Could My Child Benefit from

Speech-Language Therapy?
Table of Contents:

About the Author / Introduction Page 2

What is speech? Page 3
Determining the need for speech therapy Page 3
What is language? Page 7
The difference between Receptive and Expressive Language… Page 10
Determining the need for language therapy Page 11
Speech and Language Milestones (6 months through 6 years) Page 12

What to do if you are concerned Page 20

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About the Author
Stephanie Barry received her Bachelor of Science in Education from
the University of Nebraska-Lincoln and then went on to receive her
Master of Science in Speech-Language Pathology also from the
University of Nebraska-Lincoln. She holds a Certificate of Clinical
Competence from the American Speech-Language and Hearing
Association, a regular license from the Arizona Department of Health
Services and a Standard Teaching Certificate (speech-language
impaired) from the Arizona Department of Education. She has worked
in several school districts, acute care and children’s hospitals and has
been in private practice for several years.

Stephanie founded Independent Speech, and online speech therapy

private practice to help combat the shortage of speech pathologists.
This practice serves school-aged children experiencing a variety of
communication disorders using real time video and audio over a secure
internet site. The activities are designed by speech pathologists to be
engaging and motivating and are tailored to meet each individuals
specific needs. It is an exciting alternative to traditional speech
therapy. To learn more please visit www.independentspeech.com

Introduction
This e-book is a general description of speech and language, what they
are and what children may experience difficulty with in these areas. It
is meant to give you some background information to determine if
your child may benefit from speech language therapy.

This e-book is a basic manual and is not meant to diagnose any

speech and/or language disorder or delay. If you have concerns about
your child’s speech and/or language skills please have an evaluation
completed by a certified, licensed Speech Pathologist.

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This e-book is not comprehensive. If I were to delve into each and
every aspect of speech and language this book could be a thousand 2
pages (or more, who knows). This gives you an overview and hits on
the most common errors or areas where children exhibit difficulty.
Again, only a Speech Pathologist who is completing the evaluation with
your child can give you specifics for your child. This e-book gives you
things to look for and pay attention to as your child’s speech and
language skills mature.
What is Speech?
Speech refers to the production of sounds that make up words. All
children exhibit some speech errors while they are learning to talk.
For example, a two year-old child who says “wabbit” for “rabbit” may
not have a speech disorder or delay as this is considered
developmentally appropriate due to the difficulty in producing the /r/
sound.

Determining the need for speech therapy

There are two types of speech disorders. The first is an articulation
disorder or delay. An articulation disorder is when a child is
demonstrating errors when producing certain sounds. They may have
trouble articulating one sound or several sounds.

You may be wondering what the difference is between a disorder and

delay. An articulation delay is when the child is acquiring the sounds
in the correct sequence but they are acquiring these sounds at a
slower rate than expected. They are not accurately producing sounds
that most children their age are able to. An articulation disorder is
when children do not acquire the sound in the correct sequence or
they are showing sound articulations that are not common, such as a
lateral lisp. These two are not completely separate. A child may
experience a disorder and a delay together acquiring sounds in the
correct order (though at a slower rate) but with some uncommon
articulations. This is why most people refer to difficulties with
articulation as an “articulation disorder” rather than trying to specify if
it is a delay or disorder.

Speech sounds are typically acquired in an orderly sequence. Vowels

are typically acquired first as in the first year of life children practice
these sounds by saying “ahh” and “ohh” etc. Vowels are less likely to
be misarticulated and thus are not included in charts of sound

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acquisition. It is important to note that some children do experience
difficulty correctly articulating vowel sounds which should be mastered 3
before 3 years of age. Below is a chart showing the ages of acquisition
of speech sounds. Please note this is only one chart, there are many
charts that will show slight or great differences between the ages of
acquisition. The main factor to look at when comparing charts is the
percentage of children that have mastered the sound. The chart
included here shows when 90% of children have mastered this sound
whereas some charts show when 50% of children have mastered the
sound and thus their ages of acquisition will be earlier. This chart is a
great reference if you are having concerns.
 Age 90% have
mastered the sound Specific Sound Examples
By 3 years of age P, M. N, W, H
By 4 years of age B, D, K, G, F, Y Y as in Yellow
By 6 years of age T, NG, R, L NG as in fishing
By 7 years of age SH, CH, J J as in Jeep
Voiceless TH TH as in Think
By 8 years of age V, S, Z, ZH ZH as in Measure
Voiced TH TH as in Mother

If a child is not able to correctly articulate the sounds shown by their

age they may need speech therapy to retrain the way they produce
the troublesome sounds.

When assessing articulation errors, a Speech Pathologist will also listen

to the child’s connected speech (such as having a conversation with
the child) to determine how the sound errors are impacting their
intelligibility. Intelligibility is how well we are able to understand the
child’s speech. Some children may require speech therapy even if the
sounds they are having trouble with are considered developmentally
appropriate for their age due to the impact on their intelligibility. For
example, if a five year old is having trouble with the sounds shown at
7 and 8 years of age, they may need therapy because their
intelligibility is greatly impacted.

The Speech Pathologist will also look at oral-motor skills or how well
the child is able to move the articulators (lips, tongue, jaw) to produce
sounds. If the child shows decreased strength or range of motion, this
will have an impact on their ability to correctly produce the sounds.
This would then warrant therapy regardless of the sound errors the
child is making as this oral-motor deficits are not considered

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developmental.
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The second type of speech disorder is a phonological process. When a
child uses phonological processes, they are demonstrating errors on a
class (or type) of sound. These errors are rule based patterns that all
children use though most outgrow them as they learn speech and
language.

The speech pathologist will be listening for the use of patterns in the
child’s speech and if deemed necessary will analyze their utterances
not only for the presence of an articulation disorder but the use of
phonological processes as well.
There are eleven (11) common phonological processes which are listed
here. There are others that are rarely exhibited by children but are
included in an assessment of the use of phonological processes.

Phonological Description Example

Process
Final Consonant The final consonant Cat is pronounced “ca”
Deletion sound is left off.
Stopping A long sound is Funny is pronounced
replaced by a short as “punny”
sound
Voicing A voiceless sound is Pig is pronounced as
replaced by a voiced “big”
sound
Velar Fronting A sound produced in Give is pronounced as
the back of the mouth “div”
is replaced by a sound
produced in the front of
the mouth
Consonant Harmony The presence of one Dog is pronounced as
sound influences the “gog”
production of the other
sounds in the word
Syllable Deletion A syllable is omitted Telephone is
from the word pronounced as
“teffone”
Cluster Reduction Part of the sound Spider is pronounced
cluster is omitted as “pider”
Palatal Fronting The “sh” and “zh” Ship is pronounced as
sounds are replaced sip
by /s/ and /z/

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Devoicing A voiced sound is Red is pronounced as
replaced by a voiceless “ret” 5
sound
Gliding The sounds /l/ and /r/ Real is pronounced as
are replaced by /w/ or “weal”
“y”

Stridency Deletion The strident sounds (f, Brush is pronounced as

v, s, z, “sh”, “zh” “j” “bruth”
and “ch” are replaced
by non strident sounds
While these are the most common phonological processes there are
several others that are not noted as frequently but may be present
such as vowel changes. You may also see some broken down into
smaller categories such as rather than using the category of
“Devoicing” one may refer to “initial consonant devoicing” or “final
consonant devoicing” depending on what specific errors the child is
demonstrating.

It is important that this distinction be made between misarticulations

and the use of phonological processes as the therapy process will be
different depending on the underlying cause of the errors in the child’s
speech. If they are using phonological processes, working to correctly
articulate the /r/ sound alone is not going to change the child’s general
speech. They need to learn the rules of when to use this sound in
speech as well.

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What is language?
Language is an organized set of symbols that allow us to communicate
our thoughts, feelings, ideas, etc. For example, the word “dog” is a
symbol as it represents a specific type of animal. Sounds can also be
symbols, such as when we make a long “s” sound to represent what a
snake says. These symbols are combined according to the rules of our
language. Language symbols can be gestures such as in sign
language, or written such as using the alphabet to write this e-book.
We are going to focus on spoken language in this section. There are
three parts to each language, they are form, use and content.

Language Form
Language form is choosing the correct sounds to make the word, the
choice of words, the choice of word forms and the choice of word
order. There are three subdivisions of language form, the first is
phonology or the choosing of the correct sounds. This level may be
impacted by a child’s articulation or phonology skills. For example, if
they have trouble saying the /c/ sound and are trying to tell you about
the “cat” they saw but they keep saying “tat” you may have trouble
understanding their story.

Children with disorders of language form; phonology may also use the
phonological processes we discussed earlier. They may not be using
proper word forms due to these processes. For example, if the child is
experiencing final consonant deletion (leaving the end sound off of a
word) they may not correctly produce plurals as the ending /s/ sound
is what makes the word a plural. A Speech Pathologist is again, going
to listen for intelligibility to determine if the errors the child is making
is causing other people to misunderstand the child as well as to
determine if it is an articulation error such as not being able to
correctly produce the /s/ sound or the phonological process of final
consonant deletion that is at the root of the errors.

The second part is morphology. Morphology is essentially grammar. Page

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This refers to the choice of word forms and endings. Some aspects of
morphology include choosing the correct form of the “be” verbs (is,
are, was or were, etc), using negatives such as don’t, using past tense
words and plurals.

The child may demonstrate grammatical errors such as not developing

word forms (plurals, past tense etc) at the age most other children do.
For example, the child who continues to use words like “runed” rather
 than developing the irregular past tense form of “ran” may be
displaying a disorder of language form. The Speech Pathologist
will look at all grammatical forms and errors to make the
determination if a child is experiencing a disorder of language form or
is using developmentally appropriate simplifications such as in the
example above.

The last part of language form is syntax. This refers to knowing the
rules for putting words together in a sentence. While children usually
cannot tell you the rule, they have learned what order the words go in
a sentence to convey the meaning they want. For example, they know
when to say “The boy hit the ball.” and when to say “The ball hit the
boy.” Both are correct sentences but convey very different meanings
because of the order of the words. The Speech Pathologist will look at
a variety of sentences both within formal tests and informal
conversations to determine if the child is using correct syntax to
convey the message they intend to.

Language Content
Language content is the meaning that the child is able to express as
well as understand. Some refer to this area as semantics, or word
meanings. Semantics is the ability to choose words and arrange them
in a way to express their desired message. There are many categories
that the content can belong to. These categories include:
1) Existence – the existence of an object
2) Nonexistence (disappearance) – the nonexistence of an object
or the disappearance of an object.
3) Recurrence – the reappearing of an object
4) Denial – negation of identity, state, or event
5) Possession – ownership by a different person(s)
6) Action – movement
7) Locative state – the location of a person or object (in, at,
under)

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8) Quantity – the number of people or objects (more, less)
9) Time – the passage of time (when, first, before, last) 8
10)Quality – the description of a person or object (big, hot,
pretty)
11)Causality – cause and effect relationships
12)Mood – the attitude of a speaker

Children with disorders of language content have difficulty choosing

the words to express their intended meaning. We see a dichotomy
between expressive and receptive language in this area as a child may
be able to demonstrate understanding of words and sentences as
 expected of a child their age but is unable to use these words to
express their own thoughts. Thus showing their receptive language is
more advanced than their expressive language. When showing
difficulties with expressive language content, you may hear a child
substitute words that have similar meanings or that sounds similar
when you say them.

Language Use
Language use is the reason for talking. There are many functions of
language and each time we express ourselves our message falls into
one of these categories. These categories are:
1) Requesting an object
2) Requesting an action
3) Sharing thoughts and feelings
4) Expressing one’s personality or asserting one’s self
5) Requesting information
6) Exercising the imagination
7) Relating information to the listener
A child with disordered language use may show limited use of these
categories. For example, they may be good at requesting objects or
actions but struggle to share their thoughts or feelings such as being
sad or angry about something. In addition, they may rarely ask
questions. Children with disordered language use, tend to answer
questions posed by their communication partner but rarely ask
questions themselves preferring to let the other person do most of the
talking.

Children that show trouble with language use may have difficulty with
pragmatic skills or social interaction skills as well. They may have
difficulty with turn taking, topic maintenance (staying on one topic),
etc. We will discuss this in a different e-book as a disorder of
pragmatic skills is its own unique communication disorder.

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The difference between expressive and receptive language...
Receptive language is understanding language around us. This is both
understanding spoken language and non-verbal language. There are
many skills involved in receptive language, such as:
1) The ability to hear the difference between two sounds (/p/
and /b/ are different sounds) and that these sounds create
different meanings. For example, knowing the word “Paul”
means a boy and “ball” means a thing that can bounce based
solely on the different beginning sounds.
2) Being able to remember what they have heard such as
following two or three step directions (or longer) or
remembering a list of things.
3) Being able to understand the meaning of words. If you ask
them to get a pitcher, do they know what a pitcher is?
4) Understanding different grammatical forms. Knowing that
“dog” and “dogs” are different as one is singular and one is
plural or that “walk” and “walked” are different because
although it is the same activity it happened at different times,
etc.
5) Answering questions appropriately and being able to stay on
the current topic.

Expressive language is the ability to use language to express our

thoughts and feelings, to answer questions and relating events and
carrying on a conversation. There are many skills involved in
expressive language, such as:
1) Being able to use the sounds of our language (phonology) to
produce the desired words
2) Being able to choose word forms (morphology) and word
order (syntax) to express the desired meaning.
3) Being able to use a wide variety of language functions

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(language use) to get needs met and exchange information.
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Determining the need for language therapy
A Speech Pathologist looks at all parts of language both receptive and
expressive language to determine if a language disorder or delay is
present. A language disorder is when a child is not acquiring language
skills in the natural order whereas a language delay in when a child is
acquiring language skills in the natural order though at a much slower
rate.

A Speech Pathologist will complete standardized assessment measures

that assess a variety of expressive and receptive language skills so
they are able to compare the child’s current skills to those of other
child the same age. In addition, they will obtain a language sample,
this is an information conversation between the child and clinician to
determine how the child uses language within general conversations.
The Speech Pathologist may do a variety of things such as having the
child make up a story using pictures, tell a personal story (such as
what did you do for the 4th of July?) or retell a story they just told.
There is a wide variety of tasks the Speech Pathologist may use to
elicit language from the child. Their intention is to determine how they
are able to use their language in everyday conversations.

Finally, the Speech Pathologist will ask the parents and teachers (if
appropriate) questions about how the child communicates in everyday
situations. When answering these questions, remember to be
completely honest and tell what the child typically does. A child may
have done something one time but if they are not consistently using
this skill it is not a permanent part of their language repertoire at this
point. We have all had this experience where we maybe made a single
three-point shot but when asked if you can make a three-point shot
the true answer would be “no” doing it that one time does not mean it
is a skill you currently posses though with practice and coaching you

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may be able to add that three-point shot to your repertoire. This is
where the Speech Pathologist comes in, giving your child the needed 11
instruction, strategies, etc to make these skills a part of their language
skills.
 Speech and Language Skills
6-12 months

At 6 months your child…

• Makes lots of different, playful sounds (called babbling)
• Laughs, gurgles, cooes with familiar people
• Vocalizes attitudes other than crying – joy, anger
• Reacts to music by cooing
• Reacts to loud, angry and friendly voices
• Turns and looks at new sounds
• Babbles for attention
• Waves or responds to bye-bye

At 8 months your child…

• Responds to name and pats image of self in mirror
• Produces four or more different sounds
• Frequently uses syllables such as “ba”, “da” and “ka”
• Babbles with inflection
• Transfers objects from one hand to another
• Listens to own vocalizations and those of others
• Tries to imitate sounds

At 10 months your child…

• May say “mama” and “dada”
• Shouts to attract attention
• Repeats sound or gestures if laughed at
• Babbles in response to human voice
• Uses jargon (babbling that sounds like speech)
• Plays peek-a-boo
• Says a syllable or sequence of sound repeatedly

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At 12 months your child…
• Recognizes name 12
• Points to objects for you to get or name
• Says 2-3 words besides “mama” and “dada”
• Uses exclamatory expressions such as “oh-oh” or “no-no”
• Understands simple instructions
• Recognizes words as symbols for objects (for example, hears “car”
and points to garage
 Speech and Language Skills
12 to 17 months

From 12 to 17 months of age, your child…

• Recognizes his or her own name
• Understands “no”
• Says “no” meaningfully
• Uses 10-15 words spontaneously
• Attempts to sing sounds to music
• Understands simple instructions
• Points and gestures to call attention to an event
• Points and gestures to show wants
• Uses voice in conjunction with pointing or gesturing
• Imitates familiar words
• Waves good-bye and plays pat-a-cake
• Uses “mama” and “dada” and several other words
• Practices words
• Likes to make the “sounds” of familiar things
• Gives a toy upon request
• Laughs a great deal
• Hears and discriminates between sounds
• Shows a great deal of affection
• Places a block in a cup on command
• Scribbles imitatively with a crayon
• Attempts to communicate by mixing jargon with real words
• Vocalizes for enjoyment

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 Speech and Language Skills
18 months

At 18 months of age, your child…

• Uses 15-20 different words
• Recognizes pictures of familiar persons and objects
• Names 2 pictures
• Starts to combine 2 words such as “all gone”
• Imitates two word phrases
• Uses own name to refer to self
• Imitates words and sounds more accurately
• Imitates environmental sounds
• Practices words and word combinations
• Points and gestures to call attention to an event
• Points and gestures to show wants
• Uses words to make wants known such as “more”
• Points to own toes, eyes and nose
• Brings familiar objects from another room when asked
• Turns pages of a book a few at a time
• Follows simple commands
• Makes a tower of 3 to 4 blocks
• Knows and says the names of 5 things
• Hums and may sing simple tunes
• Attempts to sing songs with words
• Mixes real words with jargon, on occasion
• Uses jargon with good inflection and rate
• Develops a play routine

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 Speech and Language Skills
2 years old

At 2 years of age, your child…

• Understands simple questions and commands
• Indentifies body parts
• Carries on a “conversation” with self and dolls
• Asks “What’s that?”, “What’s this?”, and “Where’s my?”
• Answers simple questions
• Sentence length is composed of 2-3 words
• Refers to self by name
• Uses self-centered pronouns
• Names pictures and actions
• Uses 2-word negative phrases such as “no want”
• Forms some plurals by adding “s”
• Has between 50 and 200 words in speaking vocabulary
• Builds and 8 block tower
• Asks for drink, toilet, food
• Listens to stories and points to pictures when asked
• Stays with one activity for 6-7 minutes
• Names five pictures
• Imitates spontaneously or requests new words
• Shows frustration when not understood
• Relates experiences
• Enjoys tactile books
• Identifies rooms in house
• Engages in simple make-believe activities

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 Speech and Language Skills
3 years of age

At 3 years of age, your child…

• Matches primary colors, names one color
• Knows the words night and day
• Uses contractions such as it’s
• Begins to obey instructions with prepositional phrases
○ “Put the block under the chair”
• Verbalizes two prepositions
• Uses words to relate observations, concepts ideas and relationships
• Vocalizes for all needs
• Practices new words by talking to self
• Knows his or her name, gender and street name
• Knows several nursery rhymes
• Tells simple stories and can convey ideas
• Uses sentences 3-4 words in length
• Uses nearly 1,000 words
• Can produce consistently the following sounds
○ M, N, P, F, H, B and W
• May repeat sounds, words and phrases
• Can draw a circle and vertical line
• San sing songs
• Participates in storytelling
• Expresses fatigue verbally
• Can stay with one activity for 8-9 minutes
• Asks “what” questions frequently

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 Speech and Language Skills
4 years of age

At 4 years of age, your child…

• Points to colors, red, blue, yellow and green
• Identifies crosses, triangles, circles and squares
• Follows commands even though objects are not present
• Can speak of imaginary conditions such as “I hope…”
• Asks may questions but is more interested in how answers fit his or
her own thoughts than in the explanation
• Uses sentences of 4 to 5 words
• Asks “who” and “why” questions
• Begins to combine sentences with “and”
• Uses past tense correctly
• Copies a line and a circle
• Stays with one activity for 11 to 12 minutes
• Uses the following sounds correctly
○ M, N, NG, P, F, H, W, Y (as in Yes), K, B, D, G,

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 Speech and Language Skills
5 years of age

At 5 years of age, your child…

• Defines objects by their uses (you eat with a fork)
• Can tell you what objects are made of
• Knows words for spatial relationships (over, far, behind)
• Knows his or her address
• Identifies a penny, nickel and dime
• Uses sentences of 5 to 6 words
• Uses all speech sounds correctly
○ Exceptions of V, L, TH, CH, J, S, Z, ZH (as in measure) &
• Knows common opposites such as big and little
• Counts 10 objects
• Tells a story with a simple plot
• Uses future, present and tenses
• Asks questions to get information
• Distinguishes own but not other people’s left and right hand
• Uses all types of sentences some of which may be complex

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 Speech and Language Skills
6 years of age

At 6 years of age, your child…

• Has correct articulation of most speech sounds
• May still have difficulties with clusters such as “spl” or “tr”
• Uses adult-like grammar in sentences and conversations
• Understands the meaning of most sentences
• Names days of week in order
• Counts to 30
• Predicts what comes next in a sequence of events
• Tells a 4 to 5 part story
• Tells month and day of birthday
• Tells name and address
• Distinguishes left and right
• Knows most opposites
• Knows the meaning of today, tomorrow and yesterday
• Asks lots of “why”, “what” and “how” questions
• Is beginning to read simple words like cat and ball
• Is starting to recognize that individual letters in words represent
different sounds that form words when put together (for example c-
a-t for “cat”)

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What to do if you are concerned.
If you have concerns about your child’s speech and/or language skills
you should have a speech evaluation completed. This is the best way
to determine if your child would benefit from therapy. When choosing
where to get the evaluation completed, please make sure the person is
a certified, licensed Speech Pathologist. They have the training
needed to competently assess your child and provide you with a
wealth of information about your child’s current speech/language
skills.

Please, do not wait. You may have asked your pediatrician or your
friends who also have young children and they may tell you to wait
because they will learn it on their own. You may even hear stories
about how their child didn’t talk until he/she was three and is a
straight “A” student now. Remember that everyone’s perception is
different. To this person “talking” may mean sentences (simple
sentences like “no go bye-bye”) while to the next person “talking”
begins with the first babble the child made and this leads them to say
that their child began talking at 6 months (they may be taking the
“ba” the baby babbled and saying they said “ball”) and therefore your
child is significantly delayed. Pediatricians, while a wealth of medical
knowledge, have no (or very little) training in the speech-language
development of children. So again I say, if you have concerns at all
please get an evaluation. If it turns out that they do not need therapy
at this time, you have at least put your mind at east. If they do need
therapy, the earlier you start the better.

There are three main options for completing a speech-language

evaluation. The first is through your school district. They are required
to provide an evaluation for any child that is (will or should be)
attending a school within the district. I say should as your child

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maybe attending private school rather than the local public school. If
your child is of preschool age and not enrolled in preschool at the local 20
public school they are still required to provide a comprehensive
evaluation for your child. You may contact the specific school your
child should be attending and make a request for an evaluation. You
may also contact the school’s district office if you are unsure what
school to contact. For preschoolers, some districts offer a “Child Find”
service where they provide a screening for all children getting ready to
enter preschool (approximately 2.9 years and older) and if concerns
are raised during the screening process they will schedule a
comprehensive evaluation. Check your school district’s website to see
if they offer this service.

The second option is going through your state. There are typically two
programs; one for early intervention (under three years of age) and
one for school-age children and older (to adult) they will provide an
evaluation and therapy if needed. Typically, you must apply for
services and meet their requirements, though these vary state to
state. These programs are paid for by the state, thus are at no cost to
you. You can usually find these programs by searching for “(your
state) division of developmental disabilities”.

The final option is going through a private practice. There are four
types of private practice available to you. The first is center-based
therapy where you take your child to the clinic for the evaluation
and/or therapy. The second is home-based therapy where the Speech
Pathologist comes to your home for the evaluation and/or therapy.
Third, is out-patient services provided at your local hospital. They are
able to provide an evaluation and/or therapy at the hospital. You do
not need to have been in the hospital to receive speech services there.
Finally, is online speech therapy, such as that provided by
Independent Speech. It is most like home-based therapy as you are
at home though therapy is completed via a secure internet site and a
web-cam though offers more flexibility than traditional therapy.

Following the completion of the evaluation you will receive a written

report detailing the findings of the Speech Pathologist. This report will
include the results of the standardized assessment measures, usually
reported as standard scores and/or percentile ranks. It will also
include narratives by the Speech Pathologist describing the child
during the evaluation. This portion is interspersed throughout the
report and will mention things like the child’s behavior, interaction
skills, and any information obtained through informal assessments.

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This report will also outline what the Speech Pathologist recommends
based on the child’s overall performance. After the evaluation, you 21
will move to on-going therapy, if needed, to address the areas outlined
by the Speech Pathologist. Remember to ask as many questions as
needed to make sure you fully understand what the report says and
the recommendations of the Speech Pathologist. You are your child’s
advocate and your understanding and participation are key to your
child’s success!
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