DIFFERENCES IN SUBJECTIVE EXPERIENCES OF FLOW AND TIME DISTORTION BETWEEN VIDEO GAMING AND READING EXCERCISES

ABSTRACT
The aim of this study was to examine whether there was a difference in the experience of flow, a state of immersive involvement while engaged in an activity, between two different types of activities; video gaming and reading. An experimental repeated measures design was employed, using 10 participants (7 males, 3 females) in two conditions. Participants were required to play a video game, and were instructed to inform the researcher when they believed 10 minutes to have elapsed. This was then repeated, but participants were required to read a book, again informing the researcher when they believed 10 minutes to have passed, with the expectation being that participants would experience a greater amount of flow in the video game condition than in the reading condition. Flow was measured using participant estimations of 10 minutes having passed and as expected, the actual time elapsed was greater than participant estimations in the video game condition, indicating a greater experience of flow. This is in keeping with existing theory and research which suggests that video games possess a high potential to evoke the flow state.

INTRODUCTION
Flow can be described as the state in which people are so involved in an activity that nothing else seems to matter ; the experience itself is so enjoyable that people will do it even at great cost, for the sheer sake of doing it (Csikszentmihalyi, 1990, p. 4). Whether or not an individual experiences flow, and the degree to which flow is experienced, can depend on both the personality of the individual (Teng, 2011) and the activity in question (Csikszentmihalyi, 1997). Teng (2011) reported that the likelihood of an individual having a flow experience is positively related to character traits such as persistence (perseverance in the face of frustration), self-transcendence (the desire to outperform oneself) and novelty seeking (the tendency to favour new experiences), but negatively related to self-directedness. With regard to the potential of different activities to induce the flow state, Csikszentmihalyi (1997) stated that the potential for flow in terms of leisure activities was highest in hobbies such as playing musical instruments, rock-climbing or going to the movies, and lowest in what he called passive leisure activities, such as watching television and reading. Csikszentmihalyi (1990) identified eight components of flow; a balance between ability level and challenge; concentration on the task in question; clear goals and immediate feedback; a loss of self-consciousness; a sense of control; merging of action and awareness; and finally, a sense of time distortion, usually a sense of the passage of time speeding up. Csikszentmihalyi further states that the flow experience is intrinsically rewarding. Since the proliferation of highly interactive electronic media such as the internet and video games, much research has taken place examining the extent to which these media evoke the experience of flow (Rau, Peng, & Yang, 2006; Tobin & Grondin, 2009; Wood, Griffiths, & Parke, 2007), alongside research which has examined whether this flow experience plays a role in problematic behaviours such as online games addiction (Chou & Ting, 2003; Wan & Chiou, 2006). One component of flow which has received attention is time distortion, particularly in the context of video game use. Tobin and Grondin (2009) conducted a study in which adolescents were asked to engage in a video game task and a reading task, and to estimate their time spent on each. Results showed significant underestimation of time spent playing the game when compared to estimates of time spent reading, possibly indicating some degree of flow. Similarly, Rau, Peng, and Yang (2006) found that both novice and expert players of the game Diablo II experienced time distortion, as well as finding it difficult to stop playing the game without external intervention, again possibly indicating a flow experience. Griffiths, and Parke (2007) reported that time distortion can be related to various structural characteristics of games and was experienced by players regardless of age, gender or frequency of play, implying that different types of games may result in different levels of flow experience, depending on how many of the eight components they satisfy. Despite time distortion being but one component of flow, it could also be considered a consequence of flow that is influenced by the presence of other components, or antecedents of flow such as a sense of control, a balance between ability level and challenge and clear goals (Ghani & Deshpande, 1994; Shin, 2006). Shin (2006) found that there was a positive correlation between the level of flow experienced and flow antecedents such as clear goals, concentration on the task at hand and a balance between ability level and challenge. Furthermore, Shins study found pos itive correlations between the level of flow experienced and components such as time distortion, focused attention, engagement and enjoyment, as well as correlations between these components themselves. As such, it is possible to infer the occurrence of a flow state by measuring time distortion experienced and by examining the nature of the task in question to reveal which antecedent components said task may require. This study attempted to validate previous findings in the area by demonstrating a greater experience of time distortion for participants in the video gaming condition compared to the reading condition. This was achieved by having participants engage in each condition with the requirement that they inform the researcher when they believed 10 minutes to have elapsed since the beginning of the exercise. It was expected that participants would underestimate time spent in the video game condition due to time distortion resulting from a flow experience.

METHOD
Design

This experiment employed a repeated measures design, with the time recorded for participants estimation of 10 minutes having elapsed serving as the dependent variable, and the video game and reading conditions serving as the independent variable. Means and standard deviations were compared upon completion of the experiment and a dependent t-test was also used in order to determine whether there was any statistically significant difference between the groups. Participants 10 participants were selected using convenience sampling, consisting of 7 males and 3 females, all of whom were college students. Participants ages ranged from 18-24, with a mean age of 21. Apparatus Apparatus used in this experiment included a puzzle game entitled Cut the Rope, for use in the video game condition and which is available on the iTunes app store and an iPhone 4 on which to play the game. Other apparatus included a book, in this case a fantasy novel entitled Magician by Raymond E. Feist, for use in the reading condition. Finally, a stop watch was required to record participant estimations of 10 minutes having elapsed. Procedure At the beginning of the experiment, participants were required to give to the experimenter any watches or phones which might be used to determine the amount of time which had passed. Participants were then brought to a room which lacked a clock or any other means of determining the time. Once settled, participants were presented with a video game of the puzzle genre, entitled Cut the Rope, in which the player must cut a series of ropes which are attached to a piece of candy, with the aim being to guide the candy into the mouth of a creature which resides at the bottom of the screen. Each level also contains 3 stars which, while optional, the player may collect if they so choose, although this typically increases the difficulty. Participants were given 5 minutes to play the first few levels of the game, thus allowing them to familiarise themselves with the game mechanics and objectives by way of a tutorial. The game was then removed temporarily while it was explained to participants that they were to play the game until they believed 10 minutes to have passed, at which point they were to inform the researcher. The difficulty of the game was then increased by the researcher, from the easier cardboard box set of levels used by participants to learn the basics of the game, to the more challenging fabric box set of levels. This moderate increase in difficulty helped to ensure the balance between ability and challenge; an important component of flow (Csikszentmihalyi, 1990, 1997). While this could be considered setting participants up to experience a flow state, it was necessary in order to facilitate the experiment as participants already knew how to read and as such it was important that they knew how to play the game, which required learning its mechanics and goals. Participants were then allowed to commence playing, informing the researcher when they believed 10 minutes to have passed. Actual time elapsed was then recorded by the researcher. Following this, participants were instructed to read the first chapter of a book entitled Magician. Again, participants were asked to inform the researcher when they believed 10 minutes to have passed. Actual time passed was then recorded by the researcher.

RESULTS
Table 1: Summary of conditions, N values, Means and Standard Deviations of actual time elapsed.
Condition Video Game Reading N 10 10 Mean Elapsed Time (s) 669.02 539.27 Standard Deviation 45.07112 46.94713

As Table 1 shows, participants underestimated the duration of time passed in the video game conditon by a considerable amount, on average exceeding the 10 minute goal by almost 70 seconds. Conversely, participants overestimated the amount of time passed in the reading condition by a similar amount, on average reporting 10 minutes to have passed just over 60 seconds before the 10 minute goal. The hypothesis for this study was that participants would experience greater flow in the video game condition than in the reading condition, based upon their estimation of 10 minutes having elapsed. The results show that participants experienced greater time distortion in the video game condition, indicating a greater experience of flow. As such, the hypothesis is supported. A dependent t-test was carried out in order to determine whether the results obtained were statistically significant. Results obtained in the t-test, as well as Cohens d and effect-size r, are displayed below. t(9) = 4.872, p < .05, d = 2.820, r = 0.816 These results further support the hypothesis on a statistical level by demonstrating a low probability of the results obtained being due to chance.

DISCUSSION
The aim of this research was to replicate the findings of previous research into the relationship between flow, time distortion, and video game use, as well as to test the research of Csikszentmihalyi (1997) into the potential for

individuals to experience flow across different types of activities; in this case video gaming and reading. With this in mind, it was expected that participants would experience a greater amount of flow, as measured by their losing track of time (underestimating the passage of 10 minutes) in the video gaming condition in comparison to the reading condition. The results of the experiment support this hypothesis, as participants underestimated time spent in the video game condition. This is symptomatic of time distortion and as such, indicative of a greater flow experience when compared to the reading condition. This result is in line with previous research (Rau, Peng, & Yang, 2006; Tobin & Grondin, 2009; Wood, Griffiths, & Parke, 2007) in the area. As previously mentioned, Csikszentmihalyi (1990) identified eight components of the flow state. The present study sought to measure flow by way of the amount of time distortion experienced by participants between conditions, and although this measure can only directly account for one component of flow, Shin (2006) found that that there was a positive correlation between time distortion and other components such as enjoyment (autotelic), engagement (merging of action and awareness), and focused attention (concentration on the task at hand), as well as a correlation between these components and the level of flow experienced. Therefore, by measuring time distortion experienced one can in theory infer the occurrence of these remaining components, and as such the occurrence of flow itself. Furthermore by examining the task in question, in this case a video gaming task, one can ascertain the presence of some of the remaining, antecedent components such as a balance between ability level and challenge, clear goals, immediate feedback, and a sense of control, all of which are present with regard to video games. Because Shin s study also found a correlation between some of these components and the degree to which flow is experienced, the presence of these antecedent components lend further credence to the inference of a flow state in the present study. With regard to the different activities presented in each condition, it could be said that video games possess a relatively high potential to induce the flow state, owing to their requirement of several antecedent components of the flow state as previously mentioned. Concerning the reading condition by way of comparison, Csikszentmihalyi (1997) reported activities such as reading as having a negative impact or low potential for flow. While this is arguable, the results of this experiment seemed to support this claim, with participants overestimating the amount of time that had passed in the reading condition, possibly indicating boredom and lack of flow. This could perhaps be explained by the absence or relative ambiguity of certain antecedent components when compared to the video gaming task, but may also have resulted from participants having not been allowed any time to familiarise themselves with the provided text prior to the beginning of the reading condition, as was the case in the video game condition. Nevertheless, similar results were obtained by Tobin and Grondin (2009), who reported that participants estimated time spent engaged at a video gaming task to be shorter than a reading task. Interestingly, they reported that short durations were overestimated while long durations were underestimated, which would seem to imply that the likelihood of experiencing flow and the resulting time distortion increases along with actual time spent engaged in a given exercise. Yet another interesting finding of the study was that participants who reported themselves as being inclined toward video games displayed greater underestimation of time played, which implies that an individuals interests play a role in the extent to which they experience flow, regardless of the potential for flow in the activity in question. However, Rau, Peng, and Yang (2006) reported that both novice and expert players of online games experienced time distortion, so a certain degree of flow may be inevitable, owing to the nature of video games in general, as previously mentioned. Methodological weaknesses included a lack of background information on participants, such as information regarding how often they play games or read, variables which could affect the likelihood to experience flow (Tobin & Grondin, 2009) or the degree to which flow is experienced (Rau, Peng, & Yang, 2006). This could have been alleviated through the use of a questionnaire prior to testing or through the use of the Flow State Scale (FSS) after testing had been completed. Similarly, a lack of information regarding character and personality traits of participants may have been useful, as Teng (2011) reported that an individuals likelihood of experiencing flow is related to certain traits. Again, thi s could have been solved using a personality questionnaire. Participant estimation of time elapsed may also have been influenced by participant awareness of the cut-off point, that being 10 minutes. This could have been alleviated by having participants engage in each condition for 15 minutes and then having them estimate time elapsed. It is also worth noting that, as previously mentioned, participants were allowed time to familiarise themselves with the video game provided but not with the text provided, which may have affected their likelihood of experiencing flow in the reading condition. With regard to the use of time distortion experienced as the sole measure of flow in the present study, this was chosen above the Flow State Scale due to the reliance of the FSS on the participants ability to recall the intensity of their subjective experiences of various flow components. If participants were required to fill out the FSS immediately after each condition, their naivety of what the researcher sought to measure would have been compromised and may have affected results. Conversely, results may have been influenced by an order effect had the participants been required to fill out the FSS only once both conditions had come to their conclusion, possibly skewing results in favour of the most recently completed condition due to reduced ability of participants to recall their experience in the initial condition. This could have been alleviated through use of a between subjects design, in which case the use of the FSS in conjunction with the measure of time distortion experienced may have resulted in a more well-rounded picture of flow experienced. Sample size of n = 10 was also quite small, and thus may not be completely representative. Finally, non-standardised conditions between participants such as time of day may have impacted on results due to fatigue levels, hunger, or other confounding variables. Despite the weaknesses, results were still consistent with existing literature. As previously mentioned, the findings of this study seem to imply a high potential for flow in terms of video games, resulting from their interactive nature and requirement or evocation of most if not all of the components of flow (Csikszentmihalyi, 1990). Although participants overestimated time spent in the reading condition, this could be due to participants being aware they had no chance of finishing or even progressing a relevant amount in the text provided, which may have resulted in disinterest, thus not necessarily indicating that flow is experienced to any lesser degree while

reading in general. Differences in estimated time between the two conditions may also result from the order in which the conditions were presented; participants progressed from a highly engaging interactive exercise in the video game condition to a less engaging exercise in the reading condition. Thus it is possible that the results may have been different had the conditions taken place in the reverse order. However, it is worth noting that Tobin and Grondin (2009) conducted a similar, albeit more complex experiment involving video gaming and reading tasks, which took presentation order effect into account, and concluded that higher time estimations in the reading task should not be caused by a presentation order effect. In conclusion, this study supports the hypothesis that there would be a greater experience of time distortion and by inference, flow, in the video gaming condition than in the reading condition, suggesting a considerable potential for the experience of a flow state when playing video games. Future research should focus on the aforementioned order effect on the experience of time distortion and flow between different types of activities, as there is very little dedicated research available on this topic specifically. Also worthy of further examination is the capacity of measured time distortion to predict the presence and intensity of the remaining antecedents/components of flow.

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Ghani, J. A., & Deshpande, S. P. (1994). Task characteristics and the experience of optimal flow in human- computer interaction. Journal of Psychology: Interdisciplinary and Applied, 128(4), 381-391. Rau, P., Shu-Yun, P., & Chin-Chow, Y. (2006). Time distortion for expert and novice online game Cyberpsychology & Behaviour, 9(4), 396-403. Shin, N. (2006). Online learner's 'flow' experience: An empirical study. British Journal of Educational 37(5), 705-720. Teng, C. (2011). Who are likely to experience flow? Impact of temperament and character on flow. and Individual Differences, 50(6), 863-868. Ting-Jui, C. & Chih-Chen, T. (2003). The role of flow experience in cyber-game addiction. Behaviour, 6(6), 663-675. players. Technology,

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players: An empirical