There is no doubt whatever about the influence of architecture and structure upon human character and action.

We make our buildings and afterwards they make us. They regulate the course of our lives. Winston Churchill, addressing the English Architectural Association, 1924

In designing and constructing environments in which people live and work, architects and planners are necessarily involved in influencing human behaviour. While Sommer (1969, p.3) asserted that the architect in his training and practice, learns to look at buildings without people in them, it is clear that from, for example, Howards Garden Cities of To-morrow (1902), through Le Corbusiers Ville Contemporaineand La Ville radieuse, to the Smithsons Streets in the sky, there has been a long-standing thread of recognition that the way people live their lives is directly linked to the designed environments in which they live. Whether the explicit intention to influence behaviour drives the design processarchitectural determinism (Broady, 1966: see future blog post POSIWID and determinism)or whether the behaviour consequences of design decisions are only revealed and considered as part of a post-occupancy evaluation (e.g. Zeisel, 2006) or by social scientists or psychologists studying the impact of a development, there are links between the design of the built environment and our behaviour, both individually and socially. Where there is an explicit intention to influence behaviour, the intended behaviours could relate (for example) to directing people for strategic reasons, or providing a particular experience, or for health and safety reasons, but they are often focused on influencing social interaction. Hillier et al (1987, p.233) find that spatial layout in itself generates a field of probabilistic encounter, with structural properties that vary with the syntax of the layout. Ittelson et al (1974, p.358) suggest that All buildings imply at least some form of social activity stemming from both their intended function and the random encounters they may generate. The arrangement of partitions, rooms, doors, windows, and hallways serves to encourage or hinder communication and, to this extent, affects social interaction. This can occur at any number of levels and the designer is clearly in

control to the degree that he plans the contact points and lanes of access where people come together. He might also, although with perhaps less assurance, decide on the desirability of such contact. Designers often aspire to do more than simply create buildings that are new, functional and attractivethey promise that a new environment will change behaviours and attitudes (Marmot, 2002, p.252). Where architects expressly announce their intentions and ability to influence behaviour, such as in Danish firm 3XNs exhibition and book Mind Your Behaviour (3XN, 2010), the behaviours intended and techniques used can range from broad, high-level aspirational strategies such as communal areas creating the potential for involvement, interaction and knowledge sharing in a workplace (3XN, 2010) to specific tactics, such as Frank Lloyd Wrights occasional use of very confining corridors for people to walk along so that when they entered an open space the openness and light would enhance their e xperience (Ittelson et al, 1974, p.346). An appreciation of both broad strategies and specific tactics is valuable: from the perspective of a designer whose agency may only extend to redesign of certain elements of a space, product or interface, it is the specific tactical techniques which are likely to be the most immediately applicable, but the broader guiding strategies can help set the vision in the first place. For example, the conditions for city diversity outlined by Jacobs (1961)broad strategies for understanding aspects of urban behaviourhave influenced generations of urbanists. Following the influence of Christopher Alexander (Alexander et al, 1975, 1977; Alexander, 1979), such strategies and tactics may be expressed architecturally in terms of patterns, which describe a problem which occurs over and over again in our environment, and then describes the core of the solution to that problem, in such a way that you can use this solution a million times over, without ever doing it the same way twice (Alexander et al, 1977). The concept of patterns, and Alexander et als A Pattern Language (1977) will be examined in detail in a future thesis extract, for their form, philosophy and impact, but, as an example, it is worth drawing out a few of the patterns which actually address directly influencing behaviour architecturally (Table 1). Among others, Frederick (2007) and Day (2002) both also outline a range of architectural patterns, some with similarities to Alexander et als, including some specifica lly relating to influencing behaviour.

Two examples of pattern 53? Chepstow, Monmouthshire (restored 1524) and Philips High Tech Campus, Eindhoven (c.2000)

Table 1. Summaries of a few of Alexander et als patterns (1977) which specifically address influencing behaviour, simplified into ends and means.
Title End Means

Facilities must be grouped densely round very sma

30 Activity nodes To create concentrations of people in a community

nodeswith all pedestrian movement in the commu nodes

Mark every boundary in the city which has importa

53 Main gateways To influence inhabitants of a part of a town to identify it as a distinct entity

building cluster, a neighborhood, a precinctby gre paths cross the boundary

Lay out common land, paths, gardens and bridges s

68 Connected play To support the formation of spontaneous play groups for children

are connected by a swath of land that does not cross connected play space for the children in these house

139

Farmhouse kitchen

To help all the members of the family to accept, fully, the fact that taking care of themselves by cooking is as much a part of life as taking care of themselves by eating

Make the kitchen bigger than usual, big enough to

place it near the center of the commons, not so far b Make it large enough to hold a good table and chairs counters and stove and sink around the edge of the r comfortable room

151

Small meeting rooms

To encourage smaller group meetings, which encourage people to contribute and make their point of view heard

Make at least 70 per cent of all meeting rooms real

them in the most public parts of the building, evenly

Layout of physical elements

Practically, most architectural patterns for influencing behaviour involve, in one way or another, the physical arrangement of building elementsinside or outsideor a change in material properties. In each case, there is the possibility of changing peoples perceptions of what behaviour is possible or appropriate, and the possibility of actually forcing some behaviour to occur or not occur (see future article Affordances, constraints and choice architecture). These are not independent alternatives: the perception that some behaviour is possible or impossible can be a result of learning the hard way in the past.

Barrier on the London Underground (Baker Street, from memory), preventing people running down stairs directly onto the track. Most stairs dont open straight onto the platform like this. The physical arrangement of elements can be broken down into different aspects of positioning and layoutputting elements in particular places to encourage or discourage peoples interaction with them, putting them in peoples way to prevent access to somewhere, putting them either side of people to channel or direct them in a particular way (e.g. staggered pedestrian crossings which aim to direct pedestrians to face oncoming traffic; Department for Transport, 1995), hiding them to remove the perception that they are there, splitting elements up or combining them so that they can be used by different numbers of people at once, or angling them so that some actions are easier than others (termed slanty design by Beale (2007), both physically and in metaphorical application in interfaces). Urbanists such as Whyte (1980) have catalogued, in colourful, intricate detail the effects that the layouts and features of built environments have on peoples behaviourwhy some areas become popular, others not so, with whom, and why, with recommendations for how to improve things, in contrast to work such as Goffman (1963) which focuses on the social contexts of public behaviour in urban environments. The layouts of shops, hotels, casinos and theme parks, especially larger developments where there is scope to plan more ambitiously, can also make use of multiple aspects of positioning and layout to influence and control shoppers pathsStenebo (2010)

discusses IKEAs carefully planned (and continually refined) fairyland of adventures which routes visitors through the store; Shearing and Stenning (1984) examine how Disney World embeds [c]ontrol strategies in both environmental features and structural relations, many to do with positioning of physical features; while Underhill (1999, 2004), formerly one of Whytes students, describes how his company, Envirosell, uses observation approach to understand and redesign shopping behaviour across a wide range of store types and shopping malls themselves, much of which comes down to intelligently repositioning elements such as mirrors, basket stacks, signage and seating. Poundstone (2010) cites a study by Sorensen Associates which used active RFID tags fitted to shopping trolleys to determine that US shoppers taking an anticlockwise route around supermarkets spend on average $2.00 more per trip; the suggestion is that stores with the entrance on the right will be more likely to prompt this anticlockwise movement. Changes in material properties can involve drawing attention to particular behaviour (e.g. rumble strips on a road to encourage drivers to slow down: Harvey, 1992), or making it more or less comfortable to do an activity (e.g., as Katyal (2002, p.1043) notes, fast food restaurants use hard chairs that quickly grow uncomfortable so that customers rapidly turn over). The application of some of these physical positioning and layout and material property ideas to a particular social issue is described in the blog post Towards a Design with Intent method v.0.1from 2008.

Often combining positioning and material properties, the effect of different seating types and layouts on behaviour comprises a significant area of study in itself, with, for example, work by Steinzor (1950), Hearn (1957), Sommer (1969) and Koneya (1976) helping to establish patterns of likely interaction between people occurring with arrangements of chairs around tables, and overall room layouts in classrooms and mental hospitals. Sommers design intervention in the dayroom of an elderly ladies ward at a state hospital in Canadaby reducing the number of couches around the walls and adding tables and chairs in the centre of the room, with flowers and magazinesled to major increases in the amount of conversation and interaction between residents.

Osmond (1959) introduced the terms sociofugal and sociopetal to describe spaces which drive people apart and together, respectively; Sommer (1969, 1974) notes that airports are often among the most sociofugal spaces, largely because of the fixed, singledirection seating and sterile decor: Many other buildings such as mental hospitals and jails, also discourage contact between people, but none does this as effectively as the airport In practice the long corridors and the cold, bare waiting areas of the typical airport are more sociofugal than the isolation wing of the state penitentiary. (Sommer, 1974: p.72). Halls concept of proxemics (e.g. Hall, 1966) provides a treatment of personal space, its effects on behaviour, and its significance in different physical spaces as well as in different cultures. The different distance zones identified by Hall intimate, personal, social and publichave implications for the design process: If one looks at human beings in the way that the early slave traders did, conceiving of their space requirements simply in terms of the limits of the body, one pays very little attention to the effects of crowding. If, however, one sees man surrounded by a series of invisible bubbles which have measurable dimensions, architecture can be seen in a new light. It is then possible to conceive that people can be cramped by the spaces in which they have to live and work. They may find themselves forced into behavior, relationships or emotional outlets that are overly stressful (Hall, 1966, p.129).

Emergence, desire lines and predicting behaviour

All buildings are predictions. All predictions are wrong. Stewart Brand, How Buildings Learn, 1994, p. 178. I built skyscrapers for people to live in there and now they messed them up disgusting. Ern Goldfinger, commenting on tabloid reports of violent crime in the Trellick Tower, above (quoted in Open University, 2001)
In How Buildings Learn, Stewart Brand (1994) contrasts Low Road architecture designed to permit adaptation by users, with visionary High Road architectural plans which seek to define at the design stage the future behaviour and lifestyles of buildings users. High Road plans often fail in this sense, unable to anticipate future needs or usage patterns (as Ittelson et al (1974, p. 357) put it, we are all living in the relics of the past), while Low Road architecture can cope with changing requirements, appropriation (Salovaara, 2008) and emergent behaviour. The stereotype of architect as a High Road plannerperhaps living in the penthouse at the top of the tower block he has designedresonates in both fact (e.g. Ern Goldfingers comment quoted above) and fiction (e.g. Anthony Royal in J.G. Ballards High Rise(1975).* The parallels of the the High/Low Road approaches with the design and use of other systemsin particular software, but perhaps also economic and political systems in generalare evident throughout Brands book, although never explicitly stated as such;

there are also parallels in planning at a level above that of buildings themselves, such as the clash in New York (Flint, 2009) between the bottom-up approach to urbanism favoured by Jacobs (1961) and the top-down approach of Robert Moses. While it will unfortunately not be considered in detail in this thesis, the emerging power of ubiquitous computing, when integrated intelligently into physical spacecity as operating system (Gittins, 2007)could permit a kind of Low Road read/write urbanism (Greenfield & Shepard, 2007) in which the city users themselves are able to augment and alter the meanings, affordances and even fabrics of their surroundings.

A desire path or cowpath is forming across this grass area in the John Crank memorial garden, Brunel University One emergent behaviour-related concept arising from architecture and planning which has also found application in human-computer interaction is the idea of desire lines, desire paths or cowpaths. The usual current use of the term (often attributed, although apparently in error, to Bachelards The Poetics of Space (1964)) is to describe paths worn by pedestrians across spaces such as parks, between buildings or to avoid obstacles the foot-worn paths that sometimes appear in a landscape over time (Mathes, 2004) and which become self-reinforcing as subsequent generations of pedestrians follow what becomes an obvious path. Throgmorton & Eckstein (2000) also discuss Chicago transportation engineers use of desire lines to describe maps of straight-line origin-todestination journeys across the city, in the process revealing assumptions about the

publics desire to undertake these journeys. In either sense, desire lines (along with use-marks (Burns, 2007)) could perhaps, using economic terminology, be seen as a form of revealed user preference (Beshears et al, 2008) or at least revealed choice, with a substantial normative quality. As such, there is potential for observing the formation of desire lines and then codifying them in order to provide paths that users actually need, rather than what is assumed they will need. As Myhill (2004) puts it, [a]n optimal way to design pathways in accordance with natural human behaviour, is to not design them at all. Simply plant grass seed and let the erosion inform you about where the paths need to be. Stories abound of university campuses being constructed without any pathways to them. Myhill goes on to suggest that companies which apply this idea in the design of goods and services, designing systems to permit desire lines to emerge and then paying attention to them, will succeed in a process of Normanian Natural Selection (after Don Normans work).

whereas this one has been paved after pedestrians wore a definite path. In human-computer interaction, this principle has become known as Pave the cowpathslook where the paths are already being formed by behavior and then formalize them, rather than creating some kind of idealized path structure that ignores history and tradition and human nature and geometry and ergonomics and common sense (Crumlish & Malone, 2009, p.17). Particularly with websites, analytics software

can take the place of the worn grass, and in the process reveal extra data such as demographic information about users, and more about their actual desires or intention in engaging in the process (e.g. Google is a database of intentions, according to Battelle (2003)). This allows clustering of behaviour paths and even investigation of users mental models of site structure. The counter-argument is that blindly paving cowpaths can enshrine inefficient behaviours in the longer-term, locking users and organisations into particular ways of doing things which were never optimal in the first place (Arace, 2006)form freezing function, to paraphrase Stewart Brand (1994, p.157). From the point of view of influencing behaviour rather than simply reflecting it, the principle of paving the cowpaths could be applied strategically: identify the desire lines and paths of particular usersperhaps a group which is already performing the desired behaviourand then, by formalising this, making it easier or more salient or in some way obviously normative, encourage other users to follow suit. *It is worth differentiating, though, between a visionary approach which considers human behaviour and sets out to change it, and the approach attributed to some other treatments of the visionary architect personality, in which human behaviour is simply ignored or relegated as being secondary to the vision of the building itself. In fiction, Ayn Rands Howard Roark (in The Fountainhead, 1943) is perhaps an archetype; Sommers architect who learns to look at buildings without people in them quoted above is perhaps based on real instances of this approach.

The ticket hall of Stratford City railway station, London, with Westfield logo and the Olympic Athletes Village under construction in the background, March 2010

The politics of architecture, power and control

I was aware that I could be watched from aboveand that it was possible to go much higherto become one of the watchersbut I didnt see how it could be done. The architecture embodied a political message: There are people higher than you, and they can watch you, follow youand, theoretically, you can join them, become one of them. Unfortunately you dont know how. Geoff Manaugh, The BLDG BLOG Book (2009, p.17)
Architecture can serve as a regulatory force (Shah and Kesan, 2007) and has been used to influence and control public behaviour through embodying power in a number of ways. Direct use of architecture to change the economic or demographic make-up of areas ranges from policies of shopping centres and Business Improvement Districts to shift the social class of visitors to an area* (Minton, 2009), to Depression-era Tennessee Valley Authoritys mandate to revitalise impoverished areas through massive development programmes (Culvahouse, 2007), to government-driven use of settlements to occupy or colonise territories. In this latter context, Segal and Weizman (2003, p. 19), referring to Israel, comment that [i]n an environment where architecture and planning are systematically instrumentalized planning decisions do not often follow criteria of economic sustainability, ecology or efficiency of services, but are rather employed to serve strategic and political agendas.

Vale (2008) discusses Pierre Charles LEnfants 1791 layout of Washington, DC, often seen as physically reifying the separation of powers principle contained in the US Constitution, by separating the buildings housing the branches of government, although Vale notes that LEnfant does not explicitly mention this as his intention. Along perhaps similar lines, Stewart Brand (1994, p.3) mentions Churchills 1943 request that the bomb-damaged Parliament be rebuilt exactly as it was before It was to the good, he insisted, that the [House of Commons] Chamber was too small to seat all the members (so great occasions were standing-room occasions), and that its shape forced members to sit on either one side or the other, unambiguously of one party or the other. Indeed, Churchills crossing the floor in 1904 (and again in the 1920s) perhaps relied on the physical layout of the chamber for its impact. Ittelson et al (1974, p.139) also note that [t]he eight months of deliberations in 1969, preceding the Paris Peace Talks, were largely centered on the issue of the shape of the table to be used in the negotiations. Internal building layouts are analysed for their power implications by Do vey (2008), who uses a system of space syntax analysis developed by Hillier and Hanson (1984) to examine diverse buildings such as Albert Speers Berlin Chancellery, the Forbidden City of Beijing, and the Metro Centre shopping mall in Newcastle-upon-Tyne. One recurring pattern in political buildings is the intentional use of something similar to what Alexander et al (1977, p.610), in a different context, call intimacy of gradienta diplomatic promenade (Dovey, 2008, p. 65) selectively revealing a sequ ence of anterooms to visitors, their permitted progress through the structure (the deepest level being the president or monarchs private study) calculated both to reflect their status and instil the requisite level of awe. Nicoletta (2003) looks at the use of architecture to exert social control in Shaker dwelling houses, e.g. the use of separate entrances and staircases for men and women, and the lack of routes through the house which did not result in observation by other members of the family. City layouts have been used strategically to try to prevent disorder and make it easier to put down. Baron Georges-Eugne Haussmanns militaristically planned Paris (Hatherley, 2008, p. 11), remodelled for Louis Napolon (later Napolon III) after 1848, had [t]he true goal ofsecur[ing] the city against civil war. He wanted to make the erection of barricades in Paris impossible for all time Widening the streets is designed to make the erection of barricades impossible, and new streets are to furnish the shortest route between the barracks and the workers districts. (Benjamin, 1935/1999, p. 12). The Haussmann project also involved the planning of straight avenues as a

method of crowd control (artillery could fire down them at barricaded masses) (Rykwert, 2000, p.91). Scott (1998, p.59) likens the logic behind the reconstruction of Paris to the process of transforming old-growth forests into scientific forests designed for unitary fiscal managementpart of which involves, as Scott emphasies throughout his book Seeing Like a State, the idea of making a space (and the people in it) legible to whoever is in power by removing or simplifying inconsistencies, anomalies and local practices to tame potentially dangerous ceintures sauvages. Legibility affords measurement and standardisation, and these (from Domesday Book to the standardisation of surnames, to biometric IDs) afford modelling, regulation and control. Drawing on Hacking (1990), Scott (1998, p.92) suggests that it is but a small step from a simplified description of society to a design and manipulation of society, with improvement in mind. If one could reshape nature to design a more suitable forest, why not reshape society to create a more suitable population? Returning to the specifics of architectural schemes, New York master builder Robert Moses low parkway bridges on Long Island are often mentioned in a similar vein to Haussmanns Paris (Caro, 1975; Winner, 1986). These had the effect of preventing buses (and by implication poorer people, often minorities) using the parkways to visit the Jones Beach State Parkanother of Moses projects. However, Joerges (1999) questions details of the intentionality involved, suggesting that the story as presented by Winner is more of a parable (Gillespie, 2007, p. 72) about the embodiment of politics in artefactsan exhortation to recognise that specific features in the design or arrangement of a device or system could provide a convenient means of establishing patterns of power and authority in a given setting, (Winner, 1986)than a real example of architecture being used intentionally to discriminate against certain groups (see also the forthcoming blog post POSIWID and determinism). Nevertheless, Flint (2009, p.44) suggests in his book on Jane Jacobs battles with Moses over New York planning, that, at least in his earlier years, Moses strove to model himself after Baron Haussmann. *Minton (2009, p.45) interviews a Business Improvement District manager in the UK who tells her explicitly that High margins come with ABC1s, low margins with C2DEs. My job is to create an environment which will bring in more ABC1s.

Pig ear skate stoppers near City Hall, London

Disciplinary architecture and design against crime

Where the homeless are ejected from business and retail areas by such measures as curved bus benches, window-ledge spikes and doorway sprinkler systems, so skaters encounter rough-textured surfaces, spikes and bumps added to handrails, blocks of concrete placed at the foot of banks, chains across ditches and steps, and new, unridable surfaces such as gravel and sand. Iain Borden, Skateboarding, Space and the City (2001, p.254)
Perhaps difficult to extract from the political dimension of architecture is the notion of disciplinary architecture, covering everything from designed measures such as antihomeless park benches to prison design, via Jeremy Benthams Panopticon (1787) and Foucaults technologies of punishment (1977). Howell (2001) notes that this is often framed as defending the general public against undesirable behaviour by other members of the publicin this particular case again, measures to make skateboarding more difficult. Similar measures may be installed by members of the public to defend their own properties: Flusty (1997, p. 48) classifies five species of interdictory spacesspaces designed to intercept and repel or filter would-be users, many of which occur frequently in residential contexts as well as public spaces: stealthy space

areas which have been deliberately concealed from general view; slippery space spaces with no apparent means of approach; crusty spacespace that cannot be accessed because of obstructions; prickly spacespace which cannot be occupied comfortably due to measures inhibiting walking, sitting or standing; and jittery space space which is constantly under surveillance (or threatened surveillance). Some of the ways of achieving these species of space will be familiar from other examples discussed in this thesis, particularly prickly space.

Prikka strips, a popular brand of add-on DIY plastic spikes for your wall. Design against crime has recently received significant attention in the UK via initiatives such as the Design Against Crime Research Centre at Central Saint Martins (e.g. Ekblom, 1997; Gamman & Pascoe, 2004; Gamman & Thorpe, 2007) whose work has addressed some high-profile areas such as bicycle theft and bag theft in restaurants and bars (AHRC, 2008) through innovative product design interventions taking account of the environmental contexts in which crimes occur. While the focus may be on better products (as was a much earlier programme by the Design Council focusing on design against vandalism (Sykes, 1979)), the parallel field of crime prevention through environmental design (CPTED) has developed from the early 1970s to date, focusing on redesigning architectural elements to discourage particular behaviours. In the UK, compliance with an Association of Chief Police Officers CPTED initiative, Secured by Designrun by ACPO Crime Prevention Initiatives Ltdhas, according to Minton (2009, p.71), become a condition of planning permission for some large residential developments, leading to the situation where new estates are required to be surrounded by walls with sharp steel pins or broken glass on top of them, CCTV and only one gate into the estate.

Crowe (2000) provides a practical guide to implementing CPTED with diagrams and design directives for a wide variety of spaces, including schools and student residences. Poyner (1983), in a guide which is effectively A Pattern Language for CPTED, outlines 31 patterns addressing different types of crime in different settings for example, 4.7 Access to rear of house: There should be no open access from the front to the rear of a house. Access might be restricted to full-height locked gates, addresses burglary and break-ins. Many of Poyners patterns make use of the principle of natural surveillance, described in Oscar Newmans influential book Defensible Space: People and Design in the Violent City* (1972). Natural surveillance implies designing spaces to afford surveillance opportunities for residents and their agents (Newman, 1972, p. 78)effectively, designing environments so that building users are able to observe others activities when outside the home, and feel observed themselves (a concept which, applied in the wider context of digital communications and social media, might be termed peerveillance**). There should be parallels with Jacobs (1961) concept of eyes on the streetalthough as Minton (2009) points out, implementing natural surveillance via enclosed, gated communities where strangers will necessarily stand out means that the residents can become isolated, targets even for burglars who know that it is unlikely there will be any passers-by (or even passing police) to see their activities. Katyal (2002) provides a comprehensive academic review of Architecture as Crime Control, addressed to a legal and social policy-maker audience, but also interesting because of a follow-up article taking the same approach to examine digital architecture (see future article). One point to which Katyal repeatedly returns is the concept of architectural solutions as entities which subtly reinforce or embody social norms (desirable ones, from the point of view of law enforcement) rather than necessarily enforce them: Even the best social codes are quite useless if it is impossible to observe whether people comply with them. Architecture, by facilitating interaction and monitoring by members of a community, permits social norms to have greater impact. In this way, the power of architecture to influence social norms can even eclipse that of law, for law faces obvious difficulties when it attempts to regulate social interaction directly (Katyal, 2002, p. 1075). *Defensible space covers restructur[ing] the physical layout of communities to allow residents to control the areas around their homes. (Newman, 1996) **The author used Peerveillance for a pattern based on this concept in DwI v.1.0, at the time (March 2010) finding only one previous use of the term, on Twitter, by Alex Halavais. As of May 2011, the tweet is no longer findable via either Twitter or Google searches.

Implications for designers

Designed environments influence peoples behaviour in a variety of ways, and
some have been designed expressly with this intention, often for political or crime prevention reasons This can range from high-level visions of influencing wider social or community behaviours, to very specific techniques applied to influence particular behaviours in a particular context; the use of patterns facilitates reuse of techniques wherever a similar problem recurs

Most patterns involve either the physical arrangement of building elements

positioning, angling, splitting up, hiding, etcor a change in material properties, either to change peoples perceptions of what behaviour is possible or appropriate, perhaps by reinforcing or embodying social norms, or to force certain behaviour to occur or not occur

There are also patterns around aspects of surveillancedesigning layouts

which facilitate or prevent visibility of activity between groups of people

In practice, patterns may be applied in combination to create different kinds

of space with different effects on behaviour

There is potential for paving the cowpaths strategically through design,

identifying the paths of particular usersperhaps a group which is already performing the desired behaviourand then, by formalising this, making it easier or more salient or in some way obviously normative, encourage other users to follow suit

By affecting so completely the way in which people spend their lives, political
or police attempts to control behaviour through the design of environments can be controversial

Some concepts related to influencing behaviour in the built environment may

be transposed to other designed systems and contexts

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Reminiscent of a scene from Ballards Super-Cannes, the Philips High Tech Campus also includes this lake and boardwalk, perhaps affording breakout meetings and secret discussions away from the earshot of office colleagues, although in full view of the surrounding buildings.