cycle, growth and maturation of the graafian follicle takes place. It consists of an ovum and a mass of cells surrounding it. The graafian follicle produces the female hormone, oestrogen.
CHANGES IN THE EGG CELL
Growing follicle
Graafian follicle
Rupturing follicle
Corpus luteum
Regressing corpus luteum
CHANGES IN THE UTERINE WALL
Menstruation CHANGES IN THE ENDOMETRIAL LINING
Uterus grows a new lining of blood vessels and glands
Menstrual phase CHANGES IN HORMONE LEVELS IN THE BLOOD
Follicular phase
Ovulatory phase
Luteal phase
Progesterone Oestrogen
3 4
9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 Most likely period of ovulation (Fertile period)
Menstruation
Fig. 29.16 Sexual cycle in females
The cells lining the uterus grow rapidly and develop a dense network of blood vessels. The release of the ovum from the ovary is called ovulation. Ovulation takes place 1213 days after the onset of menstruation. The graafian follicle ruptures to release the ovum. The cells of the ruptured follicle form the corpus luteum, which secretes the hormone, progesterone.
The ovum reaches the uterus via the fallopian tube on the 13th or 14th day and remains there up to the 16th day (for 4872 hours). If the ovum does not receive any sperm during this period it starts degenerating. At the end of the 28th day this ovum is rejected along with the uterine lining. This marks the start of a slow disintegration of the thickened lining of the uterus and the next menstrual cycle.
What happens if the ovum receives sperm? If the ovum receives sperm it is in the fallopian tube, the two unite to form a zygote. This is called fertilization. Fertilization occurs in the fallopian tube. The zygote immediately begins to divide and forms a mass of cells called morula, which passes down to the uterus and fixes itself to the wall of the uterus (known as implantation). Menstruation does not occur and the female is said to be pregnant. The developing young one or the foetus is attached to the uterus by a tissue called placenta. Placenta supplies oxygen and nourishment from the maternal blood to the foetus. It also transports carbon dioxide and excretory waste from the foetal blood to the maternal blood. Placenta also produces two hormones progesterone and oestrogen. Under the influence of these hormones neither ovulation nor menstruation take place till pregnancy continues. The Umbilical cord is a tough structure that serves as the blood vascular connection between the foetus and uterine wall. From the first few weeks of development, the embryo is enclosed in a sac called amnion, which is filled with amniotic fluid. This fluid acts as a shock-absorber and helps to protect the embryo from damage. 29.4.1 Test tube babies In some women, the fallopian tube gets blocked, which prevents the ova from being fertilized. This problem can be overcome by the test tube baby technique. In this technique, one or more mature ova are sucked from a womans ovaries using a special syringe. The sperms are taken from her husband. These sperms and ova are kept together in a container for a few hours for fertilization to take place. When a sperm fertilizes an ovum a zygote is formed, which divides repeatedly to form an embryo. This embryo is them inserted into the womans uterus where it gets implanted and develops into a baby. Fertilization of an egg by a sperm outside the body of the female is called in-vitro fertilization or IVF. 29.4.2 Twins In every reproductive cycle, usually, an ovary releases only one ovum. But, sometimes more than one egg may be released and fertilized by more than one sperm or an ovum may divide into two or more cells after fertilization which separate and develop as different individuals. This is how twins, triplets and quadruplets etc. are produced. a) Identical twins When a fertilized egg divides into two independent sets of cells, both of which
continue to divide, two identical embryos are produced from the same egg. The twins thus produced are identical twins. b) Non-identical or fraternal twins When two eggs are produced at the same time and a different sperm fertilizes each egg, non-identical or fraternal twins are produced. 29.5 POPULATION CONTROL Reproduction serves to replace the older generation. It is also a phenomenon that leads to increase in the number of individuals of a species to ensure that at least some will survive in the struggle for existence. In humans, due to a variety of reasons more and more children have been surviving. This has currently led to what we call the population explosion. The increase in population has created many problems like problems of food, shelter, clothing, etc. So it has become very essential to limit the human population. There are various ways to prevent fertilization and hence to check the increase in population. Let us study about few such methods. 29.5.1a Education Imparting education to the people about various ways of fertility control is the most effective method of population control. Education helps to make people aware of the advantages of a small family and the disadvantages of a large family. 29.5.1 b Preventive methods These methods prevent the fusion of the egg and the sperm. Two important preventive methods are discussed below. (i) Vasectomy This is a method of sterilization in males. In this method, each vas deferens is cut and tied at both cut ends by a thread (ligature). Tubectomy This is a method of sterilization in females. In this method, the fallopian tube is cut and the two ends are tied to prevent passage of ova down the fallopian tubes. Thus, in this method, the eggs continue to be released but do not reach the fallopian tube and no fertilization takes place.
(ii)
29.5.1c Contraception methods These methods involve prevention of fertilization and conception. The main methods of contraception are given below: i) Natural methods of contraception Rhythm method of contraception: In this method copulation is avoided for those days when the ovum is available for fertilisation. Thus, fertilization can be avoided. Coitus interruptus: In this method, the penis is withdrawn from the vagina prior to ejaculation.
ii) Mechanical methods of contraception In this approach, various mechanical methods are used to prevent the passage of semen to the fallopian tube or to prevent implantation. Condoms: It is a thin rubber tube worn over the penis before sexual intercourse. The ejaculate gets collected in this tube and is not discharged into the vagina. Diaphragm: It is fitted over the cervix in a womans body by a doctor to prevent the entrance of sperms into the cervical canal. Intra uterine device (IUD): IUD or loop is made of plastic or stainless steel. It is inserted in the uterus, which releases certain secretions that prevent the implantation of embryo in the uterine wall.
iii) Chemical methods of contraception Spermicides: Strong spermicidal (sperm-killing) creams, jellies, etc. are applied in the vagina before copulation, which kill the sperms and prevent fertilization. Oral contraceptives or pills: The oral contraceptives or pills are taken daily, which prevent ovulation in females. These pills prevent ovulation but allow monthly shedding of the uterine lining through menstrual bleeding. iv) By Medical Termination of Pregnancy (MTP) MTP methods are also known as if conceptive methods. There are applied if conception has taken place. Abortion and aspiration are two corrective methods in which pregnancy can be terminated by either mechanical method or by using hormones. CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 29.4 1. Name the hormone secreted by graafian follicle? 2. Name the term given to the sterilization process in the following. (i) human males (ii) human Females 3. Name the commonly used contraceptives in the following: (i) human males (ii) human female 4. Write the full form of IUD. 29.6 SEXUALLY TRANSMITTED DISEASES Diseases which spread through sexual contact are called sexually transmitted diseases (STD). Sometimes microganisms may infect areas around reproductive parts. During the act of sexual intercourse, these microorganisms may be easily transmitted from one person to another. Three important sexually transmitted diseases are: i) Syphilis ii) Gonorrhoea
iii) Acquired Immuno Deficiency Syndrome (AIDS) 29.6.1 Syphilis and Gonorrhoea Causative organism Both these diseases are caused by bacteria. Syphilis: Treponema pallidum Gonorrhoea: Neisseria gonorrhoeae Modes of spread Sexual contact with the infected person Incubation period Symptoms of gonorrhoea disease occur in about 2-5 days and that of syphilis are seen in 10-90 days. Symptoms The common symptoms of these bacterial diseases are given below: i) ii) iii) iv) v) Fever and sores appear on the skin, in the throat and urinogenital areas especially vagina or penis, anus, rectum and mouth. Break out of rashes on hands, feet and palms. White patches in the mouth. Acne-like warts in the groin area. Hairfall occurs in patches from infected areas.
Prevention and cure i) Having sexual intimacy with only one person ii) Avoiding prostitution and homosexuality iii) Taking appropriate medical treatment 29.6.2 Acquired Immuno Deficiency Syndrome (AIDS) AIDS is caused by the Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) (Fig. 29.17). once the virus enters the body it lives and grows in the body fluids and blood cells of the infected person. Mode of transmission (i) HIV may be transmitted in the following ways. (ii) Sexual contact with the affected person i.e. through semen or vaginal fluid. (iii) Exposure to infected blood and blood products by using the same syringe already used by an infected person, and by use of infected
Fig. 29.17 HIV virus
blood during blood transfusion. (iv) Organ transplant from an affected person to a healthy person. (v) During pregnancy, from an infected mothers blood to her babys blood. Incubation period The average incubation period of HIV virus is about 28 months (range 1557 months). Symptoms i) The person feels fatigued or tired, suffers from loss of weight and fever, and sweats profusely. ii) Persistent dry cough, oral rash and shortness of breath may be observed. iii) Headache, visual disturbance, vomitting and fits are also witnessed. iv) Gastro-intestinal problems like mild diarrhoea may occur. v) Skin blotches, eczema, fungal infection and sometimes skin cancer may be observed. vi) Nervous system may be affected, the brain may be badly damaged leading to a loss of memory, and ability to speak and to think. vii) A completely infected AIDS patient may die within three years of infection. Prevention and control Although there is no cure for AIDS, the HIV infection can be prevented by i) ii) iii) iv) v) Avoiding multiple sex partners Using a condom or other method of contraception Avoiding prostitution and homosexuality Screening of blood before transfusion Treatment of all blood and other products used in transfusion to destroy the HIV vi) Avoiding sharing of injection needles vii) Avoiding pregnancy if the mother is HIV positive viii) Educating people
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 29.5 1. What are sexually transmitted diseases? 2. Name any two diseases that are spread by sexual contact. 3. Give the full form of AIDS. 4. Name the causative organism of the following diseases. (a) Syphilis (b) Gonorrhoea LET US REVISE The process by which living organisms produce more of their own kind is called reproduction. It is of two types- asexual reproduction and sexual reproduction.
In asexual reproduction only one organism is involved, no gametes are produced and no fertilization takes place. In sexual reproduction both male and female gametes are produced and fertilization occurs. Some methods of asexual reproduction are - fission, budding, fragmentation and spore formation. Some artificial methods of propagation of plants are grafting, cutting, layering and tissue culture. A typical flower has four whorlscalyx, corolla, androecium and gynoecium. Each member of the androecium is called stamen and each member of the gynoecium is called pistil. Most animals and some plants reproduce sexually. Sexual reproduction involves two main processes, i.e. meiosis and fertilization. The age of 1314 years in males and 1112 years in females is called puberty in human beings. At this age, sex organs get matured and several secondary sexual characteristics appear in them. Placenta is an association between maternal and foetal tissues meant for physiological exchange. Twins are of two typesfraternal and identical twins. Unchecked population control has led to population explosion. Fertility control methods can be preventive or corrective. We can control the rising population by fertility check. Diseases that spread through sexual contact are known as sexually transmitted diseases. TERMINAL EXERCISES
A. Multiple choice type questions. Select the correct answer from the following statements. 1. In potato, vegetative propagation takes place by a) leaves b) stem c) root d) seeds 2. Bryophyllum plant reproduces vegetatively by a) leaf bud b) adventitious buds c) root d) stem 3. In the process of grafting, the plant forming the shoot system is known as a) scion b) stock c) sucker d) bulb
4. Pollen sacs are present in a) thalamus b) anther c) ovary d) corolla 5. The transfer of pollen grains from anther to the stigma of the same flower is a) self pollination b) ovulation c) cross pollination d) fertilization 6. In the human female, fertilization of the ovum takes place in a) vagina b) ovary c) fallopian tube d) uterus 7. The process of release of the egg from the ovary is called a) ovulation b) oogenesis c) menstruation d) spermatogenesis 8. Which of the following is the sperm storage organ in human males? a) Epididymis b) Penis c) Vas deferens d) Testis B. Descriptive type questions. 1. Define reproduction. Name the two types of reproduction that occur in the living beings. 2. Give one example each of organisms, which reproduce by i) Budding ii) Fragmentation iii) Fission 3. Give one example each of the plants, which reproduce by vegetative propagation of the following parts: i) Stem ii) Leaves iii) Layering iv) Grafting 4. What is vegetative propagation? Write various methods of artificial vegetative propagation. 5. What is a zygote? How is it formed? 6. Where does fertilization take place in plants and in animals?
7. 8. 9. 10.
Name the organs of male reproductive system in humans. Name the organs of female reproductive system in humans. Name any two mechanical methods of contraception. Give one word for the following statements. i) Process of transfer of pollen grains from the anther to the stigma. ii) Male reproductive whorl of the flower. iii) Diseases spread through sexual contact. iv) Site of sperm production in males. v) Site of fertilization in females. 11. Differentiate between binary fission and multiple fission. 12. What is placenta? 13. A woman gave birth to twin daughters. Both the daughters looked exactly alike. What type of twins could they be? 14. What is meant by population explosion? 15. What are contraceptives? Name any two contraceptives used by females. 16. How does the process of pollination differ from that of fertilization? 17. Explain the different methods of vegetative reproduction in plants. ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 29.1 1. Asexual reproduction and sexual reproduction. 2. i) Amoeba ii) iii) iv) v) 29.2 1. i) ii) Self- pollination: If the pollen grains from the anther of a flower are transferred to the stigma of the same flower, it is termed self-pollination. Cross pollination: If the pollen grains from anther of one plant reach the stigma of a flower on another plant of the same species, then this is called as cross pollination Plasmodium Hydra Spirogyra Bryophyllum
2. Androecium and gynoecium 3. ovary 29.3 1. 13-14 years in males and 12-13 years in females. 2. Seminiferous tubules
3. i) ii)
Human male reproductive system: a pair of testes, a pair of epididymis, a pair of vasa deferentia, urethra, penis and accessory glands
Human female reproductive system: a pair of ovaries, a pair of fallopian tubes, uterus, vagina 4. i) Human male: deepening of voice, appearance of bread and moustaches, growth of axillary and pubic hair, widening of shoulders (any three) ii) Human female: Growth of axillary and pubic hair, widening of pelvis and hip, enlargement of breasts 29.4 1. Oestrogen 2. i) Males: Vasectomy ii) Females: Tubectomy 3. i) Males: Condoms ii) Females: Intra uterine devices, spermicides, diaphragm, oral contraceptive pills etc. 4. IUD: Intra Uterine Device.
29.5 1. Diseases spread through sexual contact are called sexually transmitted diseases. 2. AIDS, Gonorrhoea, Syphilis etc. 3. Acquired Immuno Deficiency Syndrome. 4. i) Syphilis: Treponema pallidum ii) Gonorrhoea: Neisseria gonorrhoeae GLOSSARY Reproduction: A process by which a living organism is able to produce more of its own kind. Asexual reproduction: Production of an offspring from body parts other than the reproductive organs. Sexual reproduction: Production of an offspring by the fusion of egg and sperm which are the sex cells or gametes. Binary fission: Process in which two individuals are formed from a single parent. Multiple fission: Process in which many individuals are formed from a single parent. Vegetative propagation: Method in which any vegetative part of the plant, such as leaf, stem or root, develops into a new plant. Androecium: The male part of a flower. Gynoecium: The female part of a flower. Placentation: The arrangement of ovules in the ovary of a flower.
Autogamy (self pollination): Pollen grains from the anther of a flower are transferred to the stigma of the same flower. Allogamy (cross pollination): Pollen grains from the anther of a flower are transferred to the stigma of another flower of the same species. Spermatogenesis: The process of formation of sperms in the testes of an organism. Oogenesis: The process of formation of eggs or ova in the ovaries of an organism. Semen: The sperms along with the secretions. Puberty: The age at which the reproductive organs become mature and functional in human beings. Fertilization: The process of fusion of the egg and the sperm. Zygote: The product of the fusion of the egg and the sperm. Identical twins: When two embryos are formed from the same egg due to division of the fertilized egg into two sets of cells. Non-identical or fraternal twins: When two embryos are formed from two different eggs produced at the same time and fertilized by two different sperms.
: 258 : From Parents to Children - Elements of Genetics
30
From Parents to Children Elements of Genetics

Collect a few photographs of your family members and close relations. You will be surprised to find marked resemblances in physical features such as the shape of nose, eyes, hands, feet, forehead, colour and texture of hair and many other observable characterics. Similarities between members of a family are due to heredity. Heredity means passing down of characteristics from parents to children. Differences between members of the same family are due to different combinations of parental characteristics. These differences are termed variations. Heredity and variation are due to genes and gene combinations and study of heredity is termed Genetics. In this lesson, you will learn about some basics of genetics. OBJECTIVES After completing this lesson, you will be able to: define heredity and variation; highlight Mendels and Suttons contributions to genetics; state the number of chromosomes in a normal human being; state the distinction between autosomes and sex chromosomes; explain the chromosomal basis of sex determination in humans; name at least three genetic disorders; state the symptoms and explain the cause of haemophilia, colour blindness and thallasemia. 30.1 MENDEL AND SUTTONS CONTRIBUTION TO GENETICS Gregor Johann Mendel (1822-1884) an Austrian monk, was the first to observe the manner in which characteristic features pass down from parents to offsprings. He performed his experiments on the garden pea plant, which has striking contrasting characteristics such as, purple or white flowers, tall or dwarf plants, green or yellow seeds, which may also be either round or wrinkled. He selected
From Parents to Children - Elements of Genetics : 259 :
seven pairs of contrasting features in the pea plant and carried out selective breeding. For example, he chose a tall plant whose seeds always produced tall plants, and a dwarf plant from whose seeds only dwarf plants could be raised. He used the pollen of a tall plant to pollinate and fertilise the pea flower of a dwarf plant. Such a type of pollination that is done manually is known as artificial pollination. Similarly, he artificially pollinated plants with other contrasting features. After experimenting for several generations he was able to formulate certain laws of inheritance. That was the beginning of genetics. One of Mendels laws states that for every feature or character (e.g. colour of flowers, height of plants, etc.) there is a pair of factors. One factor each from each pair goes into the gamete (sperm or egg). Upon fertilisation, these factors express themselves according to a set pattern. Gregor Johann Mendel was born in 1822. He grew up on a small farm in Northern Moravia, then in Austria. In 1847, he became a priest. In 1856, in the monastery of St. Thomas, Mendel began his historic research work with the garden pea and published his work entitled Experiments on plant hybrids in 1866. Unfortunately his work was rediscovered Fig. 30.1 Gregor Johann Mendel sixteen years after his death in 1900. The (1822 - 1884) first significant contribution in the field of genetics was given by Mendel and so he is known as the father of genetics. Later in 1920, Sutton while observing grasshopper chromosomes confirmed that Mendelian factors are present on chromosomes. The factors later got to be known as genes. It was accepted that genes are responsible for heredity. In other words, genes are the units of heredity. These are present at fixed loci (locations) on the chromosomes. ACTIVITY 30.1 Check your ear lobes and those of your friends and family members. The lower end of the ear lobe may be attached or free. This feature of the ear lobe is hereditary. Observe the ear lobes of your parents and your siblings (brothers and sisters) and note from which of your parents you have inherited this feature. You may similarly try and observe the rolling of your tongue and notice who all in your family can roll their tongues and notice who all in your family can curve the tip of the thumb and who all cannot, for this ability is also hereditary. Also, note any two other features such as colour of eyes or shape of the nose or any other feature among your friends. Differences that you note are variations.

Ear lobes Tongue rolling
Free ear lobe
Attached ear lobe
Shapes of Nose
Roman
Straight
Up turned
Fig. 30.2 Some variations found in people
30.2 HUMAN CHROMOSOMES Every cell in the human body contains 46 (23 pairs) chromosomes. You have already learnt that chromosomes are present in the nucleus of a cell. Chromosomes are present in pairs. One chromosome of each pair comes from the father and the other from the mother. The chromosome number is thus a diploid (i.e. paired) number and is represented as 2n. The number of chromosomes remains constant in all normal human beings. Of the 23 pairs of human chromosomes (2n = 46), one pair represented as X and Ychromosomes have genes that determine the sex of an individual. X and Y chromosomes are, therefore, called sex chromosomes while, the rest 22 pairs are termed autosomes. You can see the chromosomes arranged according to size and also based on certain other considerations in the Fig. 30.3. Chromosomes can be seen only during cell division. Pairs of similar chromosomes (called homologous chromosomes) are selected and arranged in the mitotic metaphase of a dividing cell. You have
Chromosomes of a normal female
2 A
4 B
9 C
10
11
12
13
14 D 20 F
15
16
17 E
18
19
21 G
22
X X
Chromosomes of a normal male
2 A
4 B
9 C
10
11
12
13
14 D
15
16
17 E
18
19 F
20
21 G
22
X Y
Fig. 30.3 Human chromosomes
already learnt about cell division earlier and know that at metaphase chromosomes are clearly seen lying at the equator. CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 30.1 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Who proposed that hereditary units are located on chromosomes? What are Mendelian factors called today? How many autosomes do humans have? Why are X and Y-chromosomes called sex chromosomes? What is the diploid number of chromosomes in human body cells?
30.3 CHEMICAL NATURE OF GENES By now you know that genes are bearers of hereditary characters and they are present on chromosomes. From the work of many scientists, today we know that genes are segments of chemical molecules called DNA or deoxyribonucleic acid. One chromosome contains one molecule of DNA and genes are fragments of this DNA molecule. You might have heard that criminals can now be identified by DNA tests called DNA fingerprinting. This is because DNA of an individual is same in each and every cell of the body and also resembles the DNA of parents. Needless to say this is because children inherit DNA from parents. Just like the fingerprint, DNA of every individual is unique and even if a hair or drop of blood or semen of the criminal is left at the site of the crime, it can be used to detect the DNA of the criminal and compare with the suspect to ascertain the truth. Dr. Hargobind Khorana: the creator of man-made gene It is a matter of pride that Nobel laureate Dr Hargobind Khorana who was born in our country synthesized an artificial gene in the laboratory for the first time. Dr Khorana got the Nobel Prize in 1970 for this contribution.
Fig. 30.4 Dr. Hargobind Khorana
30.4 SEX DETERMINATION IN HUMANS In the earlier section you have learnt about autosomes and sex chromosomes. The gametes, i.e., sperms or eggs have haploid or half the number of chromosomes as you have learnt earlier in lesson 29 on gamete production and fertilization. Gamete has 22 autosomes and 1 sex chromosome. When an egg of the mother and sperm of the father fuse to produce a zygote, the diploid number is restored. Zygote develops into an individual whose sex depends on whether there are two X chromosomes or one X and one Y-chromosome. Zygotes having two X-chromosomes develop into females and zygotes with one X and one Y-chromosome develop into males.
Eggs are of one kind only. These contain 22 autosomes and a single X chromosome. Sperms are of two kinds (i) having 22 autosomes and one X chromosome, or (ii) having 22 autosomes and a Y chromosome (See figure below). When X bearing sperm fuses with egg, a female child results with 44 autosomes and two X chromosomes. If Y bearing sperm fuses with egg then a male child results with chromosomal constitution 44 autosomes (Fig. 30.5) and X and Y chromosomes.
Parents
44 + XY
44 + XX
22 + X
22 + Y
22 + X
44 + XX
44 + XY
Note : Thus, the chromosomes in a male Fig. 30.5 Chromosomes - the basis of sex human are 44 autosomes + XY and that determination in humans in a female are 44 autosomes + XX. It is, therefore, wrong to blame a woman if she does not bear a male child as is done in some ignorant families of our country. Sex of an individual is purely due to chance and neither the mother nor the father can be blamed. CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 30.2 1. What is a gene made of? 2. Why is DNA fingerprinting a foolproof test? 3. If a Y bearing sperm fuses with an egg, what will be the sex of the individual developing from the zygote? 4. How many X chromosomes can be found in the cells of (i) a boy, and (ii) a girl. 5. How many molecules of DNA are present in one chromosome? 30.5 INHERITANCE OF BLOOD GROUPS You have already learnt in lesson 26 that every human being belongs to one of the four blood groups i.e., A, B, AB or O. The blood group of a person is inherited from parents and depends on the combination of genes for blood group inherited from either parent. One gene for blood group is inherited from the father and the other from the mother. These genes are designated as IA, IB and i. The following table shows the combination of genes and the resulting blood group. Table 30.1: The combination of genes and the resulting blood group Gene combination IA IA or IA i IBIB or IB i I I Ii
A B
Blood group A B AB O
Similarly the Rh+ (Rhesus positive) blood group is inherited when one or two genes for Rh+ antigen are present in a person. A person with Rh- (Rhesus negative) blood group lacks Rh+ gene. Thus, Rh+ Rh+ or Rh+ Rh- combinations result in Rh+ blood group and Rh- Rh- into Rh- (Rh negative) blood group. 30.6 HEREDITARY (GENETIC) DISORDERS Sometimes a defective gene present in a parent may be passed down to the offspring. The defective gene may not express itself in the parent. This is because the expression of the defective gene may be masked by its pair, which is normal. But the child may inherit one defective gene from each parent and hence have both genes defective. Such a child suffers from the genetic disorder as shown below. Parents: Normal mother (defective gene masked)
+
Normal father (defective gene masked)

+
Gametes : +
Offsprings : + + Normal
Normal
Normal
Abnormal (Genetic disorder)
There are several kinds of hereditary disorders, some of which may be caused due to the presence of only one defective gene or sometimes as shown above by the presence of two defective genes. Genetic disorders cannot be cured by medicines. Scientists are trying to discover methods by which a defective gene occurring in an individual may be removed or replaced by a normal gene. This is called gene replacement therapy. Three common hereditary disorders are Thallasemia, Haemophilia and colour blindness. a) Thallasemia Patients suffering from this disorder are unable to manufacture haemoglobin, the pigment in red blood corpuscles which carries oxygen to tissues. This is because the pair of genes controlling hemoglobin production are defective. Thallasemics (persons suffering from thallasemia) require frequent blood transfusion in order to survive.
b) Haemophilia Those persons suffering from haemophilia have either a defective gene or lack genes, which control production of substances responsible for blood clotting. In the absence of such substances blood does not coagulate. So, once bleeding starts, it does not stop. c) Colour blindness Different kinds of colour blindness are met with but commonly those suffering from this genetic disorder are unable to distinguish blue colour from green. Again, this is due to the presence of a defective gene or absence of a gene. Both haemophilia and colour blindness genes are located on X-chromosomes, and hence, the disorder is passed down form mother to the son. In the mother with two X-chromosomes, the defect may not show up. Also, in the daughter, the effect of defective gene on X-chromosome from mother may be masked by a normal gene on the X chromosome derived from the father. But males have only one X-chromosome, which is inherited from the nother and if it bears the defective gene, the person suffers from the genetic disorder. (1)
XC-chromosome + (colour blindness gene in mothers Xchromosome) XC (From mother) + X-chromosome (normal gene in fathers X-chromosome) Y (From father) XCX (daughter carrying colour blindness gene but not suffering from it) XCY Son born colour blind does not have any gene for colour vision so son with defective gene suffers.
(2)
Thallasemia is an autosomal genetic disorder, while, haemophilia and colour blindness are sex-chromosomal or X-chromosomal disorders. CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 30.3 1. What will be the blood group of an individual with genetic combination IAIB? 2. How can a person be normal for a trait even when carrying one defective gene for that trait. 3. On which chromosome are genes for haemophilia and colour blindness located? 4. On which kind of chromosomeautosome or sex chromosome is defective gene causing Thallasemia located? 5. Name the therapy in which defective gene is substituted by normal gene. LET US REVISE Passing down of characters from parents to children is called heredity. Children of same parents differ because they posses different combinations of parental genes. This is called variation.
Heredity and variation are due to genes and their varied combinations. Study of heredity is called genetics. Mendel was the first to postulate laws of inheritance (heredity) and said heredity was due to factors. Sutton explained that Mandelian factors were the genes and that genes are present on chromosomes. The diploid number of chromosomes in humans is 46, of which 22 pairs are autosomes and 2 chromosomes X and Y are sex chromosomes. Genes are made of DNA. One Chromosome has one molecule of DNA. Genes are fragments of DNA. Sex determination in humans is based on combination of sex chromosomes. Females have two X-chromosomes, while males have one X and one Y chromosome. Defective genes or absence of genes may cause genetic disorders e.g. thallasemia, haemophilia and colour blindness. Thallasemics lack genes responsible for production of haemoglobin so they need frequent blood transfusion for survival. Haemophiliacs are bleeders. Their blood cannot coagulate as they lack genes responsible for production of substances required for blood coagulation. Colourblind people cannot distinguish blue colour from green due to defective genes for colour vision located on X-chromosomes. Thallasemia is an autosomal genetic disorder while, haemophilia and colour blindness are sex chromosomal disorders. TERMINAL EXERCISES
A. Multiple choice type questions. Select the correct answer in the following. 1. Which statement is true for genes? (a) Genes are imaginary factors. (b) (c) Genes are present in the (d) ribosomes of the cell.
Genes are fragments of DNA. Genes are not inherited.
2. In which genetic disorder is the patient unable to manufacture haemoglobin? (a) Haemophilia (b) Thallasemia (c) Tuberculosis (d) Jaundice 3. The number of chromosomes in a human sperm is, (a) 46 (b) 44 (c) 23 (d) 22 4. The sex chromosomes in females are (a) XX (c) XY (b) (d) one X and no Y one Y and no X
5. Who can be called the founder or father of genetics? (a) Sutton (b) Mendel (c) Darwin (d) Bateson B. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. Descriptive type questions. Name the scientist who gave the laws of inheritance. What are factors named by Mendel called today? What is the chemical nature of a gene? Where are genes located? Why is haemophilia called bleeders disease? State two differences between autosomes and sex chromosomes. Define: heredity; variation; genetic disorder; sex chromosomes. What has been the contribution of Mendel and Sutton to science of genetics? State in one sentence for each of the two scientists. State any two facts about human chromosomes. Why is haemophilia found mostly in boys? With the help of a line diagram explain the chromosomal basis of making of a male child. What is the basis of sex determination in humans? Why is DNA fingerprinting a sure test for identification of a person? Write notes on any one genetic disorder. What is meant by gene replacement therapy?
16. Difficult but try Rahuls maternal grandfather (mothers father) was colourblind. What are the chances of Rahul being colour blind if his father has normal colour vision? ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 30.1 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 30.2 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Sutton Genes 22 pairs or 44 They determine sex of a person. 46 DNA DNA of a person is unique Male (i) one (ii) two One
30.2 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.
AB The normal gene masks the effect of defective gene. X chromosome autosome Gene replacement therapy
GLOSSARY Autosomes: Chromosomes containing genes for characters other than those for sex determination. Colour blindness: Genetic disorder in which a person cannot distinguish between blue and green colours due to defective genes. DNA: Deoxyribonucleic acid, chemical substance of which genes are made. DNA fingerprinting: A technique by which a persons identity can be established by the study of his DNA. Diploid: Full (double) set of chromosomes in pairs in a cell. Genetics: Science of heredity and variation. Heredity: Passing down of characteristics from parents to offsprings. Haemophilia: Genetic disorder in which blood does not clot because of the presence of a defective gene. Sex chromosomes: Chromosomes containing genes for sex determination (Designated X and Y). Thallasemia: Genetic disorder in which haemoglobin cannot form in RBCs due to the presence of defective gene. Variation: Genetic differences between individuals.
: 268 : Health, Hygiene and Diseases
31
Health, Hygiene and Diseases

You must have heard the saying health is wealth. Most of you must be in good health. If you keep good health your parents may not have to worry about your health. Health is of prime concern for individuals as well as for the community at large. Good health requires certain efforts and cannot be purchased. In this lesson we will discuss the characteristics of good health and the various factors that help to maintain it. Cleanliness inside and outside the house, along with proper sanitation helps in keeping the environment disease free. Knowledge of first aid can be of great help in saving a victims life in case of an emergency. You will learn about some first aid techniques also in this lesson. OBJECTIVES After completing this lesson, you will be able to: define health and differentiate between personal and community health; explain the role of proper nutrition, healthy habits and physical exercise in maintaining good health; define hygiene and suggest ways to show that health and hygiene are interrelated; define disease and classify diseases into communicable and noncommunicable types; mention the cause, mode of transmission, symptoms and preventive measures of some common communicable diseases; define immunity and list the various national immunisation programmes; define first-aid and identify some of its methods. 31.1 HEALTH AND HYGIENE What is good health? Different people may consider good health differently. But to define it formally, health is a state of complete physical, mental and social well-being. We take health as being free from diseases but it is much more than just the absence of a disease. Good health may enable us to do well at work and in life. Good health involves proper functioning of all body organs. It also involves feeling well both in body and in mind. People enjoying good health are cheerful, free from stress, and enjoy life to the fullest. Only if you are in good health you can be of help to others and the community.
Health, Hygiene and Diseases : 269 :
Do you consider yourself to be in good health by the above-mentioned definition? To keep ourselves free from diseases and to have good health, we should be careful about hygiene. The various practices that help in maintaining good health are called hygiene. The word hygiene comes from a Greek word hygiea that means Goddess for health and deals with personal and community health. Thus, health and hygiene go hand in hand or they are interrelated. Proper nutrition, physical exercise, rest and sleep, cleanliness, and medical care are essential parts of maintaining good health. Health includes both personal and community health. 31.2 PERSONAL HEALTH Taking care of oneself to remain healthy and free from diseases is personal health. Some important aspects of good personal health are as follows: 1. Balanced diet: You have already studied about the need and importance of balanced diet in lesson 25. Obtaining a balanced diet depends on ones choice and what one can usually afford. It also includes the correct proportion of carbohydrates, proteins, vitamins, minerals and roughage in your diet. 2. Personal hygiene: There are some activities you perform everyday in order to keep yourself clean. Can you list them out? These activities are: Regular toilet habits: Regular bowel movements keep us free of body wastes generated inside the body. Washing hands before eating: Having food with dirty hands may make us sick because the dirt in our hand might carry certain diseasecausing germs. We should wash our hands after going to the toilet. Washing hands with soap make them germ free.
Bathing regularly and wearing clean clothes: Dirt is a place for germs to grow. Bathing regularly keeps your body free of dirt, body lice and germs (Fig. 31.1). Cleaning the teeth: After eating food, some food particles may remain Adult Louse sticking to your teeth. These food particles form a medium for the germs to grow, harm your gums and teeth, and cause bad breath. Brushing of teeth Eggs every day do not let the germs grow. Magnified Eggs on hair Brushing of teeth before going to bed is a very good habit. Fig. 31.1 Regular cleaning and combing keeps hair free from lice Washing hair, cleaning eyes, ears and nails: Regular washing and combing of hair helps in preventing dirt accumulation to keep the germs away. Nails should be clipped regularly; nail biting is unhygienic and must be avoided.
3. Domestic hygiene House should be kept clean and free from dirt, flies and germs. Cooking utensils, plates, cups and other utensils should be kept clean. 4. Clean food and water Fruits and vegetables should be washed in clean water to make them free from germs and pesticides (chemicals sprayed on plants to keep them insect free) before consumption and cooking. Water used for drinking, cooking, bathing and washing utensils should be from a clean source. 5. Cooking with care: Food should be prepared in a clean kitchen and in a clean manner. While cooking food, it is important to heat it to high temperature to kill any germs present in it. Cooked food should be eaten fresh or stored in cool, fly-proof place. Milk stored in the refrigerator or outside should be boiled again to make it germ free. 6. Abstaining from habit-forming substances: To keep healthy, one should avoid smoking, chewing of betel nut, gutka and tobacco, and drinking alcohol. Intake of such habit-forming substances may lead to health problems such as liver damage, kidney failure and heart failure. 7. Exercise: Regular walking and physical exercises have a good effect on health. Outdoor games and sport maintain the heart and circulatory system in good condition. Walking keeps the joints of bones healthy. 8. Regular sleep and relaxation: These also play an important part in maintaining sound mental health. They also help in the repair of body tissues. CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 31.1 1. Define good health. 2. List two precautions that should be taken while storing cooked food. 3. Intake of alcohol and narcotics may cause damage to ____________ and__________ 4. Washing of fruits and vegetables makes them free from _________ and ___________ 5. Balanced diet includes correct proportions of _________, __________, _______, __________, and ________________ 6. List any two activities that keep heart in good condition. 31.3 COMMUNITY HEALTH Activities, undertaken at the Government or local organisation level to maintain health of the people (for controlling diseases) are known as community health. We often read in the newspaper or see on television about the fast spread of certain diseases in a particular area. Many people seem to get affected. This may not be an individual problem, but the problem of community and requires immediate attention. Local or government organisations may take steps to control
spreading of a disease, by creating awareness and ensuring adequate supplies of medicines. You must have seen notices and banners put up by the government agencies stating the date and time of immunization programmes and the precautions to be taken against different diseases. Such awareness is regularly created through nationwide campaigns against the spread of diseases such as malaria, dengue, AIDS, polio, leprosy, and Hepatitis B. There are several organisations working towards good community health. Some of these are listed below. 1. Government hospitals, and dispensaries 2. The National Malaria Eradication (removal) Programme 3. The Tuberculosis (T. B.) Eradication Programme 4. National Immunization Programme 5. National Pulse Polio Programme Some of the important tasks, which the community health centres undertake are: To maintain proper cleanliness by disposing off the sewage from colonies. To provide safe and germ free drinking water. To run various immunization (vaccination against various diseases) programs and other health awareness programmes wherever there is danger of spreading of a disease. To provide health education. To spray insecticides to kill harmful insects. To maintain food standards, regular inspection at food stores, meat and milk outlets. To prevent mosquito breeding, cover open drains and pour kerosene oil on the surface of stagnant water.
Concrete drains to drain soil
Clean compounds Oiling surface of stagnant water Fish eat larvae Use Mosquito nets on beds
Spraying insecticides on walls
Clean and airy rooms
Fig. 31.2 Some efforts made towards maintenance of community health
31.4 ENVIRONMENTAL HYGIENE You can keep your body clean but what will happen if you live in dirty surroundings? If so, you are sure to fall sick. Thus, to have a healthy living one must live in clean surroundings. Unclean surroundings may become breeding ground for flies and germs, thus, leading to spread of diseases. Environmental hygiene includes environmental sanitation or keeping the surroundings clean. To keep the environment healthy, we should be careful about the disposal of the garbage. Some of the practices for disposing the garbage are: Keeping the house clean: The house must be cleaned every day. We must sweep and mop the house to remove dirt from every nook and corner of the house. The furniture must also be wiped clean. The cobwebs from the walls and roof should be cleared at least once a week. Throwing garbage in dustbins: Do not throw your household garbage on the roadside. This makes street dirty and allows flies, mosquitoes and other animals to breed. This garbage not only gives a dirty look but also produces foul smell. Garbage should be thrown inside the dustbins. The bins should also be cleaned after emptying the garbage. Keeping dustbins covered: To prevent entry of insects and other animals inside the house dustbins should be kept covered. CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 31.2 1. Name any two diseases for which awareness is being spread at the national level. 2. List any two national organisations working towards good community health. 3. Fill in the blanks. i) Mosquito breeding may be prevented by pouring ___________ on stagnant water. ii) Unclean surroundings become breeding ground for __________ and ____________
31.5 DISEASE A disease is defined as any deviation from health or any state when body is not at ease. Disease may be the sickness of the body or the mind. A disease can be as mild as a sore throat, common cold, and stomach upset or as serious as cancer. Disease can strike almost any part of the body and anybody at some stage or the other. They can also affect a persons mental and emotional health. In this section we will mainly discuss diseases of the body. You may have heard of some common diseases or may be you have seen people suffering from some diseases, such as typhoid, malaria, rickets, jaundice, scurvy, common cold, etc. Can these diseases be categorised on some basis? One
of the bases could be the cause of the disease. Diseases that are transmitted through air, water and physical contact or spread through vectors like flies and mosquitoes are termed communicable diseases. Diseases Communicable Diseases that spread from infected person to another Caused by pathogens, such as viruses, bacteria, fungi, protozoa and worms Some examples are malaria, typhoid, common cold, measles and tuberculosis Non-communicable Do not spread from an infected person to another Pathogens are not involved These diseases may be caused due to dietary deficiency (rickets, scurvy, kwashiorkor), genetic defects, hormonal imbalances, allergy, etc.
Epidemics Sometimes you would have seen or heard about a disease affecting a large number of people in a small period. A disease that affects a large population in a particular area is considered to be an epidemic. Sometimes, cholera takes an epidemic form in our country. Cholera is a bacterial disease and marked by uncontrolled vomiting and diarrhoea. It may affect large number of people, leading to dehydration and death. What is a communicable disease? Diseases that spread from one person to another by the entry of pathogens are called infectious or transmissible or communicable diseases. How do communicable diseases spread? We all know that there are a lot of germs or pathogens (disease causing organisms) in the environment we live in. To carry on their life cycle, the pathogens try to come out of the body of an infected person and reach out to more hosts for their survival. They produce toxins in the hosts body which leads to symptoms, such as fever and eruption of rashes, etc. These pathogens may be transferred from one person to another by the following methods. Direct method Indirect method Direct method: by contact with the infected person. Indirect method may include the following: Touching and sharing items used by the infected person: Using the same towel or sharing a handkerchief or same bed with the patient may also spread diseases. Contaminated food and drink: Food and drinks may get infected by flies and insects carrying germs.
Carriers: These organisms carry germs from one place to another, for example housefly, cockroach, etc. Vectors: These are agents that harbour germs but they themselves remain unaffected. For example, animals such as dogs and monkeys, or mosquitoes. Air: Through droplet method, i.e. coughing and sneezing by the infected person (Fig. 31.3). During blood transfusion or other equipment such Fig. 31.3 Droplet method of spread of communicable disease as infected needles.
31.6 CLASSIFICATION OF VARIOUS COMMUNICABLE DISEASES We can classify various communicable diseases according to the type of causative organism or pathogen (Table 31.1). Table 31.1: Diseases caused by certain pathogens
Type of pathogen Virus (Jaundice), Bacteria Fungi Protozoa Helminths (worms) Diseases caused Influenza (common cold), Hepatitis Chickenpox, Measles Cholera, Tetanus, Tuberculosis, Ring worm Amoebic dysentery, Malaria Filariasis
The following table 31.2 will give you an idea of cause and symptoms of some diseases and the different ways to prevent them. Table 31.2: Symptoms of some common infectious diseases, the causative organism, mode of transmission and preventive measures against the disease I. Viral diseases
Disease Causative organism Mode of transmission Direct or Indirect contact Symptoms Fever Body pain Sore throat Sneezing Weakness Rise in body temperature Yellowing of urine, eyes and nails Loss of appetite, nausea and vomiting Prevention/ Cure Taking precautions Antibiotics to prevent secondary infections Intake of treated water Vaccination Avoiding contact with an infected person and his and his articles
Influenza Influenza virus
Hepatitis Virus (Jaundice)
Contaminated water
II. Fungal diseases

Disease Ringworm Causative organism Fungus Mode of transmission Direct contact Symptoms Ring like discoloured patches over the skin and scalp Itching, redness Prevention Personal cleanliness
III. Bacterial diseases

Disease Causative Mode of organism transmission Direct contact with infected person Coughing Contaminated food and drinks Symptoms Difficulty in breathing, chest pain; low grade fever especially in the evenings over long period; loss of weight; blood in sputum; night sweating Acute diarrhoea; vomiting; dehydration; muscle cramps Prevention BCG vaccination at birth
Tuberculosis Bacteria
Cholera
Bacteria
Contaminated food and water From germs present in faeces of patients
Use of clean, treated water. Vaccination. Prevention of contamination.
IV. Protozoan
Disease Malaria Causative organism Protozoa Mode of transmission Symptoms Female Anopheles mosquito bite Intermittent high fever; Chilliness during periods of high fever; headache; Enlargement of spleen and liver Prevention
Prevent accumulation of water in surrounding; Protection from mosquito bite; taking anti-malarial drugs
Amoebiasis Protozoa (amoebic dysentery)
Contaminated water and food Unwashed vegetables House flies
Abdominal pain; five to Proper disposal of six blood and mucus human excreta; containing stools per day Preventing food and
vegetables from contamination; Drinking safe water
V. Helminthic diseases
Disease Causative organism Mode of transmission Female Culex mosquito Symptoms Prevention
Filariasis Helminthic worm (Elephantiasis)
Fever; swelling of lymph nodes; permanent swelling of feet, legs and thighs; accumulation of large number of worms causing elephant leg-like swelling (Fig. 31.4) in the feet.
Prevention from mosquito bite; Taking preventive medicines in disease prone areas.
31.7 MEASURES TO PREVENT DISEASES Contracting infectious diseases can be prevented by adopting measures such as: personal and community hygiene, intake of balanced diet, proper disposal of waste material, imparting education on habit-forming substances, and immunization against communicable diseases. Protection from communicable diseases by immunization Immunity is bodys ability to defend (fight and protect) against diseases. Mothers milk during infancy is very important as it provides immunity against diseases to a newborn baby. Immunity can be of two types: Innate immunity (present from birth) Acquired immunity (achieved during ones Fig. 31.4 Elephantiasis (elephant-like lifetime legs) caused by helminthic worms Ways to acquire immunity Exposure to a disease: A person suffering from a disease, such as chicken pox, measles or mumps, develops life-long immunity against the disease. By vaccination: By taking vaccines against diseases, such as polio, tuberculosis, hepatitis, etc. Vaccines are weakened germs. When introduced into the body, they make the body develop body resistance to fight against disease but do not themselves cause disease. To prevent the occurrence of a number of communicable diseases, immunization through vaccines is highly effective. Vaccines are available against Polio, Chicken pox, Tetanus, Diphtheria, Whooping cough, Tuberculosis and various kinds of Hepatitis, etc. Most of the immunization for life long immunity should be provided at an early age. Under National Immunization Programme vaccination facilities are available at Government run clinics and hospitals for protection against some common communicable diseases. Table 31.3: Vaccines given to a newborn child and mother
Age 2-6 weeks 3-12months Vaccine Immunity against disease Tuberculosis Diphtheria Pertussis (whooping cough or kaali khansi) Tetanus Measles
Child
BCG DPT
Measles vaccine
Health, Hygiene and Diseases : 277 : 18-24 months DPT-booster dose; Polio booster dose (oral) Diphtheria Pertussis Tetanus
5-6 years 10 years
Diphtheria and Tetanus booster dose Diphtheria and Tetanus Tetanus Toxoide-booster dose Tetanus and Typhoid Typhoid vaccine
Mother (During pregnancy)

16-24 Weeks 24-32 Weeks First dose of Tetanus toxoid Booster dose of Tetanus toxoid Protection against tetanus during child birth from surgical instruments
IMMUNITY
Innate immunity (Inborn or natural)
Acquired immunity
Non-specific Specific (For infections in general) (For particular infections)
Active (Produced in ones own body)
Passive (Supplied from outside)
Natural (By previous infection)
Artificial (By vaccination)
Natural
(Antibodies received from mother)
Artificial
(Readymade antibodies having been produced in other animals)
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 31.3 1. List any two diseases transmitted from an infected person to other healthy person. 2. Are rickets and diabetes examples of communicable or non-communicable diseases? 3. Name any two diseases that can be prevented by taking vaccines. 4. Name the body organ(s) affected by hepatitis (jaundice). 5. Name a disease caused by the same group of organism that causes amoebic dysentery. 31.8 FIRST AID Activities that can prevent serious deterioration of a victims condition before he gets proper medical attention are called first aid activities.
You often share work with your parents at home or go outside to play or work. Sometimes you or your friends may get hurt. In case of a medical emergency it may not be possible to get medical attention at once. Immediate care given to a victim of an accident, sudden illness or other medical emergency can save life. All this comes under first-aid. Some first-aid techniques are given here. 31.8.1 BLEEDING Severe bleeding due to deep injury may lead to acute loss of blood, low blood pressure and even death. To stop bleeding: Press directly on the wound with thumb. Keep sterilised dressing or clean handkerchief. Make the victim lie down and elevate the bleeding part above the rest of the body.
31.8.2 Nosebleed Make the victim sit up and lean forward to minimise blood flow from that part. Press nostrils for a short while. Place an ice-cold cloth on the victims face. Consult a doctor if bleeding doesnt stop. 31.8.3 Fainting It is a brief, sudden period of unconsciousness. In most cases it occurs when a person is standing motionless for too long and may fall to the ground. Loosen the clothing and raise the feet slightly. Blood will flow back in the head and consciousness will be regained.
31.8.4 Dehydration It is a condition when water is lost from body cells. Early symptoms include severe headache and dizziness. Acute dehydration can result in death. Dehydration may be caused due to reasons, such as, extreme heat, excessive physical activity and inability to drink water, frequent vomiting and diarrhoea. Victim should be made to drink small quantities of Oral Rehydration Solution (ORS) at frequent intervals. ORS can be made by adding one teaspoon of sugar and a pinch of salt in a glass of (about 200mL) water.
31.8.5 Animal bite It can result in serious infections and diseases if left untreated. Wash the area of bite thoroughly with soap and water and cover it with a gauze dressing. In case of dog bite, the dog should be kept under observation to determine if it has rabies (aversion from water or hydrophobia). Consult the doctor immediately for anti-rabies treatment.
31.8.6 Burns The first-aid treatment of burns depends upon the severity of the injury. Firstdegree burns produce a reddening of the top layer of skin. Second degree burns damage the deeper skin and may form blisters. To treat the first and second degree burns: Place the injured area in cold water to relieve the pain. Blot the area and apply a dry sterile dressing.
Third degree burns destroy the deepest layer of skin and should not be treated with water. They should be immediately covered with thick dressing, clean towel or cloth sheet. A doctor should be consulted immediately. Chemical burns caused by acids or alkalis should be flushed with large amounts of water for at least 10 minutes. 31.8.7 Fractures and dislocations A fracture is a break in the bone and a dislocation occurs when the end of the bone is forced out of its normal position in a joint. This may happen when we fall or injure ourselves while playing, driving or working etc. Signs of fracture and dislocation include pain, unusual position of a joint or bone, and tenderness and swelling around the injury. Victim may not be able to move the affected body part. What needs to be done? Do not move the victim until the expert help arrives. Improper handling may cause more damage. Apply a splint in that area if victim has to be taken for further treatment. Splint is a support given to the injured area that prevents movement of the bones. Things, such as a walking stick, big scale, stick, umbrella, rod, etc. can be used as a splint. Splint can be padded and tied to remain in place (Fig. 31.5). Do not tie it very tight, as this may interfere with blood circulation. Do not move a person who has suffered neck or spinal injury.
Fig. 31.5 Technique showing application of splints
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 31.4 Fill in the blanks. 1. Activities that can prevent any deterioration before medical help is available to a victim are called _________________ 2. Items such as _________ and ________may serve as a splint in case of a fracture. 3. Cases of first and second-degree burns should be immediately dipped in ________________ 4. In case of animal bite, affected areas should be washed with _______and_______ 5. Extreme pain on movement, tenderness and swelling around the area are signs of ________________ LET US REVISE Health can be defined as a state of physical, mental and social well being. Basic conditions for good health are: balanced diet, personal hygiene, clean food, water and air, exercise and relaxation and abstaining from habit-forming substances. The various practices that help maintain health constitute hygiene. Hygiene could be personal and community (environmental). Personal hygiene includes clean habits such as: daily bath, washing of hands before eating food and going to the toilet. Keeping nails, hair and teeth clean. Community hygiene includes keeping the surroundings clean and not letting germs breed and cause diseases. Environmental hygiene and health means keeping the house clean and not letting environment get dirty by throwing of the garbage. Organisations such as government hospitals and dispensaries, and programmes such as: pulse polio, malaria eradication, leprosy and tuberculosis control aims at good community health. Diseases can be communicable and non-communicable. Communicable diseases spread from an infected person to another person through air, water, food and articles (objects). Communicable diseases may be caused by viruses, bacteria, fungi, protozoans, and worms (helminths). Polio, influenza (common cold), hepatitis are caused by viruses. Tuberculosis and cholera are bacterial diseases. Protozoans cause diseases such as: malaria, amoebic dysentery etc. Elephantiasis (Filariasis) is caused by worms. Immunization by vaccines is an effective way of protecting body against communicable diseases. Activities that can prevent serious deterioration of a victims condition before the person gets proper medical attention are called first aid.
TERMINAL EXERCISES A. Multiple choice type questions 1. Which one of the following diseases is caused by bacteria? a) Polio b) Hepatitis c) Tuberculosis d) Ringworm 2. Which of the following is a communicable disease? a) Rickets b) Scurvy c) Marasmus d) Cholera 3. Communicable diseases are those which are a) caused by bacteria b) carried from one person to another c) caused by the deficiency of nutrients d) carried from one organ of the body to another 4. Immunity against tuberculosis is provided by which of the following vaccines? a) DPT b) Tetanus Toxoide c) BCG d) Booster dose 5. The causative organism for malaria is a: a) bacteria b) virus c) fungus d) protozoa B. Descriptive type questions. 1. Define hygiene. 2. Why is it insisted to use water from a reliable source? 3. What is an epidemic? Give one example. 4. Name any two organisations working towards community health. 5. Name the vaccine given to the mother during pregnancy. 6. Name any two viral diseases. 7. List any two ways in which food and water get contaminated. 8. A patient comes with symptoms of swollen feet, legs and thighs showing an elephant leg like appearance. Identify the disease and the category of causative organism. 9. Name any two diseases, against which protection is usually provided by vaccination.
10. People in a certain village have been drinking water from a pond and eating unwashed vegetables plucked from the fields. After a few months they started complaining of symptoms such as abdominal pain, five to six mucous and blood containing stools/ motions per day. Identify the disease and the category of the causative organism. 11. List any two precautions that should be taken while disposing the garbage. 12. What is personal hygiene? Discuss any four activities that are included in personal hygiene. 13. Differentiate between communicable and non-communicable diseases. List any four ways of spread of communicable diseases. 14. What is the difference between first and third degree burn? What important precaution should be taken while handling them? 15. Why is community health important? List any five major tasks undertaken by community health centres. 16. What is immunization? List any four vaccines and age at which they should be taken as per National Immunisation Programme specifying the diseases. C. Difficult But Try 1. Perform a survey in your area to list precautions people usually take to ensure good health for their family. 2. Make a list of diseases people have suffered in the last six months in your locality. Classify them on the basis of causative organisms and symptoms. 3. Visit a government hospital and find out about the immunizaton programme followed in our country. Tabulate the information giving the name of vaccine, age at which it is given and its functions. ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 31.1 1. A state of physical, mental and social well being. 2. Food should be kept covered, at a cool place. 3. Liver, kidney, heart (any two) 4. Pathogens/germs and pesticides. 5. Carbohydrates, fats, proteins, minerals and vitamins. 6. Walking, playing 31.2 1. Malaria, Hepatitis-B, Tuberculosis, Polio, AIDS 2. Government hospitals and dispensaries. 3. Kerosene 4. Flies and mosquitoes
31.3 1. Influenza, Hepatitis, Tuberculosis 2. Non-communicable 3. Polio, Tuberculosis, Typhoid, Hepatitis, Diphtheria, Tetanus (any two) 4. Liver 5. Filariasis/ Elephantiasis 31.4 1. First aid 2. Stick, umbrella, long scale rod (any two) 3. Cold/ ice cold water 4. Soap and water 5. Fracture GLOSSARY Antibiotics : Chemicals secreted by bacteria and some fungi for their own protection, also used to cure certain infectious diseases. Dehydration : Excessive loss of water from body tissues. Epidemic : A disease that affects a large number of individuals in a population in a particular area. Hygiene : Keeping personal body and surroundings clean. Immunity : Bodys ability to fight and protect against diseases. Toxins : Poisonous substances Vaccination : Introduction of weakened germs in the body to develope bodys resistance against communicable diseases.
: 286 : Agricultural Practices and Animal Husbandry
32
Agricultural Practices and Animal Husbandry

We all need food to survive. Food is the basic need for all living beings, as it provides energy for doing work, and raw material for building and repair of various parts of the body. You know that our country has a large population, and therefore, we need to produce a lot of food. You also know that to produce such a large amount of food we need a large area of land. However, our land availability is limited. Indian scientists have experimented and researched and suggested ways and means by which more food can be grown than before, on the same piece of land. Improved methods of agriculture have led to the production of about 360m tonnes of plant food products and about 88m tonnes of animal food products. OBJECTIVES After completing this lesson, you will be able to: state reasons for human dependence on plants and animals for food; define and differentiate between agriculture and horticulture; list and explain the various steps for raising an improved crop; differentiate between manures and fertilizers with the help of examples; explain various agricultural practices adopted for improvement of food such as, crop rotation and multiple cropping; state the need for protection of crops; explain the terms and give examples of weedicides and insecticides; suggest methods of storage of agricultural produce; explain the meaning of green revolution; state the need for animal husbandry; cite examples of three groups of domesticated animals; explain methods adopted for management of live stock for better production; state common diseases of domestic animals and their prevention. 32.1 HUMAN DEPENDENCE ON PLANTS AND ANIMALS FOR FOOD Our food items are either plant products, such as grains, vegetables and fruits or animal products like milk, egg, mutton, chicken etc.
Agricultural Practices and Animal Husbandry : 287 :
We eat various parts of plant as food. For example, grains of rice, wheat and corn are seeds; radish and carrot are roots; potatoes and ginger are the stem. We also eat leaves and stem of spinach and plenty of fruits. Thus, human beings depend on plants and animals for food. 32.2 AGRICULTURE AND AGRICULTURAL PRACTICES The branch of science which deals with methods of food production is known as agriculture. Besides studying the new methods of food production, in this branch of science we also study about how new and better varieties of crops can be grown, how animals and birds like cows, hens, etc. can be reared well and made to give more milk or better quality eggs? All these new methods which scientists develop come under agricultural practices. We need vegetables, fruits, cereals, pulses, etc. as food. For our clothes, we need the fibre of plants or animals. We get all these foods and fibres by farming or agriculture. ACTIVITY 32.1 Make a list of things which you use every day. Categorise those items which you get directly or indirectly from agriculture. Does your list look like the one given below? For easy reading, agricultural products have been divided into the following groups as given in the table 32.1. Table 32.1: Various categories of food items
Examples Sorghum (Jowar), Ragi (finger millet) and Bajra (pearl millet) Arhar (Tur), Black gram (Urad), Green gram (Moong), and Bengal gram (Channa) Beans Peas, Soyabean, Cowpea, Lentil Oilseeds Mustard, Groundnut, Soyabean, Sunflower, Linseed, Castor and Cotton seed Root crops Carrot, Turnip, Sweet potato Tuber crops Potato, Tapioca, Ginger and Turmeric Sugar crops Sugarcane and Beet root Plantation crops Coffee, Tea, Rubber and Coconut Category Millets Pulses
32.3 HORTICULTURE Did you observe that something is missing from the list of food items which we eat every day. What is it that we have not listed here in table 32.1? Yes, we have neither included vegetables nor fruits in this list. Vegetables and fruits are essential items of our diet and their growth and production are studied under a branch of agriculture called horticulture. Horticulture is derived from two latin words: hortus which means garden, and culture which means cultivation.
The branch of agriculture that deals with growing and production of vegetables, fruits, ornamental plants and management of orchards is called horticulture. Horticulturists research to find new ways by which better varieties of fruits and vegetables can be grown in large quantities. 32.4 STEPS IN RAISING IMPROVED AGRICULTURAL PRODUCE To increase our food production we can sow good quality seeds and improve the methods of sowing. We can make the soil more rich and even use better techniques for harvesting the crops. Some of the agricultural practices which scientists have developed and which our farmers have started are explained here. 1. Preparation of soil This is an important practice which helps to enrich the soil and make it more fertile and aerated. It involves addition of manure followed by turning, loosening and levelling of the soil, using agricultural implements like spade, plough or mechanical farm implements. 2. Seed treatment Seeds can easily be attacked by micro-organisms. The crops that grow out of diseased seeds will also be unhealthy. So farmers treat these seeds by dipping them in certain chemicals like cerosan or agrosan. These chemicals do not allow the microorganisms to attack the seeds and damage them. Such chemicals are called Fungicides. Once the seeds are treated, they can be sown. 3. Preparing the seed bed and care of the seedlings In certain crop plants like paddy and some of the vegetables, seeds are not sown directly in the main field. First these seeds are sown in a nursery bed. Once they grow to a certain age they are transferred and planted in the main field. These small plants are called seedlings. When the farmers prepare a nursery bed they take care of the following: The soil of the bed should be soft and loose so that the tender roots of the seedlings can grow well. This can be achieved by digging or ploughing the field well. The seed bed or where the seedlings are planted should be even so that when we water the plants, the water distributes itself uniformly all over the field. All weeds or unwanted plants in the field must be removed. Do you know why? It is because these weeds also take water and nutrients from the soil and as a result the desired plants cannot get enough of the nutrients. The seedlings also need to be protected from diseases and pests. This is done by spraying chemicals like Parathion, Sevin, Dimecron and Rogor on the seedlings. 4. Transplanting The process of removing the seedlings from the nursery bed and planting them in the main field is called transplanting. When we transplant, we must select those seedlings which have 4 to 5 healthy
leaves. These are sowed at proper distance from each other. The main field must be ploughed and manured before transplanting. Generally rice and vegetables like tomato and brinjal are sown by transplanting. Transplanting of seedlings is a very important practice. This enables us to select good and healthy seedlings and get a better crop. Besides, when we transplant seedlings, their roots are able to go deep into the soil and get more nutrients. When seedlings get good food, they grow into healthy plants and give a better yield. 5. Adding fertilizers Crops need nutrients like phosphorus, calcium, nitrogen etc. for their growth and pick up these nutrients from the soil. It is very important to add fertilizers to the soil. They provide nutrients to the soil and help to obtain a better crop yield. Depending on the type of soil and the crop to be grown, we use different fertilizers. The way we use a fertilizer also depends upon what type of fertilizer is being added to the soil. A fertilizer which contains nitrogen (nitrogenous fertilizer) is generally given in two or three doses. Other fertilizers are phosphatic and complex fertilizers. Some fertilisers are added to the soil before transplanting. You must have heard about the most commonly used fertilizer NPK. The letter N stands for nitrogen, P for phosphate and K for potassium. While fertilizers are manufactured from chemicals in factories, manure is made from organic substances and contains nutrients in small quantities. Some of the commonly used manure are: Farmyard manure, as the name suggests is a mixture of decomposed cattle dung (excreta) and urine, left over fodder (cattle feed) and litter (bedding provided to cattle in the farm). Compost is manure made from vegetable and animal refuse collected from domestic waste, straw, weeds etc., dumped in a deep pit to decompose. Vermicompost is compost broken down by earthworms. Like fertilizers manures too add nutrients to soil. 6. Use of plant growth regulators Plant growth regulators are certain chemicals which regulate the growth of plants. All plants have growth regulators which determine how tall the plant would be, how big its fruit will be, etc. We can now add some plant growth regulators like auxins, gibberellins, cytokinins, abscisic acid etc. to get a better yield of crops. You will learn more about these plant growth regulators in higher classes. 7. Irrigation Irrigation is necessary for proper development of plants. Roots fail to develop and penetrate in the dry soil. The crop is irrigated according to its requirement and soil characteristics. Irrigation is essential during the seedling, flowering and grain filling stages of the crop. Rice crop needs standing water.
8. Harvesting Harvesting machines have now replaced the back breaking job of hand harvesting with the sickle and scythe. Harvesting machines cut or dig out the plant or its parts as required. The machines gather the plant parts, separate desired parts and eliminate parts not needed. Certain harvesting machines may even load the crop for transport. However, the above mentioned functions of harvesting machines depend on kind of crop, plant parts to be harvested, crop use, stage of maturity, etc. 32.5 SOME OTHER DIFFERENT AGRICULTURAL PRACTICES 32.5.1 Rotation of crops If you stay in a village you must have seen that the wheat crop is planted during the month of November and harvested in March and April. The rice crop is planted in June-July and harvested in October and November. The land that lies fallow in between these two cereal crops, can be used by the farmers for sowing a leguminous crop at this time. A leguminous crop does not take as long as wheat or rice to grow. So by the time the farmer has to plant the cereal crops (rice, wheat etc.) the pulse is ready to be harvested. Leguminous crops include pea, beans, grams and pulses. They harbour nitrogen fixing bacteria in nodules of their roots (Fig. 32.1). These bacteria convert free nitrogen from atmosphere into usable form. Thus, after the leguminous crop is harvested, the soil is left fertile for other crops. The process of growing a different crop preferably a leguminous crop in between raising of two similar crops is called rotation of crops.
Fig. 32.1 Nitrogen fixing bacteria in the root nodules
Crop rotation has a lot of benefits, (i) the land gets utilized, (ii) the pulse crop uses up different nutrients from the soil but it fixes the nitrogen from the air and makes the soil richer in nitrogen and so more fertile. This way the next cereal crop gives a better yield. If we do not practice crop rotation by growing different crops on a piece of land, but continue to grow the same crop, year after year, they will keep on using the same nutrients from the soil till all the nutrients in the soil get used up. The newly grown plants get poor nourishment from the soil and grow up to be weak and of bad quality. When plants are weak the insects can easily attack them and destroy them. Thus, crop rotation restores the fertility of
the soil, it gives better yield, prevents crop from diseases and pests and reduces the dependence on chemical fertilizers. 32.5.2 Multiple cropping Growing two to four crops one after the other in a year in the same field is called multiple cropping. Multiple cropping is possible, when we make use of crop varieties that grow for a short period of time. However, to get best results there must be a properly managed field. In fact, multiple cropping is the best solution for a country with food problem because same piece of land is used to grow different kinds of crops. ACTIVITY 32.2 Here is something you can do. Visit a nearby agricultural farm or vegetable garden. Observe and note down the agricultural practices being used there. All the above mentioned practices are meant to ensure that plants have a healthy growth and yield a good crop. Along with these developments in our country we have also brought under cultivation more and more land. The increased cultivation of agricultural crops is in order to meet requirements of a growing population. 32.5.3 Improving the variety of seeds You must have often heard or read advertisements which encourage farmers to buy new and better varieties of seeds. Some of these new varieties are resistant to diseases and give a very good crop. Some of the improved high-yielding crop varieties which our scientists have developed are given in table 32.2. Table 32.2 Improved high-yielding varieties of crops
Crop Rice Wheat Maize Ladys finger (Bhindi) Brinjal Variety I R-8, Jaya, Padma, Bala Sarbati sonara, Sonalika, Kalyan sona, Hira-moti, RR-21 and UP 301 Ganga 101, Rankit and Deccan hybrid Pusa savani Pusa purple, Pusa kranti and Muktabeshi
Do you know what name is given to scientists who develop such new varieties of seeds? They are called plant breeders. Plant breeders have not only raised better quality seeds but also better quality fruits. Mango has been named the king of fruits and in our country we grow many varieties of mangoes. Some of them are Alphonse, Langra, Chausa, Saroli, Dussehri, Himsagar, Safeda, Sinduri, Mulgoba, Amini. 32.6 PROTECTION OF CROPS IN THE FIELD As crops grow in the field, they have to be protected such that they produce a healthy yield. The weeds growing along with crops have to be removed and growing crops have to be saved from the attack of pests especially insects pests.
32.6.1 Weed control The undesirable plants that compete with the main crop for sunshine, water and space in the field are called weeds. Weeds must be removed as they use up the nutrients in the soil and thereby make them unavailable for the crop itself. Weeds can be divided into two groups: (i) graminaceous (Monocotyledonous), and (ii) nongraminaceous (Dicotyledonous). Hariali or Doob grass is a graminaceous weed, while Choulai is Convolvulus a non-graminaceous weed. Amaranthus Before sowing or transplanting seedlings, weeds are removed by hand or with the help of a plough or harrow. If some of these weeds start growing again during the crop growth they must be removed. They can be removed by hand or by spraying weed killing chemicals called weedicides like 2, 4-D; MCPA and Simazine.
(Choulai) Chenopodium
Wild Oat
Doob grass (Common weeds)
Fig. 32.2 Some common weeds
32.6.2 Control of plant diseases and pests A lot of plants die due to some diseases and pests which attack and damage them. Generally plant diseases are caused by fungi, bacteria, and viruses. These diseases are transmitted either through the seed itself (seed-borne) or by air (airborne) or soil (soil-borne). Rust of wheat and Blast of rice are two common fungal diseases of plants. Insects are generally pests which eat and destroy crops (Fig. 32.3). To control plant diseases and pests we can spray fungicides and pesticides on the crops or on the soil. Apart from chemical methods, biological control methods are also used. For example aquatic weeds are eaten up by certain fish. Some insect Fig. 32.3 Some insect pests of crops pests are controlled by introducing their predator insects. 32.7 PRESERVATION AND STORAGE OF AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTS Once harvested, food grains have to be safely stored. They have to be saved from being attacked and eaten up by rodents, birds or insects. Also they have to be
protected from spoilage due to improper temperature and moisture in the storage place or due to growth of fungi. Some of the methods to prevent loss and spoilage of agricultural products are as follows: Drying: The grains can be dried in the sun or by blowing hot air on them. Maintaining storage containers: Godowns or gunny bags or tanks or earthen pots used for storage should be free of the cracks and holes and should be clean. Chemical treatment: Spraying or fumigation (insecticide solution converted into fumes) of godowns and containers with insecticides and fungicides should be done before storage. Care should be taken to ascertain that the grains for consumption by human beings are not treated with chemicals poisonous to human beings. Grains are often treated with neem kernel powder or pepper or mineral oil which prevent laying of eggs by insect pests. Use of improved storage structures: Structures which are airtight, rat proof, moisture proof and can maintain a steady temperature are now used for storage. Few of Fig. 32.4 Silos them are named Pusa bin, Pusa cubicle and Pusa kothar. Fig. 32.4 shows a type of of storage structure called silos. 32.8 GREEN REVOLUTION A general improvement in crop yield and food production occurred in our country between 1960 and 1980 and marked a turning point in Indian agriculture. This is commonly referred to as the golden era of agriculture or the green revolution. As a result of this we have become self-sufficient in food. In fact we are able to have surplus crop to stock and use in natural calamities like drought and floods. The credit for green revolution goes to a great agricultural scientist of our country, Dr. M. S. Swaminathan. He is the recipient of World Food prize for fighting against hunger. Thus, we find that modern agriculture needs the support of: industries to produce farm implements, pumps, fertilizers and pesticides; irrigation and power projects to provide timely supply of water and power; and research and development institutions to breed newer, sturdier, pest resistant and better yielding varieties of crops and animals.
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 32.1 1. Fill in the blanks. i) The branch of science which deals with the study of the cultivation of land, and breeding and management of crops is called ___________________ ii) The branch of agriculture, which deals with growing and production of vegetables, fruits, ornamental plants and management of orchards and parks is called _______________ iii) The improved varieties of plants are resistant to diseases and give high ________ iv) 2, 4-D is a _____________ v) A nitrogenous fertilizer is applied in ________________ doses. 2. Name two improved varieties of wheat. 3. Name three kinds of organisms, which cause diseases in plants. 4. Give one point of difference between crop rotation and multiple cropping. 5. Give two examples of weeds. 6. Name any two plant growth regulators. 32.9 ANIMAL HUSBANDRY The branch of science, which deals with the study of various breeds of domesticated animals and their management for obtaining better products and services from them is termed animal husbandry (the term husbandry comes from husband which means one who takes care). Milk giving (milch) animals: Cows, buffaloes and goats who give us milk. Meat and egg giving animals: Pigs, cattle, goat, sheep, fowls and ducks which are the main source of meat. From hens and ducks we get eggs.
Working (draught) animals: Bullocks, buffaloes, camels and horses are draught animals used for doing work in the field and for transportation of goods and human beings. Mules are also used especially by the army to take things from one place to another in the hilly areas. We also get horns, feathers and leather from some of these animals which can be used for making various things. Their urine and droppings help to make the soil fertile by acting as manure. 32.9.1 Need for animal husbandry We have a large number of animals in our country. Yet we do not get as much food from these animals as we possibly can and need for our large population. Besides the food, which we get from animals, we need them to do a lot of our work. In India, we have about 80.4 million cattle, which work in the fields. If we take the ratio of working cattle to the area of land, which is being used for cultivation we find that only two individuals of cattle are available to plough 3.8 hectares of land.
You all know that cattle wastes like urine and faeces are natural manure which enrich our soil. Unfortunately, in India we do not use all the cowdung available and a lot of it goes waste. Gobar gas plants have been developed so that we can make use of the cattle dung both for fuel as well as to make manure. Thus, we find that animal husbandry is a very important field which helps us to improve our livestock and other useful animals and make the maximum use of them. 32.9.2 Management of livestock When we study about improving our livestock we learn how they must be sheltered, fed, and mated, what kind of drinking water should be given to them and how the sick and diseased animals ought to be treated? This way we learn to manage our livestock for better production and utilization. 1. Feeding of animals All animals must be fed properly. The food should contain the requisite nutrients i.e. carbohydrates, proteins, fats, minerals, vitamins and water. The food which is given to cattle can be divided into two categories: Concentrates like cotton seeds, oilcakes, cereal grains, bran etc. They are very rich in most of the nutrients. Roughage includes fibrous and rough food like straw and stems of cereal crops. Generally roughage has a low nutrient content.
An average Indian cow eats about 15-20 kg of green fodder and 4 to 5 kg drygrass, which is mixed with a sufficient amount of grain. A cow drinks about 32 litres of water. Goat and sheep eat grass, herbs and waste products from the farms. Pigs are usually given cereals and their products to eat. Poultry birds are given a mixed feed consisting of cereals, bone meal, minerals and vitamins. 2. Housing of animals We must protect our animals from too much heat, rain and cold. We must, therefore, be careful where we house them. Their houses should have proper sanitation and ventilation. Too many animals should never be kept in a small space. Different animals require different types of houses. Hens and fowls are kept in cages while sheep and goats stay in open yard, which is partially covered with roof made of straw. This open yard should have a hedge of iron wires all around to prevent the animals from running away. 3. Water and its supply To keep these animals healthy they should be given clean water to drink and in sufficient quantities. For example, on an average a cow consumes about 27-36L of water, pigs require 5-23L, camel 8-90L and poultry birds require about 240mL of water. Besides this we must also bathe the cattle with clean water.
4. Some common diseases of animals and vaccination Sometimes domestic animals may be afflicted by diseases. Some of the common diseases of animals are listed below. Viral diseases: Pox in cattle, goats, sheeps, and fowls; dermatitis in goats and sheep; foot and mouth disease in cattle. Bacterial diseases: Tuberculosis in cattle and poultry birds; cholera in fowls; diphtheria in calf; diarrhea in chicks; foot rot in sheep. Most of these diseases can be prevented by proper sanitation, a controlled diet, proper housing and also by vaccinating the animals against these diseases at the proper time and age. 5. Animal breeding Breeding means to reproduce. In case of animals, breeding is done to obtain animals with desired characters. The two individuals of desirable characters can be selected as parents. These are then crossed to obtain new breeds of animals, e.g. by cross breeding a cow of low milk yielding breed, we can get breeds of cow which produces more milk. Artificial insemination is an important and effective method of breeding. The process involves injecting the semen obtained from desired bull belonging to high milk yielding breed into the reproductive tract of female during heat period. It generally gives important breeds, and is widely used to improve the qualities of cow, buffaloes, poultry, horse and goat etc. Important breeds of cow In India, improved breeds of dairy cows have been developed at National Dairy Research Institutre (NDRI), Karnal, Haryana. Some examples are: Karan Swiss (Crossbreed of brown Swiss and Sahiwal) Karan Fries (Crossbreed of Tharparkar and HolsteinFriesian) Frieswal (Crossbreed of Holstein-Friesian and Sahiwal) Over the last two decades, improved practices of raising animals have resulted in the development of new breeds of dairy animals, poultry and pigs. This has substantially increased our milk, egg and meat production.
Holstein-Friesian cow
Murrah
Sahiwal cow
Fig. 32.5 High yield breeds of cows
There is no dearth of milk, the most wholesome food in the country. The credit for increased milk production goes to Dr. V. Kurien. Dr Kurien is the founder chairman of National Dairy Development Board which designed and implemented Operation flood the programme which led to the white revolution or self sufficiency of the country in dairy products. CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 32.2 1. Write the importance of domesticated animals. 2. Define management of livestock. 3. Name any two diseases that are caused by virus in cattle? LET US REVISE To increase food production we must use improved agricultural practices, have proper knowledge of animal husbandry and prevent soil erosion. Various agricultural practices which we can use to increase our food production are preparation of soil, improving the seed variety, seed treatment, preparation of seed bed, transplanting, use of fertilizers, irrigation, weed control, control of plant diseases, use of plant growth regulators, rotation of crops, and multiple cropping. Green revolution through use of improved techniques has led our country to attain self sufficiency in food. Domestic animals are very useful for us. They give us milk, meat and eggs. They also help in ploughing our fields and for transporting things. We must look after them properly, make proper houses for them, give them good food and water and keep them free from diseases. Management of livestock involves proper feeding, housing, vaccination and breeding of animals. Artificial insemination is an important breeding activity to improve high yielding animals. TERMINAL EXERCISES A. Multiple choice type questions. Select the most correct answer of the following: 1. Corosan or agrosan are chemicals belonging to a group of (a) pesticide (b) fungicide (c) weedicide (d) fertilizer 2. Which of the following is the proper sequence of agricultural steps? (a) Seed treatment, preparation of soil, addition of fertilizers, preparation of seed bed (b) Preparation of soil, seed treatment, preparation of seed bed, addition of fertilizers (c) Preparation of seed bed, preparation of soil, seed treatment, addition of fertilizers
(d)
Addition of fertilizers, preparation of soil, seed treatment, preparation of seed bed
3. Choose the high yielding variety of wheat (a) IR-8, Jaya, Padma (b) Ganga 101, Rankit, Deccan hybrid (c) Sarbati sona, Sonalika, Hira moti (d) Pusa purple, Pusa savani, Muktabeshi 4. Credit of Green revolution in our country goes to, (a) Aryabhatta (b) Dr V. Kurien (c) Dr M.S. Swaminathan (d) Dr. H.G. Khorana 5. Food items such as cotton seeds, oil cakes, cereal grains and bran belong to which of the following category? (a) Roughage (b) Concentrate (c) Minerals (d) Vitamins B. Descriptive type questions. 1. Define the terms agriculture and horticulture. 2. Why is it advisable to cultivate pulse crops in between two successive cereal crops? 3. Give one improved variety of each of the following cropswheat, rice, maize, and ladys finger. 4. Give names of two viral diseases of domesticated animals. 5. To meet increased demand of food, what steps would you suggest? 6. List and briefly discuss major aspects of animal husbandry. ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 32.1 1. (i) agriculture (ii) horticulture (iii) yield (iv) weedicide (v) split 2. Any two of the wheat varieties as given under varietal improvement. 3. (i) Seed borne (ii) Air borne (iii) Soil borne 4. Crop rotation means growing a pulse crop between two cereal crops. 5. Doob grass and Chaulai 6. Auxin, Gibberellin, Cytokinin, Abscisic acid (any two) 32.2 1. (i) They provide milk
(ii) They provide meat and eggs (iii) They are used for work 2. Taking proper care of the livestock. 3. Pox, Foot and mouth disease.
GLOSSARY Agriculture: Branch of Science dealing with methods of production of food crops. Agricultural practices: Methods used in agriculture for growing better quality and high yield varieties of crops. Animal husbandry: Branch of Science dealing with study of various breeds of domesticated animals and their management for obtaining better products and services from them. Biological control: Killing insect pests by predators. Dermatitis: Disease of skin. Draught animals: Animals used to carry goods or working in the fields. Fungicides: Chemicals that kill fungi or moulds growing on crop plants. Horticulture: Branch of Science dealing with production of vegetables, fruits and ornamental plants. Multiple cropping: Growing two to four crops one after the other in a year in the same field. Plant breeders: Scientists who develop new varieties of plants and seeds. Seedlings: Plantlets growing out of seeds. Transplanting: Process of removing seedlings from the nursery bed and planting them in the main field. Weed: Undesirable plants growing in the same field as the main crop and competing for nutrients, water and sunshine with the main crop. Weedicide: Chemicals, which can kill weeds.

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23

Diversity in the Living World

: 134 : Diversity in the Living World

Diversity in the Living World : 135 :

Fig 23.1 Some familiar living organisms

: 136 : Diversity in the Living World

Diversity in the Living World : 137 :

House crow (Corvus splendens)

Jungle crow (Corvus macrorhynchos)

Fig. 23.2 Two common Indian crows

Man Cat Tiger Honey bee Housefly House crow

Peepal Banyan Rubber plant Mango Ladys finger Lentil (masoor)

: 138 : Diversity in the Living World

Eye spot Contractile vacuole

Fig. 23.3 Euglena a single-celled microscopic organism (highly magnified)

Diversity in the Living World : 139 :

Fig. 23.4 Common types of bacteria spherical, spiral and

: 140 : Diversity in the Living World

Diversity in the Living World

Fig. 23.5 Two examples of freshwater protists: Amoeba and Paramecium

Fig. 23.6 Some examples of fungi

Diversity in the Living World : 141 :

Fig. 23.7 Laminaria an alga

Fig.23.9 Fern a pteridophyte

: 142 : Diversity in the Living World

Diversity in the Living World

Fig. 23.11 An angiosperm (flowering plant)

Diversity in the Living World : 143 :

GYMNOSPERMS [No true flowers, seeds naked, not enclosed in fruit]

ANGIOSPERMS [Flowering plants; true flowers; seeds enclosed in fruit]

: 144 : Diversity in the Living World

Diversity in the Living World

Fig. 23.12 Examples of Porifera

Jelly fish Sea coral

Fig. 23.13 Examples of Cnidaria

Diversity in the Living World : 145 :

Fig. 23.14 Examples of Platyhelminthes

Curved tail Anus

Fig. 24.15 Ascaris an Aschelminth

Fig.23.16 Examples of Annelida

: 146 : Diversity in the Living World

Fig.23.17 Examples of Arthropoda

Fig.24.18 Examples of Mollusca

Examples: Starfish, brittle star, sea urchin, sea cucumber, etc.

Diversity in the Living World : 147 :

Brittle star Sea cucumber

Fig.24.19 Examples of Echinodermata

: 148 : Diversity in the Living World

Diversity in the Living World

Amphibian Mammal Bird

Fig. 23.20 Examples of the five classes of Chordata

Diversity in the Living World : 149 :

: 150 : Diversity in the Living World

Diversity in the Living World

Diversity in the Living World : 151 :

: 152 : Diversity in the Living World

Cells,Tissues and Organs - The Building Blocks of the Body : 155 :

Cells, Tissues and Organs The Building Blocks of the Body

: 156 : Cells,Tissues and Organs - The Building Blocks of the Body

Cells,Tissues and Organs - The Building Blocks of the Body : 157 :

Fig. 24.1 A generalized animal cell

: 158 : Cells,Tissues and Organs - The Building Blocks of the Body

Cells,Tissues and Organs - The Building Blocks of the Body : 159 :

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