UNESCO-NIGERIA TECHNICAL & VOCATIONAL EDUCATION REVITALISATION PROJECTPHASE II

NATIONAL DIPLOMA IN CIVIL ENGINEERING TECHNOLOGY

INTRODUCTION TO FLUID MECHANICS

COURSE CODE: CEC107

YEAR I- SE MESTER 1
PRACTICAL

CIVIL ENGINEERING TECHNOLOGY INTRODUCTORY FLUID MECHANICS (CEC 107) COURSE CONTENTS WEEK 1 Application of specific energy momentum function WEEK 2 Continuation of practical in week one WEEK 3 Flow over weirs WEEK 4 Continuation of the practical in week three WEEK 5 Diffusion of gas WEEK 6 Applying the momentum flow on a jet of water striking flat plate WEEK 7 4.0 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 FLOW IN PIPES Fluid in motion Uniform and steady flow Rate of flow Continuity equation

PRACTICAL Minor losses in pipes WEEK 8 Site visit to Gurara Dam to see pipe laying WEEK 9

Site visit to Kangimi Dam to see different types of weirs WEEK 10 Site visit to a site where construction of open drain is In progress

WEEK 11 Experiment on Reynolds' dye WEEK 12 Visit to irrigation sites to see water pumps WEEK 13 Visit to Malali treatment plant to see more pumps

WEEK 14 Visit to Barnawa water treatment plant to see more pumps

WEEK 15 Second visit to Gurara Dam to see turbine

PRACTICAL
WEEK ONE
APPLICATION OF SPECIFIC ENERGY AND MOMENTUM FUNCTIONS AIM 1) To confirm the theory relating to the flow under a sluice gate with the formation of a hydraulic jump in a rectangular channel; 2) To estimate the force exerted by the sluice gate on the flow from the momentum function consideration; 3) To estimate the energy head loss and the power loss due to the hydraulic jump by specific energy consideration. APPARATUS a) b) A rectangular open channel model with down stream control weir; Constant and steady supply of water into the channel with a means of

varying the flow; c) d) e) f) g) Sluice gate; Depth measuring device; Flow rate measuring facility; Stop watch and Measuring scale.

Adjustable Sluice gate Hydraulic jump

channel Downstream control weir

pump

Fig.1

y3 y2

y1

Fig. 2

From fig. 2 above, at any point the specific energy E and momentum function M is given by: E = y + q2 2gy2

and

M = q2 + y2 per unit width gy 2 where y = depth of flow q = flow rate per unit width = Q/b Q = total discharge b = channel width

Applying the E and M concepts to the flow under sluice gate with the formation of a hydraulic jump, gives: a) For flow under sluice gate; E1 = E2 And P = P/g = M2 M1 Where P = force per unit width exerted by the sluice gate on the fluid. b) For hydraulic jumps: M2 = M3 i.e. q2 + y22 = q2 + y32 gy2 2 gy3 2 y3 = y2 2 [1 + 8F22 ] - 1

Where F = Froude number =

q gy23

Due to lack of time, we stopped the practical here. We will continue and finish the remaining next week

PRACTICAL
WEEK TWO
The practical started in the first week continued in this week because we are not able to finish it last week. Procedure Adjust the channel bed model to a horizontal position and place sluice gate at a fixed height above bed, sealing the openings between the gate and channel well to prevent leakage. Record the height of the gate above the channel bed and the width of the channel (b). Admit water into the channel and adjust the flow control and downstream control weir to give the required flow profile. Allow the system to steady and take the discharge Q, and the flow depths y1, y2 and y3. Vary the flow rates and repeat the readings. Take at least 4 readings and record them as shown on the observation table below: Readings: Channel width (b) = . Height of gate above channel bed = Vol. of water collected Time (s) Discharge y1 Q (m3/s) (m) y2 (m) y3 (m) q(m2/s) E2 (m) E3 (m) E2-E3 (m)

(m3)

Choose any experimental value of q and with varying depth of flow, using the

equation E = y + q2 Plot the depths against specific energy E. 2gy2

PRACTICAL
WEEK THREE
FLOW OVER WEIRS Objectives 1. To determine the relationship between head H and flow rate Q over rectangular and Vee notches (weirs). 2. To determine the discharge coefficient C for each notch by comparing the measured flow with the ideal flow. Method 1. Stand the apparatus on the hydraulic bench and connect the bench supply hose

to the inlet pipe. Fix the flexible outlet hose into the pipe leading to the bench weighing tank. 2. Carefully slide the rectangular notch plate into the groove on the apparatus and check that the rubber seal makes contact with the plate along all three edges. 3. Switch on the bench pump and open the bench supply valve. Fill the apparatus with water until the level reaches the bottom crest of the notch. Close the supply valve. 4. Using a beaker, add or remove water until the water surface is just level with the notch crest. Use a steel rule to check that the level is correct. 5. Set the hook gauge dial to zero and slide the hook up and down until the point of the hook just coincide with the water surface. Subsequent readings of the water level will then be relative to the true datum at crest level.

6. Set the hook gauge to a reading of 60 mm. Then adjust the bench supply valve until the water level corresponds roughly to the hook gauge setting. 7. Wait until the water level had settled to a constant value, then adjust the hook to this level and read the value of the head. 8. Measure the flow rate by timing the collection of water in the bench weighing tank. Again use the hook gauge to measure the water level and record a mean value of head. 9. Now decrease the head by about 5 mm and take another set of head and flow rate readings. Repeat this procedure until you have about 8 sets of readings over a range of heads down to about 15 mm. 10. Close the bench supply valve and fix the Vee notch to the apparatus. Set the water level to the base of the Vee notch by adding or removing water. Check that the level is correct by observing the notch from close to the water surface. The point of the Vee and its reflection should coincide. 11. Repeat the procedures given in steps (5) to (9), but this time obtain readings over a range of heads between 80 to 30 mm. 12. Switch off the bench pump. Record the width of the rectangular notch and the semi-angle of the Vee notch We will stop here and the practical will be concluded next week.

PRACTICAL
WEEK FOUR
This week we will conclude the practical we started last week. Results The Volume flow rates for the two notches are given by the following equations: Rectangular: Q=C 2 [2gb H3/2] 3

Vee Notch: Q=C 8

15

[ 2g tan] H5/2

The expressions in square brackets represent the ideal fix rates. The discharge coefficient C is thus the ratio of the actual flow to the ideal flow for each notch. Both equations can be expressed in logarithmic form as: Log Q = log K + n log H 1. Convert your values of Q and H to units of m3 / sec and m of water. Plot curves of Q against H. 2. Plot graphs of log Q against H. The points should lay on straight lines of slope n = 3/2 and 5/2. 1. Now obtain values of k and hence calculate the discharge coefficient C for each notch using the following expressions:

For rectangular:

C=

k 2/3 2gb

For Vee Notch

C=

k 8/15 2g tan

Conclusion In his laboratory report, the student is expected to write a summary of what he has learnt, which will answer the following questions: 1. To what extent has the results obtained confirmed the theory learnt in the lectures. 2. Is the value of C constant over the flow range for each notch? 3. If the drawing of the graphs were to be drawn on the logarithmic sheets, at slightly different slopes, how would this affect the values of C?

PRACTICAL
WEEK FIVE
DIFFUSION OF GAS EXPERIMENT To determine the diffusion coefficient of a gas by evaporation from a liquid surface. Theory Consider a liquid evaporating by the diffusion of its vapour up a tube with zero concentration at the top. Let x be the length of the diffusion path. i.e. x = xo at time = 0 and x = xt at time = t From the diffusion equation, the following c an be derived for pseudo-state conditions: CL dx = c D (M1 M2) dt x ML

where CL = Molar density of A in liquid phase c = Total molar concentration in gas phase D = Diffusion constant M1 = Molar fraction of A in gas phase at liquid surface M2 = Molar fraction of A in gas phase at top of tube (zero in this

Experiment dx = Rate of change of diffusion path with time. dt

ML = Vapour of liquid ln (mole fraction of air at the top of tube/ mole fraction of air at bottom of tube) Readings to be taken o Switch on the temperature controlled water bath and obtain a steady temperature of say, 400C. o Partially fill the vertical tube of the diffusion apparatus with acetone and immerse in the water bath. o With a flow of air across the top, take readings with the measuring microscope, of the acetone level at intervals of time and take a reading of the top of the vertical line. Results Reading of top of tube:

Time (t)

Liquid level reading

X02

Xt2

Xt2 - X02

Plot Xt2 - X02 as a function of time. A straight line should result.

Repeat the experiment at different temperatures and comment on the effect of temperature on the diffusion.

PRACTICAL
WEEK SIX
APPLYING THE MOMENTUM EQUATION ON A JET OT WATER STRIKING FLAT PLATE y

V1Q1

x
V2Q2

Nozzle

Consider a jet of ideal flow (fluid without viscosity) striking a flat smooth plane. Hence there is no shear force parallel to the plate working on the body of fluid. Velocity on the jet to the plane is the same on that leaving the plane, i.e. V1 = V2. As there are no forces working on the fluid in x-direction and applying the momentum equation in x-direction it is possible to determine the quantities Q1 and Q2 as follows: Q1- Q2 = Q Cos The only force working on the plate is (in opposite direction on the fluid) is in Y direction. Applying again the momentum equation it is clear that no fluid after striking the plane is flowing in Y direction. Conclusion: Force on the plate is working normal to the plate in magnitude eQv Sin

Students are expected to determine Q1 and Q2 according to how they taught in the class.

PRACTICAL
WEEK SEVEN

EXPERIMENT: MINOR LOSSES IN PIPES AIM 1) To examine the minor energy head loss at: a) sudden contraction; b) a gate valve c) a 900 flow elbow d) a 900 long radius bend 2) to determine the loss coefficient K for each fittings. PROCEDURE Record the diameters of the pipe upstream and downstream of the fittings and the length between pressure taping for each fitting. Connect the sudden contraction apparatus to the experimental system and fit the pressure tapings upstream and downstream of the contraction. Purge the system of air and check the manometer. Adjust the flow control valve to give maximum flow. Allow the flow conditions to steady and record the flow rate C, and water levels h1 and h2 in the manometer limbs. Reduce the flow rate in steps and take a series of readings of Q, h1 and h2. Repeat the procedure for each fitting.

THEORY Minor energy head loss he in pipe is given as: he = Kv2 2g Where: K = loss coefficient For sudden contractions he = Kv2 2g Where: K = (1/C-1)2 v = velocity of flow downstream of contraction. For elbows, bends, valves etc, hL= Kv2 2g Where v = velocity of flow downstream of fitting. If velocity loss is taken into account, the total energy head loss (h1- h2) is equal to the sum of hf and hL which is given by: Total energy head loss H = hf + hL h1 h2 = FLV2 + Kv2 2gd 2g Where L = Length of pipes between pressure tappings. d = Pipe diameter

Readings h1(m) h2 (m) h1 h2 (m) hf (m) hL (m) H20 Time Q Velocity V2/2g (m)

volume (sec) (m3)

(m3/sec) (m/sec)

PRACTICAL
WEEK EIGHT
The students were taken to a site visit where a contractor is excavating and laying new pipes to connect the Gurara water in Kaduna state with Abuja, the Federal Capital of Nigeria. During the visit, the students were conducted around the area and they asked the site engineer of the project various questions. After our return, the students were asked to write on the following: 1) The diameter of the pipes laid; 2) The distance between the project site to Usma Dam in Abuja where the water will be transferred to; 3) The expected velocity of the water; 4) Then calculate the expected amount of water (Discharge) that will be delivered to Abuja

PRACTICAL
WEEK NINE
This week the students were taken for a visit to Kangimi village along Jos road. The dam is used for water supply and irrigation. The purpose of the visit is for the students to see various types of weirs and spillway. The students were given assignment on the visit as follows: 1) Draw the types of weirs that you saw at Kangimi dam; 2) All the parameters needed to calculate the discharge in trapezoidal and rectangular weirs were given to the students at the dam site. Therefore the students are expected to calculate the discharges at theses weirs.

PRACTICAL
WEEK TEN

This week the students were taken to a construction site in Kaduna town where constructions of open drains are in progress. The students were conducted round to different parts of the project. After the visits, the students were asked the following questions: 1) What are the dimensions of the rectangular drain? Draw a section. 2) What are the sides' slopes of the trapezoidal drain? Also draw the section? 3) Calculate the areas of these drains and the expected run off water that they will carry.

PRACTICAL
WEEK ELEVEN
The students were taken to the laboratory where they were shown a model of Reynolds' dye experiment. Starting with a low velocity, the students were shown the behaviour of the applied dye. After the increase in velocity, they saw how the dye filament scattered. At the end of many demonstrations, the students were given assignment as follows: 1) Draw and explain how Reynolds' apparatus is working. 2) Using the following data determine the types of flow in the following cases: i) if the density of water is 1000 kg/m3, pipe diameter of 250 mm and the coefficient viscosity of 100 x 10-3 Ns / m2. Take the velocity to be 2.5 m /sec. ii) if the density of the fluid is 800 kg / m3 and a pipe diameter of 300mm. The velocity of flow is 3 m and the coefficient of dynamic viscosity is 110 x 10-3 Ns

PRACTICAL
WEEK TWELVE
The students were taken on a visit to two irrigation sites in Igabi local Government of Kaduna State. In both sites, the students saw how water pumps are used to raise water from one position to other. They saw different types of water pumps and they asked the farmers how they are using the pumps and how efficient are the pumps in lifting water for the irrigation work they are doing. The students were asked to answer the following questions: 1) Explain the working principles of the different types of pumps you saw at the two sites. 2) From your observations which of the pumps is more efficient in lifting the water and at what head? 3) What are the problems that the farmers are facing in operating and maintenance of the pumps?

PRACTICAL
WEEK THIRTEEN
This week the students were taken for a visit to Malali water works in Kaduna North Local Government area of Kaduna state. The students were conducted round the treatment plants where they were shown different types of pumps that are used in lifting water right from the intake up to distribution stage. The students were given these questions related to their visits: 1) Which type of pump is use in lifting water from the intake to the treatment plant? 2) Have you noticed that without the pumps the treatment of water would have been very difficult?

PRACTICAL
WEEK FOURTEEN
This week the students paid similar visit as that of last week to Barnawa treatment plant in Kaduna South area of Kaduna State. The students were conducted round the plant by the Water Engineer in charge of the plant. The engineer explained that the major difference between the Barnawa treatment plant and the Malali plant that the students visited last week is that most of the industries are located in Kaduna South; therefore this plant is dealing with raw water that includes industries industrial wastes. The students were therefore asked: 1) What extra effort has the Barnawa treatment plant to do apart from the normal treatment in order to take care of the pollution from the industries?

PRACTICAL
WEEK FIFTEEN
This week the students for the second time re-visited the Gurara dam where they expected to see some turbines brought by the contractors for installation at the site of the dam for the purpose of generating electricity in some parts of Kaduna State. The turbines have not been installed but the students were taken round and they were shown the turbines. At the end of the visit, the students were asked: 1) Explain the type of turbine you were shown at the site