Dave Philpott Laura Malave CIS206 UNIX Administration 31 March 2011 UNIX: A Study of Linux Narrative: I have used

Microsoft products for most of my computing life. I have become so accustomed to a point-and-click method of computer access that I have all but forgotten the days when I had a Commodore 64 and had to rely on command line-based computing. The Commodore 64 used a form of software known as Commodore BASIC, and I remember spending many nights in the early 80s furiously hunt-and-pecking my way through line after line of code, only to create a simple, 8-bit graphic and watch it move across the screen and disappear. Frustrating as it was, I felt like I was doing something; I felt like I was programming a computer, like I had seen in movies like Tron and War Games. Making a digital balloon float across the screen was a far cry from defeating the Master Control Program or kick-starting a global thermonuclear war, but in retrospect I was accomplishing something at the age of ten that many people these days take for granted: I was interacting with my computer through my keyboard without mouse-clicks. These days nearly anyone can make a computer do something. Even the most inexperienced user can access the Internet, search the web with Google, or send an email. Software takes the complex aspects of computer use and makes them user-friendly. Without such ease of access the computer would be seen as the plaything of brainiacs and nerds, and the

revolutionary interconnection of human thought known as the Internet may have never occurred on the scale it did. I benefit from the advances in accessibility as much as the next Microsoft or Mac user, but I have to admit there is a certain level of coolness associated with using a command-based operating system. When someone navigates through the black-and-white world of text-driven computing, he or she appears to be almost other-worldly; fingers flying furiously over the keys, silently coaxing the computer to perform God-knows-what underground, nefarious schemes. At least that how it looks to the uninitiated; the reality is probably more mundane. Somehow, in an operating system such as UNIX, even the mundane looks magical. The Bridge: Administering a UNIX user environment requires a vast knowledge of codes and commands unique to UNIX. My first experiences with an aspect of UNIX, the Linux operating system, proved to be both humbling and eye-opening. I have many questions about how UNIX systems are administered. Why are UNIX-based operating systems so popular with the corporate world, but not with the average home user? How do administrators for UNIX and administrators for Microsoft or Mac environments differ in their respective approaches? What advantages are there to working with UNIX over other operating systems? Are there any disadvantages? What are some of the core responsibilities, the day-to-day routines, of an average UNIX administrator? To answer these questions I plan to research UNIX administration using a variety of media. Some of my research will be conducted online, while a large portion of research will take place at my local library. I may have a lead on a few DVDs pertaining to UNIX as well.

Thesis: The administration of UNIX user environments requires codes, commands, and techniques that are significantly different from the operating systems familiar to most home users, yet it has a secure foothold in corporate network systems all over the world. Linux, one of the most popular offshoots of UNIX, has been around in one form or another for over thirty years. Developed by Linus Torvalds, a twenty-one year old student at the University of Helsinki, Linux hit the Internet and never looked back (McGrath, 2006, p. 9). It derived its popularity for its open-source sensibility, remaining free under the GNU General Public License. This freedom is part of the reason Linux is so popular among businesses and hackers alike. Most companies require computers for their day-to-day operations; many require networks of computers communicating back and forth, executing commands, relaying messages, and accessing the Internet. A business can spend thousands upon thousands of dollars on software, and untold amounts more on equipment and network administration. To complicate matters, the system that is initially put in place may become quickly outdated, requiring a substantial outlay of funds to bring the operation back up to speed. As the company grows, so does its basic computer needs. What makes UNIX-based operating systems such as Linux the in-demand commodities they are is their cost-effectiveness and adaptability. Because Linux is open-source, its code can be altered, free from any proprietary restraints, relatively free of charge (Graham & Shah, 2003, p. 6). Unlike closed-source software, such as Windows, UNIX-based software is readily modified for the unique purposes of an individual or business.

Another reason for the popularity of Linux is the reliability of the software. Linux is a software program of the people; users continually contribute to its growth and development. As a result, any bugs or general weirdness in operation is quickly addressed and remedied. This is in direct contrast to closed-source software which is notoriously slow in recognizing product errors and slower in developing patches to repair them (Graham & Shah, 2003, p. 5). A system full of problems spells down-time for a business, and down-time equals a loss in profits. Although I havent used Linux or any other UNIX-style operating system for very long, I can already appreciate the flexibility of operation afforded by these systems. The one area where Linux would cost a business is administration; but administrative costs will affect any corporation running a network. If a company is prepared to allocate funds for the maintenance and growth of its network, it may as well be with software such as Linux that offers adaptability, reliability, and affordability. Administration is a key component to any network. How a business handles fundamental data, such as users and groups of users, documents, processes, and research and development, can be a deciding factor in the success of the company. Linux offers many advantages to administration, particularly in the business arena. It can be used to quickly and efficiently share data. It handles tasks such as the sharing of printer resources without concern for down-time. The Linux platform accommodates many common Internet-based services, such as mail services, web services, news services, and DNS services (Eckhert & Schitka, 2006, pp. 24-29). Linux also provides for the ability to cluster several smaller computers together to perform large feats of calculation; in 1996 over 68 Linux-loaded computers ran a parallel operation that clocked over 19 billion calculations per second (McGrath, 2006, p. 9).

When not performing extraordinary super-computing feats, Linux requires common, dayto-day administration. What makes Linux different from many other operating systems is its command-driven operation. While Windows has made the point-and-click style of computing the de facto means of administration, Linux uses a method of controlling operations that appears to be a leaner, more efficient and error-free way of tending to the network. Linux uses commands to make things happen in the system. These commands are often abbreviations of a word that describes the action that is occurring. The ls command for example lists files or data within a file (Graham & Shah, 2003, p. 113). The cd command is used to change directories in the system (Creary & Cottrell, 2003, p. 126). Files can be copied with the command cp (Bautts, Dawson, & Purdy, 2005, p. 210). Removal of files or data is accomplished with the rm command (Eckhert & Schitka, 2006, p. 187). A files ownership can be changed with the change owner command, chown (Eckhert & Schitka, 2006, p. 196). Permissions of a file can be changed with the chmod command, meaning change mode (Eckhert & Schitka, 2006, p. 202). Here are some other common commands used in Linux: command fsck kill mount mv ps zip how it is used check or repair a file system terminate a process make a device available to the system move or rename a file show the current process compress a file in Windows format

There are thousands of commands used in Linux, designed to do anything from work within a text editor to controlling the disk operation of the computer (McGrath, 2006, pp. 227-232). Commands are often used with appended options, known as switches, options, and arguments. These options are used to define the command and specify a particular action. Working with the ls command for example shows several options to modify the way this command lists filenames:

option -a -C -d -F -l -s -x

what it does lists all of the filenames lists filenames in a column format lists directory names instead of contents lists files by file type lists in long format lists files by size in kilobytes lists files in rows

There are a few items to note about the options. They are added by using the dash (-) symbol, as in: ls l to list in long format. They can be lowercase or capital letters; case denotes different meanings. The F switch lists files by file type, as noted from the table above; the f switch lists all filenames without sorting, however. Options are not confined to just letters, they can be combinations of letters (-lG for listing in long format with no group information, or words (- - reverse to show the files in reverse order) (Graham & Shah, 2003, p. 113).

The commands and options are used to alter specific files, groups, users, or other data in the system. To denote what should be affected by the command, an argument is appended to the command. The argument could be a file or directory, as in ls l /home/users which would show a long listing of the data in the file named users in the home directory. The argument could be hardware, such as the primary master IDE hard disk: fdisk /dev/hda which creates partitions on the primary master (Eckhert & Schitka, 2006, p. 103). Users and groups of users can also be specified as arguments. The command useradd can be used to create a new user account; to do this for myself I could use useradd dphilpott which would establish my account, home directory, and in some versions of Linux, a primary group (McGrath, 2006, p. 188). Although some versions of Linux exist in GUI, giving a more Windows-like user experience, much of the administration is accomplished through the command line, as evidenced by the examples above. Some may not be comfortable with such a cold, bare-bones method of computing; others may find the lack of distracting graphics provides an easier to administrate system. I found that it takes a bit of getting used to: [root@localhost root]# becomes your welcome screen in the command-line world. To the uninitiated, this would be time to call Tech Support; to the Linux user, this is where the magic happens. Commands are entered at this prompt, as in this example: [root@localhost root]#cat /etc/passwd This command asks for the contents of the passwd file in /etc to be displayed (Graham & Shah, 2003, p. 126). The prompt can tell the user how he or she is controlling the system. For example:

[root@localhost root]# indicates that root is in control of the command line. This could be dangerous, of course; root is the highest man on the totem pole, so to speak, and can possibly do irreparable damage to the system (McGrath, 2006, p. 146). Root can also work in another users directory, as in: [dphilpott@localhost root]# This is root in the dphilpott directory. Most users will be under their own log-in, however: [dphilpott@localhost dphilpott]# This is a safer, more secure way of using the system; a user will have limited permissions in the system. As Spider-Man was once told, With great power comes great responsibility Part C: Conclusion Over the past five weeks I have worked with Linux through lab exercises that supplemented various lessons and text, and I have come to the following conclusions: Linux, and other UNIX-based operating systems are embraced by the business community for understandable reasons. I dont see how a business could be run in this day and age without computers; more specifically, without a networked system that handles the daily management of a company, human resources affairs, order processing, shipping, and the many other requirements of a 21st century corporation. While the business model would necessitate funding for the design, implementation, and upkeep of a reliable network, costs could escalate with the use of closedended, brand-name software. Linux offers an adaptable, low-cost alternative to the Microsoft and Apple communities with the added benefit of service stability. Linux is fairly intuitive, making for an accessible system to learn and use.

When I first began using Linux, I was surprised at how easily I overcame the initial culture-shock of working in a command environment. Having used Windows for so many years, I have become accustomed to the graphic-intensive computing experience that Microsoft has fostered. Linux may be intimidating at first glance, but quickly becomes comfortable to work with in terms of administration and navigation. Commands are typically easy to remember since most are based on an abbreviation of a word or combination of words that apply to the action requested by the command. Overall, the general activity in Linux seems to be a simplified conversation between the user and the system; a command is requested from a user to affect files, data, or other users. To me, it almost resembles an intelligent version of baby-talk. Linux will most likely never replace the operating systems favored by the majority of home computer users in the near future. For all its ease of use, low cost, and adaptability, I dont know that Linux will gain a foothold for the average computer user. I believe the majority of home users rely on the pointand-click method of computing and are dependent on a graphic interface for executing commands. While Linux offers some GUI programs, a larger portion of its operation is command-line driven, and I believe that most Internet-surfing, emailing users would rather not take the time to learn code and commands. In my opinion, Linux and other UNIX-based systems will remain an operating system for experienced users who prefer to tweak programs to suit their individual needs.

References Bautts, T., Dawson, T., & Purdy, G. (2005). Linux network administrators guide (3rd ed.). Sebastopol, CA: Oreilly Media. Creary, C. & Cottrell, L. (2003). Introduction to unix and linux. Berkley, CA: McGraw-Hill Eckhert, J. & Schitka, M.J. (2006). Linux+ guide to linux certification (2nd ed.). Boston, MA: Course Technology. Graham, S. & Shah, S. (2003). Linux administration a beginners guide (3rd ed.). Berkley, CA: McGraw-Hill. Hsiao, A. (2003). Red hat linux in 24 hours. Indianapolis, IN: Sams. McGrath, M. (2006). Linux in easy steps. Warwickshire, UK: Computer Step.