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Measuring growth in horses

D.A. Conradie
#
(29033196) & N. Oosthuizen (29061874)
Department of Animal and Wildlife Science, University of Pretoria

________________________________________________________________________________
Abstract
It is important to be able to quantify and measure growth in horses as this indicates the stage and rate
of development. Growth is used as an evaluation to determine physiological or chronological age, to assess
the development of normal or abnormal growth, to distinguish between ponies and horses for showing and
competition purposes and to determine the weight for care, nutritional and medical purposes. Many factors
are responsible for influencing growth and the measurement thereof; these include environmental factors
such as age of the dam, nutrition, season of birth, year of birth, breed, gender of the foal, exercise, time of
day, disease and of course genetics. Growth is measured by different methods and with different accuracies.
Growth is measured through measuring body weight, heart girth, hip height, body length, knee to pastern
length, hock to pastern length, point of shoulder to pastern length, width of chest and depth of girth. Growth
is influenced by hormones and can also be measured by using a growth equation, analysing teeth and hoof
development and by chronological age.
Measuring growth indicates the development of the horse and thus can be used as an essential
indicator of abnormal growth.
________________________________________________________________________________
Keywords: growth, horses, ponies, allometry, nutrition, hormones, abnormal growth
#
Corresponding author: donne@woodlandsnet.co.za

Introduction
Postnatal growth can be plotted over time to form a sigmoidal growth curve. Growth starts slow
during the lag phase and then undergoes exponential growth before it levels off into a plateau. Growth
increases at an increasing rate and reaches a maximum at roughly the time of puberty which can be
correlated to the inflection point on the growth curve. After puberty, growth occurs at a decreasing rate and
levels off once maturity is reached. Most horse breeds continue growing
up till the age of 5 or 7, and are only then considered to be in their
mature form. Growth is influenced by numerous factors that all play a
role in the ultimate size and development of a horse. Growth and
development need to be kept under control to ensure healthy and normal
body conformations. A horses body composition determines what line
of work or discipline it will be used for. Heavier breeds were
traditionally used for manual labour and transport while lighter breeds
were and still are used in the sporting industry.

Factors affecting growth and its measurement
Growth and the measurement thereof is influenced by many different factors being either genetic,
environmental, or a interaction of the two. First and foremost, growth is influenced by hormones. Hormones
dictate how, where and when growth occurs and to which extent. Growth is also influenced by other factors
such as maternal age and size, the foals gender, the breed, the season of birth and of course through its
nutrition.

Genetics and Environment
Individual genetics and the environment play a large role in development and growth. Many growth
traits are heritable and thus passed on from parent to offspring; for example, body size is highly heritable
with an average heritability of 0.35 (Martin-Rosette, 2005; Langlois, 1973). However, the environment often
plays a role in the expression of these genes and determines whether the individual reaches its genetic
potential. As growth is a phenotypic value, the phenotypic variation in growth can be explained by the
following equation: P = G + E + GE. This indicated that growth is influenced by both genetics and
Figure1Thesigmoidalgrowth
pattern
Exponentialgrowth
Growthplateau maturity
Lagphase
2

environment factors as well as the interaction between the animals genetics and the environment. Genetics
can be further divided into broad sense and narrow sense genetics, with the broad sense referring to all
genetics, while narrow sense refers to only additive, dominant and gene interactions, or the breeding value,
resulting in the equation V
P
= V
A
+ V
D
+ V
I
+ V
E
+ V
GE
, where V
G
= V
A
+ V
D
+ V
I
.

Hormones
Many hormones influence growth and development in horses. Growth hormone (GH) is the major
growth influencing hormone and is produced in the anterior part of the hypophysis. Growth hormone
releasing hormone (GHRH) stimulates GH release whereas Somatostatin inhibits the release (McGraw-Hill,
2011). GH increases growth rate, bone growth via the metaphyseal growth plate, lipolysis of adipose tissue
and protein anabolism. The length of long bone is increased by GH as it directly causes differentiation and
proliferation of chondrocytes on the long bone. GH stimulates collagen and interstitial protein synthesis,
stimulates the release of Insulin-like growth factor 1 (IGF-1) and is responsible for increasing growth rates
(Hossner, 2005). IGF levels increase with age and peak during puberty. IGF concentrations are also
proportional to body size so therefore larger breeds of horses would have higher IGF concentrations. The
GH/IGF system enhances muscle deposition and reduces fat content of an animal. Thyroid hormones
stimulate the direct and indirect effects of GH while triiodothyronine promotes the differentiation of
chondrocytes, growth plate maturation and chondrocyte proliferation and thyroxine stimulates longitudinal
bone growth. The influence of the sex hormones, namely androgens, oestrogens and progestorones, increases
with sexual development. Androgens stimulate protein synthesis whereas progesterones increase growth.
Longitudinal growth and maturation of bone are enhanced by sexual hormones. At puberty a large endogen
secretion of sexual hormones induces a closing of the growth plate (Martin-Rosset, 2005).

Maternal Effects
In experiments conducted by Hintz et al (1979), the effects of maternal age, year and month birth as
well as sex of the foal on growth rate was investigated. It was found that mares between 7 and 11 years of
age tend to have larger, taller, bigger boned foals than mares younger than 7 or older than 11, which is
similar to the trend in cattle. Hintz et al (1979) proposed the cause being related to the fact that younger dams
have a lower ability to provide sufficient nutrients to the foetus. It can also be argued that because horses
only stop growing at between 5 and 7, that mares younger than 7 are expected to be smaller and have thus
have a smaller uterine space.
Research was done by Allen et al (2004) on influence of maternal size on pre- and post natal growth.
In the experiment, Thoroughbred embryos were implanted into pony mares to indicated restricted foal
growth and pony embryos were implanted into Thoroughbred mares to indicate luxurious foal growth. The
foals were compared to Thoroughbred foals born from Thoroughbred mares and ponies born from pony
mares respectively. The results clearly indicated that the Thoroughbreds born from ponies were smaller than
the Thoroughbred born from Thoroughbred mares; while ponies born from Thoroughbreds were larger than
the ponies born from ponies. It was concluded that the Thoroughbreds could not reach their genetic potential
due to the restricted uterine space and that a runting effect thus continued throughout its lifetime.
As mentioned earlier, the phenotypic variation, in this case the growth rate, is influenced by both the
genetics and the environment. The reason for the restricted growth can therefore be explained by the smaller
uterine environment due to smaller uterine space in the pony, and also by the fact that a smaller uterus
supplied fewer nutrients to the growing fetus, thus restricting the amount of growth that could occur. The
same principles can be applied to the pony born from the Thoroughbred mare a larger uterine space was
available as well as a larger supply of nutrients. Thus the pony fetus could reach its genetic potential and
grow beyond this due to the favourable environment allowing for even more growth.
A similar study has been conducted with cross breeding of Shire horses and Shetland ponies by
Walton & Hammond (1939) which found similar results.

Gender
Generally, male offspring are larger than females. This trend was confirmed in horses by Hintz et al
(1979) as well as by Thompson (1988) where their results found that colts were born slightly heavier, taller
and larger boned than fillies. The difference in weight gains between colts and fillies are similar till between
the period of 266 and 322 days where colts become larger and taller. As explained by Hossner (2005)
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testosterone plays an important role in growth and development as it stimulates muscle growth and is thus
often used as a growth enhancer. Testosterone is predominantly produced in the male testes and produces the
secondary male characteristics, and therefore has higher levels in the male compared to the female.
Testosterone would as a result be one of the main reasons for the larger size and faster growth rate seen in
males.
Also differing between sexes is the relative body composition as was explained by Martin-Rosette
(2005). Adipose contents can be up to 30% higher in mares compared to stallions, while muscle tissue is
slightly lower although it has a faster growth rate. However, the growth rate of adipose tissue and
distribution of adipose and muscle is similar between the males and females.

Breed
The rate at which foals gain weight is breed dependant; larger draft breeds mature slower than lighter
horses, while the smaller ponies mature faster than horses. The general trend for weight gain is constant
among breeds of the same size with the most intense growth occurring in the first 3 months and adult body
weight being reached between 4 and 7 years (Hintz et al, 1979). Birth and mature weight are breed-specific.
Shetlands are born weighing 23 kg and reach a maximum of 173kg, while Shire foals weigh 77kg at birth
and grow to between 1016 to 1118kg (Martin-Rosset, 2005). This can once again be linked not only to the
genetic potential of the foal, but also to maternal size and environment. Rate of growth is also breed
dependant. The lighter Thoroughbred attains 46% of its mature weight within 6 months, 67% after 12
months and 80% after 18 months. The heavier Percherons, on the other hand, attain on 38% in the first 6
months, 55% after 12 months and only 73% after 18 months.
In a recent study done by uszczyski (2011), the growth rate of taller Thoroughbreds and Anglo-
Arabs (the cross between an Arab and Thoroughbred) and the smaller Arabs and Hucul pony were compared
by determining the time of radiographic closure of the distal radial metaphyseal growth plate. It was found
that the closure of the distal radial metaphyseal growth plate occurred first in Arabian horses (mean of 718.1
59.6 days), then in Thoroughbreds (mean of 756.3102.4 days), followed by the Hucul pony (mean of
794.156.8 days) and Anglo-Arabian (mean of 810.151.3 days). As closure time indicates skeletal maturity,
this would indicate that Arabs reach maturity first, followed by Thoroughbreds, Hucul pony and lastly the
Anglo-Arab. The study also indicated that factors affecting the rate of closure included nutrition,
management conditions, training and training injuries, as well as genetic factors. It is presumed that the best
genetic and phenotypic traits of Thoroughbreds and Arabs were combined to produce the Anglo-Arabian, at
the expense of a slower growth rate and maturation, however no literature is available to support this. The
breed differences are expected due to genetic factors as well as environmental factors based on different
managerial practices, different exercise and training programmes.
Another important factor to consider in the differences amoung breeds is that of the Average Daily
Gain. Heavier horses have on average a 50% higher ADG compared to lighter breeds (Martin-Rosette, 2005)
which is highly correlated to adult body size. Breeds also have a larger variation in fat content compared to
the relatively constant muscle content (Martin-Rosette, 2005).

Season
It has also been found (Hintz et al, 1979) that foals born in late spring are larger at birth and parturition
occurred on average 3 days later than for foals born in early spring. Horses are seasonal breeders, more
specifically long day breeders which indicates that their estrus cycle and ovulation is limited to summer
months with only a small percentage showing estrus in winter. The equine reproductive cycle is also
influenced by environmental factors other than photoperiod length; these may include age, reproductive
state, nutrition, body condition and the environmental temperature (Aurich, 2011). Decreased light intensity
is experienced at night and is detected by the photoreceptors at the back of the eye, increasing the
sympathetic innervations to the pineal gland, increasing the synthesis of the enzyme needed to synthesise
melatonin. Melatonin is consequently secreted from the pineal gland and is carried to hypothalamus where it
directly or indirectly affects the secretion of Gonadotrophic Releasing Hormone (GnRH). GnRH travels to
the pituitary gland and causes the release of Follicular Stimulating Hormone (FSH) and Leutinizing
Hormone (LH) from the anterior hypophyses, which in turn is related to follicular growth and the onset of
estrus. Horses have an average gestation period of 337 days (Bearden & Fuquay, 1997), this means that
horses bred in summer will usually foal in spring. As the photoperiod lengthens with the transition from
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winter to spring, a change in hormones is seen as described above, where decreasing melatonin results in an
increasing pulse of GnRH and subsequent release of FSH and LH.

Nutrition
Nutrition plays one of the most important roles in horse growth as it affects many aspects such as the
weight, height, teeth growth, hoof growth, hair growth and the overall condition of the horse. The level of
intake and the ration composition of feed play important roles in altering the rate and composition of gain. A
growing horses nutrient needs are influenced largely by body weight, age, growth rate and level of physical
activity. Larger horses or those growing at rapid rates require more nutrients than smaller horses or those
growing more slowly. Intake needs of a ration depend on the needs of the horse and the concentration of
nutrients, primarily energy, in the ration. Typically, rations are developed to meet nutrient needs of growing
horses consuming 2.25 percent to 2.75 percent of body weight per day. A high level of nutrition allows for
maximum growth to occur as long as over-feeding does not occur. Crude protein is needed to supply amino
acids. Lysine is an amino acid of major concern as it is an essential amino acid needed in relatively large
amounts for growth. Lysine also promotes the release of metabolic hormones insulin and prolactin. Calcium
and phosphorus are minerals with important roles in bone, cartilage and muscle development as well as
maintenance, therefore large amounts are needed for maximum growth. Other nutrients such as zinc, copper,
and Vitamins A, D, and E are additional nutrients that are typically balanced in rations suitable for maximum
growth (Freeman, 2008).
Deficiencies result in compromised skeletal developments, lower weight and height gains as well as
contributing to bone abnormalities. High protein and energy intakes increase growth rates and bone length
but may compromise skeletal development as bone quality declines. It is therefore recommended to increase
the protein intake proportionally to the energy intake to maintain bone quality in rapidly growing animals. A
period when a horse is fed on a low plane of nutrition could be followed by a period of catch up or
compensatory growth once the level of nutrition is increased. Compensatory growth tries to make up for the
growth lost during the period of inadequate nutrition (Martin-Rosset, 2005).

Measuring Growth
Growth is measured in different ways. These measurements include whither height, birth weight, heart
girth, hip height, body length, knee to pastern length, hock to pastern length, the point of shoulder to pastern
length, width of chest and depth of girth. Growth can also be measured in teeth and hooves and is often used
to quantify chronological or physiological age.

Allometric Growth
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Allometric growth is the relative growth, of changes in proportion with increase in size. Allometry
also examines shape variation among individuals of a given age and sex, which is referred to as static
allometry. The equation log y = ax
b
represents allometric growth between two components. Two
components are plotted logarithmically on an X and a Y-axis. The value b represents the slope of the
regression line and is called the allometric growth ratio. When b is equal to 1 then both components are
growing at the same rate. This is referred to isometric development. When b is greater than 1 then the Y-axis
component is growing faster than the X-axis component. When b is less than 1 then the Y-axis component is
growing slower than the X-axis component (Martin-Rosset, 2005).
Body regions, organs and tissues differ in size in horses at different ages and stages of development.
The variations of body composition are determined using the comparative slaughter technique where animals
are slaughtered at different ages so that the sizes of the body components can be compared. Of the organs,
the large intestine has the highest b value with a value of 1.31 0.05. The liver has the lowest b value of
0.530.02. Of the tissues, the nervous tissue develops first, followed by the bone, muscles and adipose. As
far as skeleton growth is concerned, the relative growth of the fore and hind limbs are close to 1. In the trunk,
relative growth of ribs and vertebra is much higher than 1. The muscles can be divided into 4 parts according
to their relative growth. The distal part of the limb (b = 0.80), the neck and shoulder ( b = 0.93), the thoracic
and dorsal region (b = 1.04) and the abdominal region (b = 1.07). The relative growth of adipose tissue is
high and variable (b = 1.41). Of the adipose tissue, internal adipose tissue develops first, followed by
intermuscular, subcutaneous and finally intramuscular adipose deposition (Martin-Rosset, 2005). The water
content of a horses body decreases with age while the amount of lipids increases.



Height
Height at the withers is measured in inches, centimetres or hands; where a hand is equal to 10.16
centimetres or 4 inches. As explained by van de Pol & Sloet van Oldruitenborgh-Oosterbaan (2006), the
measurement of height is of vital importance in competitions where horses and ponies compete separately
and is a standard requirement of the Fdration Equestre Internationale (FEI). Ponies are measured each year
till age 8, after which a measurement certificate will be issued which only needs to be renewed if the ponys
height is questioned. These measurements are taken with or without shoes and may not exceed 149 or 148cm
respectively as any height above this is considered to be a horse. Height is measured at the spinal process of
the 5
th
thoracic vertebra with a measuring stick. The measuring stick consists of a vertical metal tube and a
cross piece perpendicular to the tube and often contains 2 spirit levels to increase the accuracy of the reading.
The animals are measured on a flat, non-slippery, concrete surface (usually 3 x 1 m in size) with front legs
parallel and perpendicular and the front toes in line. The hind legs must take all the weight with the toes
being no more than 15cm out of line. The neck must be in a normal position relative to the head. True height
is also often measured this is done to increase the accuracy of the measurement by measuring by measuring
the height from both the left and right side.
Factors that have been suggested to have an effect on the height at the withers includes time of day,
water and feed withdrawal, weight carrying and exercise as well as sedation. All of these factors have been
researched by van de Pol & Sloet van Oldruitenborgh-Oosterbaan (2006) at the Utrecht University. It was
found that ponies had a slightly lower height at withers in the evening, although there was no significant
difference between the measurements taken in the morning and in the evening. Fasting for 26 hours and
water withdrawal for 15 hours was also tested but
showed no significant difference between the
height before and height after. The third test was
performed by placing a saddle with 65kg of lead
on the back of a pony for 6 hours and then
measuring the height immediately afterwards.
This test varied in results with 6 out of 8 horses
decreasing in height and 2 increasing. However,
there was no significant difference in results.
Another test was conducted in which ponies were
measured before and after a 3 hour riding lesson.
Figure2Theanatomyoftheforelimbandthorax:anatomical
considerationsrelativetothemeasurementprocedure.Thearrow
showsthehighestpointof(van de Pol & Sloet van
Oldruitenborgh-Oosterbaan, 2006)
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It was suggested by Hickman & Colles (1984) that exercise caused an increase in height depending on
individuals temperature its excitement and muscle tension. The last test conducted was sedation. Sedation
was the only method showing a significant difference in height. However, sedation is clinically visible and
thus cannot be used without the knowledge of the designated Measuring Veterinarian. The measuring of true
height was also shown to make no difference in the accuracy measurement.

Weight Estimation
Body weight is an important measurement needed for proper care, feeding and medication of horses
and can be measured either with a scale or can be estimated. Two methods of estimation were suggested by
Wagner & Tyler (2011), namely using a weight tape which uses the heart girth as an estimation and using the
weight estimation formula: cstimotcJ wcigbt =
(hcut gth
2
x bod Icngth)
11.880 cm
3
. The body length is determined by
measuring the distance from the point of shoulder to either the ischial tuberosity (point estimation) or to the
midpoint of the distance between the widest part of the stifle and the tail when viewed from the rear (stifle
estimation). Wagner & Tyler (2011) determined the accuracy of the weight estimation methods were
significantly different from the true weight determined by a scale. However, the weight formula using the
point estimation was the most accurate and is easier to measure than the stifle estimate. The weight tape had
the greatest variation from the true weight as different brands differed in accuracy.

Figure3.Theplacementofthemeasuringtapeforcalculatingthebodylengthforweightestimation,with(A)fromthesideand
(B) from the rear. The upper diagonal line indicates the Point measurement from the point of shoulder to ischial tuberosity;
whilethelowerhorizontallineindicatestheStiflemeasurementfromthepointofshouldertothedistancemidwaybetweenthe
tail(viewedfromtherear)andthewidestpartofthestifle(Wagner,2011).

Teeth
Teeth are used as an indicator of aging and of growth in the equine. Equine teeth are classified as
hypsodont teeth as root formation is delayed and dental growth and eruption are prolonged. Equine incisors
reach their maximum length 2 to 3 years after they have erupted. According to a study done by Muylle et al.
(1999), teeth root formation starts at the age of 5-6 years till the age of 17 years with a rate of 2.5 mm per
year. In young horses the apical foramen is a large, oval shape and is found at the apex of the tooth where in
older horses is found at the mesial, distal, or lingual side of the tooth. As horses age and grow, the apical
foramen decreases in size and becomes rounder in shape. The maximum length of the incisors is maintained
for several years. The length of the incisival roots increases with increasing age and development. Teeth
growth implies a lengthening of the tooth in its apical part and a deposition of layers of dentine which fill up
the central cavity and increase the tooth size. As a horse ages the occlusal surfaces of the teeth are worn due
to their diets requiring extensive mastication of their food.
A normal adult horse has a minimum of 36 teeth. A horse has 6 incisors in the upper jaw and 6 in the
lower jaw, which are used for tearing grass and forage, and three pre-molars on each side of both jaws and
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three permanent molars, used for grinding food (Local riding, 2011). The grinding surfaces tilt downwards
and outwards at 10-15 degrees. An adult horse has 24 permanent molars while an immature horse has only
12 temporary molars. Newborn foals will have their first incisors by the time they are a week old. The first
premolars are actually the wolf teeth, which don't appear until 5-6 months of age. The last two sets of teeth a
foal will produce are his second and third incisors which erupt at 4-6 weeks and 6-9 months respectively.
The first permanent incisors will come in at 2 years, as will the second premolars. The teeth then alternate
their arrival with the 3rd premolars at 3 years, second incisors at 3 years, 4th premolars at 4 years, and
third incisors at 4 years. The third molars come between 3 - 4 years. The incisors of young horses aged
below 5 years consist of a crown part only and are completely rootless. At the age of 5 years all the
permanent teeth should be through. The canines should have erupted fully and corners of teeth are beginning
to wear. From the age of 10 years, the angle of the horses jaw and teeth are becoming more oblique.
Galvaynes groove appears on the upper corner incisor. At 15 years, Galvaynes groove extends halfway down
the outer side of the upper corner incisor, the lower central and intermediate incisors appear triangular on the
chewing surface, and all incisors show a distinct dark round dental star in their centres. From 20 years and
up, Galvaynes groove extends the entire length of the upper corner incisor, all incisors are triangular, each
dental star is round near the centre, there is considerable spacing between the teeth and the lower incisors
may be worn almost to the gum.

Hooves
The horses hoof is a highly modified form of specialized skin. It consists of two layers, namely the
outer layer or epidermis and the inner layer called the dermis or corium (Schurg, 2000). The hoof wall in
the normal adult horse grows about 6.25 mm to 1.27 cm each month. Hoof growth is faster in younger horses
due to them having a higher heart rate and blood being pumped to the hooves faster (Wood, 2009). Hoof
growth is also faster during warm and high rainfall environmental conditions and is highest during the
months of spring. Nutrition also affects the hoof growth. Proper nutrient intake stimulates maximum hoof
growth. Biotin supplementation is suggested to improve hoof growth and integrity over time. One can judge
the health of a horse by examining its hooves and the growth rate thereof.

Abnormal Growth
Abnormal growth related to skeletal and muscle development typically results in orthopaedic and
musculoskeletal diseases. As presented by Jeffcot (2005), developmental conditions have collectively been
grouped under the category Developmental Orthopaedic Diseases (DOD) by the American Quarter horse
Association (AQHA), although he felt it would be more appropriate under the heading Developmental
Skeletal Problems (DSP) as most of the diseases are similar and occur during the same growth period. Some
examples of DSP conditions, as was presented, includes Osteochondrosis, Physitis, angular limb deformities,
flexural deformities, tarsal bone collapse, cervical vertebral malformation and acquired vertebral deformities.
These conditions all have a different age of onset, the earliest being 1 month and latest 24 months, and are
mostly found in the limbs and spine. The skeletal diseases are more prevalent in horse compared to ponies
and feral horses, and are particularly associated with foals undergoing rapid growth, foals on an inadequate
diet or due to the biomechanical stress on joints and growth cartilage that may be as a consequence of
exercise, hormonal changes or due to a genetic predisposition (Jeffcott, 2005). Also, heavier foals tend to
grow more rapidly after weaning which may cause a higher incidence of orthopaedic diseases. These foals
are taller and develop more radiographic signs of osteochondrosis dissecans (Kavis, 2003).
Some examples described by Anderson et al (2004) also illustrated the results of abnormal growth. An
increase in the bottom line of the neck increases the chance of effusion of the fetlock. An increase in scapular
length increases the chances of a fracture in either the carpus or front limb. An increase in pastern length also
increases the chances of a fracture in the front limb if the scapular length remains constant. An increase in
the carpal angle decreases the chances of a carpus effusion, a carpal fracture, a fetlock physeal enlargement
and a limb fracture. Some conformational variables that dont have clinical outcomes include whither and
croup height, length of the neck top-line, humerus, radius, 3
rd
metacarpus, femur, tibia, 3
rd
metatarsus and
pastern, the angle of the scapula, scapulohumerus, pastern, hoof and of the tarsus.

Conclusion
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Measuring and quantifying growth is of vital importance and can be done in many different ways and
with different accuracies. Growth can be measured in many aspects of a horse, namely height, weight, teeth
and hooves. It is important not only for fair competition between horses and ponies, but also for early
detection of abnormal growth. A horse needs to be looked after well. An adequate level of nutrition and the
correct environmental conditions are to be supplied to allow maximum growth to take place.

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