Carmelo Bosco Ph. D. j ITALIAN SOCIETY: GF SPORT SCIENCE ROME‘Carmela Basco bom the S4.07.1943 in MliliteTio WC. (CTA Duly is Prodcisoe Departmest af Bicmcchazice Uaiversity of Badaped, Hungary, Decent at the Department of Hielngy of Physical Acueity, Speineytd, Pinkred. since the 1985, and Commct Prof Facelty of Medheitse and 5 University af Rme- ‘Tow Vergata, haly. He is Editiw in chief oof Couching and Speet Science Joermal - Pubtication of Italian Seccty off Spent Boience, Ite ato Scermtifie Comeahant od: Tralee Shi Association (FIST), latins Track and Niel Amocution aed halisn Busing Federition. tn 1975 got Mauer Science in Diciygy af Physical Activin, Ainiverity of Frisky. and Phioanphy Licentiate in Exercise Physiology and Spon Bicenocharice at the same University in dhe 1978 Sa FG recived the PhO in Exercise Piyaiology and Sport linmechanice, University of Jysvdakylt- Finlsee and ter youre [aver bo got the Philostphyy Doce (0) in Biology of Enrrcine anche Faculty af Medicine University of Saisl Eligene- France. ba 1004 received the Dacor Honors Casa, ftom Hungarian Usiveraty of Pirysipal Uidocation Bedepes. Hungary, be [977 was Researcher Asumamt af Deparment of Miology of Physical Activity Usiversity of Jyvinkyll - Finland, and after became Roetearcher at Deparinient of Physical Activity University af dyvaskyla, Piland wd 0982, From 138% until 18 was. apprinted as Directos and Head of the Lab. of Sport Baosscchinics and Excre Phyal. (TESPA) Kinottase Sport betinate - Finkied le 14 was named Visieng: Profesuor Faculty af Medivine and Surgery Deisgrty af Sama, fey. From 1979-1983 war Seve fh Cosseiars for evan ‘evalustaire afal brasting conning ‘ef Taliae Velleyball male asd female Malian Naticrsl Trans From 1994-65 was Schentiflc: Comsaltant lor eval: ‘sation and Gaming conditioniag of fmatian Hasketball Femak lalias National Team. From [06-97 wae Sraemife Comuhaan for evaluation afcl icisiny conditioning af Halise Handball Federation. He bas bye also ‘Ge scientific cormultant of several professional soccer and wolicy ‘ball team (Genow Soccer Club, Syatey ‘volleyball Club, Avellion Soccer Club, Burkes Soccer Club, Catunmaco Soocer Clah, Uuliscw Soccer Club, Catanea Sovcer Club, Ailesea Leoneis, SPAM, Soecee Chub and Saveia Cala Soocer Cush Ite has been invited 1s kone hictures and conferences in 38 cometies and his pesfiersed eeizaech woek im the following Instinmioss anel Universitice: University of Byvinkyla, Pinlaad 14741087, Penn State University, USA. 1977; Polytechnic of Zurich, Swtyertand. (82: University of Milan, Haly 1e2-19902; University of Budapest, Hungary 182-29, Insinne of Sport Seamce, Rome hale. 182-1989, San Capers Barcelona, Spain, 1987-1984, Liniversity of Saint Elierne (France), IG8-201; Rinioemity Lyon (France) 171-1; Military Hiovpial CeliceRomne, 19iri-|0;, Usiverury of Rome = Tor Vergata uly, F1-199%; Lniveraty af ‘Thesaloaihi (Greece): University of Tartu (Esti). He is meeher of weveral intemstioral societice leterntional Society of Bliomechasies (ISI 1474: In. Sec, Hiomeckamics off Sper (SBS), E982; Member af Ini. Socieey of Myocherissiny (EM 198; Dalian eee i evens 14h; Presidieat of Italia Society of Spent Science, 1990; Amencan College of Spoct fork Accademy of Science. |i; Ameren Amncisns for Advanced Sciset, ape Foes i ammentiatd Saeity of Memesineesae) and Neura! imemotion, 1999. He serves ax Exinorial Board Member: Asiticanted (aly), Samer Tension Fog TENSION ‘VELOCITY No VELOCITY No Fig. 48 - Fence velocity mlationship developed during syimal hasap prersovmedl with an! witb owed (Bonen, POEL verge roe Pt poe 8 Roto s i ere an vay = es peta csi (=) Fig 48.» Rowe urtocity mlutionship deveis Fig. 47 « Force nelocity eelanionstaip aleve: apd fra female athleie dering igor jamp —caped! by a meals aathiete aburingy nypaat jmp pesfurmeed with ami without toads fierce, prnformed with and ectthear Roar (Bosc, iat AOR. 4B‘The relationship between force and velucity was used in the pst bo study the mechanical and electromyographical behaiour of the musckes in the lab before and after training (Figure 49), its relationship with FT fibres percentage (Figure Sih) and as a field test for athletes assessment in various sports (Figure $1) amd apes (Figure 52 and 33), Without any doubt, the force/velocity relationship gives the opponupity to evaluate specific functional characteristics for each sport dhisciplines (Figure 31 arel 53}, Fig. #8 Farce cond amgutar urtowity rebarionship ad eal paneer anda fr te fired Hirer fn Laborinory lr a mnie anileie karte agent amy wih and tthe doce (Biuece. Koi 794 one face ore erincre as saucers Jae Frans or a) wulrs Cr ers 53 Fix. 29. Fever velocity relanionhip developed daring cqwct damp peoforied with and witbaer oot defiowy ane after a atrengrt maining period, Nooe the efecrroeygnaphy serainded in she Leg sputrmuor sucriex The suteriaks denote the level uf significance (Halllimen ot Kivew, Seam I Sport Sci, 7, pug. 38, PAT p auDc WEHT + rtm Loan creme: HE Ae EBD 1% wm Soieten adh — msei07 = dumpers (101 ETD i Theceeern C27) eT a Distesce rormers 641 — 98 7h POwEs (wart) E a VERTICAL VELOCITY af TAKE-OFF treat Fig 40. The average valier of fume and power velariny mtaninanlay developed Fy revere! JFrowe of male athirics, poxsecung different auurie type disriburion dan vacuner Kateri, dur (bne agaal Any peceforiment with anal wivikot Moats (Baier ot al PL Furthermore, changes induced by explosive and maximal strength Iraining can be easily assessed comparing pre: andl post-test results. This contributes to evaluate the real efficacy of training bua does mot give the opportunity to know, before starting a conditioning program, which is the physical capacity thal needs to be developed more (e.g. explosive strength) in comparison to amether (e.g. maximal strength). his pum: pose, the Functional parameters beter representing the two most important mechanical aspects of musche function (force and velocity) were inlividue wei These parameters are the SJ for velocity and SJbw Por force. Im this way thes? purumeters are useful to nol only Io assess maximal and expho- 50EXTRA LOAD (FORGE) 0 O Competitive walkers CO000-20000KmI tne) ong distance {5000 ms (n= 151 bid & Middle distance C1500-m) denID) (& Sptine endurance (800m) in 7 3 it © Sprint remisent (40m) tine Bt © Sprinters (10- 200m) Ine2d “0 Fe — a tM o » x 0 ao 30 RISE OF 0.6. tem) Pig. At ~The avenge valve af force velocity erlationakip developed by arvenal gervaps of emake aahietes, puseaning oifleren! aniicde free efisteibario os a vain Aatératl a, ring spa Jey performed with anal winhowr lows einer eta, 1980), Raise of the centre of gravity (Sy 4 Vomeytnal seo Votiepat rece Load (leg) Fig. 32 - The arvenage wiles off the srfariosbis beneren whe Lond watsed amaf she hgh amped ieeenied Iv the Nonetplan fesior and Senior Mas National Useral! Toons (Bakr ef aft Femring av ddrerts - utverr, aa Cimterratetiorknpet, Cito, pag (22. 1980.1 i& ‘vallepball ftyre a Trock nel fold 6 5 © wm a Exe toad (hg) Fig. $4 - The average valees af the erleriomskip between the oad rau and dhe Jeeehr jempeud reveled ix sererul aptort prvi ana! vsweg sukyects (Winks, Rex Chaar? Ener. am sper, be 9 f, pong 13, 18, sive sirengih bul alse to determine the balance between force and velocity. fn fact, both are functional expressions of uhe same anatomical structure dsketetal muscle), 4.3.2 Bosco’s Index At cellular bevel (muscle fibres) tensing is correlated to the cross-cee- sional area, while vebociy depend on length. If we consider muscle action ‘in situ (ie. as 2 newromuscular unit) the determining factors and related Phesomena sre far more complex, because they are modulated by the cen- ral ard! peripheral mervous system. Por this reason, it is very difficult te evaluate its force andl velocity properties. Even the best scientise is con- fronted with the difficulty to compare foree, expressed in N. and welucily, expressed in m's. This problem wa succescfully solved by Bosco (1086) comparing SJ performance (as an expeession of maxinqum contraction ‘velocity of leg extensors muscles in natural conditions) with performance of the same muscles when they have to lift a load equal to subject boy ‘weight (Slbwe, The evaluation of these two main fanctional capacities of skeletal muscles (maximum speed and maximum force expressed dynami« cally) can be compared because dita are recorded have the same unit of Rmeasurement such as hor take-off vertical velocity. This system has given the opportunity to study the relationship between force and velocity an the same muscle or muscle group. In this way, it is possible to compare and then evabuote: the effects of varbous training programs and comrol if they have homegeneously improved all muscle functional capacities of, for example. bf they have affected more stirengih than velocity. This phenanse- noe could induce a very dangerous internal ruscle unbalance and it shold be immediately corrected to netarn ina portal situation, The balance, in other words the force/velocity relaiionship. is given hy the ratio between the athlete SJbw snd CMI performance. For example. if the SJivwe performance is 1S cm and SJ performance is 45 cm, the force! Yelocily relationship is represented by Sibw/S) (15/45 = 0.33), This means that the subject with a barbell equal to hisher body weight on the shouklers 6 able co produce 33% of vertical pump performance produced in optimal conditions. This relationship has been calculated in athletes from different sports and therefore it is possible oo empirically determine the right balance in these athletes during different craining periods. This new physiological assessnsent method gives the opportunity lo decide when and bow modu: late (increase or decrease) maximal strength training lands, In fact. if the balance is distupred this can be individuated with the test that alsa suggests which functional expression of the muscle prevails. Based on these infermation corrections in the training program are made to ensure further improvements in performance, In this way the problem. 1 decide when to stop high resistance training tm longer exists because it is objectively suggested by the test. Therefore, specific training starts if there is adeficit ina certain capacity and stops when the balance is reached, After this, only periodical comtrols and maintenance simul are required. 4.8.3 Physiological Considerations on Maximam Dynamic Strength Comrasting with current theory of trabnimg, high levels of maximal strengeh (Fmax) or MDS are not essential prerequisites to obtain top level performance in many sports with the exceplion of few sport activities like weightlifting. Nevertheless, having an optimal level of Fmax oe MDS is fundamental io develop high explosive strength (speed-strengih, rapid strength). This is well known by coaches and strength and conditioning pro- fessionals. In fact, most strength training programs begin with exercises and Methods that induce adaptations in the biological sea on which Pinan, and MIDS are based and them, in the last phases af the proccss, they comoen- Irate training on explosive and specific strength. In other wards coaches try first to increase Frnax and MDS arxl then to convert them in explosive strength. These programs can be successfully realised because some of the biclogical bases of Fmax and MDS are similar to the ones of explosive strength, Ei THowever, other aspects are completely different (e.g. the force/veloci- ty relationship) and training science nvust find the best ways to transform and transfer the baoSogical adapiations induced by maxicnal strength tain- ing inte high bevels of explosive strength. The old irining methodology consists of an initial training perbod exclusively devoted te increase Fras (2-3 months) and then explosive and specific strength training periods. The new comoepis, supported by beth practical experience and experimental studies, consist in concurent maxix mal and explosive strength trainiag. In the first preparatory period more emphacis must be placed on Fmax and then, befone the competitive period, on expbosive and special strength, An examination of the biological processes on which Fmax and MDS are based is useful co underdiand bow a rational maximal strengils training program can induce complex newonuscular adaptations and inaprowe explosive strength. It is well known that the first biological adaptations to sirengib training is neural (xee Morilani and De Vries, 19810) and that moar phological adaptations that lead to muscle hypertrophy Follow (Figure 54), 100, ‘rained arn untrained ann i #a) ~ § i 4 ao - a0 ‘ tt 100 6 a Ronn 4 et i co a ‘A wn aa ” training (weeks) Fig. 34 - Percentage contribution of impeocemenr of sieeegth due ax neumpemic (0 hor anpegenic (9) fictors bm the rained and sot trained arm for peueng (appre panel) and ool hewer pase? (Meriva fale Vries, 200%), eetIt is possible that neural factors act at different levels of the central and peripheral nervous systern and finally result in a maximal activation of the various rotor units invelved. The important influcnee of ube nervous sys- tem was also indirectly demonstrated by studies om electrical stimulation (see Mac Donagh amd Davies, 1984; Davies and colleagues, 1985), These suthors proved that 80 tetanic contractions af 10s duration induced hy elec- tical stimulation do not induce strength improvement. These results sug gest that volunlary activation af the central nervous system is necessary to obtain substantial improvement in maximum voluntary strength. I necessary to remember thal among variows neural factors, the one that adapts first is the recruitment of new motor units. Later, temporal recruitment capacity increases (ie. an higher number of motor units are recruited af the same time) followed by the capacity to produce high fre- quency stimuli. This Iast adaptation, in contrast with the long time neces= sary 10 obéain it, is lost rapidly afler cessation of training (Sale, 1990), After ibe first period in which strength improvement is due to neural adaptations finter- and intramuscular co-ordination), adaplive processes consists im an increase of muscle cross-sectional area (hypertrophy) (Figure 5$ from Sale, 19RE). Fig. 28 Schomanic represeruanion af sicnich iruieng teepeorcencar, fhe first patie of eral Fay ealning tke improvement af uke sree caw dy aanribared Fe mesermgenic facnors, As he Fraining comtinar the morpholngival stracture of tbe muscle ix stromag ly dewetned Anakin dey Froghy trmcatifird frome See, 182 35‘Ones reached the nataral peak of strength development, only the use of dangerous anabolic steroids cam further improve stremgih, The increase in imasche cross-sectional area is usually seen in hamums trained with weigints and itis mainly dae co an increase of the contractile component ard inter stitial connective tissue (Mac Dougall, 1986) (Figure 56). Therefore, until new scientific evidences will be presented, a significant increase in the number af muscle fibres (hyperplasia), as suggested by some authors, mast be excluded except for cases in which necrotic fibres are subsaiquted, opis Fig. 36 - Mode? shonin the esoupdealagicel bani dnabeced fry ite revisiamce traiinng al immabiiiaarion. Mar Domgal, FO) Among all the adaptations indeced by maxienal strength training, che ‘ones closer te the neuromuscular qualities necessary to develop caplesive strength are particularly important. In fact the capacity to develop maximal strength amd explosive streagih have many common characteristics. In Table | the basic mechanisms behind both socmgih expressions are pee~ semed. The ones indicated with beter A, B.C. D, amd E are in common, This suggests that an improvement in these factors due to maximal strength training cok! positively influem|r explosive strengeh production, cy| Amrommnculer characteristics | Ap Meter-wntis pmcteeniacion Hy Frequescy of stimudt fron CNS: " ad 0) dader and ina minculat connie a - 1D) Ramshaw cell influence — - Ep Golgi Terioe Organs inhibition : ae. Fi Seetch refles potersiacion . Hi Manche section anc ee. I) Muncie merhological unuctuse (% FT) “Palle | - Afiain fiacsors comiributing Ax expentre force pe rformarices evealbated orithe syvaar forty HU) ae enamter movement feng (CHU) aun matriowal sfyaamie strength (Sb) Pe ssciericke asenove rhe Level of tarfuence (Bore, 1985) 45.4 Practical Applications with the Nasional Halian Track and Field Team Jumpers Phenomena related to both explosive and maximal strength were recently studied in a bongitudinal research conducted om some ableies of the National Kalian Track and. Field Team. These athletes (six jumpers) were controlled with the Bosco's Test for 135 weeks. They trained 34 hours a day for 8-10 times a week for the entire year. The training consist- ed in maximal, explosive and special strength exercises plas techmique ard speed work (Locatelli, 1986), In Figure 37 is shown that both SJ and SJbw performance significantly improved (p< (01) in 12 weeks. After, explo- sive strength capacity levelled off and remained constant of stigkily decreased. On the other hand, MDS contioued to improve until the ere! of the study, A possible explanation is that neural adapiations influcmoed both Prax and explosive strength, ‘The platcaa in explosive strength could suggest the achievement of maximum level of this functional cupacity, On the contrary the progressive improvement in MDS could bave been induced by an increase in leg extensor muscles cross-sectional urea, However, these interpretations must be treated cautiously becarse mr hystological data are available. On the other hand, many studies have Shown an increase in muscle fibres cross-sectional area in subjects trained wath maximal and explosive strength exercises (Hakkinen, (986; Figure 38), vRAISE OF THE CENTRE GF GRAWITY oa a ee meer ell ek Fig. 57 + Raise off the centre of gromity seconded! ie 5) anf Sf ben performed dey ain jumpers Porkemging ae fraulkin Track ana! Fi Naukessal Tha uring 15 wees (Bsace, 10), i okt i ‘yang: (weet) Fig. 58 < Average tars of the fires area finan in the alone snd! far? fedicke bees of we, renatus lateralis observe during 24 weeks of resistance wiaieing {70 AO0% of FRM) pecforeural hy ome roup of atkives fee FF) amet amather group fn = FO) performing eqptonive prwer training fMadiines, 186%, #Different results were presented by Koeni et al, (1982) that found an increase in both FT and ST fibres cross-sectional area in subject tained with maximal sirength exercises, while wabjecis tratned wilh explosive strength and plycmetric exencises did not show any significam difference in Muscle fibres: cross-sectional area. Based on these results, i is neascnable to Supgest that training must carefully prescribed to improve both explosive and MDS. incorect prescription (number of reps, loads, etcetera) induce negative morpho-functional adaptations that could hieder performance improvernemt (Bosco, 1985). 45,5 Data Collected on the National Finnish Volleyball Team These dats were observed in memihers of the National Finnish Volleyball Team. In Figure 59, explosive force capacily (represented as SJ and CMJ with a rumup to simulate presmash actions) significamly improved afier eigth months of specific training (P < 0.05 - 0.01) including meen 18 ie 29 - Kaine of che centre ay! gravity reconded daring weerica! jumps performad ke counter marcemunt after: ram up (E44) with ne apih in cvamier anctcrecnt (CALF) sat Jams (SJ) ard matimal inometric fice expressed in fawctiow of bua welgby (MAF /BEW| hse rved is reebve veel: Feyluill planers hekongiing a Finwwials Maio! Trawe (lloare, PBF) »maximal sirengih training and explosive exercises, AL the same time nela- tive maximan isometric forse (maximum isometric forcefbody weight) diminished. This phenomenon demonstrates that high levels of Fimax ane net always necessary to express high lewels of exphosive strength, If maximal strength training is cominued after the shon period of the (8-10 weeks) in which neural adaptations and an increase in the FT/ST ration are prevalent (Komi ct al.. (982), ibere is even the possibility bo induce hypertrophy of show twitch fibres. Am increase in ST fibres eross-secticnal area and their recruitment (as in high loads-high repetitions exercises) eam have a negative effect on explosive strength capac possible fo prowe this, bid it is possible to advance an hypothesis. An example ix eased 00 hustrate it. Consider two subjects pushing a cart (Figure 0) and assume that bedh subjects are connected po it, One subject is fast it can rue 10 m/s) while the other is slow (5 m/s), When they star tr push (condition A) both produce the force necessary ter slart ihe movement (Figure 61), In err vs ve Fig 60. Exams of yore dieweioped ty slow fivack)ond fiat (echite) nethoh Abner atari ater Jeane shisaenie effet seat comlhon bork fiers las are comtributlag to the Jove devetiye mre, ar jor the rystyme mover forwards (3 wal) she comribatisns af the sfos! inh pbs decennial i efit ierevemex nepttine at greeter append (#8 ty ¢ Borne, IRA Hig. 6 = Enampte of fore valerie rela: somads alrrelogsnd fry ake fnserrape Fine sad Sear feoarinans line} pedtch fives a ety o> acca, AORcondition B, bolh subjects can produce propulsive force but the shaw subs ject can produce fess force because it has reached its maxim velociy (Figure G16). In condision C, only the fast subject can produce propulsive force (Figure tle) while the slow subject is briking the cart, Now suppose that both subjects increase their muscle mass as it happens during heavy loads strength training. When they start to push, as seen in condition A, the two subyects propulsive force is incressed, Unfortunately in condition C, ewen if subject A increased its force production at high velocities, the slow subject abst increased is negative influence because its increased mass augments the load what the fast subject mast push. Therefore the masinvum velocity that can be developed by both subjects is not changed because the pasitive raining effect on the fast subject is counteracted by the increased load rep resented by the slow subject. The hypothesis of Bosco is also supported by the famous Russian sirengih training expen Jary Verkhoshansky (15% 1) whe suggested that excessive maximal strength training is inappropriate in spoed-sirengih sports because ican negatively inflwence the capacity of the subject to produce explosive strength, movement speed and their regubate- ry mechanism. Such negative effect can not be taken in account for cross- training of medium level athletes but becomes very important in high level athletes. If not avoided, it can bead with tine boa plateau in performance, From a physiological point of view, this means that if heavy resistance inaining ix done for a long time, if can induce am adaptations both in show and fast fibres and both are recruited during both fast amd slow movements. bi is probable that this happens because during this kind of training both fibre types are involved, During slow movements there is nv negative effect if both fibre types are recruited but during a fast movement the recruitment af slow fibres stemis lo have a negative elfect. A possible explanation of the negative effect produced by the ST fibres during # fast, ballistic movement is that the long coupling time of the ST fibres result in slower shortening velocity (Baruny et al. 1967) The actomyosin bridges can oppose resis~ tinet to a sastained contraction whea shortening velocity is so high that they do not have enough time to break before new are formed (Woledge, (OGR) Based on these considerations iL must be kept it tind before starting a strength training program that heavy resistance exercises provides a pow- erfal hypertrophic stimulus to both fibre types, Therefore even if the morphological adaptatoss of fast fibres. coukl represent the ideal training effect, the concurrent hypertrophy of slow filbres can slow down seuscle contraction at high velocities. This observation underlines the principle of training specificity and suggests that iraiming slinmulll should improve physiological capacities of athletes but also aveid a concomitant negative effect am other biological functions, I4.5.6 Observations on Data Collected from the Menibers of the National Hulian Alpine Skiing Tear ‘The behaviour of MIDS and explosive strength not always follows rigid models valid for cach spon discipline where these tun qualities represent the bases on which specific technique is built. Surprising data were recem- by collected in athletes of the National Halian Alpine Skiing Team (Bosco et al, 1990), As shown in Figure 62, explisive strength and MDS follewed a rece! parallel to maximal und explosive strengih exercises used during the summer physical conditioning phase. In the first moenih ef training there was a marked increase of SJ and SJbw (P< O00 - Q.001) (June-July) that was followed by maintenance of these values until Novenvber, Subsequently, when no systematic maxim strength training was dome (imi- tial part of the competitive period), there was an unpredictabte increase af boih 84 and SJbuw. In absence of specific stimuli for Fmax, a plateau or even a decrease in Slow was anticipated, Therefore it seems that the stimuli ixluced by various technical exercises and competitions are strong enough 1o induce further biological adaptations influencing MDS and explosive strengeh. There is mr dowht that mechanical stress sustained by the bower BOSCO'S TEST "89-0 MEN (SJ and BW) Fig. 62 Rabie of the centre of grureity srcunied im Sf anal Slee performed by athletes belong frig Fo Faioay National Alpine ‘Shi Tum daring a competition neanie filers eal {20 alimbs during competition is extremely high (Figure 63), In addition inten- sily and duration of stimuli induced by competition are higher than those of maximal strength training in the gym. The period of time in which high neuromuscular stimuli are prodwcedd (90-120 5) is not inferior bo the tine necessary to lift 150 times a barbell of 150 kg (Basco, 1985, 1992c). This means that technical exercises and competitions not only induce specific improvements (co-ordination, equilibriam, etceteras) but ihey can also improve levels of MDS and explosive strength. Fig, 6d Grown! reaction force seconded during a dcswhill race The contin line represent the fwer limi achink alate act he crouin! te aril the oochecion of thy Leg ervemsne mocwtes Tike fhvoken ine vepvetem the Gnpsairenienl ule Av the Resincince Kiang (Basic, 10D amid Fer A Mallen (95H A 4.5.7 Physiobogical aspects and practical considerations on strength training As previously emphasised, the effective time in which neuromuscular Processes are involved during maximal strengeh training is very betel. 1 eAccutiON tine is mcasured during exercises with loads from 3} te 70% ot Fax, duration between 354 and 800-900 ms are obtained (Figure 68), In an emire training session this comesponds to 2-3 minutes of otal work, Anyway, if the ow load exercises (Mbd0% of Fmax) are executed at max: imum speed, the newrommuscular system is stressed as much as during a 100%: of Pinas if (Bosco et al.. 19822) (Figure 65). As shown, in Figure 66, itis difficult to produce maximum power for more than few reps, Even 63FORCE soon aaa Fig. 6-4 - Grenanel’ rect er revonded during several weight [ling cowie axed arin pau foamy (Hsin, PTT (AAG recto . EMG wou a, y ine theetian Fig. 63 + Keampte of EMG evconird during coe senight [ping crendition (Kune 926UEC POWER ch yma MoE ee Fig. 48+ Changes ofthe mechanical power develiped fry leg euemsor muscles iariing five sep erate of hall spat craved with mantel fort ane bemey revintanice doa (Mnscir 1 87 RTL at the third rep there is a rebevant decrease im power. This phenomenon can not originate from a depletion of energy stores (ATCP) because the energy thas cun be produced by this system is far more abundant than the one nec- eieary to sustala a 4 seconds maximal ¢ffort. Therefore, the decrement of mechanical power is duc to failure of the neuromuscular system to sustain maxienal stress for mare than few secoexls. Recently, to determine iedivid- ual capacity to sustain maximal efforts, Bosco (HT) introduced a training methodology that uses computerised instruments. This method offers the opportunity to determine and visualise the power produced during each nep and suggest to stop ihe set when a certain threshokd is reached. ‘Therefore the number of reps is determined automatically on the bases of physiologi- cal feedback. 4.5.8 Aerobic Power and Maximal Strength ‘Often in the specialised leerature is recommended to build a good acr- obic basis before starting a resistance training program te avoid fatigue dar ing training session. Therefore, taany coaches of sports where high kevels of explosive strength are required, design aerobic training programs for their athletes. This practice does not have amy scientific basis becouse fanigue during strength excnciscs is nol caused by lack of energy ushsaraies regeneration by the aerobic metabolic processes. In this regard, Tesch and colleagues (1986) demonstrated that during the execution of about 125 reps with moderate-heavy loads (Figure 67) realised in 30 minutes (30 s work ahermated with 60 s af rest) the O> consumption was onky about 50% of 65VOemax (Figure 68), In contrast with such low metabolic demands, clewat- ed concentrations of lactate, glycerol and free fatty acids were found in plasma (Figure 69). This supgests thal maximal and sub ~ maximal strength training catssti- Ties a sirong stimubus to sinparic nervous system (Hurkey etal, Ma) An the same time strength training influences the endocrine system, For exam= Warmeun Rant acuat Back equal Leg orm Leg) oT ee* * “ o Ttye “Met yeeet {thi jag ttttt Fen BB B emes i. thea e a o a ei 2 6 Re Fig. 67 « Number of reperitiony cond external Joucds utilined during 125 reposition exermied dx 10 eminates (Tesh ef al #988. Fig. G4 - Conmmysiven of exypes staring the werk perfivemend dv fy. 07 (Colfer at Tesch. gece in Tench er af, 196 btF ee te 2h tlt hte Fig. 00 - Chaumpes in the Lactic ara, gfurwer, lieved, ad fat ail, covermtreticne jonuml ive arrart after dhe enercises deecribed in Fig. 67 (Tesch el af (085, Track, Deen dt Cemavecn, roe (Paibllibied sheervaninar |, ple with high resistance training there is an increased production of GH while with moderate resistance training there is mo response (Figure TH}, Some training methodologies io increase maximal sirengih are based on the hormonal response. For example, the Bulgarian Method consists of an intense training session lasting no more thas 304) min (in which testes: terone = levels are increased and remain high) alternated with 34 feet! + acre min of fest during which testosterone return to baseline levels iAbadjiex, 1989), These training systems follow Fla. 70) Chaise he sero amar geomet hormone ater the exrcutiom af Aewey retis- lanier Teenie (8 aed KAT oops (4 fiat et sal, 8. = 0 ate Tene mun Geewth ornare eg 1°"the physiological rhythms of the human body and thas are based on sotid sciemific principles, Therefore, the inclusion of aerobic exercise in the training programs of pewer athletes is not recommended because there is 10 relationship between fatigue during arengit waining and acrobic power. 4.6 Corenter Movement Sump “The CMA is a teat in which vertical jump is performed wish the comtn- bution of the stretch -shortening cycle (Figure Tl) Since the counter mowe- ment consists of a modest downward acceleration, the knee extensors ane activated only during mowerncns inversion and stnetch of elastic elements is small as ihe subsequent use of elastic energy. Therefore the small perfor- munce increment in comparison bo the SJ is probably due po tbe siretch: reflex, Tn this test, subject start from an erect position with hands-on hips and executes a vertical jamp afer a downward coumer movement (knee mast be flewed at OO deg at the end of the counter mivement). During jump, trunk must recnain as vertical as possible to limit its inflacnce on perfor nana. File. 24 fe execute connecaty the counter movenaent jump |CMUEH Ox nncennary to flr the fo fhrwing imurractioay: AL Ge the playoorm with dane crnple atrenigh (1880 dlegeres deel hepa on Me beeper (A) Kawe angle around 90 degrees 1) Aner angle during the flight phar around J degree Di) Kaew angle during the comturt phar around (A? degrees, fut in exterior. 6a4.6.1 Counter Movement Janp Characteristics + Investigated capacities: explosive strength, neural recruitment capacity, high percentage FT fibres, elastic energy reuse. intri- ane inter-mascular co-ordination. * Muscle action; concentric preceded by an eccentric action (counter movernent). During the cooentric phase, the nervous system is activated and ihe active (cross-bridges) and passive (iendons) clastic elements ane stretched storing the energy that is reused in the comoentnic phase. Pre- activation of the nervous sysiem during negative work gives to the sub- jects veilh an high percentage of slow fibres the opportunity to recruit their tonic fibres (ST) that requires a longer activation tins: in compari- son to phasic fibres (FT). In this way, at the start of the positive work (Figure 72) neural activation is maximal in both slow and fast subjects im Fig. 72 BMG ecrinty of mvaxtar daneratis, kee angle and vertical force signals in squaning, camiey meroemeen! anu dies jones (from 0 cm). The hatcheal area i ke EMG slenel,alrter- mined from rhe angular duplicement dnd Swe describes she eeveninic {-) phase of cunsoct The cower: f+) pias are aliy cepsaraned Dey domed Unes. The ciarves ase redrawn Srisen original date (Mitarale dt Boone, 1982, Cecomparison to the $8) where there is an incremental development of force and myoclectric activity (Figure 74) (Bosco et al. 1987). + Relationship with other parameters and fanctions: CMI is correlated with sprint performance (Figure 74, 7a, b, 76), Abalakow Test (Figure 77, 78, and 1500 Foren (Ni) o oz Os Time (s} ig 20» Enamole of grotand sractio fire recenfeal in Si andl CMO» vevnical olisecrion. de Si the fewer rainer almeby since it reflects che fenusom slevelapes! by the comtractily campmaent af tht smsacie an tramumitid threngh the mancleiemdon Finkige wiih some abrkas. arin sobich rie series rlautis componeat aoe cracked The rerondings ev shave abmady presenta in Fig. PEM Base et at, IBEF ak Time (a) 0m daar * cM Fig. 74. Rebetionship berwoen ihe fime spend fo man 2khen bath ana the rate of contre of greet ay CALS is jon allel pliner C08 yea (Bloaees, REEL 70Reise uf the ceaire of sprmvity CMJ. (em) SIPRINT 100 m, (xee.) Raise of the enmere of graviay CMJ. temy Be 8 & 8 & & & Fig. TSAI Relationship between the time apenr ov ram JOO m lank ruff persed area te emer of grurndty Go CAL srevaniea! in Spaunéake preome bonis (AM) ated yinly (08) frown ele 7 sage ramglag hence IT years (Pankalles, M2) 74) and Sergeant Test. long jump, peak torque: during an isokinetic con- Arachon (Figure $0), maximam isomette force, vastus lateralis fast fibres. onoss-seclional area (Mero et al, 81) and %& of FT fibres in leg exten- sors (Bosco and Koni, 1979a) TlFig. 78 - ReLariowuskip betave A babadive reat cima! CM fated im emugt aller paver (18 vee tisionce, 1, Raite of the cestre of praeity MJ. dem SU Bee SG oe maa ARUL AREY Goma Fig. 77 Reteriochip benares ABaLalivr teat ail OMY fom in Spanish young Bere (ATE yee | tPadatiea, PEA aCML temp 2528 & &# & 8 Raise of the oestre of gravity & u 8 & & & Relationship Rereren Adal test ama COMES foul in Spanish ecwamg girls (AL pewent Padlles, £002 Fig. 38 - Relationship beteren the peal tong Ris rrcontrdl with an iobineric aipparaner seed uo — onove ard? mad cone CAEL Mosre eral, HaiTe MAXIMAL LEG EXTENSION ISOMER FORCE (ny D Famas wulaphen PRIOR Fig. $8) ~ Relationship berwiern sania isc metric foure and CA found in female volley chai! arf basketball 10 70 mo a0 0 ao plavers— ¢AMfulitinen, ena VERTICAL JUMP (CHI) [em] 74.6.2 Training Methods for Expilosive Strength and Elastic Energy Reuse ‘Capacity + Abthe exercises presented in chapser 4.4.3, * Every form of jumping exercises varying flexion amghes and counter movement speed. 44.3 Physiological Aspects of Leg Extensor Muscles Visco-Elastic Behaviour During CMJ and its Relationship with Spon Performance Counter movemcet parmp performance is a2 complex phenomenon that invelves both ncuromuscular and visco-clastic prapertees of the leg exten: son. In order to assess the clastic capacity of these muncles, 5) and CMU performance is often compared. The higher value obtained with the CMI is due do the pre-stretching before the stant of the pushing phase. This stresses. the NCUroMuscular and visco-elastic properties of leg extensor muscles, and it can be used as an index of the capacity to benefit from pre-stretching. Data collected ina large Finnish population are depicted in Figure 81 where elastic copacity development and decline with age is shown, Performance of sedertury Fennish adults is very bow aned it is impossible for athletes score lower. Newerthelless, is possible to find in the Hiterabane con- . fend] am Com = 82) age [ pearal Fig. Mi + Peeinmuonce alifereices Ireneces CM ana 5 final in sedemury sayiects i present. sed in flanciton oof age fffouce Komi, PRE, uMMicting results like the ones presented by Bernes and colleagues (1 2) in whieb the average SJ performance was 42.1 om, even higher than CMJ per- formance (41. cen). The most relewaed point is that this authors interpreted these resulis as lack of elastic capacity in an entire soccer team!!! Unfortunately, sametinees results reported in the literature can be miskead- ing and without any relation with the biological processes involved. In fact, itis not plausible that human skeletal muscle is not able to reuse elastic energy. In the literature there are many experimental evidences on this phe- nomenon (see Cavagna, 1977: Goubel and Marini, 1987), The lack of dif- ference between CMJ and SJ was withour any dowbt due to an erronews Seating technique. If the test protocol is not rigidly observed, results ane not valid. For example, if SJ is performed wilh a minimum counter movement, this can greatly enhances performance through reuse of elastic energy. Therefore. performance would pot be only produced by the contractile ele- ments bud also with clastic emengy contribution. Purthernore, it is necessary fo carefully comtral knee angle during CMJ because this can greatly influ: ence test resulis, Ofiem weak and slow subjects do not bend enough the knees during the counter mowement-(Bosco, 1978). Knee angle should be around 90 dep but withoat a learning period it is not easy for most of the subjects to obtain this value, Uf legs are mot fully bent, during the pushing phase uhat follows. pre- stretching there will be less lime to push and therefore a reduced net impulse (see formula 1) amd performance in comparison toa correctly exe cuted CM. ‘The possibility to train nvascle clastic cupacities with gemeral amd spe- cific exercises is well known but there are few experimental studies on this topic. The first one was conducted by Bosco between 1976 and 1978 on high level Finnish male amd ftalian femate volleyball players. Similar stud- jes were realised before in volleyball (Boseo and Panera, 1975) ancl track and fiekl Ganon, 1973a, 1974; Bosco, 1973, 1974; Locatelli, 1974-22) but training indwecd changes were not scientifically analysed, After a training. period during which maxioal strength training was substituled with plyo- metric training, the Finnish. male volleyball players markedly improved their performance in CMJ and SJ (p< QU0L) and a more meakest increase in SS) penfonmance (Figure 82), On the contrary, the Italian female volleyball Players that were following o traditional training regimen (oo plyometric exercises) did not show any improvement (tab, 2) (Bosco et al, 1979). The lack of improvement of 50 in Finnish vollevball players could be imterpret- ed asa lack of direct stimuli on the contractile component of beg extensor fauscles, while the marked improvement in CMU and DJ could be atribawed to adaptations induced by specific plyometric training. These adaptations Btomb) Cha Relotive contribution "te fo the cha ad & 5 106 ‘ © a 6D 2 “0 ) n $3 BOl CMd BDI cM Grupa ‘Tent pevied Squstling Comatermevesiat Hest deop demp tom) jomp toms jump om Make Betis train Ws 429 93 ‘volleyball players Afar eaining 0 anes anise ning m4 74 ua ecu dey feanle and male wallerteall pha al POcould be at neurological (modifications of peuromuscular proprioceptors like muscle spindles and GTO) aedlior morphological lewel (cross-bridges. amifor collagen fibres), Atthis point, other observations on the influence of training om muscle elastic properties can be shown. They were collected fron varius sports. aml demonstrate lange differences in elastic capacities (represcmed by the difference between CMI ant 53) among athbetes. In Figure 83 A-B is clear- jy shown thet athletes in sports: where peak power is important are able 1 beter reuse ibe elastic energy accumulated during the coanter movement. ‘This differences sugges the impomance of nvuscle elastic behaviour in sporis where the stretch-shomening cycle ian important determinant of performance (jumps, throws, cteeteras), From Figure 83a seems that ski jumpers aml skaters have an high chotic potential in keg extensor muasches, ‘Therefore. during these two ies there should be an impenans coneri- bution of the stretch-shortening cycle. This conclusion is in comtrast to what wars previousky thought. 4.64 Muscle elasticity and running economy Ie was demonstraned thas pre-stretch influences the mechanical behay- four of the nuscles enhancing jump performance. This potentation is relat- ed to the viseo-clastic propenies of skeletal muscle, Moreover, pre-strench was demonstrated to be responsible of an enhanced mechanical efficiency during human or animal locomotion (running, walking, cteeteras} (Cavagna etal, 164: Mangaria, 1975), In fact, the mechanical renning action favours the storing af clastic energy during the absorption phase (eccentric work) amd i reuse in the subsequent pashing phase in form of mechanical ener- gy which saves biochemical energy (Cavagna etal, 1964, Mangaria, 1975), Jn which way Visoo-clastie properties of leg extensor muscles during a jurnp tess (CMJ) can represent mot only their mechanical behaviour but also Fanning ecomomy? In this regard, 4 was shown an highly significant corre- tation (p< 0.01, Figure 84) beween the capacity to reuse clastic energy duting multiple CMs amd manning economy at low speed of a treadmill (Bosco et al, 1987a). These resulis were receeily confirmed by Cacehi ane colleagues (1940) that found a direct, significant comelation (p< (1.001) between chaste: capacity (CMJ-SJ) and the decrease of anaerobic threshold during up-hill running. These results are very inercsting because bey com- firm the theory chat daring up-hill running there is ao inmpestant reuse of elastic energy (Cavagea, 1977), Mopcower, these observations support the use of the Bosco’s Test mot only as a mechanical muscle behaviour assess- mend tools, but also for more complex. phenomena like mechanical effi- ciency during lacomotivn, WFig. HE ~ Schemacic presenierion of the povensiation effect entimastea sre the aerrage fore difference iF} fherenen CA and 51) eparauly for myopleetricat powmntiation (EMG) ard mecodl of east energy (Well Calewlariont sessiemes (incur: ty deters TEMG aad fowre (Eoace et a, fathay, AJ bg! ben” * 140 a 0 7m 2 "\at@oune =") son-er pounce "= -O6 Fig 88 = Energy eqpenstizuee whem rueuming om rreaubuill ir who ar 2 flanctine og et eifstirary rain benegen erbounal arf ec-retsood jogs enencive (Bec et al, PBST) J47 Mechanical Power and Anaerobic Alegtic and Lactic Metabolisor Assesment during Multiple Jumps Tests of 3-60 5 Darration Jump tests are used not onily 90 assess the viseo-clastic properties of leg extensor muscles, but also to investigate the metabolic processes that sus- tain muscular work of £ to 60 s duratiog, The jamp execution technique is Fike the CMU but jumps are comlinwously repeated ower the prescribed time As in the other jump tests, the subject showk! keep trunk as vertical as pos- sible aml hands on hips. Moreover, is very important to conerel knee angle that should be at 40) deg when leg are fully bent (Figure 86), During the execution of long tests Fig. 80. Reaeple of cominacr damping Bent inor fear fine aunecament of amare parece jereruted cormertiy fhe tret the aukgret mut potions a kerkes of foes similar ts counter meer sure jury. Thier it ia aeceasny bo foley rie fisthnetage inetrurtions: frat ashi piayione wil dinee ample sranihe (180 dernees . bamaf dpe ont ree hips aflerentny the ier angle around Mi degrree chick folhewi a chasse oy oirecniom paving igpseweat fy im (CME The moribing perioal maw charge frost Fa no ttl, (30H60 £) is possible that at the end of the trial the subject reduces leg bendl- ing aml could now reach 0 deg knee angle flexion duc to fatigue. [f this hag- pens the ial can pot be considered walid because even minimal kiee angle variations considerably affect biomechanical work of lower limbs. A reduced angular displacement (30) deg) {Figure 87a) induces a 30% increase in mechanical efficiency in comparison to the prescribed angular displace- meat (90 deg) (Figure 87h) daring these kind of tests (Bosco et al, 19%2e), Factors connected to elastic energy reuse, neural activation and biome- chanical conditions around the knee joint seem to be responsible for this oFit, 57 AB « Bante of tree angte hent ith amail anple (Aj anf lange angler akapacemest filsee angle aroand OF alegneet | (BA improvement (Sinidt, 1973). When trials are not cxccuted correctly folkew- ing the standardised conditions required by the protocal, omly by but mot mechanical power cam be interpreted. In fact, a reduced angular displace- mend does not affect b. To obtain reliable information, the subject must pot maximal effort since the start of the best without distributing effort over time, On average, itis possible to exccute a jump cach secoenl and therefore ao mare than 1 jumps can be performed in 15s. In case of noone jumps, the 0 deg angular displacement prescription is probably not fulfilled because with less leg bending contact time decrease and therefore more jumps. can be executed. In subjects [Shem high the umber of jumps in 14 seconds is about 13-14, in subjects 180.cm high 14-15, while in 17 ce sali subjects around 13-16. Finally, im 160 cm tall subjects the number of jurnps can be slightly higher, The suumber of jumps is mot correlated with the mechanical power produced because not very powerful subjects will spend keag time on the grosnd and short time in air, while ina powerful sabjoct the ratio cemains unaltered, The muscle groaps primarily involved in the CMJ are, in onder of importance, quadriceps fermoris, ghatcus, Irunk extensors and triceps sure ‘The Psiin program is designed to store, calculate and display the num- ‘her of jumps, flight-and contact time for each jump, mean jamp beight and mean mechanical power per kg of body weight calculated with ihe formu- la proposed by Bosco and colbeagues (1983a), atest duration is less than 133 bong fe.g.5-s)all these parameters are calculated for the required duration. For longer duration, ¢.g, 60 5, partialdata every 13-5 are calewlated as well as whole test data and they can visu- alised on the seneet, 4.7.1 Practical Applications and Physiological Considerstions on Multiple Jumps Tests of Show Deuration (5-15 5) ‘The introduction of this new assessment method gave to coaches, sport inedical doctors, physiologists and physical educution teachers the possi- bility to diagnose both weuromescular ond metabolic processes during high intensity. shorn darstbon effort, Showt duration tests (5-15 s) are absolutely necessary for the assessment of athictes participating in sports where explo sive strength is a detereninans factor of competitive performance. In chil- dren (S-10 years of age) the use of triafs of moe chan 3 + duration is not mec~ ornmended. In young athletes (11-16 years of age) longer duration tests ( 1. 15 8} can be weed. Mechanical power produced during ooultiple jumps (3-15 s) is very sensible to both subjects characteristics and training (Bosco et al, 1480) {see chapter 6). Highly significant comelation were found baween nvaltiple pumps tests. af short duration and Margaria Test, Abalakov Test, peak toryuc during iso- kinetic action, ffm sprint time and Wingate: Test (Boseo ct al, 83a, b, eh. When ihe test is performed. the results of a subject should be evaluat- ed as ahsolute values and compared ‘with mean values of athletes partici pating iin the same sport (see chapter 6). The evaluation of the absobute value permits a longitudinal assessment of ihe subject to verily perfor mance changes aver time caused by training andor age. The conipariscit with similar athletes permit to estimate the level of the: athlete and 1 mon ioe how changes in stimulnted physiological capacities change in the group: 4.7.0.1 Estimation of Speed-Strengih Endurance Capacity ‘The data collected during the multiple jumps testa are two: mech mechanical power and mean h. The latter can be compared ti COMM perfor tance in onder to assess speed-strengih endurance capacity. Well-trained athletes in sports where explosive strength is an importans factor (alpine skiing, sprint, ice hockey eteeteras) show elevated speed-strength endurance capacity, The mite between mean h dusing the 15 5 multiple Jumps test (hl 3s) and CMU performance (WOM) should be near U and val- wes of 04K) - 0.95 are very good for team sports athletes, Another way to evaluate specd-surenpth endurance capacity is to divide the mean h of the last three jumps of the test (15 5 test for example) by the mean h of the comesponding firs three jumps The software of ihe 82Ergojump = Fibres Counter is designed to display each jump flight time. These data should be converted to b using Table shown in: Chapter 6. Even in this case, closer the ralic tp one, higher the speed-sirengih endurance cupacity. This is valid if the subject exert maximal cffort since start of the trial. To verify this, it is necessary bo compare the mean h during the first three jumps (hi) with CMI performance. If these two values are close the subject has produced a true maximal effort and the trial can be comsidered valid. A practical example of bow to cabculare speed-strengih endurance capacity during a 15s test follows. Subject: A; Spent: Alpine Skiing; Age: 25; Level; National Trotting Season Period: Stan of training season; Tesr 155 Mean Mechanical Power: 30.9 Wig, mene Jin Heigte: 48.0.em OMS Performance: $6.59 ems 15s Muftiple Jiunps Ter Results Average first three jumps: $1.7 cm Average first three jumps: 46.0 crm Specd-strengti-endurance capacity First calculation method: his how = 48.0) 56.9 = ORG Secord calculation method: the / hy = 46.0) 51,7 = 089 ‘Trial effort estimation: bi fhe = 31,7 / 56.9 = 090 ata Analysis: Subject lacks speed-strengih endurance capacity, probably due to lack of training. Analysts of Teal Effort: The subject level of effort was not elevated because is values were Well below the sverige of athletes in the same sport. The genetic potential of the alblete is good becnuse power and CMJ values are Got far from the mean of its population (compare its value with the val: wes of the Napiomal Italian Alpine Skiing Team shown in Chapaer 6). In fact even if this athlete does not seem to be particularly tenined (low emduramce and effort) these valwes ate peel. Diagnostic tests of $15 5 duration give information on power prodc- tion using the phospagen system (ATP + CP) with partial contribution front the glycolitic system, viscoelastic properties of leg extensor mascles and intra: inter-muscular co-ordination, In Table 3 are shiven the reference values of speed-sirength endurance capacity (estimated with the first methexd} for athletes participating in indli~ vidual and team sports during the 15s best. Pynyse fag x 1 level ‘hse lacy 5 100 | Kni-vichea! port ‘Tears sport 0 poor ™ * ind 80 | 109 eucelieat “o | Dabble 3 - Spree! endhsramee wales fir inv! anal teeum. 4.71.2 Practical applications aml physiological considerations an multiple jumps tests of bong duratiog (34-60 5) It was previously shown that the 15 s mulipte pumps test can be used towseess physiological and functional characteristics of aahletes involved in sports where explosive strengsh is a main determinant of performance, tin alhletes practising sports ia which a maximal effort of some minutes (60- S08 sh is required (e.g. alpine skiing. rowing, 400) and 804) mv rum, ice skui~ ing elceteras) i is better to tise mote specific, longer duration tests: During this kind of muscular work, emengy comes not only from intra. muscular sores (ATP-CP) but alse from glyootisis (and relative lactic: acid production) and, panially, from acrobic processes (myoglobin oxygen util- isation) that could have a role at the cmd of the effort, Nevertheless, the intervention of the aerobic energy system is nod determinant either aiscrim- inate. In fect, ao relationship was found between Viormax and average mechanical power produced in O's (Flosco, 1980 - data from the falian Narional Cross Country Ski Team: White and Johescn, 1991}. On the contrary, 4 significant comelation was found between the 61s multiple jaraps test and the Wingate Test prolonged io 60 5 (P< 1.01) even. Efthere was no correlation between lactic acid prolaced alaring Ube (wer tests. executed by the same subjects im two different occasions. Post-test blood lactate concentraion was almost double after the Wingate test than the Jump test (15.4 vs. #1 mmol/l respectively) in a group of basketball play- ers (Bosco, (9822), In cross-country skiers, blood lactate concentration after the 60s rultiple jumps test was close to the one measured alter a tra- ditional 30s Wingate Test with values of #5 vs. 95 mmol/l respectively. The almost halved lactic ackd production generally observed after a 0 s maultiple jumps test in comparison toa similar deratien effort on the biey- cle ergometer depends on a different mechanical aciivation of muscles and on the real amount of work produced! during the pest. C4 the 6s total dbura- tion, 30 © are spent in air and $0 of the remaining Mls in which the sub- Jeet is in contact with the ground consists of cecemtrie work, 4Ih is well known chat the emergy cost of eccemiric work is very low (Marparia, 1975; Cavagna, (977) and thus there are only 15s of high ener- EY consuming positive work dene with the contribution of clastic energy feuse, This explains why there are only moxterate concentration of lactate after 60 5 of multiple jumps, Only seldom concentrations over 1) mmol/l are observed, Higher values (about 12.0 mmol/l) were registered in mem- bers of the Lalian National Pemale Alpine Skiing Teary in extrense envi- ronmental conditions (3000 m altiinude). In the same athletes, when tested in the same pericul at sen bevel, values of 7.3 mmol were found (Enso et al, 140) (Figure 88). The only moderate levels of bbood Llactate measurect should not be interpreted as a lack of intensity and duration, The capacity to produce work ancl power drastically decreases during the test as shown in Figure 88. Mechanical power produced at the end ofthe test, both in mor mal ond extreme esvironmental conditions, is never more than 60% of the power produced in the first part of the test. (iss) CI SS) A Fig. 88 - Mechanica? power aml Aivthe 2c coniemtearion mwrcnared on nine atblever belomg ing to hhatay Nosiosal Alpine Shi from dunn 60r conrinwar jumping teat iat kage performed at sae Level 10 amd sm thy altitoake of F700 an (IC (mien, Covet, Magnet a Ro. 09 we. ‘The 60 5 multiple juenps test is also related to the percentage of FT fibres. In fact, subjects with an high percentage of FT fibres produce high- er power than subjects with a lower percentage of FT fibres in the first 1S sof work (Figure 89) (P< 0.05), This correlation loses statistical signifi- cance with the prosecution of the test and the dechine of power is sintilar im subjects wilh high or kew percentage of FT fibres, aaAVERAGE POWER OUTPUT iW POSITIVE WORK (Ww) Vesa» ig Be) Frade cael Fig. 89. Mechasival power develope! ley (FF » 308 )and sine (FF 50%) subjects dhring 6s rominane juny bent bore, fn tbe frat Ir it cum de churned @ maniacal sigmificunt Aifentaces herent the roe gran {P< 0.05), mt = matt aignificamt (fiuce of al, PECL The panern of power decrement is similar to the one studied by Tesch CHS), This author demonstrated that subjects with an bigh percentage of PT fibres have an higher peak torque decrement during 4) reps isokinetic feg extension exercise in comparison to subjects with a lower percentage of FT fibres, Recena studies conducted on imernational, national amd regnonal level American alpine skiers. have shown that among the various tests used (Wingate Test, vertical jump, Voomax, 60s multiple jaiips beat), the work (hes surmber of jumps) dome in 60s is the most sensible parameter to dis- criminate between intemational, national and regional level athletes (White and Johnsen, 191) Mechanical power produced in 60) sis also. comedated with cardiac mor- phology and in particular myocardium hypertrophy (Spaturo and Notari- stefano, 1989), 47.21 Calculation of Speed-Strength Emdorance Capactry During Multipte Jamps ef 30-60 s Duration Avenige mechanical power and awerage b during multiple jumps tests af 2-6) s ane very sonsilde parameters that permit tbe evaluation of lactic cdanaeeobic power and capacity, mechanical power and resistance to fatigue. This diagnosis consists of 2 comparison between the subject performance during the test and histher group (same sport, age aml compention level} or, alternatively, using data showm in Chapter 6. The estimation of speedstirengih endurance during MMA) + mubiple Jumps tests. is not dissimilar to the meibod used for the 15 s test (see chap- ber 47.1) The parameters that used arco: 1) mean mechanical power; Zyimean h. Both are automatically cakculased every 14 3. The instnansent (Psion = CM) is programmed in onler to display on the screen these poeta meters in this order: 0-15 5; 15 Schematic presentation af the rrueveemscalt fiancrionts itsroferl sbaring Cals woal The mafonewen foe) mick dr atraigh! comeried ke the CNS Cmovar ateen wat peritenic devel ¢qetmat wend) & inffacreced dey the sriemaly coming from spinalle affereed fiaj, whick aire atrroely axtiva- ced during the active atvereit of thy omurcle. Cm te scorer ime ékibiasey anieonl! 10 ae alta canned dey Goel Finale Organs (GIDL, foraneal ar semedow frvvi, Uf dhe remiow alrvedoped cturing the ecceninic jhane begin no de very hop ake GTO start to semyl atamy impale fix deeresiae Ahr alfa mofomeure activity, de pruvect the jovnl five a alerelopaienr of hich train which cout cane injaree a cexpauia ced aticidation level (Emilee, 9889, These include a wide spectrum of force expressed at different veloci- ties. For example, execution speed of half squat exercise ismich lower than speed during running. Therefore DY exercises are fundamental wo induce physiological stimuli that resemble biomechanical conditions during com- petition, A similar trend is observed if mean. aceeleraion (synonymous of mean force because F = mass x acocleralive and subject weight does not change) developed during same fusdarnental movements and photted agains’ velocity is comsidered (Figure 100), The values registered during Bosco's Tests are presented as well, For example, miascular activagion dur- ing sprinting is both quariitatively aml qualitatively similar to the one dur- ing DJ. This similar ecurcenuscullar behaviour can explain the correlation between speed amd DY performance {Figure 101 and 102). As reference, in Table 7 are shwn some contact time values registered during [Xf (from 5eng level ‘Continues jump straight knee. (Comact theme (rms ‘Coottaret time (iis) 145-160 execllem | 120-190 i210 jane 175. good 150 tne iae150 > 1M) poor » (sit = 170 Table 7 - Surgenied -valaes af coniacr time 4 stewighe Ince. lead daring drop jumyr (RD) ar comin fy Sl cH) od Fig. 99 < drerage TEMG valves (28 a conker fi) ha murat jump (CARS| anal bea ves denoteal dieu fr bow ecren The reales were reconire from ngeact jung E/.cosnet mcr. DALI fos severad Aeights (20-80 com). Thar antrrintDropping duitonce Cem) a a an we ae STACTCH Wout) Fig, G6 A, a) The nniae of cevne of gprorcity ér pereseniral ix function caf the druyppsing lintunce 1A, while he EMG wctirity of the fg extemsor manicles secovled slaving tke some jumping pecor- eres (flere ie AT ca be noted thar the LEMIG acteite fine ir incrrating ax the dropping Aeight was imcrrannd, hut reaching @ certain point bok jumping height und FEMI elevrecciral fAlonen ef cal, PRERise of CG ier) 20 20 40 60 ao Drop height (cm! Fig. 97 » The nade of center gf grerviey di presented fm fluwcticey ag the derppenyy alistnce flor bt female (2) and matr (aj vallephall plsers (apper pened) and atualemts (hrwer panel) (Kom! Beane, 1970: Kive, FO. optimal dropping height) in men and during 23 and junips with and with. out handles for men and women, Before giving gencral guidelines on plyometric exercises prescription, ft ecessary to analyse the human ability to perform jamps and other ply ometric exercises. The ability to tolerate big eccentric loads is very bow in children while moderate loads can be sustained by adolescents (10-15 years of age) (Figure 1032), The optimal comditions are reached af 20-25 years af age (Figure 103b) and thereafier they decline with age. It is important ts mote that children de not tolerate even moderate eccentric loads in spite of 8na a co mo ‘Stretch eed Mm) Fig. 98 - The raise of cemre of gravity is preicrtee im flowctiowt oof the strricthing neni fit seber caf arhletes grape beaming i abifircien amor aMaciMine fiBsew Ai Nosed, (NZ) heir ability te develop a relatively high mechanical power during jumps froin a squat position (concentric action), These results confinm the conelu- ‘sions of Komi et al. (1973) that dusing eccentric cotraction very young subjects produce force levels lower than their maxinvam isometric force. In some cases maximum eccentric force was fess than maximuns isometric force, This is in contrast to adults where maximum eccentric force is always superior to maximem isometric force. These results con be explained by immaturity of the central nervous system and by a tower GTO activation thresold. [t seems thal this proprioceptive feckiback mechanism effectively ‘operates io protect the muscoskelelal system from high eccentric Toads in an age group wilh no fully develaped muscoskeletal system. The diminished capacity to absarb eccentric loads in the elderly could be determined by the typical muscle mexdificulions with aging like loss of masche mass (Trankoll and Norris, 1977) and increase in fal mass and com- nective tissue (Bakermann, 1969; Guimann, 177), This means that paral- Jol to age increase there isa remarkable decrease in strength because it is well known that strength depends on muscle cross-sectional area and not by SX OF training stabus (kai and Fulcunaga, M68). bo was demonstrated that the GTO are receptors sensible bo tension and an panicular in tespense to the activation of some nator units directly *”AVERAGE FORCE Li “ ii. KNEE ANGULAR VELOCITY (rod as”) Fig 99 « Fores velocity relanoashie fir two diffrent crusfitions of werbicat fame: sexing (Baroy 3050) with anf writhowt extra load and abo fms (OU Se SU ir is weaned! thar thse cont: ‘nucrite component of rhe anticler iy the mai nexporcible for the force production, In EM rine the smmetch: shortening cole tr deumatically evoked, i dx libely shat akis penomenoe ix reapon sible four shifting Ao the righ aml anand Uke FAV reharionsleip, Note ake #V srdutionkips cae ated fv neverel spurt dinriptine. HU = high jap, Li = hang jamep, HI dooamciing ever thr fuer lle and Rm running. (Bose aid Kewl, I97B0) inserted in the tendons (Houk and Henneman, 1967; Houk and Simon, 1967; Stuart et al., 1972; Binder ct al, L977). This suggests that probably the GTO are more sensible to active muscle comtraction than muscle stretching. In this case it coukd be assumed that, with advancing age and related force decline, the GTO adap@ their excitation thresold and thus sem sibility at a lower tension level. The capacity to sustain high eccentric forces during landing is affected by age and, after puberty. sex (Figure 14), Therefore plyometnc Inaining design must always based on subjects biological comition. Systematic ply- ometric training ix not viable in subjects of lexs than 12 years of age, After, some jumping and plyometnic exercises urdler OFH are allowed. The total number af jumps divided in to raining sessions shoukl net be higher than oothie op Be a} oe ta ‘ Om Pha ef emt ca © gina waa Bee so gue . . . me (TUE Wi MSET) Fig, 100 Average wcceterunion drvelopet suring 8) exnused writs amd withow! extra ods hap from 20 ue ar 0A igh, CAN enrcated woh (100 be) amd mivhoat extn foods. Drop damp (UE from 26th om, beat drop juny (DAL average seed rasming 1 000 mr 0A F080 on), easing ow oprint (Rt Sorintl wcllesbuill spike nike olf (VSi, Goumcing over tke hues (HA, hse fang ake gf TLE aad igh samp pale off (ALE) aoe preenind im fanction of the poninive wink prodbaced! ke rach performance {Baare, Seb 80-00 jumps AL nore advanced ages is possible to increase the volume keeping in conmol imensity, This means that it is necessary to gradually increase intensity until reaching OFH, It is necessary to remember that when high intensity plyometric exer vcises are performed by untrained subjects, the first responses are inhibitory while in athletes there is neural potentasion (Figure (05), In untrained sub- jects stimulus imensity (drop height) is mot the maim factor determining the binlogical response (Bosco et al, 99... In a recent study, two groups of untrained subjects training at two different intensities (150 DJs from am height of 30 and 60 ce respectively) were compared and the biological response was simile. The common muscle soreness felt after 12-24 hours after plyometric exercises was net different bewicen the two groups (Figure 06).Raise of the centre of gravity in BDJ (crn) . To 6e pont ne 55 as go gs 10.0 WS Time 60m dash (3) 10). Rebates Bereen the bes afro amy (ALDI) a she nme regain ra Ah clea in young farys voteyball phaperr (Bosra, JS Ce ee] Fig, HID - Relationship beberen the jmping height after ranips jump fefowe 5.0m anf he war oma! running speed (Mero at al, AES b toaase tem 7 Orog down Drop down Fig. 107 - The raise off centre of geanity ir presented in flection of the sivetchng Anext for new sap popalaio divicla br age Eactage mpersents doth marie and femate nubjects iB Ae (rserel Fig, 10M. The suise of cere of gravity of he bean alos Jira (04) Ls presemtea 6 fe age eroap for mate ond female rabyertr (Moano & Kw, (HD wsFig. JOS - EMG aerivity seconded in the m. ge rropsinmiar daring a drop amp preformance frown Ji em Note ohe EMU activity in ame nex Trained sabject fapyer panel, imierrypt lined and in ome well ruined {leer panel, vomrinons lina) CSokanibabeieher & Golnyten, PAD Plasma levels of CK M4 hours post-iraining were significantly increased in comparison bo initial levels (p< 0,05) but without differences between the two groups (Bosce ef al, 1992). The CK increase observed some bours (12-48) after high intensity exercise (especially involving ecoeniiccomceninic muscular work) weflects the release of this enzyme From muscle fibres damaged by active eccentric forces (Frieden et al 1982). Therefore. lack of difference between the two groups suggests that training intensity is not the main determinant of training-induced biclugical responses. These should be attributed te the particular kind of muscular work performed feccentric-conceneric), However, these results should not be interpreted as a suggestion to indiscriminately ase high intensity plyc- metric exercises without following a nitional progression, Tt is ale imporant bo remember that when plyometnic exercises are regularly bur pot frequently performed (for example once a week as it is in the physical conditioning of soccer players) a recovery period of about 4 days must be observed berwecen ihe last plyometric training session and competition (Bosco, [SH), This because recovery time off these athletes is 4WORKLOAD SORENESS 1000 pt sag | CO 800+ ] | 3 600 42 400 1 200 ! | considerably longer than athletes used to train their neuromuscular systern tore often (e.g. high jumpers) (Bosco, 1990) Research studies conducted an the I Tear jes assexscd with the hurdles jumps was ‘vel sprinters (Tubke 8), iesHeight | Conteet time Power (cma) ims (WF kg Now, 1985 Jen, 1d at Fable ® «The average valars sanded devianiin of the rive of centr of grivaty, the comiact time and the mechanical power, ercondra in continacs pump iver the Awvalles exercises, in ight ioe sprinters, bejere amd after a training period administrated for improvement of nee suencialar fametioms, The asterisks demote aarisical significuey lificrencen ** #< Gale: *** 2 G00), Badearit = 1 ure, paived observers (Meson, Ma) (EMGHT OF ARSE OF CG IN BEST OROP JUMP Fig, AT «The renter of the contre af! granvity faverage sioncland sevdatiow) mecrusra during te heat doy jump in atheist iruimed with special lraining neiten (hypengnavity), Before (ve) aka after teu different! period pat! and pod 2. In pareariesis ave sBowm the abeopping beige (Barc seth, 18, 1065. Generic Considerations The validity of a successful physiological/functional vest depends not only on the intrinsic characteristics of the movement on which tbe test is based, but alse on the possibility to compare the results obtained with uhe mean value ofa large, homogenous population. Am homogenous population is the group of subjects similar in respect to type of muscle activity per- formed! during training and competition, age, sex, competitive level ete. Por example professional male soccer players represent an homogenous popu- lanon. Therefore a professional socoer player evaluation. mast compare hisher value with the values of other soccer players al ihe same lewel in onder to conectly interpret the test results, For this reason in chapter 6 nor- mative data collected all over Europe were inclucled. Before the end of this book, | want to give some recommendaticns cn jest execution techniques in onder to have the best results. It is often observed, especially in untrained subjects, that during landing on mat after jump exccution the legs are not kept straight but are flexed before ground contact, It necessary to uniertine again that if this happens, the test walici- ty is compromised. Therefore the mout important insteuction to give to the subject is to touch the grownd with ihe forefoot and keeping the knees as straight as possible. A practical and effective method to ensure this kand of landing, is Lo require the execution some small jumps (bounces) on the fore- Foot after landing. The worry of performing this task after landing forces ibe wabject to touch the groand with the forefoot and with straight knees fopli- mal conditions to develop high atiffiness) in order to optimally perform the subsequent bounces. Furthermore, [want to remember that with this tests is possible mot only te assess neuromuscular and metabolic capacities, but also to measure 109some panicular characteristics difficult to asues with other methods, In fact, offer the functional characteristics of the anatomical components of the tower limbs are not in balance. [1 is possible to have perfectly function- al bower logs (muscles around the ankle joint) amd weak upper begs (mus- eles around the hip and knee joints). To control functional equilibrium between muscles around the hip, Akpoe and ankbe joints it is possible t0 use an casy to administer meibod, It consists in comparing mechanical power praduced during straight Jegs jumps (with of without hurdles) and continaous CMs. If the value of the first test is 2.3 times the value of the second test no unbalance is present between the lower and upper leg. If the ratio is lower than 2 there is lower Jeg functional weakness. Gn the contrary if the ratio is higher than 2.7 the functional weakness 1s present in ihe hip and knee joints. Therefore, um accunme analysis of measured parumeters can give a complete picture of the global fuactional status of the caamined system that is, in this case, the Sewer limbs. Leonelude presenting Figure 108 in which the various tests included in the Boseo's Test are related to maximal oxygen consumpaion. The correla- Hon observed (negative and positive) were observed during experiments condected by the aulbor ard other investigators and they are reported im the Literature. To further clarify this issue, the same comelation are reported in Table 9 as the metabolic and neuromuscular processes involved in each test. tevse Armee oe mss | Arar Lacs Poser Pome Pilg. 10% - Refasiocsbip betmcon Besioe's peat usaf uerobye perwiey (VOR «epee Tike conan Lie fepresends poniive inure and the awher dine argwtive, Tar arterinkr centr the evel ay infarc (*PeaOS: Poth: POON) ‘AI Mor St = oe ref mnrietierst ego 5) sgaar pomp Sib» nga jomng pertonned widh cxra load sada wo saber" Bony sigh: CHF ‘= ante set fap ; $4 Tw comtacs jgs bewr lia perdrmnel fr fire secon: oC FR = ‘Seaman jap, Syed Lae, performed fof fhapa wecoeds 3h {CPL = coetimaon mg, bea: nen, period for thiety seyumas tts I = cami jong bent kaa portend toe Sor ive were fl (Cow co Vim pongo Lies. perfovemed Ft inty yi, Had, caine aah hoa, pore ise sree ver the ris a IN = dp pg. Table 9: Mierahotie, euzmatic anf mraramarwar process inetd claniug ae jumping ser cine whisk ane scitiued da Bonre's Arst (Bosca. The auieriiba (*; 4: °°) demote the level af” inghucnce (Bosco, FFD)REE RSS Saeeeeeeest « f£ 8 4 6 © 1 ‘AGE (years Fig. 1 The ne of centre of granite in Seat Jung, Counter mrvrement amp and merbasical sewer slerteg 15 CF beat knee secontind in lation Devs (Bones, Lo Cente. Cirime (980 ik409 (emi 5 om a St Fs 20 4 = cE] Ee a] a t * 8 10 4 w ” 14 AGE (years) MALES 4a lem ow 35 * es cE) fe =a 6 T 4 a a " 12 a “4 AGE [yauray, Fig. tO = The ri snare ay grumary in Segal di Chounter minremcar jens recented i Spaniek girly ana cert (Ponies Rue FRE) an.(Females) S45 [om Ey “3 am excelent * ne » —e— pose 2 E a8 7 . 9 wm 1 12 i a WDE fpearel om 7 (om — “a 4 a = a encetet = — nest . —+— poor » * ” 1s AOE trees), Fig. ME. The vise of ceritre af grabrity in Sgonat Range diel Connter mcivemment feoyp Pirviah plrty cna Boye (Mer ob Pualiir, 15M), ugHeignt of rise unbed MmevereAL july Age Lpears Fig, 102 - The sae of centre of gravity in Sxpaat Jump and Coamirt mworemnent jam recanted it srdenary Foetiot populenon (Banc di New, 00 6SQUAT JUMP 50 45 40 a5 BO] a a 15 410 Tee rere ‘Weight Liting — Ceoee Country Alpines StilfintT Wrestling Finch Pare Fe Ainst ye ym 7 (COUNTER MOVEMENT JUMP Termin: Fant Weight Lifting Groas Gourstry Alpine Sid Fist? Seaaren Fra ire Paid pre {4} SM Fiat yen Tt ith Big. 2 ~The rite Vinerny Finuniak Bera (Barve, 1 9921 te in Sapca! Jaomps aad Counter marvewernt joumps eects i WW[Endurance SornicH = Serist = Sport print cH print Brin WF yen 11 pee (17) Fle yen Fintaoyre tdyre (oa) Fiidpre Fin thy “ a ‘COUNTER MOWEMENT JUMP Saskereae SpenhiCH Eaduteree print = pene CH Beret Serial Serie A predtT) Ftd pre Fin ad pre Myre) FAD yee Fit pee Fi pre - on Wd The wise af comme of ri aud es pracdaing. dite it Saat Jira cna Clair mivemme nl juny revue dx seer discipline (Mem, #990) Benes MVD: Levan, 1952 118DROP JUMP (40 cm) ‘Teale Spire Got Maeurance Wreatiling Bprist CH atigarse Vasey alt Fin, pr PO pe) 1 yew lA you 4 yo fA) nt pre CHD pre TAT * “ “0 im ca) a) Fig 5 The rise of -cenure of gravity da Crop damp jen reconiead in ginke anal borer pewctining filerens spovr Macipdine (Mero, JAI: Beers, J002: Reve, 1980 S08 He Beene esaeas ‘Ale Su FF pe 1) ‘veseating Fix Fig, 16. Thee nlag oy centee of gravity in Sgaat Aump (Si )and Squat Suan performed! with enrva oad similar ae tihe subject's beady mais (Sine) and Busco ines (Leveda, 1992) 19SQUAT JUMP em} Saeyeer seas ey “ r) im COUNTER MOVEMENT Jum $55 (omy oO aa 40 ed 3 ci] a0 1s 0 Te en rt ‘ an “2 CONTINUOS JUMP (158) 285 ce (GENT LEG) i] MM n n 1a 16 14 az 10 OT ye TEL pee SET) pre CTE pre GAN eI a my - i on 7 Fig, HET The tine of centre of gravity in Spat tp, Coanirr monrmmt jump and meckaniva! free? daring Ja CF bent nee reconded in Duithan Bevin practiaing aoecer (Ban, Lis Cert Chri, CR 120SQUAT JUMP tem * * = . o ‘Sear ices niet Rape ekonomi Waa antl aet eo ee re Te ESR RER ES ER SeEREe HER hee Resear ce See eee pt Hemme pet ieee Tk Mick Pail come Ful md TM Pil Mane ee ei ee i a Fig. AIS + The rine of centre of pranrity in Sint Jurys, Counier maverwent jump come mrchanirat! power during 41 Ci hear dace encombed ie berss prucrising differ sport discipline (Baca, Coma, Cintas, S04: eres atat, AOU, Makkown. PHU, Levoder 1002)‘CONTINUIOS FUME (fa) OSTRARSTH LEG) ect on PF ‘com St pm ait LCT. ane Pea Fig. (P0Comtart aim, slight hae aed meehoninal prior recorded diving Ci straight Ince per- Josmedt over the Aiarlles (Levesta, MAUL intSe ee Coumay Fantdyre ache PRM E St fines ANTE dep TAY CBLTAT ee er a Ue ee) rate in m COUNTER MOVEMENT JUMP SaSRERERERE Ranked aetna High hemp eyed Leg, Pe PAT MB yee MMT TAME AT GHALTAT ome ue pe pe ye) ATA with Pilg. MP The rise of center oy grarvity in Squat amy oul Counter momemutet juny recon i iris practhing atffrrent aport discipline (mee, 1992: Eeger 1992; Leda, (9924CONTINUDS JUMP (15 a) (yang (SENT LEG) Crone Cocemry Skt peti yew red FL yoy Rein Pin pre -Woleybal Om Feet yeu 7) 1m an a MTT ye CONTINUOS JUMP (STRAIOTH LEG) 800 5 fa . etre en S00 » 466 a0 00 a St 200 se ge 105 * Basmet Fin KOT, Leng ture (TA WT. Buahet Fie ALT. igh Jere TAM. tye 198 Tym The mechanical power mcovalad daring CF bent knee {15 seconde} im femmate arhlesrs Practising aifferenr soar aliscipline (apper suneil Comet tier, Migbe Nime and mechanics’ power recorded during CF stralghe knee rconivd Oe female athletes procttiing different sport silkedpiime (lower panel) (Eeare, M0: Levee $902: Bence 1887)SQUAT JUMP Girls (16 years) SreaR Sh 6888 SnBReRbaSaRS Compenive Middle «Throwers printers Hurdles = Jumper walking «= iatance running, ty in Squat aways eecerutea én irl ro. Slmwemi amd Otc, Bt 125‘COUNTER MOVEMENT JUMP ‘Girls (16 years) ‘Competitien idea «Throwers Aumpers = Hurdles; iptamaete Sprites waking diviaser runing COUNTER MOVEMENT JUMP Boys (16 years) rat jeany eecoratval be links ata Dery Simard, anal Overs, F881 87)CONTINUIOS JUMP (15-8) (BENT LEG) Girls (16 yoars) CONTINUGS JUMP [15 8) (BENT LEG) Bey (16 pears) (Wika)SCONTINUICS JU (BTRAIGTH EG) ses Gin {10 year to 00 ' ” 508 50 490 ~ = Mo met 360 on +00 10 P a ® p00 a 700 Et Co 0 Aad SO ace a0 “” wa » «8h 200 moar 108 0 * o Sompwcter Micka Themes Rorintars riches ire waking tenes neta Wig. LIS = Contant time, Wgkr tiie und mechkenical powcr enroed diving CI straight kaee recenied i pivis amd bers pracsimg traci aed eka! eoenir (Boao, Lascatetit, Arzainn, Shearvinl, sand fhe, 1 PRT,SOUAT Ju Fem oy - - - as a a8 » Ey a Fg. 128 - The rise of semire af grrvite dn Squat duoep 7 inejptine (Boner, (985) Daf Monte a Faiwa, O88; Bs fo wernt BraCtimg diffrent spurt al FRU; Views 1889 ‘COUNTER MOVEMENT JUMP SRESSRSRERS - The rian af cosine of gramity in Comnter movement mys recanted in. iment practising pert discipline (Bonin, 1985: Pha! Montel Fisiua, JOR: Makar ey al POY; Vitasabeneed ao i 3 s & ma Ene MFA) a « “ a “a “ » n ” » * ro 8 CONTINUGS JUMP (15 8) (BENT LEG} Maes 18-4 (ee) » 25 20 1B 0 Wig. 129. The moctarmcn Practising aiferrmd apeord afin Vitauaakr 157), 10UNDOLATANLLTLN AA = a i TT f EI TTT i ay Beptember a Mevamner he Rubra Apt Figs LA0 «Tike reechonical power receive chiring CH brat knee for 10 seconde ix Alpine slices iefomping to fhalion Alpine Ski Tru (FB, Cosel, am Mpc) au acu meELAST, oma aw | pet ay Fig. 131 The rine af crater if prvity in Squat Punyp (0), Chenier movement Jmye (CML tune of the enener, aie! Spat Aum paceforreed witle etre fon similare fi the seafiect's Bemly secur (SW) ated! with 2 de ASS 20) recorded Aikerke Tonia jon 2989 po MT Covell, Bowen. sew Dt . 131COWTINLIOS JUMP (STRAIGTH LEG} Maen 70 co) a0 400 act ae of 0 oF 100 o Baseball Pin WLC) tw Shuntieny Fin ALT Ga Ceing TA ALE. (8) DROP JUMP (40 cm) Males Crome Country Fist Fig. 142 = Coser ainae, MMiphr reverie! i arblees belonging te difierent spe i drop fap (PAF fiance, JSQUAT JuMe i i SSeyeeeeResses ice Pre ET Pid t yt Ly Fig. LEE- The rise of centre eg gravity da Sepa dmg (80, recoded in track and fiell smal ath fetes off Iuemavinsal catitur iowa, 1985) (COUNTER MOVEMENT JUMP et seneseesbaust Petree Fig 134 - The rive of center of gravity in Center movement suene (OU), seconded bm tract aad Fir rmale arileacs af fatermanana! calibre tMonce, (AS ily 13we ERNE NEBR BEES Fig. 125 - The rite of contre oof grarvity én Syont das (Si) am Syaad Jum performed with earre fel sienifar to he mabyecd’s oot ars (See) anal Mescc indles recorded bw mreeck creel leit mate aakieres of Intermarional cattbire (Meaco, /AEL CONTINUES AF (38 a) (BENT LES ao & Mea Fig. 148 < The mechanical panier pecomled slering CF bent hace (15 seconds) recorded i mack cana field euale wriletes of Iuurrmusiinal caliber (Basco, FBS) taRC AE a ca Vision i SRQURERESEERES a 1 poe Loy Pyrpe pea yada (Fig. 127 - The rite of comere of gravity meitared bx deep bamp (IDM, seconde be rack ane fel maliearilenes of Datermathol cain (Boner, IES) coer Alm ‘OFT Fe LES a EG EGaGE see EER aE TTT Pip. (27 Contoce tiny, flight iar and mechonicw! power reconird during (7 straight ince per formed ever the hurafes encuvedeed in trond. sand ek male athietes uf hate rmarional valine Bloc, ARS ve aSey “ " = a “ " a as " mow 5 mci " " i ' ‘ . ee rior ge & t ie Pheide i iG ek pPul aq ‘pit i i Pig, 0 Thee rive ay cone of granity in Sqiar Aumye (EE), reconted in toaay sport Mabe eral APA; Banco, MAS: Exot Monte Rid, MRS; Virsa, AHL 136COUNTEM KCVEMENT JUMP i See RH ShLEREES Fig, [40 The rite agfeenine of male ctbleves (Bahr er al AF: in Conan anerremnene pump (CAEN, encovalea tv tea 1S: Pet fore Fa, 98K; Viteraale, $0 CONTINUGS AmMP NS] ENT LEG) vee “ ™ a8 a0 18 10 ane in einen Fe a Fig. [42 « The mechanical perwer peracid dlaring CJ leent Limes 5 seconds| necorltal dt tea pert wane athlrter finer eal: 997; Bou, 2985: dal Moe & Fale, (28K; Mimaahe, 8004 iwareteies satan ew ceacne nery faint no pa DROP AMP Ah on, Males - anes £ ZREPPRAR ARTS as eo ARRAN RES S Fig. 1 - The merhamical power nicorded during CS bent bere (40 secomfs| nrcondeal in team Apert male attilctes (Bake etal. $781) Rosen, M905: skal Momte & Faint (908; Vinssato, 06%), Fig. 144 ~ The rerchamical poser recorded! uiering deep Jimp (ER) it tou (pert mate anleieret (avr er al PP? Bosce, MAN shal Mamie ok Kaien, AHA8: Viiraeale, 19) 138quar JUMP “CHLE tLtleteht iit: LE ane :ink lls fipuhi hedje GRE a pet Fig, 143 Thee nite of commre of gravity im Coates mmcremtend jump (CALS encowet ix fermen practining cme sport ramen ona! individual sport discipline (Bohr et af, MAA; Rance, RD. TSR; Haabhinen, (ARS; Exner HID; Leva, M2) he)a PER) » 48 = a0 “ “ » at 30 Fy ms) » ® msJew * FB (%) 4 8 o +10 toe Bhating FiniALT.(2) High ds Lang dame TA présierm IT 4.7. (8) wren Fp, 29? = The rive off cevure aif erovity dv Sgn amp (S07 ant Suan days poerfioreret weir earn deaf sreilar fo fhe subjner's Boey mane (Siw) ond Bosco iedex seconded ie frowale stoppage in inabividal sport deacypline {Boer FSAI; Leva, I). CONTINU: FUME (Day (BENT LEG) Ferien a8 > (Veg) “0 = » = * 8 a Spriatecs «ea Skating «= Veaybull CH “Sprintere Germ. printers GH AMT FinT Tata) uh WTA Fig, A. The mevikanoad power seconded ahaniag C7 tear hace 11 sevens) arcade in feveiles Practiaing iam sport games and indivadec! sport discipline jlloaco, (WADIG2: Ezeee 1002: Leva, 1992, Mo2888823 2 fee Siang Diving «igh Leng Sprintern TA printer Pin 7,0) ARTA AnpiFAM.T, RTI) Germ) ne Fig 149. Cooneuet reve, Mig tiee and mechanical Jormedt over thy kunller meceraiet ix females practi Micpline Boace, (90 182: Levoda, 992), per recerleal daring CI unaight knee per Ao AY aban ama del ahaa pe CONTINLEDE Jha PRN (RENT LEG wea — mil) - 48 ee ee ee BRA EL ATA | AT SAMY meri UAL IT Fig. 150). The mechanical parece neoovateef ubertage Co hent donee (04! ancremai) oncerdend im fren penciling Madieialeal pert dieripline (fleare, Colell, Rod Mognam! 909. /900 Lavra J902: ‘Wiki ob aera PHYA 140Abbreviations ‘Tiss figures indies ls at page Le, The tests that oormpinie the Bersoo's Test are shown with clavsic abberviations (see tent): SU CMI, Sibw, S80 Jars ver hares ae a “ratty : A 4 Imerrasonall Lewet, LN, = National Level; LR. © Regional Level; 143Index of Figures and Normative Values Fig. 10H Fig. LEO Rg. tn, Fg. 12. Fag. 1. Fig 14, Fig 115, Pig. 1 Fig 117. Fig LS, Fg. 09, Fig. 130. The sist of centre of graviny in Sayaat dump, Cvatnier tmivernets jump ind mechan call prwer during 1SsCT bem keee recordee is Halian boys (Bone, Lo Cento Cirkan, any The tise of centre of gravity in Sqeat hump aed Couster movement jump recorded im Spoasish gists aad bors (Padulles Riv 720 ‘The rine of cenere of gravity in Sqeat Map aad Counter meversend jump recorded in Worms gis amd bares (Mero d& Prine, 15th, The rise of comme of gravity in Squat Jemp and Counter inevemen jump recorded irr sculethiry Finnish population (Bosse ft: Kori, 1980, ‘The rine of contre of graviny in Suan damp ane Cowncer merrement jaarep rected itt ‘Young Faanish Boys (Levels, 52), ‘The rine dl ventfe of gravy is Squan Jemnp:and Caner mervemeat jurep peootuled ir Brisand hoya practhding differen span discapling (Meer, FOWL: Egger, 192. Levola, 1921, The rise of cemtre of gravy in Deep famep jaime reconikod in girs and boys peactio- ing diffrent sport discipline (bern, (0%, Egper, 192; Levola, 1921 ‘The rine of centre of gravity in Saat Jump (31) and Sipeat harap performed with «entra load similar to the sebjet's body mus (SJbwi and Wesco inde (Levit, ID) Tie fist of centre of gravity in Squat karrge, Countes overnent jump and moctani- cal purest during 154 CJ bent Knee recorded! in Bealkaan berps practising soccer (Hace, LinCerto, Cirkae, 19901 “The rine off contre of praviky in Sepaal Jargp, Coser movement jump and meckeni- cad power during USs C9 bent kee recorded ia boss peactiong different spot disci lise 4Beseo. Lo Certo, Cirino, POMS Mem et al 191, Hlakhines, 1%, Laveta 19% Contact time, Aight time and mechanical power peconged dering CI straight kace over she huundies (Levels, IE), The rise of cemve of pravity in Sqpmat arm and Counict moverend jump recone im pink practising different spon discipline (losin, 19; Egger 1992; Levola, 19921 145Fag. 2, Pig 122, Fig. 123, Fig 1M. Fig, 125, Fig. 128 Fig 127, Fig. 128, Fig 129. Fig. 130. Fig. 3. Fp 2. Fig. 133. Peg 1M, ‘Pig. 135, ‘The mechanical power recorded during CH beat knee (15 seconds) in female athbctes Practising different sport discipline {upper part), Contact me, flight time asd mechanical power recorded during CJ saraight keee recorded in female achletes prac- thing differeat sport disciplige (upper pancl) (Egpet, 192. Levola HAZ Bosco NT), ‘The rine off centre: of pravity in Septal Jump recorded in pir anal beers practising track and field events (Bosco, Locatelli, Arcana, Sinecni, aad Cetin, (H6-I987), ‘The rise of centre of grmvity in Counter mmrverncni jemp recorded én pists and bys (practising track wad field events (Bosco, Locatelli, Arran. Simeon, and Ono, Hoke 1987 The mechanical power recorded dunag Cl bent knee (18 secoads) recorded! im pints ane boys practising track and fied everts CHouco, Locatelli, Acearo. Sumecai, and ‘Cen, 198 LT ‘Contact time, light time and mechanical power recorded during CJ straight knee recorded in girk and boys practising track and fickd events (Bosco. ILocancill, Anauro, Simeon, and Cniox. 1988-19871 The rise of cxatre cf gravity ie Squat Jusmp recorded in men practiuing diffierens sport Aocipiling (Boscn, OWS. Gol Monte de Pains, (68; Bahar et al. 19991; Vina 198, The rise of oxaine of gravity it Couster movement jemp recorded in men practising differen spor discipline (men, 1885; Dal Monte & Paina, 188; Babar etal 1991, ‘Virwnabo 1959, The rise of comtre of gravity ix Squist Jeenp (55) and Squat Jump performed wich xara load similar oo: the subject"s body mass (Sibu) and Bosco indes revonled is inom practiing differen spon discipline (Dosco, W088: Dal Monee de Parma, 1984: Bahar et al, HP; Viena 1989), The mectanical power reconted uring CH bers ne (15 seconds) mornded is mes Practning differeat ypon discipline (Bosco, 198%: Dal Moete & Fama, 1068; Hehar et ab, 1991; Viitanalo 13694, The mechanical power mconded during CF beat knee for 15M) seconds im Alpine shires belonping ts Italians Alpine Ski Tearn (Bosco, Cotell, andl ogee). The rise of conte of gravity in Squat demp (SM), Cosmier meverment Jeep (CMM reane of clantic exergy, and Squat Jump perioemed with xara load similar to the ‘ubject’s bey menus (BW) and with 20 Kg (51 20) veconded Allene ‘Toma: from 196 in 1992, (Cosel, Bowen, and D°Lirhasa). Contact take, Might time am! mechanical power recorded during CI uraight kace recorded ix athictes belonging to differcal spoet discipline (upper panel. The rise of ‘centre of gravity in drop jomp CD) recemded in athletes belompang wo differene spowt discipline (lower pad). (Boece, 1992: Dal Mome & Paina, Leola, (2, Egger, herd), ‘The rise of centre of gravity in Saqeat Aarng (SN), recorded in track axed facil cake: t= lene wf International calibre (Bosc. 1483), ‘The rise ul contre of gravily ba Contes micrvemsal jump (CMI), recorded in orack ad fiekd make athictes of Inierracional calibre (Bosc, E585), ‘The rise of cemee of gravity in Squat Jump (0) and Squat Jemp performed with ‘entra brad siviar to the sushjoct’s bady masts (Site) ad Basico index recorded in fenck ad fiekd make athletes cd Inerational calsbre (fhe, ES)Fig. 135. Fg 17. Fig. U8, Fig. 142. Fy. 143, Pig. Fa 045, Fig. 146, Fig. 147. Hig. 148, Fig. 149, Fig. 150 ‘The mechanical powes tecunled dariag CJ bent Linee (15 secre) recomted in track canal field make athletes of batermational: calibre (Rosco, 1585), ‘The rise of cenme of gravity measured i drop jurep (D9), recorded in track are field stale ubletes of Inermational calibre (lose, 1985), ‘Contact Gene, [ight tints: anal mockanical power recuriied dhuigg (CD straight keep verformed ower the burdies recorded in track and ficki male athletes of Inicrutaonal salitee (Bosco, 19851 The rise off contre of gravity in Squat Purge, Courier reverent jump and mechani: ‘cal power during 13s C2 bem ace eecueded in soccer peofemionad players (Bosco, Bose and Lubeasen, 192), ‘The nie of cenire of gravity in Squar temp (5), recordod in wea sport rae athletes Babe et al LV; Bosco, 1985 : Dal Monte A Paina, 088: Viltasalo, (891 “The rise off center of gravity in Coonter raavesneet jemp (CMI), reserded in team spon make athhetes (ahr et al. (01: Bosco, 1085 : Dal Monte & Faina, 1988; Vilkasalo, 1989, ‘The mechanical prrver neoonded during CI beat knee (15 secorms) recoded in tearn ‘apart male athletes (ahr et a 101; Bosco, 1085 : al Domne 4 Paina, 10068; Vitanaln, i%), “The mechanocal power recorded during C1 beet lonee (Ml anconda) recorded am tear sper reile athletes (Babe et al 1991: Bosco, 1083 : dal Morne dt Paina, 108; Vetasali, LO. ‘The roechanical power reconded dering drop jemp (01M) in scars sport male athletes Babe et al. (1; Bosco, 183 : at Monte se Haina, 1988; Wirsato, 098), ‘The rise of centre of gravity in Sequat Kan (50), seconded in females practising learn Spt games and individual sport discipline (Babe ot al 1991; Bosco, 10-1955; Hakiines, 198%; Egger, wee be Levola, 19921. ee er eee eee: (practising beset fel italivichaal sport discipline (Elly es al. 1991; Bosc, 0a. 1944. Haklioes 1989. Epa, 1902. Levula, 1992), “The rise of centre of gravity in Squat Jump (Si) and Squat lump performed with exten load similar no the subjects Body mass (fhe) and Bosco: indo recomdied in female athletics engaged ia individual spor discipline (Bosco, 180: 92; ILevola, VHD. The mechanical prier recorded dering CF tent kace (15 seconds) mecemdod in females practising team sport games and individual sport discipline (Hosco, 10 182: Egrer. 199% Level. 1921 ‘Contact time, Qlight time and mechanical power eeorded during CY sazaiphi knoe performed «ver the Indies recorded in fernailce practising Seam sport formes azal inativichaal spor discipline (Boson, 1980-192: Levola, IS) ‘The mechasicall power recorded deriag CU beat bree (0) seconds) seconded in females proctining individual sport discipline (Banco, Cotelli, Roi Mognoai [8% 1990; Lewola, 102; White & Jodo 194 ol6. Kistler Force Plate Portable System Quadtro Jump for Take-off Force Measurement in Performance Diagnostics Kisller Foree Plates are number one for measuring take-off power in performance dingmostics and in biomechanics. Whike im the past it was almost excteuwely restricted 0 researchers, today thanks 20 Qluativo Jump ii is also within the reach of People routigely working in performance diagrestics. Qhuttro Jump bs a fesictional method of bewing the sraining comditios of the begs in relation to the ability to jump. together with co-ordsnilion amd endurance. In contrast 10 isokinetic systems and differs ent types of jump tests. the athlete mowes completely naturally im a way that march es his of her condition aad co-ordination. Single jumps can be assessed as effec tively ax successive jumps. (Qveeery Juuogp farce pola patie dering a Smp iret, How does Quatire Jump work? With Quatteo Jump the vertical take-off force of the begs can be measured on the ground, Piezoelectric sensors, built inte the feet of the measuring platform, constamnthy measure take-off force and relay it to the computer. The following paranscters are auio- Tmutically cakulaed using integeatkn methods and displayed from each jump: © jump beight © pkoodl velocity * wkeotf accelenstion * tukeot! power (distinguishing between concentric and excentric power) In pasticular, che pushoff itself, divided into eccentric and concesuie sages, bx analysed! in detail The shape of the curve ef the height jumped shows if dhe jury has bers cartied oot cutrectly. This distinguishes Quart Jump from odker systems, which aly imirecily calculate (he Bright of Ube jump from airtores time, Thanks x the dlis- Played graphs, imcomert jumps can be identificd immediately and can be deleted at amy time. 49Typical mreanenment of a commermenrment jump (ahmamle compression before take-off). Perfemunce during the concentric stage és of purnicular Anterest, The shapes of Ube curve frufiveatr a a glance shat the test has been carried out comectty, Suntistical assessment allows the comparison of several tests on one athlete or om dlif- ferent ahketes ina tcam (eg. before and afer a training period or a competition). iso7. Normative Values To be of real value, a test must be practical, objective and iss results universally applicable. Therefore when a diagnostic test is performed on a subject. from a sedentary adult to an CHympic athlete, the results should be compared with moms and then ower tine in the same subject. For example if we measume a 37.0.em CMJ performance ina 13 years old body without any reference, this value remains only a numerical expression. Therefore, it ‘will be impossible to understand the functinasl capacity and morphological characteristics of the subject if this value is mot compared with the mean value of this boy population that is around 30.0.cm. Therefore the mean value of an homogenous population is necessary for an objective and effective Functional assessment. For this reason in this chapter are presented the mean tests valucs of various homogenous popula tions, in other words groups. of subjects of the same age involved im various sports or sedentary. In first part of the chapter a Table to convert flight time to h is provided. This Table is very usefull to analyse single jumps during continumas jumps tests, Tt should noted that the normative valucs have been collected from Ergojump and therefore from Might time, however the results cam be also uiilised using measurenents from Kistler Force plate system, in this case to the results abtained from flight time should be added around 4-5 cm to be comparable with force-plute recordings. The collection of these data was comducted in many Research and Sport Institutes and Onganisations: National Track and Field Schom, Formita, Tialy: Sport Sciences Institute, Halian Ohympée Committee, Rome; Italian Volleyball Federation; Italian Track and Field Federation; Italian Skiing 151Federation; High Performance fnstituse, Barcelona, Spain; Macolia Sport Institute, Switzerland; Kourane Sport Institute and University of Jyvoskyla. Finland: $. Btienne University, France: Oslo Soot Institute, Norway. Budapest University, Hungary. Moreover. | ould tke te honk af all iny colleagues that have adopted the Bosco's Test as a nowline assessment method in their instinutios: Prof, Aunton-o Dal Monte, Don, Marcelle Paina, Prof. J.M. Padalles. Dr. R. Babe, Mi. Levola, Dr. Muller, Prod. J. Tihamyi, Dx. Ibo, Dr. J. Ramadan, Al Vermeil from Chicago Bulls (USA), Mark Nemish from Nashville Predanors. (USA) and many others. A particular thanks for my favourite pupil, Prof. Franco Cirina, Without his help chapter & woald mot be in this form. | have also ne thank fy friead Chices Covell for his suppor, Finally, 1 want 10 thank for all these years of work together. my best friemds Prof. Salve Lo Ceno, Doo. Ermcsto Pinspinella and Prof, Elio Locatelli, pioneer of the Rosen's Test,References Abadjiew 1, The Ridge Training System (lecture), 189, da: Garbamumer ¢ Takani, ‘Training for weghtlifting in Strength and Power im Sport (ed. PV, Komi) Blacwell Sciemifie Publications, London, 357-369, 1992, Ayalon A. 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Physiol, (Lemay 197: pp. 683.700, 1, Zanon S., Pliowmetria. Ailetica Loggem 168: pp. 26-3, 1973, Fame $_, Mfvomerie der Spruenge. Der Lebre der Loichtathletik 25: pp. 4-552, 1974, 16Index Preface to English edition =. + * * * Introduction — i i : - : 1 Staisent Teste : . . : s 1.2 Assissmnnt oF Tsosarrenc: Steinamit 2 . 1.3 Isom Dvnascoinnees = 1.4 Dywamosacruns wrntt INeeriat, Rorstory Masses : 1.3 CompuTigisnn Iscrrosac DYNAMOMETERS . : 2. Global or Analytical Assessment? ‘ i = Es 2. Mancaria Test. ‘ 33 Tests of Muscutan Power ox THe Cyeun Exoosanin. 2.3 Wengate Test =. 24 Fro METABOLIC TO BIOMECHANICAL Tests ae ee 3.1 Sancent’s Test 3.2 AmaLaKov's Test z 3.3 FORCE PLATES AND PHEXOELECTRIC TABLES ©. 3.4 Exconimp » Bosco System. . . 3.5 FRoamUMP Fisk CounTeR - Bosco SYSTEM = § 3.6 KISTLER FORCE PLATE PORTABLE SYSTEM 4. The Bosco's Test . 4.1 GexnRal, Consinemamons on Privsioocecan TestiNa 42 Staspannsanos AMD Control of ENWIRCMMENTAL Conan. . a a ‘ : 3 e ® oes ee eee we eee SiGe es cl 15 cg ig 1 i mM 27 1634.3 OPERATIVE MODALITIES. . : ee ‘ 4.4 Stawpagn Bosoo's Test < si * AAD Sapeact Seanyps . 442 Sqoant Jwnp Charucteriitics . . 44.3 Training Methods te Develop Explosive Strength 444 Physiological Considerations on Explosive Sivenigilt 45 BARBELL Squat JUMP WITH Iscreasea: Loans UNTa Loan CORRESPONDING TO SUBFECT Bony WEIGHT om 45% Practical applications =. 0. 45,2 Bosco’s Index _ 45.3 Physiological Considerations om Maximum Dynamic Stengel : 4.$4 Practical Applications with the Natiomacrt ration Track and Field Team Juenpers 445 Dera Collected on the National Farenish Volleyball Team 2 4.5.6 Observations on Dota Collected from the Members of the National ftelian Alpine Siiing Team - . ‘ ‘ . ' . 4.5.7 Prysialugical aspects and practical comsidera- Hons on strength training =. i i: 4.3.8 Aerolic Power and Maximal ‘Sirength . 4.6 COUNTER MOVEMENT Jus. . 4.6.0 Conater Movenscat Jeng Characteristics . : 4.62 Troiming Methods for Explosive Strengik and Elastic Energy Re-wse Capacity 4.6.3 Physiological Aspects of Leg Extensor ‘Mureler Viseo-Elasic Behavior During CMJ ancl its Retatiowship with Sport Performmce . 4.64 Muscle elasticity and ruaning economy. 47 MECHANICAL Powrk AND ANARROBIC ALACTIC AND Lacnc METAboUSM AsSEssMexT DURING MULTIPLE Joss Tests OF 5-605 Dumarion 47.4 Practical Applications amd Physiological Considerations oa Multiple dumps Tests of Short Drararion (5-15 sh . . 4.2.2 Practical apmications cmd physiological consid- erations on mulriple jumps tests af lomg edierntion (FOC), * . . S24.7.4 Colewlation of Work Vilume (Number of Reps) and Insensiry (Effort Level) ie the 15-60 5 Mirhrigoke Auras Tes 48 Deo Jus on Vernicat Jus arte A Deo FRoM ‘VARIABLE HEIGHTS (20-100-cM) ' 4.8.1 Assessment during Straight Knees agin of 5 Pa with or withour Hrndles (Stiffness Text) ‘ AR? Physiological Considerntions on OF ard Jumps With ond Wither! Hurdles an Practical en Applications §, Generic Considerations Abbreviations Index of Figures and Normative Values. & Kisther Force Plate Portable System 7, Normative Values References a 92 143 145 140 151 153Fini fi wtarapue ned mie oi hago 190 dalla THPOCHEAPLA MANCENT eas. ‘Tiel (Roma) Via Bieprolinanas ben. 2.300 . Tel, OTE AL 1S 36Quattro Jump for Superior Athletic Performance Quattro Jump™ is a Functional method for testing the conditioning of the legs in relation to the ability to jump. The stonderdized yah Quattro Jump™ test quickly ond accurately o ue provides sports medicine doctors, traingrs, and Quatre ns athletes with voluable information, Quatre gosco 1° Jump™ combines the benefits of using a force plate be ieneverene simplicity other methods. Kistler lestrument Corp. Kistler Instrumente AG Winterthur Amberst, MY 14208-2171, USA PO Box 304, CH-408 Winterthur, Switzerland Tel (716) 691 51 00 Tele 41 52-224 10 11, Foe 74 4 Soar Fox (716) 690 52 26 ‘wirenquatrojemp.com