Lasers and Applications

Unit 3: Amplification of Light

Contents
Introduction ........................................................................................ 3 Learning outcomes ............................................................................ 3 Optical gain ......................................................................................... 4 Population inversion.......................................................................... 7
Two-level system ................................................................................................9 Three-level system ..............................................................................................9

Unit 3 Amplification of Light

Introduction
The previous units introduced the concept of stimulated emission and the relationship between the Einstein A and B coefficients. In this unit we shall see how stimulated emission can lead to gain (optical amplification). We shall derive an equation that predicts either an exponential growth or an exponential decay of the radiation depending on a set of conditions. These conditions are incorporated into a parameter we call the gain coefficient. We shall also talk about the concept of population inversion, and show that population inversion is a necessary condition for gain. Well discuss ways to achieve population inversion, and look at examples of commercially available optical amplifiers.

Learning outcomes
After studying this unit you will be able to derive an expression for the gain coefficient using the rate equations calculate the gain coefficient under various conditions calculate gain cross section discuss the concept of population inversion, and calculate the population differences given the required parameters show that two level atoms cannot produce gain discuss the properties of three and four-level amplifiers, and be able to describe devices based on these schemes discuss erbium doped fibre amplifiers.

Unit 3 Amplification of Light

Optical gain
As stimulated emission produces an additional photon for each stimulating photon, it is reasonable to assume that one could use this process to amplify light. We shall now derive a necessary condition for amplification that will introduce us to the concept of population inversion. We shall do this differently to what you will find in the textbook. Assume a substance (solid, gas, liquid) with atoms that have two energy levels, an upper level, Eu, and a lower energy level El, and there is a total of N = N1 + Nu atoms in this medium.. The optical transition connecting these levels has a lineshape function G(<), which typically either a Lorentzian or a Gaussian function. Lets assume that a monochromatic beam with intensity I (power per unit area) and frequency < = (Eu-E1)/h is sent through the medium. We are looking for an answer to the following question: what will the intensity be at the output of the material? We already know that light absorption and emission (both stimulated and spontaneous) occur in the medium, so the light intensity can either increase or decrease as it travels through the material. If we get more light out, we talk about amplification, if we get less light out, we talk about absorption.

Iin

Iout

)z

Fig 3.1 The change in intensity as light travels through material

Unit 3 Amplification of Light

Well now derive an expression for the change of intensity as light travels through this material. The change in intensity over a distance )z is equal to the number of optical transitions per second times the photon energy: )I = (dN/dt) h<)z

which is caused by the difference between the contributions from stimulated emission and absorption. Well forget about spontaneous emission here because it turns out to be much too weak to make significant contribution. The difference between stimulated emission and absorption is given by: )I = (dN/dt) )z h< = [Bu1Nuu(<) - B1uN1u(<)]h<)z = = [Bul Nu (I(z)/c) G(<) - Blu Nl (I(z)/c) G(<)]h<)z where we used the fact that the intensity is related to the E.M. energy density, u(<), via the simple relationship I(<) = c u(<) where c is the speed of light and we have separated the frequency and z dependence of the intensity by writing: I(z,<) = I(z)G(<).

So we can now rewrite the equation in a somewhat simpler form: )I = Bul (Nu - Nl )I(z)G(<)(h</c) )z

This can be further simplified if we rewrite the above equation in terms of readily measurable quantities. Remembering that Au1/Bu1 = 8Bh<3/c3 and c/<= 8/n where n is the refractive index of the medium, we can write: )I/)z . dI/dz = (1/8Bn2) [Aul82G(<)(Nu Nl)]I(z) = g(<)I(z) where g(<) is a collection of all the terms in front of I(z).

Unit 3 Amplification of Light

Using Au1 =

1 t sp

where tsp is the spontaneous lifetime, we get: g(<) = (1/8Btspn2) [82G(<)(Nu Nl)]

The parameter g(<) is called the gain coefficient, and it is in this coefficient where we hid all the physics. The reason why it is called the gain coefficient will soon become clear. By the way, it has dimensions [1/length]; typical units are cm-1. Solving the resultant differential equation
I = g(<)I(z) z

for I(z), we find that the intensity varies exponentially along the z direction as: I(z) = I(0)exp(gz)

Before we continue, lets take some time out and look at the makeup of the gain coefficient: g(<) = (1/8Btspn2) [82G(<)(Nu Nl)]

As you can see, g(<) depends on two types of parameters: a collection of constants that are related to the atomic transition (eg. G(<),8, tsp), and the difference of population between the two levels, (Nu-Nl). We can rewrite g(<) slightly differently to highlight the fact that we are dealing with these two types of components:
g(<) = F(<)(Nu-Nl)

where

( ) =

2 Gl(<) n 2 8 t sp

is the so-called gain cross-section which draws together the parameters related to the atomic transitions.

It is the parameter that describes the strength of the transition for the given atom (molecule, etc). It has dimensions of [length]2 or area, and hence the name cross-section.

Unit 3 Amplification of Light

The other important component of the gain coefficient is the (Nu-Nl) term, which is, as we know, the difference in populations between the upper (u) and lower states (l). It is this term that will play a vital role in the making of the laser.

Population inversion

Looking at the expression for the intensity: I(z) = I(0)exp(gz) we see there are two possibilities: g can be negative, which means the intensity decays exponentially as it passes through the medium: I(z) = I0exp(-*g*z).

In such a case, g(<) is called the absorption coefficient, and is usually denoted by the Greek letter ":
"(<) = - |g(<)|

The ratio of the intensity at the output, I(d), to the intensity at the input, I(0), gives us the transmission through the medium, and it usually denoted by the letter T: T(<) = I(d)/I(0) = exp(-"d).

The other possibility, however, is that g is positive. In this case, the intensity increases exponentially as it passes through the medium: I(z) = I0exp(gz). That is, the longer the light travels in the medium, the higher its intensity becomes. Such a medium amplifies the travelling radiation, or in other words, we have what some people might call light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation. We get more light out of such a material than what went into it. Such a material is an optical amplifier.

Unit 3 Amplification of Light

The key to amplification is the positive sign of g. In the following well discuss ways to get positive g, that is, ways to make an optical amplifier. However, before we do that, lets define the overall gain , S(<), of an amplifier. The overall gain of an amplifier of length d is given by:
S (<) = I(d)/I(0)= exp(gd).

where I(d) is the intensity after light has travelled a distance d in the material, and I(0) is the intensity at the input. The overall gain is a ratio of two intensities, so it is has no units. Now lets deal with the important question of how to achieve gain. Looking at the expression describing the gain coefficient, we see that the sign of g is determined by difference in population between the two levels, (Nu - Nl).
o When (Nu - Nl) > 0, that is, Nu is larger than Nl, g is positive and hence the medium amplifies. o When (Nu - Nl) is negative, that is Nl > Nu, g is negative, the medium absorbs. o So, it seems that to make an optical amplifier operating at <= (Eu-El)/h frequency, all we need are the two energy levels El, and Eu, the population of which satisfy the Nu > Nl condition, and bingo, we'll get more photons out than going in. The only small problem is that in thermal equilibrium, Nl is always larger than Nu. How can we be so sure? Well, Boltzmann's distribution provides us with the ratio of Nl and Nu in thermal equilibrium:

Nl/Nu = exp(Eu-El)/kT.
o According to this expression, Nl is always larger than Nu. For example, at optical frequencies (<.1015Hz) and around room temperature, N1/Nu is of the order of e80, which is a rather large number, so N1>>Nu. Thus, in thermal equilibrium, g is positive so matter will always absorb light! So how can we make an optical amplifier? How can we beat the system? o The important and slightly overlooked term above was in thermal equilibrium. Therefore, to invert the atomic population from N1 > Nu to Nu > N1 we have to get away from thermal equilibrium. We have to trick the system into the Nu > N1situation, a condition called population inversion. Population inversion is a necessary condition
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for light amplification (or laser action) to occur. However, well also see shortly that it is not a sufficient condition. Other conditions will also have to be met before amplification can be achieved.
o By the way, when Nu = N1 the medium is neither absorbing nor amplifying. It is perfectly transparent. This is what we call optical transparency.

Two-level system

So lets try to invert the population of an atomic system. To start with, lets assume the simplest possibility, only two levels, E2 and E1, and see whether we can achieve population inversion by optically pumping the majority of electrons from E1 to E2 and thus inverting the population between these two levels. The question we are asking is the following: Is it possible to shine light of frequency <= (E2-E1)/h at high enough intensity to get all or most of the population from E1 up into E2? Assuming only two energy levels, the population of the levels cannot be inverted by optical means and maintained is a steady state. The reason is simple: when only two levels are available, stimulated emission and absorption will always balance each other. So at best, well have equal populations of atoms in E1 and E2.

Three-level system

Well now assume three levels, E1, E2, and E3, where E1 is the ground state, the lowest possible state, as shown on the figure below:

Unit 3 Amplification of Light

--------------------- E3 Optical pumping --------------------- E2 ---------------------- E1

amplification

Fig. 3.2 Schematics of a 3 level system used to achieve population inversion between levels 2 and 1. Level E1 is the ground state of the system. In the figure, the arrow going up from level 1 to level 3 represents the pumping or excitation of level 3, while the downward arrows represent the relaxation between these levels.

In order to optically excite electrons from E1 to E3, we need a light source whose frequency is <13= (E3-E1)/h (or some other source of energy). If this light source is strong enough, we can get a large number of atoms to be excited into E3. From E3 electrons may relax back to E1 or to E2. We shall now show that under certain favourable conditions, the population in level E2 may exceed that of level E1! That is, in this so-called three-level system, we may achieve population inversion between two levels. Before we look at the rate equations for this system, lets use words to describe what is happening here. Most atoms are in their ground state (i.e. E1 is heavily populated). Pumping this level means we excite the atoms into the E3 level. (Here we assumed optical pumping, but the list of possible pumping methods include electric current, chemical reactions, ion beams, etc.) Atoms pumped into level 3 will relax into level 2, (called the upper laser level), or back to the ground state. This relaxation process can involve spontaneous emission, but often involves non-radiative processes. If we choose the atomic system correctly, so that the relaxation to level 2 is the dominant path (the probability of this transition is

Unit 3 Amplification of Light

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large), nearly all of the excited atoms from level 3 will arrive quickly to level 2, and only few will relax back to level 1. But this is not enough to have an inverted population. We have to make sure that the population of level 2 is higher than that of level 1. In an efficient laser medium, the lifetime of state 2 is long so that the population of this state can grow and an inversion can be created with respect to level 1. That is, to achieve population inversion between levels 2 and 1, we need to have level 2 to be a slow state. Levels with long lifetimes are called metastable states. If the parameters are right and we pump hard enough, we can arrive at a situation where we have more atoms in level 2 than in level 1. And this situation can be sustained by continuous pumping. That is, we have achieved a steady state inverted population between levels 2 and 1.

E3

----------------------- short-lived level t32 (rapid decay)

E2

----------------------- long-lived (metastable) level t31 (slow) t21 (slow)

E1

----------------------- ground state

Fig. 3.3 Schematics of the relative lifetimes of a 3 level system used to achieve population inversion between levels 2 and 1.

In terms of lifetimes, the following conditions have to be met to achieve population inversion in a three-level system (see Fig 3.3): 1. the spontaneous lifetime of level E2 (t21) be large relative to the other lifetimes (i.e. E2 is a metastable state) 2. The decay from level 3 to level 2 should be highly probable, which means that t32 is short relative to t31. Under such conditions, a 3 level system may be inverted! In fact, the first laser built by Theodore Maiman was a 3 level system, the ruby laser, in which t21.10-3s and t32 .10-12s.

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The problem with three-level systems is that the lower state of the lasing transition is the ground state. The ground state is always very heavily populated (it is the lowest possible state), so it takes a lot of energy to invert the population of other states relative to the ground state. This is why threelevel systems are inefficient, and are rarely used (the ruby laser, which is a three-level laser, is a peculiarity). To improve the pumping efficiency, it is more efficient to use systems where the lower state of the lasing transition in not the ground state but another excited state. This can be achieved in the so-called four-level systems.

Four-level system
In a four-level system, the final state of the lasing transition is an excited state, not the ground state, as shown in the diagram below:

---------------------- E3 t32 (rapid decay) pumping ------------- E2 (E2 metastable state ) E1 (Final state of amplifier) t10 (rapid decay) ------------------------- E0 (ground state)

Fig. 3.5 Energy level diagram of a four-level system. Population inversion can be achieved between levels E2 and E1.

The population inversion now occurs between levels E2 and E1 (as shown on the diagram above). In a four-level system, the necessary condition for population inversion between levels 2 and 1 (N2 > N1) entails that t10 and t32 are much shorter than t21. That is, in an efficient laser medium, the lifetime of state 2 is long so that the population of this state can grow and an inversion can be created with respect to state 1.
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Unit 3 Amplification of Light

For example, in the Nd:YAG amplifier /laser which is a four-level system, t32 .10-7s, t10.10-8s and t21.10-3s. Since four-level devices are more efficient than three-level devices, most practical lasers are based around a four-level amplifier.

Examples of commercially available amplifiers based on four-level schemes: 1. Nd:glass system: This is a typical four level system. The energy levels, which are involved with the amplification process, are the levels of the Nd3+ ion. The glass does not take part directly in the laser action, its only role is to hold the Nd ions in place. We could, and do, incorporate Nd into other hosts, such as yttrium aluminium garnet (YAG), a transparent crystalline material, and other materials to make useful lasers. In the Nd:glass system amplification occurs at 8=1.06 :m, in the near infrared spectral region. The energy difference between E1 and the ground state (E0) is quite large (0.26 eV), so at room temperature the population of the level E1 is small compared to the ground state and therefore population inversion can be achieved at relative ease. Optical pumping occurs between E0 and E3 where E3 is, in fact, a band of energy levels, making it easier and more efficient to pump into them. Since the energy difference E0-E3 lies in the red/near IR spectral region, there are a number of convenient light sources, which can be used for optical excitation (pumping) purposes, such as various flash lamps or diode lasers. 2. Fibre optic amplifiers: These amplifiers are based on the optical transitions of the Er3+ (erbium) ion. The optical fibre, made of SiOx, is the host material that contains the Er dopants. Amplification takes place around 8=1.55:m, which coincides with the optimum wavelength of modern fibre optic communications systems and hence the great interest in these type of fibre amplifiers. Fibre amplifiers can be pumped at several wavelengths but most commercial systems are pumped in the near infrared (980nm or 1,48:m) by diode lasers. Due to the nature of the optical fibre, fibre optic amplifiers are not pumped from the side, as we saw with in the ruby laser, but instead, we make use of the intricacies of the fibre itself to couple light into it. We shall learn more about erbium doped fibre amplifiers in unit 10.

Unit 3 Amplification of Light

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