Ferns (seedless vascular plants) earliest fossil of vascular plants about 425 MYA lack seeds but with

well-developed vascular syste sper are fla!ellated and need water to swi to e!!s" why co on in da p environ ents sporophytes are #$% dependent on parental !a etophyte for nutrients sporophytes #$% as sin!le stalk but branched fi! 2&'(( ain traits of ferns include) life cycles with do inant sporophyte sta!e (lar!er and ore structurally co ple*) transport in vascular tissues *yle for water transport occurs via tracheid cells (tube-shaped) cell walls are li!nified (have li!nin poly er) what allowed plants to !row tall provides support a!ainst !ravity e'!' trees appear about +,5 MYA phloe - tube arran!e ent for transport of su!ars. a ino acids. other or!anics well developed roots and leaves roots are or!ans that absorb water and nutrients fro soil also anchor plants and allow shoots to !row taller leaves are pri ary or!an for photosynthesis increase surface are of plant body can be classified as either icrophyll or e!aphyll

icrophyll only in lycophytes appear about 4(/ MYA s all spine supported by sin!le strand of vascular tissue e!aphyll leaves in all other vascular plants with hi!hly branched vascular syste sporophylls are odified leaves bearin! a sporan!ia and have various for s ferns have clusters of sporan!ia (sori) on underside of sporophylls lycophytes and !y nosper s have sporophylls that for cone-like structures (strobili) two for s of spore production e*ist pa!e 025 1lassification of seedless vascular plants) 2hylu 3ycophyte club osses. spike osses (called osses but not true osses) Many are epiphytes' An epiphyte is a plant that uses another plant as a subtrate but is not parasitic' 4oots of lycophytes only branch at !rowin! tips. for in! Y-shaped tips' 2hylu Monilophyta contains the ferns. horsetails. and whisk ferns' %hey have traits in co on with

seed plants. for e*a ple e!aphyll leaves' %hey have roots that branch at various points alon! the e*istin! root (not 5ust at tips as in lycophytes)' 6eed plants are !y nosper s or an!iosper s' 6everal adaptations in seed plants facilitated copin! with drou!ht. 78 li!ht. and fertili9ation without water' 6eeds are an e bryo with food supply and are surrounded by a protective coat' 6eeds have a reduced !a etophyte (fi!ure +/'2)' %he reduced !a etophyte is icroscopic in si9e' %he !a etophyte develops fro spores within the sporan!ia of the parent sporophyte' :t is co plete dependent on the parent sporophyte' %he parent sporophyte protects the !a etophyte fro dryin!. 78 e*posure. and other environ ental conditions' ;eterospory eans the production of two kinds of spores' Me!asporantia produce e!aspores which produce fe ale !a etophytes' Microsporan!ia produce icrospores which produce ale !a etophyte' <a etophytes are retained within sporophyte and protected' $vules produce e!!s in seed plants' $vule = e!asporan!iu (2n) > e!aspore ((n) > inte!u ent(s) (2n) the e!aspore and produces ( or ore e!!s'

%he fe ale !a etophyte develops fro

%he inte!u ent is a layer of sporophyte tissue that wraps and protects

e!asporan!iu '

:n !y nosper s. there is ( inte!u ent' :n an!iosper s. there are 2 inte!u ents' ?hile ovules produce e!!s. pollen leads to production of sper ' %he pollen !rain develops fro icrospore' ?ithin the pollen !rain. the ale !a etophyte is enclosed within pollen wall' %he ale !a etophyte wrapped within the pollen wall has 2 cells. the tube cell. which produces the pollen tube. and the !enerative cell. which eventually produces the sper ' 6poropollenin in pollen wall protects the pollen !rain fro the environ ent' %he transfer of pollen to the part of plant with ovules is the process of pollination' 2ollination does not re@uire water - the pollen can be dispersed by wind' $ther pollen !rains can be dispersed by ani als' 2ollination is #$% fertili9ation' :t is only the physical transfer of the pollen !rains to the ovule' 6o e !y nosper s have retained fla!ellated sper . but A33 an!iosper s have non-fla!ellated sper ' %he advanta!e of non-fla!ellated sper is that it can coloni9e dry habitats' :t is not water-dependant like non-vascular and seedless vascular plants' ost have non-fla!ellated'

Advanta!es of seeds over seedless plants) :n seedless plants. the spore is the only protective sta!e in the plant life cycle' 6eeds are ulticellular with the e bryo protected by the seed coat' :n contrast. spores are sin!le-celled' onths. years' 6pores have shorter life spans'

6eeds can re ain dor ant for days.

6eeds have stored food' 6pores have no stored food' <y nosper s have AnakedB seeds usually on cones) <y nosper s are the sister ta*a to an!iosper s' Coth !y nosper s and an!iosper s have seeds' <y nosper seeds are e*posed on %hus. the seeds are naked' odified leaves (sporophylls) that usually for cones (strobili)'

Most !y nosper s are plants with cones and are called conifers' 3ife cycle of a pine) fi! +/'4 %he tree is a ature sporophyte (2n)'

6poran!ia are on scales that are ti!htly packed on cones' :n ost species. each tree has 2 types of cones) pollen cones or ovule cones' icrosporocytes (2n) D eiosis. producin! pollen !rain (n)

Microsporan!ia (2n) D 2ollen !rain contains

ale !a etophyte'

Each cone scale has 2 ovules' 2ollination) the pollen !rain has to reach the ovule. usually throu!h wind dispersal' %he pollen !rain then !er inates' %he tube cell then be!ins to produce the pollen tube' %he tube cell is di!estin! throu!h the e!asporan!iu ' ?hile the pollen tube develops. the e!asporocyte under!oes eiosis. producin! 4 haploid cells' %he 4 haploid cells are within the e!asporan!iu ' $nly ( cell survives' %his cell is called the e!aspore' %he e!aspore develops into the fe ale !a etophyte' %he fe ale !a etophyte produces 2 to + arche!onia (plural of arche!oniu )' Each arche!oniu for s an e!!. eanin! within each ovule there can be 2 to + e!!s produced' ?hen the pollen tube reaches the arche!oniu . the sper has already developed' #ow. fertili9ation occurs. and a 9y!ote is produced' :t usually takes at least ( year after pollination for fertili9ation to occur' Fi! +/'+b %he ovule. once it has been fertili9ed. finally beco es a seed' %he ovule. as a seed. contains its own

e bryo. food supply. and seed coat' <y nosper diversity) illion years

%he earliest fossil records of e*tant !y nosper s su!!est that they appeared about +/5 a!o' %here are 4 phyla) fi! +/'F

1ycadophyta have lar!e cones and pal -like leaves' 1ycadophyta have fla!ellated sper ' %he fla!ellated sper indicates descent fro seedless vascular plants (seedless vascular plants all have fla!ellated sper )' 1ycadophyta includes the ost endan!ered of all plant species due to habitat destruction and other hu an activity' <ink!ophyta have fla!ellated sper ' <ink!ophyta are deciduous (they drop off leaves in autu n) with fan-like leaves' <ink!ophyta are popular as orna ental trees in cities because they are tolerant of air pollution' 1oniferophyta is the lar!est phylu is !y nosper s' Most coniferphyta have woody cones and are ever!reens (retain leaves year-round)' An!iosper s are plants with flowers and fruit) ( 2hylu of an!iosper s) Anthophyta ost

%here are appro*i ately 25/./// species of anthophyta (&/G of all plants)' Anthophyta are the diverse and widespread of all plants'

A flower is a structure that is speciali9ed for se*ual reproduction' :t is a speciali9ed shoot with up to 4 types of odified leaves (sporophylls) called floral or!ans' Fi! +/', %he sepal is usually !reen' :t encloses the flower before it opens. and are sterile' 2etals are fre@uently bri!htly colored and release aro as to help attract pollinators' ?ind pollinated plants are not colored because they donHt need to be' 2etals are sterile' 6ta en produce icrospores' 6ta en consists of fila ent and anther' Anther produces Microspores develop to pollen !rains' 2ollen !rains contain the ale !a etophyte' icrospores'

%he carpel produces e!aspores' 1arpel consists of the sti! a. style. and ovary' 1ontainer plants are called container plants because the seeds are enclosed in the carpel' 6o e species have ( carpel or any carpel' %he sti! a is a sticky tip on which the pollen lands' %he fertili9ed ovule turns into the seed' :f the flower has all four flower or!ans. it is called a co plete flower' :f it lacks ( or or!ans. it is an inco plete flower' ore flower

%here is uch diversity in flower structure. color. and s ell' %his diversity ay be a result of adaptations to specific pollinators' For e*a ple. in any species. insects or other ani als transfer

pollen fro one flower to another' 6o e species are wind-pollinated" they are usually densely populated. such as !rasses' Most !y nosper s are wind-pollinated. whereas an!iosper s can be insect. ani al. or windpollinated' Fruits are the ovary wall that has thickened' %he ovary atures into the fruit as seeds develop fro ovules' %he fruit protects the seeds' Fruits can be fleshy or dry' Fi! +/'(/ :n fleshy fruit. the wall. called a pericarp. of the ovary beco es soft durin! ripenin!' Iry fruit are beans. nuts. and !rains' Fruits can aid in dispersal of seeds' 8arious adaptations for dispersal e*ist' Fi! +/'(( ?ind-dispersal fruits can have seeds that act like propellers' ?ater-dispersed fruits e* coconuts can float' Ani al-dispersed fruits can stick to ani als' $thers can be eaten. and the undi!ested seed will be defecated' An!iosper life cycle)

Ievelop ent of fe ale !a etophyte) %he ovary contains ( or ore ovules' Each ovule is a e!asporan!iu ' Each e!asporan!iu contains a e!asporocyte (2n)' %he e!asporocyte under!oes eiosis. producin! 4 haploid e!aspores' + e!aspores disinte!rate' ( functional e!aspore re ains and under!oes + itotic divisions. producin! , haploid nuclei at the end of the + itotic divisions' %he e!aspore develops in a ature fe ale !a etophyte called an e bryo sac' %he e bryo sac has F cells and , haploid nuclei' 0 of the cells have a sin!le nucleus and ( has 2 nuclei' %he cell with 2 nuclei is the e!!' + cells are antipodals. which disinte!rate' 2 cells are syner!ies. which disinte!rate and release che icals affectin! !rowth of the pollen tube' %he central cell is the one that contains the 2 nuclei called polar nuclei' %he e!! and central cell are directly involved in fertili9ation'