Anselmo Matusse

Discourses on African Green Revolution: mapping interests and uncovering framings

Anselmo Matusse1 1. Introduction In this paper I analyze discourses on the African Green Revolution Policy using Whats the Problem? Approach and Frame theory; I also included debates on Political Ecology. The ocus rather than on problem! considered as real and e"isting per se! is on ho# it is represented or ramed! and #hat assumptions and presuppositions underlie the corresponding solution to this $problem% and #hat implications these representations ha&e. In order to access these representations! an interpretati&e #or'! in (li ords )eertz *+,-./ sense! #as carried out on discourses! not seen merely as #ords or concepts but also practices! #hich! inherently! shape and are shaped by po#er relations *0ichel Foucault cited by )raham! 1223! 0anuel (astels! 12++/. As Foucault puts it discourses dictate #hat is true or alse in a certain ield. This is the 'ind o social structuring that I see' to scrutinize. In this paper! irst! I attempted to map di erent sta'eholders discourses on )reen 4e&olution in A rica and their representations o food insecurity/hunger second! to contribute to the ongoing debate on policy analysis; and third! pro&ide a basis to aid the policy ma'ing process in A rica. I sought to ans#er the ollo#ing research 5uestions! raised by 6achi *+,,,/7 #hat is the problem represented to be? What presuppositions or assumptions underlie this representation? What

0asters student at 8in'oping 9ni&ersity! :cience or :ustainable ;e&elopment! Analytical Frame#or's to :ustainable ;e&elopment! 12+<
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Anselmo Matusse

e ects are produced by this representation? And #hat these representations lea&e unproblematic? The data #as collected through literary re&ie# and document analysis. I also resorted to debates on the internet about )reen 4e&olution in A rica. I couldnt underta'e inter&ie#s due to practical reasons and this bore limitations in terms o depth o analysis; a limitation I sought to o&ercome by aggregating a &ariety o documents and studies co&ering this ield rom the Asian! 8atin American )reen 4e&olution e"perience to the $=e#% A rican )reen 4e&olution pro>ect. I also realize the limitations o my #or' as there is $no truth out there%! *Foucault cited by )raham! 1223/! #e could use to legitimate or not a claim; but this epistemological and methodological limitation also allo#s me to problematize those claims that presuppose other#ise. ?n the irst part o the paper! I discuss theoretical rame#or's to policy analysis! their heuristic and interpretati&e &alues and limitations; on the second part! I identi y di erent agents and sta'eholders and their respecti&e discourses on )reen 4e&olution in order to shed light on the assumptions and presuppositions underlying the problem representation and its implications! and on the third part! I discuss possible routes to enhance sustainable #ays o increasing agricultural yields using an integrati&e and inclusi&e approach.

;iscourses on A rican )reen 4e&olution7 mapping interests and unco&ering ramings 2. Analytical frameworks to policy studies 6achi *+,,,/ on her boo' Women, Policy and Politics identi ies t#o approaches to policy analysis! namely! 4ational Approach and Political 4ationalists #hich she calls $traditional approaches% *6achi +,,,/. $4ational approaches also called Technical 4ationalists to policy! embrace a positi&istic epistemology! endorsing the &ie# that there is a real #orld #hich is accessible to ob>ecti&e description and analysis% *6achi! +,,,7 +-/. This approach states that the problem is $out there% and is consensually and e5ually percei&ed by e&erybody as it assumes that $there is some readily identi iable social or economic problem #hich needs addressing and that policy ma'ers get together and do their best to come up #ith a policy #hich #ill address this problem% *6achi! +,,,7+-/; it also assumes that policy ma'ers $#ill approach this tas' rationally and come up #ith the best solution gi&en cultural! political and economic constraints% *idem/. =eedless say that this approach o&eremphasizes consensus and rationality and does not ta'e into account di erent interests and perspecti&es sta'eholders might ha&e regarding a $problem% @ there is a lac' o perspectivenss. This approach ocuses on matters o matters o concern and the eedbac's these *might/ ha&e. Political 4ationalists are! according to 6achi *+,,,/! incrementalists and pluralists. This author states that this approach ob>ects the idea that policy is a straight or#ard matter o inding acts and o&erloo's the

technical ans#ers to readily identi ied problems. The proponents o this approach argue that &alues should be gi&en ocus as di erent sta'eholders ha&e di erent &alues; ho#e&er! these &alues should be accounted or rationally. This approach assumes that $a system o negotiation and compromise #or's #ell in democracies #hich! ideally at least! gi&es &oices to a number o groups @ pluralism% *6achi! +,,,7 +A/; the participation o di erent sta'eholders #ho hold
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ade5uate technical 'no#ledge can ma'e it possible to come up #ith a satis actory policy solution. This approach bears similar limitations as the Technical 4ationalists! as they both ocus on matters o act! the problem! as 6achi *+,,,/ argues. 6oth approaches ha&e a heuristic &alue as they can e"plain ho# a policy is *or should be/ structured! assuming that there is a problem out there. It is possible to understand these

approaches $insist that policy ma'ing is a struggle o&er meaning and signi icance% *6achi! +,,,712/. They both ocus on problem solution; they ocus on mechanisms to coming up #ith the best solution to a problem using ade5uate technical 'no#ledge. These approaches! ho#e&er! do not ocus on po#er relations #hich characterize the policy ma'ing process. The third approach! #hich I use on this paper! is Whats the Problem? Approach *WPA/. This approach! opposite rom the other t#o! does not ocus on the problem solution but on the problem representation. This approach argues that $e&ery postulated Bsolution has built into it a particular representation o #hat the problem is! and it is these representations! and their implications! #e need to discuss% *6achi +,,,7 1+/. According to 6achi *+,,,/! it ma'es no sense to consider the Bob>ects or targets o policy as e"isting independently o the #ay they are spo'en about or represented either in political debate or in policy proposals. The ocus is shi ted rom the problem to the problematization @ representations; 6achi *+,,,/ suggest #e ta'e a step bac'#ards. This approach is not ne#; there is an institutionalized 'no#ledge in AnthropologyCsociology on ho# meanings and signi icance arise rom social relations and shape these *(li ord )eertz! +,-.! 6ourdieu! +,--! :herry ?rtner +,A<! etc/. The 5uestion I pose is ho# do #e get access to representations? 6achi *+,,,/ states that #e need to ocus on discourse! understood as $speci ic ensemble o ideas! concepts! and categorizations that is produced! reproduced! and trans ormed in a particular set o practices and through #hich
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;iscourses on A rican )reen 4e&olution7 mapping interests and unco&ering ramings meaning is gi&en to physical and social realities *Da>er! +,,3 cited by :omorin et al 12+17 1,2/. In this case! the ocus is on agency rather than structures! thus the name postEstructuralism 1. According to the Frame Theory! it is crucial to understand ho# di erent sta'eholders $ rame% the problem. Frames pro&ide sense and meaning to peoples actions and also guide their actions and thin'ing in policy matters *:omorin et al 12+1/; 0anuel (astels *12++/ uses the concept $programming% #ith a similar meaning in his Net or! "heory of Po er. Perri *122,/ cited by :omorin et al *12+171,2/ argues that rames per orm t#o unctions! namely7 irst! they organize e"perience *i.e. they enable people to recognize #hats going on! they pro&ide boundaries! de ine #hat counts as an e&ent or a eature/! and second! they produce a bias or action *i.e. they represent peoples #orlds in #ays that already call or particular styles o decision or beha&ioural response/. With these assumptions it is possible to hypothesize that di erent interests! indi&iduals or institutions rame a problem di erently. 0y ocus is on po#er relations; according to (astells *12++/! discourses are #ays o communicating po#er. Political Ecologists! also emphasize po#er relations and 5uestion issues related to social >ustice! e5uity and resource distribution. This debate is e5ually important as it necessary to 5uestion #ho says #hat? Who gets #hat? And #hy? As I e"plained earlier! discourse! here! is understood as language and other types o actions! e&ents and practices; these are inherently conte"tEdependent or situationEspeci ic *Dudon and 4onnblom! 122-/. According to Forgensen and Phillips *1221/! the #ays in #hich #e

understand and represent the #orld are historically and culturally speci ic and contingent. In this #ay! to ma'e a discourse analysis one needs to ta'e conte"t into account. As 6achi *+,,,/ puts it! conte"t is highly important in a WPA as $problems% are o ten constituted di erently due to locationEspeci ic! institutionEspeci ic! historyEspeci ic and actors#specific actors *my italics/.
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For more in depth discussion see Bachi (1999)

Anselmo Matusse

3.

apping interests and uncovering t!e framings: w!o sings t!e tune"

?ne o the speci icity o discourses is that they are inherently characterized by and occur in po#er relations *(astells! 12++/. :o it is &ery important to scrutinize #hose interests and representations certain discourses! in this speci ic case A rican )reen 4e&olution! see' to sa eguard. ;ano *122-/ states that since the +,,2s )reen 4e&olution in A rica is the dominant mantra in the de&elopment discourses. )reen 4e&olution #as irst introduced in Asia and rom Asia! it #as also implemented in 8atin America; the A rican )reen 4e&olution is trans erence o Asias e"perience *;ano! 122-! 0ittal and 0oore! 122,/. In A rica! )reen 4e&olution #as strongly $prescribed% by the same actors #ho promoted the initial idea in Asia! namely! the 4oc'e eller Foundation! the A rican arms o the (onsultati&e )roup on International Agricultural 4esearch *()IA4/! an institution created by the 4oc'e eller Foundation to pro&ide the scienti ic and technical bac'bone or the )reen 4e&olution in Asia *;ano! 122-/ and the )atesE4oc'e eller oundations Alliance or a ne# )reen 4e&olution or A ricaGA)4A.! and others. Though there #as reshaping o discourses in the A rican green 4e&olution. This process in A rica came #ith a $ne#%! $greener% or $doubly% tag to sho# that there ha&e been impro&ements since the Asian e"perience! ho#e&er! ;ano *122-/ states that these tags came a e# years into the push or the introduction o )0 crops! allegedly more suitable or the local climate guaranteeing thus optimal yields. This model o de&elopment! I argue! is highly mar'et based! and trans orms A rica in a mar'et or the #estern! speci ically 9:A! )0?! technology and ertilizers industries.
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;iscourses on A rican )reen 4e&olution7 mapping interests and unco&ering ramings The solution or the food insecurity/hunger in A rica #as ramed as being the need or the liberalization o A rican economies to embrace pri&ate in&estment! use o )0?s and agricultural biotechnology! and ertilizers to guarantee )reen 4e&olution! using the Asian e"perience as a paradigm. This raming pri&ileges technological i"es! and is imposing; it is a top do#n approach; it doesnt ta'e conte"t into consideration and reproduces or increases e"isting une5ual patterns o distribution! #hich #as &ery #ell documented by 4oberts et al *+,A</; it also o&erloo's the political role technologies play as Winner *+,A2/ argues; this discourse I call $essentialist%. :tri&e 0asiyi#a! &ice president o A)4As 6oard o Administration stated on the third Forum or the A rican )reen 4e&olution held in 12+. in 0aputo city! in 0ozambi5ue! that $currently! more than A2H o A rican armers rely on nonEmodi ied seeds. The use o ertilizers is estimated bet#een one to nine 'ilograms per hectare! against 122 to I22 'ilograms in Europe%<. What is interesting to obser&e is ho# this discourse #as readily recei&ed by A rican )reen 4e&olution policy ma'ers and actors li'e the =e# Partnership or A ricaJs ;e&elopment *=EPA;/! A rican 9nion *A9/ and A rican )o&ernments. For e"ample! the 0ozambican )reen 4e&olution :trategy has the ob>ecti&e o increasing production and producti&ity through the use o )0 seeds! ertilizers! technologies o production ade5uate to the local reality! mechanization! etc. Although! cautious about the need to loo' or technologies that are conte"t sensiti&e and an endogenous model de&elopment this strategy is also highly mar'et based; this strategy shi ts dependency rom ood imports to inputs o production imports! as )0 seeds! biotechnologies and pesticides are imported at high prices rom #estern societies! speci ically 9:A. This point is
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http://www portaldo"o&erno "o& m'/noticias/a"ricultura/setem(ro)de)2*13/re&olucao)&erde)sera)uma) realidade)na)pro+ima)"eracao/

Anselmo Matusse

also raised by (lea&er *122+/ #hen he ma'es a connection bet#een )reen 4e&olution and the *American/ Imperialism. According to this author! the de&elopment o this ne# technology * or the )reen 4e&olution/ is &ery much a part o the e ort o the American elite to direct the course o social and economic de&elopment in the third #ord. There is also another mani estation o the $essentialist discourse%! #hich presupposes that only monetary in&estment #ill increase production and producti&ity. For e"ample! in 122.! <<

A rican countries! in an A rican 9nion meeting! signed the ;eclaration o 0aputo! #hich stated that each country should channel +2H o their budget to agriculture and guarantee an annual gro#th o IH or the )reen 4e&olution to ta'e place; in 12+.! only +2 countries #ere success ul in this tas'; this solution! alongside #ith the one e"plained abo&e! is $essentialist% as unding

and pri&ate in&estments are seen as 'ey solutions to food insecurity problem; here it is possible to note the t#o unctions o raming discussed by Da>er cited by :omorin et al *12+171,2/.

Although this discourse! in some point presupposes a participation o local sta'eholders! it is inherently a topEdo#n approach in #hich local actors are constructed as clients! costumers! in need! ob>ects o the )reen 4e&olution promoters and doesnt ta'e into account e"isting social po#er relations and ine5ualities. Farosz *12+1/ argues that inter&entions built upon e"isting social! political and economic ine5ualities #ill only deepen une5ual access! distribution and control o ood and oodEproducing resources or rural people. This is #hat this $essentialist discourse lea&es unproblematic. 4oberts et al *+,A</! citing the 4adical 0odel! states that $most peasants are not able to purchase the )reen 4e&olution inputs! nor do they o#n su icient land or pro itable culti&ation. It is e"pected that #ealthy armers #ill e"propriate land rom poor armers and trans orm these into arm laborers or unemployed! increasing thus their &ulnerability. Furthermore! this author alerts
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;iscourses on A rican )reen 4e&olution7 mapping interests and unco&ering ramings to the act that there is no *necessary/ connection bet#een the use o biotechnology and ood production. This can be corroborated by the e"amples o countries that ailed to achie&e high le&els o ood production despite the huge amount o oreign in&estment in agricultural

biotechnologies. As 6achi *+,,,/ stated! sta'eholders interests shape their raming or representation o a

problem so it is not surprising that pri&ate agribusiness corporations! #ith a strong pri&ate initiati&e culture! mar'et based mentality that characterizes 9:A! #ould shape the problem o food insecurity in A rica as the lac' o the use o )0?! ertilizers and agricultural

biotechnology! products and technologies 9:A produces! #hich e# o A rican countries are currently producing and e# ha&e strict regulations in these areas as their #estern counterparts! so the $=e#% A rican )reen 4e&olution #as $the solution%. This $=e#% )reen 4e&olution in A rica is! according to ;ano *122-7+/! a $Tro>an Dorse% pa&ing the #ay or entry by transnational agrochemical! ertilizer and agricultural biotechnology companies to peddle their #ares%. 8a"man *12++/ alerts to the act that that most o these nations *;e&eloping (ountries/ ha&e not ormulated ade5uate legal and institutional rame#or's supported #ith the necessary e"pertise to regulate! monitor! and ensure sa ety o agricultural )0?s produced andCor imported by them. :o this openness may bring not >ust economic! en&ironmental and social problems but also health problems and undermine the de&elopment o A rican countries. ?ne e"pects rom liberal capitalist institutions and actors such as the o ones behind the $=e#% )reen 4e&olution in A rica! that mar'et based options are dei ied and po#er relations! either globally or locally are o&erloo'ed. For e"ample! Pellizzoli *12+271+,/ in her article Green Revolution for hom$ Women%s access to and use of land in the Mo&ambi'ue (h)! * +rrigation
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Anselmo Matusse

,cheme! states that in this conte"t o mar'et based option or increasing agricultural production $appears that e"pecting small armers! and in particular #omen! to be able to compete in the globalised rice mar'et is unrealistic! and can perpetuate une5ual gendered access to resources such as land and #ater%. 8and grabbing! ambiguous property rights are also pointed as aspects that #ill remain unchanged i not intensi ied. 4. Going #eyond t!e dominant discourse on African Green Revolution: voicing t!e silenced discourses and finding alternatives As many po#er relations theorists argue! po#er is not a oneE#ay direction category; dominant discourses are al#ays met #ith counterEdiscourses or resistance that may ta'e &arious orms *(astells! 12++/. These counterEdiscourses on A rican )reen 4e&olution range rom global actors to local ones and &ice &ersa. In A rica although ci&il society is mostly #ea'! it has a crucial role in &oicing the concerns o the poor ma>ority. It is also important to scrutinize their discourses as #ell! because romanticizing these #ould bear not only serious theoretical and ontological but also socioEpolitical and en&ironmental implications. Dere as #ell it is important to use Whats the Problem? Approach. =o# it I can pose the 5uestion rose by Pellizzoli *12+2/! Green Revolution for hom$ Altieri and Toledo *12++/ suggest an alternati&e model to the one presented abo&e; they call this model agroEecological; this model is gaining popularity in 8atin America. $AgroEecologicalEbased production systems are bioEdi&erse! resilient! energetically e icient! socially >ust and comprise the bases o an energy! producti&e and ood so&ereignty% *Altieri! )liessman cited by Altieri and Toledo 12++/. This model opposite rom the $=e#% A rican )reen 4e&olution suggests a horizontal approach in #hich local 'no#ledges and resources are &alued; so there is a
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;iscourses on A rican )reen 4e&olution7 mapping interests and unco&ering ramings considerable reduction o dependence rom input suppliers and global mar'et! conse5uently the $empo#erment o the peasants% *idem/. In this case! peasants are seen as capable and possessing 'no#ledge in the agricultural practice. Do#e&er! or this model to #or'! it is necessary to guarantee $access o peasants to lands! seeds! #ater! credit and local mar'ets! partly through creation o supporti&e economic policies! inancial incenti&es! mar'et opportunities and agroE ecological technologies% *idem73AA/ and in case o many A rican countries in rastructures should also be built to guarantee circulation o products and people; many cases o rotten produces in the barns ha&e been reported! or e"ample! in 0ozambi5ue due to the lac' o in rastructures and local mar'ets. (limate change also plays a crucial role on ood security in A rica! droughts and loods are recurrent in many conte"ts! this also needs to be care ully addressed. According to Alitieri and Toledo *12++/! organic arming systems that do not challenge the monoculture nature o plantations and rely on e"ternal inputs ha&e become commoditized; there ore armers continue to be dependent on e"ternal inputs and oreign and &olatile mar'ets. This is the 'ind o argument I ha&e been de ending so ar. 0ost ci&il society and en&ironmental organizations hold a similar &ie#. AgroEecological agriculture is an e"ample o ho# science and agricultural practice! scientists and armers or peasants! can #or' together. Woodhouse *122171,-/ argues that it is necessary $to tac'le problems o ho# to reconstruct technoEscience to promote more democratic!

en&ironmentally sustainable! socially >ust! or other#ise pre erable ci&ilization%. I dont argue that this model corresponds to the truth! but the democratic and air assumptions under #hich it is ormulated are the necessary re5uirements not >ust to boost agricultural production but also empo#er peasants and reduce social and economic ine5ualities. I am a#are
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Anselmo Matusse

that peasants are not a homogenous group #ith similar ob>ecti&es and agendas as this agroE ecological model seems to suggest; but the con licts and di erent perspecti&es these armers ha&e on agriculture are necessary or a horizontal dialogue to ta'e place. 5. Conclusion Its undeniable that hunger in A rica is 'illing many people; although it is urgent to come up #ith solutions to the current situation it is also important to scrutinize the options police ma'ers ma'e as these might bear se&ere social! economic and en&ironmental conse5uences. In my te"t I sought to ans#er the ollo#ing 5uestions7 #hat is the problem represented to be? What presuppositions or assumptions underlie this representation? What e ects are produced by this representation? I #ill synthesise my thoughts as ollo#s7 food insecurity is ramed as being caused by the lac' o the use o )0?! agricultural biotechnologies and ertilizers by armers #hich decreases ood production; this representations presupposes that using )0?!

biotechnologies and ertilizers #ill increase ood production! e"ports and increase peoples income and inta'e o calories; this representation creates opportunity or 9:As agribusiness industries to ta'e o&er A rican mar'et and supply their products as none o these are currently produced in most A rican countries. This mar'et based! topEdo#n and e-ternatist de&elopment model conceals po#er relations and ine5uities that are already ta'ing place in these countries and also increase A ricas dependence on the #est. :tudies indicate that there is no *necessary/ relation bet#een )reen re&olution and ood production! and that in countries #here this process #as implemented the clea&ages bet#een poor and rich instead o decreasing they sa# an increase; in most A rican countries there are issues that need to be care ully addressed such as clear land tenure! gender and social e5uity!
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;iscourses on A rican )reen 4e&olution7 mapping interests and unco&ering ramings transparency! e&en distribution o income and regulatory system to curb the use o )0 seeds that can cause harm to human health and en&ironment. This re5uires in&ol&ement o all sta'eholders! mostly the small scale armers and peasants. I also suggested that agroEecological arming could be a sustainable option to increase ood production #hile empo#ering peasants or armers. Although this models bears limitations li'e any other model! its democratic and horizontal approach might pro&e use ul to change the current situation in A rica. 0oreo&er! there are still a lot o contro&ersies regarding the use o )0?s and pesticides to let A rican countries sell this option as unproblematic and e ecti&e. Although increase in production might occur in the medium term in the long term the bill to be paid #ill be too high mostly or the poor people.

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6. References Altieri! 0iguel and Toledo! Kictor. $The Agroeclogical 4e&olution in 8atin America7 rescuing nature! ensuring ood so&ereignty and empo#ering peasants%. The Fournal o Peasant :tudies. .A*./.12++73A-EI+1 6acchi! (arol. Women, policy and politics. 8ondon7 :age. +,,, 6ourdieu! Pierre. .utline of the "heory of Practice/ (ambridge 9ni&ersity Press. (am!bridge. +,--

(astells! 0anuel. $A =et#or' Theory o (ommunications. 3 *12++/. --.E-A-

Po#er%. International Fournal o

(lea&er! Darry. $The (ontradictions o the )reen 4e&olution%. American Economic Association. 122+ ;ano! Elenita. 0nmas!ing the Ne Green Revolution in Africa1 motives, players and dynamics . 0alaysia . Third World =et#or'. 122)eertz! (li ord. "he +nterpretation of (ultures1 selected essays. =e# Lor'. 6asic 6oo's. +,-. )raham! 8inda. $;iscourse Analysis and the (ritical use o Foucault%. :ydney. Paper presented in the Australian Association or 4esearch in Education. 1223 Dudson! (hristine M 4Nnnblom! 0alin. 4egional de&elopment policies and the construction o gender e5ualityO! i European Fournal o Political 4esearch! <I *+/ 122I7 <-EIA. Farosz! 8ucy. $)ro#ing Ine5uality7 agricultural re&olutions and the political ecology o rural de&elopment%. International Fournal o Agricultural :ustainability. +2.12+17 +,1E+,, Forgensen! 0arriane and Phillips! 8ouise. 2iscourse Analysis as "heory and Methody . :age. 1221 8a"man! 8e'ha. B)0?s! :a ety (oncerns and International Trade7 de&eloping countries perspecti&es%. Fournal o International Trade 8a# and Policy. +2 *./ 12++
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;iscourses on A rican )reen 4e&olution7 mapping interests and unco&ering ramings 0ittal! Anuradha and 0oore! 0elissa *ed/. 3oices from Africa1 African 4armers and

5nvironmentalists ,pea! out against a Ne Institute. 122,

Green Revolution in Africa %. The ?a'land

?rtner! :herry. $Theory in Anthropology since the :isties%. (omparati&e :tudies in :ociety and Distory. 1I *+/. +,A<7 +1IE+II Pellizzoli! 4oberta. $)reen 4e&olution or Whom?7 Womens access to and use o land in the 0ozambi5ue (hP'#Q Irrigation :cheme%. 4e&ie# o A rican Political Economy. .-. 12+27 1+.7112 4oberts! 0ichel. $The Policy (onse5uences o )reen 4e&olution7 the 8atin American case%. Policy :tudies 4e&ie#. <*1/. +,A< :omorin! ?lu unso et al. $The (ongo 6asin Forests in a (hanging (limate7 policy discourses on adaptation and mitigation. )lobal En&ironmental (hange. 11. 12+17 1AAE1,A Winner! 8angdon. $;o arti acts ha&e politics?% ;aedaleus +2, *+/ +,A27+1+E+.I.

Woodhouse! Ed#ard et al. $:cience :tudies and Acti&ism7 possibilities and problems or reconstructi&ist agendas%. :ocial :tudies o :cience. .1*1/. 12217 1,-E.+,

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