Immanuel Kant The Metaphysics of Morals

TEXTS N GERMAN PHOSOPHY
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1 2 314+(.
mmunueI KunL
Thi s is t he onl y compl et e Engl i sh t r ansl at i on oI Ka nt ' s ma j o r wor k in
appl i ed mor al phi l osophy m whi ch he deal s wi t h t he basic pri nci pl es oI
ri ght s a nd oI vi r t ues. It shoul d not be conI us ed wi t h t he 541678914/ 12 *"#
3#*+,"-.:). 12 314+(. (1785), a n earl i er wor k whi ch is s omet i mes t r eat ed
as iI it were t he deIi ni t i ve s t at ement oI Ka nt ' s mor al phi l osophy but
whi ch, in Iact , mer el y lays t he I oundat i on l or t he l onger wor k It is in
t he l onger wor k t hat Ka n t t ri es to give cont ent t o his I or mal pri nci pl e,
t he cat egori cal i mperat i ve.
!"# 3#*+,"-.:). 12 314+(. (1797) compr i ses t wo par t s: t he ;1)*4:7# 12
<:="*, whi ch deal s wi t h t he r i ght s t hat peopl e have or can acqui r e, and
t he ;1)*4:7# 12 >:4*6#? whi ch deal s wi t h t he vi r t ues t hey ought t o acqui r e.
Par t s have been t r ansl at ed beI or e, but t hi s new edi t i on is t he onl y com-
pl et e t ransl at i on oI t he whol e wor k. A subst ant i al i nt r oduct i on consi ders
t he rel at i on bet ween t he t wo par t s, and t her e is ext ensi ve annot at i on on
t he unI ami l i ar and s omet i mes di IIi cul t vocabul ary.
Gi ven Ka nt ' s st at us as one oI t he mos t i mpor t a nt mor al phi l osophers
oI all t i me, t he publ i cat i on oI t hi s new t r ansl at i on will be ol critical
i mpor t ance t o all st udent s oI et hi cs a nd ol legal a nd political phi l osophy.
Cover Desi gn by Ke n Farnhi l l
CAMBRDGE UNVE1STY ILgSS
TEXTS IN GERMAN PHILOSOPHY
TIe MeLupIysIcs oI MoruIs
TII s Is LIe onIy compIeLe EngIIsI LrunsIuLIon oI KunL's mujor work In uppIIed
moruI pIIIosopIy In wIIcI Ie deuIs wILI LIe busIc prIncIpIes oI rIgILs und oI
vIrLues. L sIouId noL be conIused wILI LIe 541678914/ 12 *"# 3#*+,"-.:). 12
314+(. (1;8), un eurIIer work wIIcI Is someLImes LreuLed us II IL were LIe
deIInILIve sLuLemenL oI KunL's moruI pIIIosopIy buL wIIcI, In IucL, mereIy Iuys
LIe IounduLIon Ior LIe Ionger work. L Is In LIe Ionger work LIuL KunL LrIes Lo
gIve conLenL Lo IIs IormuI prIncIpIe, LIe cuLegorIcuI ImperuLIve.
!"# 3#*+,"-.:). 12 314+(. (1;q;) comprIses Lwo purLs: TIe ;1)*4:7# 12 <:="*?
wIIcI deuIs wILI LIe rIgILs LIuL peopIe Iuve or cun ucquIre, und LIe ;1)*4:7#
12 >:4*6#? wIIcI deuIs wILI LIe vIrLues LIey ougIL Lo ucquIre. PurLs Iuve been
LrunsIuLed beIore, buL LIIs new edILIon Is LIe onIy compIeLe LrunsIuLIon oI LIe
wIoIe work. A subsLunLIuI InLroducLIon consIders LIe reIuLIon beLween LIe Lwo
purLs, und LIere Is exLensIve unnoLuLIon on LIe unIumIIIur und someLImes
dIIIIcuIL vocubuIury.
GIven KunL's sLuLus us one oI LIe mosL ImporLunL moruI pIIIosopIers oI uII
LIme, LIe pubIIcuLIon oI LIIs new LrunsIuLIon wIII be oI crILIcuI ImporLunce Lo
uII sLudenLs oI eLIIcs und oI IeguI und poIILIcuI pIIIosopIy.
T E X T S I N GERMAN P HI L OS OP HY
5#7#4+( @8:*14A "#$%&'( )*+,,
TIe purpose oI LIIs serIes Is Lo muke uvuIIubIe, In EngIIsI, cenLruI works oI
Germun pIIIosopIy Irom KunL Lo LIe presenL. AILIougI LIere Is rupIdIy
growIng InLeresL In LIe EngIIsI-speukIng worId In dIIIerenL uspecLs oI LIe
Germun pIIIosopIIcuI LrudILIon us un exLremeIy IerLIIe source oI sLudy und
InspIruLIon, muny oI ILs crucIuI LexLs ure noL uvuIIubIe In EngIIsI or exIsL onIy
In InudequuLe or duLed LrunsIuLIons. TIe serIes Is InLended Lo remedy LIuL
sILuuLIon, und LIe LrunsIuLIons wIere upproprIuLe wIII be uccompunIed by
IIsLorIcuI und pIIIosopIIcuI InLroducLIons und noLes. SIngIe works, seIecLIons
Irom u sIngIe uuLIor, und unLIoIogIes wIII uII be represenLed.
rIedrIcI NIeLzscIe ;+-B4#+/
J. G. IcILe !"# &):#7)# 12 C719(#8=#
uwrence S. SLepeIevIcI (ed.) !"# D167= E#=#(:+7.A F7 F7*"1(1=-
WIIIeIm von HumboIdL G7 H+7=6+=#
HeInrIcI RIckerL !"# H:I:*. 12 J17)#,* K14I+*:17 :7 L+*64+( &):#7)#
rIedrIcI NIeLzscIe M7*:I#(- 3#8:*+*:17.
rIedrIcI NIeLzscIe E6I+7? F(( !11 E6I+7
rIedrIcI WIIIeIm JosepI von ScIeIIIng %8#+. 214 + N":(1.1,"- 12 L+*64#
rIedrIcI ScIIeIermucIer G7 <#(:=:17
M M A N U E K A N T
TIe MeLupIysIcs
oI MoruIs
nLroducLIon, LrunsIuLIon, und noLes
by
Mury Gregor
S AN D E G O S T A T E U N V E R S T Y
CumbrIdge UnIversILy Press
CumbrIdge
New York PorL CIesLer MeIbourne Sydney
Published by the Press Syndicate oI the University oI Cambridge
The Pitt Building, Trumpington Street, Cambridge CBz "#$
qo West zoLI Street, New York, %& 1oo11, USA
1o StamIord Road, Oakleigh, Melbourne 166, Australia
Cambridge University Press 1991
First Published 1991
Printed in the United States oI America
Librcr oj Conress Cctcloin-in-Publicction Dctc
Kant, Immanuel, 1;zq-18oq.
|Metaphysik der Sitten. English|
TIe metaphysics oI morals / Immanuel Kant ; introduction,
translation, and notes by Mary Gregor,
p. cm. - (Texts in German philosophy)
Translation oI: Metaphysik der Sitten.
Includes bibliographical reIerences and index.
'()% o - z 1 - o ; z - q (hardcover). - '()% o - z 1 - 1 6 ; - x (pbk.)
1. Ethics Early works to 18oo. z. Duty - Early works to 18oo.
. Virtue - Early works to 18oo. I. Title. II. Series.
Bz;8. EG;q 1qq1 q 1 - 1 ; z q
i 70- dc20 cip
A cctclo record jor this bool is ctcilcble jrom the ritish Librcr.
'()% o- z1-o;z-q hardback
'()% o - z 1 - 1 6 ; - x paperback
ConLenLs
TrunsIuLor' s NoLe on LIe TexL pce Ix
TrunsIuLor' s nLroducLIon 1
NoLes Lo TrunsIuLor' s nLroducLIon zq
METAP HYS I CAL F I RS T P RI NCI P LES
OF T H E D O C T R I N E OF R I G H T
PreIuce
nLroducLIon Lo LIe MeLupIysIcs oI MoruIs qo
nLroducLIon Lo LIe DocLrIne oI RIgIL
DIvIsIon oI LIe DocLrIne oI RIgIL 6z
' $*+,-./ #+01. 68
CIupLer . How Lo Huve SomeLII ng ExLernuI us
One' s Own 68
CIupLer . How Lo AcquI re SomeLII ng ExLernuI 8o
SecLIon . On ProperLy RIgIL 8z
SecLIon . On ConLrucL RIgIL qo
SecLIon . On RIgILs Lo Persons AkI n Lo RIgILs
Lo TII ngs q
On LIe RIgIL oI DomesLIc SocIeLy q6
TILIe . MurrIuge RIgIL q6
TILIe . PurenLuI RIgIL q8
TILIe . RIgIL oI u Heud oI LIe HouseIoId 1oo
DogmuLIc DIvIsIon oI AII RIgILs TIuL Cun Be
AcquI red by ConLrucL 1o1
EpIsodIc SecLIon 1o8
v
vi Contents
CIupLer . On AcquIsILIon TIuL s DependenL
SubjecLIveIy upon LIe DecIsIon oI u PubIIc
CourL oI JusLIce 11
''2 $345+6 #+01. 1z
SecLIon . TIe RIgIL oI u SLuLe 1z
SecLIon . TIe RIgIL oI NuLIons 1o
SecLIon . CosmopoIILun RIgIL 18
ConcIusIon 16o
AppendI x. ExpIunuLory Remurks on The Metcphsiccl
Iirst Principles oj the Doctrine oj Riht 1 6
METAPHYSICAL FIRST PRINCIPLES
OF THE DOCTRI NE OF VI RTUE
PreIuce 181
nLroducLIon Lo LIe DocLrIne oI VI rLue 18
'2 786.*+9/ 8: .1/ ;5/</9.= 8: ;.1+6= z1q
Pcrt I. Dn Duties to Dneselj cs Such z 1 q
nLroducLIon z1q
ool I. Perject Duties to Dneselj z:8
CIupLer . Mun' s DuLy Lo HImseI I us un AnI muI
BeI ng z18
CIupLer . Mun' s DuLy Lo HImseII MereIy us u MoruI
BeI ng zz
SecLIon . On Mun's DuLy Lo HImseII us HIs Own
nnuLe Judge z
SecLIon . On LIe IrsL Commund oI AI I DuLIes
Lo OneseI I z6
EpIsodIc SecLIon z;
ool II. Dn Mcn's Imperject Duties to Himselj zq
SecLIon . On Mun' s DuLy Lo HImseII Lo DeveI op und
ncreuse HIs NuLuruI PerIecLIon, TIuL s, I or u
PrugmuLIc Purpose zq
Contents vii
SecLIon . On Mun' s DuLy Lo HImseII Lo ncreuse
HIs MoruI PerIecLIon, TIuL s, I or u MoruI
Purpose OnI y zq1
Pcrt II. Duties oj Virtue to Dthers zq
CIupLer . On DuLIes Lo OLIers MereIy us Men zq
SecLIon . On LIe DuLy oI ove Lo OLIer Men zq
SecLIon . On DuLIes oI VI rLue Lowurd OLIer Men
ArIsIng I rom LIe RespecL Due TIe m zq
CIupLer . On ELIIcuI DuLIes oI Men Lowurd One
AnoL Ier wILI Regurd Lo TIeI r CondILIon z6o
ConcIusIon oI LIe EIemenLs oI ELIIcs z61
AppendI x z6
'' 786.*+9/ 8: .1/ >/.18?= 8: ;.1+6= z66
SecLIon . TeucII ng ELIIcs z66
SecLIon . ELIIcuI AsceLIcs z;
ConcIusIon z;
NoLes Lo LIe TexL z81
SeIecLIve BIbI IogrupIy zq
ndex o1
TrunsIuLor's NoLe on LIe TexL
!"# %&'(')*
TIe Lwo purLs oI The Metcphsics oj Morcls were IIrsL pubIIsIed sepu-
ruLeIy, LIe Doctrine oj Riht probubIy In Junuury 1;q; und LIe Doctrine
oj Virtue In AugusL oI LIe sume yeur. n LIe edILIon oI 1;q8, KunL' s
revIsIons Lo LIe LexL were uppurenLI y IImILed Lo uddI ng u purenLIeLIcuI
expIunuLIon oI IIs Lerm Lcsion (Ak. zqq) und un uppendI x In repIy Lo
BouLerwek' s revIew oI LIe Doctrine oj Riht pubIIsIed on ebruury 18,
1;q;. A more exLensIveIy revIsed edILIon wus pubIIsIed In 18o, dur-
Ing KunL' s IIIeLIme buL wILIouL IIs cooperuLIon.
TIe presenL LrunsIuLIon Is bused on LIe LexL oI The Metcphsics oj
Morcls, edILed by PuuI NuLorp, In VoI ume V (1qo;) oI LIe PrussIun
Acudemy oI LIe ScIences edILIon oI KunL' s works. NuLorp' s decIsIon
noL Lo use LIe "I mproved" edILIon oI 18o wus bused on IIs convIcLIon
LIuL sucI uILeruLIons In LIe Doctrine oj Virtue us ure I mprovemenLs do
noL j usLI Iy LIe use oI u LexL In LIe producLI on oI wIIcI KunL wus noL
InvoIved. Iuve IoIIowed NuL orp In reIeguLIng Lo noLes uny subsLun-
LIve emenduLI ons LIuL cIurIIy LIe LexL. Iuve uIso mude use oI IIs noLes
In I denLI IyI ng uuLIors wIose works KunL cILes.
KunL' s noLes ure IndIcuLed by usLerIsks und uppeur uL LIe boLLom oI
LIe puge on wIIcI LIey occur. My noLes LIuL ure IndIcuLed by IeLLers
und uIso uppeur uL LIe boLLom oI LIe puge ure IImILed Lo provI dI ng LIe
subsLunLIve emenduLI ons dIscussed In LIe precedI ng purugrupI und
sucI muLerIuI us seems Lo me IeI pI uI I or mereIy reudI ng LIe LexL. As
regurds LIe uLIn words und pussuges, Iuve, uccordIngI y, LrunsIuLed
onIy LIose wII cI ure noL mere repeLILIons oI LIe Germun or wIIcI ure
IdenLIIIubIe quoLuLIons. AddI LI onuI edILorIuI noLes ure IndIcuLed by
numeruI s und ure Lo be I ound uL LIe end oI LIe book. Iuve used sucI
noLes I or u number oI purposes: Lo dIscuss probI ems oI LrunsIuLIon
I rom LIe Germun LexL, Lo cILe oLIer works oI KunL reIevunL Lo LIe LexL,
Lo provI de sucI IIsLorIcuI muLerIuI us mIgIL cIurIIy LIe LexL, und Lo
IdenLIIy uuLIors KunL menLIons buL does noL quoLe. AI I reIerences Lo
!"
" Note on the Text
KunL's works ure Lo LIe Acudemy edILIon. TIe pugInuLIon oI LIe Acud-
emy edILIon oI The Metcphsics oj Morcls Is gIven In LIe murgIns oI LIe
presenL LrunsIuLIon. SInce mosL LrunsIuLors oI KunL's works provIde
LIe Acudemy pugInuLIon, reIerences Lo IIs oLIer wrILIngs cun be reud-
IIy IdenLIIIed In LIe vurIous LrunsIuLIons uvuIIubIe.
um deepIy IndebLed Lo ewIs WIILe Beck, DougIus P. Dryer, und
Ruymond Geuss, wIo reud eurIIer versIons oI LIIs LrunsIuLIon und
oI I ered numerous very IeI pIuI suggesLIons. Iuve IncorporuLed
mucI oI LIeIr udvIce In LIe presenL LrunsIuLIon. However, um soIeIy
responsIbIe Ior wIuLever errors remuIn. TIe presenL LrunsIuLIon oI
PurL oI The Metcphsics oj Morcls Is u revIsIon oI my eurIIer LrunsIu-
LIon, The Doctrine oj Virtue (New York: Hurper & Row TorcIbooks,
1q6q; reprInLed by LIe UnIversILy oI PennsyIvunIu Press, 1q;1, 1q8o,
1q8q). um IndebLed Lo LIe UnIversILy oI PennsyIvunIu Press I or
reIeusIng LIe rIgILs Lo LIuL LrunsIuLIon und so mukI ng LIe presenL
revIsIon possIbIe. um uIso IndebLed Lo Kuren MungI e I or Ier cure und
puLIence In LypIng LIe munuscrIpL LIrougI ILs numerous revIsIons
und Lo BeLLy KIeII I or Ier ussIsLunce In compIIIng LIe Index.
!"# !#+,'*)-)./ )0 The Metcphsics oj Morcls
TIe mosL serIous probIems oI LrunsIuLIon occur wILIIn LIe Doctrine oj
Riht. TIere Is unIorLunuLeIy no common EngIIsI word LIuL wouId
LrunsIuLe Recht. Rechtslehre, KunL suys, Is "LIe sum oI Iuws I or wIIcI un
exLernuI IuwgIvIng Is possIbIe" (Ak. zzq). SucI Iuws, II ucLuuIIy gIven by
u IegIsIuLor, ure posILIve Iuws, by wIIcI LIe IegIsIuLor puLs LIose subjecL
Lo IIs Iuws under obIIguLIon Lo do wIuL LIey couId noL know u prIorI Lo
be obIIguLory; In oLIer words, Luke IL, posILIve Iuws Iuve empIrIcuI
conLenL cIosen by LIe IegIsIuLor. BuL InsoIur us LIey ure moruI Iuws
LIey ure bused on u prIorI prIncIpIes LIuL KunL cuIIs "exLernuI nuLuruI
Iuws." TIe sysLem oI sucI Iuws Is nuLuruI RIgIL (Ncturrecht) or "LIe
meLupIysIcuI IIrsL prIncIpIes oI LIe docLrIne oI RIgIL." n LIe LrunsIu-
LIon, In order Lo dIsLInguIsI LIe subsLunLIve Recht or dcs Recht Irom LIe
udjecLIve recht (I.e., wIuL IL Is "rIgIL" Lo do In uccordunce wILI sucI
Iuws), "RIgIL" Is used I or Recht und "rIgIL" Ior recht.
KunL devoLes LIe LIIrd dIvIsIon oI IIs nLroducLIon Lo The Metc-
phsics oj Morcls, "On LIe DIvIsIon oI u MeLupIysIcs oI MoruIs," Lo LIe
dIsLIncLIon beLween exLernuI und InLernuI IuwgIvIng, und In LIe IourLI
dIscusses LIe concepLs oI posILIve Iuw und nuLuruI Iuw und oI rIgIL und
wrong. n LIe LIIrd dIvIsIon Ie expIuIns LIuL duLIes In uccordunce wILI
exLernuI Iuws cun be onIy "exLernuI ucLIons." AL LIe begI nnI ng oI IIs
nLroducLIon Lo LIe Doctrine oj Riht, Ie specIIIes more precIseIy wIuL
exLernuI Iuws Iuve Lo do wILI und, In LIe concIudIng senLence oI D,
Note on the Text "!
I nLroduces LIe concepL oI u rI gIL, un uuLIorI zuLI on Lo use coercI on,
wII cI Ie Ius uppurenL I y obLuI ned by unuIysIs oI LIe concepL oI RI gIL.
Once LIIs concepL oI u rI gIL Ius been I nL roduced, IL Is noL uI wuys cI eur
wIeL Ier Recht Is Lo be L uken us RI gIL or us u rI gIL even In LIese
I nLroducLory secLIons, A-E. n LIe exumpI e LIuL concI udes E, ein
Hecht Is cIeurIy u rI gIL. BuL In LIe LILIe oI E, ein strictes(enes) Recht, one
LIuL Is noL mI xed wILI eLIIcuI precepLs, seems Lo be u sysLem oI Iuws.
KunL I ormuI I y dI sLI nguI sIes LIese L wo senses oI Recht In Ak. z;.
uLer, Ie uguI n druws LIe dIsLIncLIon wILI regurd Lo rI gILs Lo LII ngs
und LIe sum oI Iuws or prI ncI pI es IuvI ng Lo do wILI sucI rI gILs (Ak.
z61) und so Loo wI LI regurd Lo rI gILs uguInsL persons (Ak. z;1). Iuve
LrunsIuLed Scchenrecht (ins recle) In LIe sense oI u sysLem oI prI ncI pI es
us "properL y RI gIL , " und dcs Recht in einer Scche or ein Scchenrecht (ius
in re, ius recle) us "rI gILs Lo LII ngs. " CorrespondI ngI y, Iuve LrunsI uLed
dcs persohnliche Recht (ius personcle) us "conLrucL RI gIL " und us "rI gILs
uguInsL persons. " TIe r e Is no EngI I sI wor d I or KunL' s L II rd dIvIsIon,
dcs cuj dinliche Art persohnlichen Recht (ius recliter personcle). Iuve
LrunsIuLed LIIs, correspondI ngI y, us "domesLI c RI gIL " und "rI gILs
uguInsL persons ukI n Lo rIgILs Lo LII ngs. "
AI L er I nL roducL ory secLIons A-E, LIe probI em Is I ur L Ier compI I -
cuLed by KunL' s I r equenL use oI u number oI Lerms, sucI us rechtlich
und rechtmcssi, wII cI uppeur ed occusIonuIIy In LIe nL roducL I on Lo
The Metcphsics oj Morcls. Iuve dI scussed LIese Lerms In edI LorI uI
noLes us LIey occur In LIe LexL. n vIew oI LIe I requency wI LI wII cI
LIey ure used, Iuve noL I nserLed LIe Ger mun wor d In subsequenL
occurrences. n LIe cuse oI some Lerms LIe Vorcrbeiten zu Die Metcphsil
der Sitten (Ak. XX ) , KunL' s preI I mI nury noLes I or LIe work, ure
IeI pI uI . SomeL I mes LIe conL exL seems Lo suggesL LIe sense In wII cI u
Lerm Is Lo be Luken. AL oL Ier LImes LIe LrunsI uLIon oI LIe L erm Is
probI emuLI c. KunL Is Lo some exL enL I or gI ng IIs own vocubuI ury, und
unIess one ussumes un uncIurucLerI sLI c consIsLency on IIs purL some
I nLerpreLuLI on seems unuvoI dubI e. TII s Is uIso Lrue oI sucI c ompound
Lerms us Rechtssctz, Rechtsberijj und Rechtsesetz. BuL II, us KunL seems
Lo IoI d, LIe concepL oI u rI gIL Is conLuI ned In LIe concepL oI RI gIL, LIe
LrunsIuLIon oI Recht, ILs cognuLes, und sucI c ompound Lerms Is Lo some
exLenL u muLLer oI empIusI s.
TI e one poI nL In wII cI Iuve conscIousIy devI uLed I r om KunL' s
L ermI noI ogy Is In subsLILuLIng "prI ncI pI e" I or "I uw" In "PrI vuLe RI gIL, "
wIen Ie speuks, I or exumpI e, oI Rechtsesetz. Apur L I r om LIe Doctrine
oj Riht, IL seems upproprI uL e Lo speuk oI "moruI Iuws" und oI "LIe
moruI I uw" - LIe cuLegorI cuI I mperuLI ve. WI LII n LIe Doctrine oj Riht,
Iowever, LIe "I uws" LIuL KunL Is concerned wILI ure noL suI I I cI enLI y
deL ermI nuL e Lo be gI ven by un exL ernuI I uwgI ver, u IegIsIuLor or IegIsIu-
"!! Note on the Text
Lure. AI L IougI KunL speuks, Ior exumpI e, oI "LIe Iuw (pcctc sunt ser-
tcndc)," wIIcI eLIIcs or LIe Doctrine oj Virtue uccepLs us gIven by LIe
Doctrine oj Riht, LIuL "conLrucLs ure Lo be kepL" Is noL u Iuw In LIe sense
oI wIuL u IegIsIuLor couI d enucL, buL ruLIer u prIncIpIe underI yI ng und
provI dI ng LIe busIs I or wIuL u Iuwyer wouI d cuII "conLrucL Iuw." L Is LIe
"meLupIysIcuI IIrsL prIncIpIe" oI conLrucL Iuw, ILseII derI ved I rom LIe
LIree busIc prIncIpIes oI LIe Doctrine oj Riht: LIe unIversuI prIncIpIe oI
RIgIL, prucLIcuI reuson' s posLuIuLe wILI regurd Lo rIgILs, und LIe posLu-
IuLe oI pubIIc RIgIL. AI L IougI KunL muy reI er Lo LIese I ndI I I erenLI y us
"Iuws" or "prIncIpIes, " Iuve subsLILuLed "prIncIpI e" I or some occur-
rences oI "Iuw" [Gesetz]. Iuve, Iowever, someLImes I gnored LIIs
dIsLIncLIon In LIe cuse oI "LIe Iuw |or Iuws| oI I reedom, " wII cI Is
promI nenL In boLI LIe Doctrine oj Riht und LIe Doctrine oj Virtue.
A probI em oI LrunsIuLIon common Lo boLI purLs oI The Metcphsics oj
Morcls, und I ndeed Lo mosL oI KunL' s wrILIngs, Is LIe LrunsIuLIon oI
Vermoen. n vIew oI KunL' s dIsLIncLIon beLween u pussIve cupucILy
(.Ichileit, Rezeptititct) Ior beI ng uI I ecLed or ucLed upon und un ucLIve
cupucILy (Vermoen, Spontcneitct), sIouId Iuve preI erred Lo LrunsIuLe
Vermoen us "power. " BuL "power" In LIe sense oI "I orce" (Mccht,
Geuclt) pIuys u crucIuI roIe In LIe Doctrine oj Riht, und Krcjt occurs
boLI LIere und In LIe Doctrine oj Virtue. Iuve, uccordIngI y, LrunsIuLed
Vermoen us "cupucILy," excepL wIen IL Is used In LIe sense oI "meuns,
resources, weuILI. " On LIe wIoI e, The Metcphsics oj Morcls Is con-
cerned prImurIIy wILI ucLIve cupucILIes or powers ruLIer LIun wILI
suscepLIbIIILIes Lo beI ng uI I ecLed. TIe conLexL IndIcuLes wIen LIe IuLLer
ure under dIscussIon.
InuIIy, LIe LrunsIuLIon oI u very ordInury Lerm, der Mensch, Ius
become somewIuL probIemuLIc. n u Iew pussuges, I or exumpI e, LIose
IuvI ng Lo do wILI murrI uge, IL Is obvIousIy used In LIe sense oI "u
muIe." or LIe mosL purL, IL wouI d be pIIIosopIIcuIIy correcL LIrougI-
ouL KunL' s moruI pIIIosopIy Lo LrunsIuLe der Mensch us "u Iumun
beI ng. " To do so, Iowever, seems Lo me unucIronIsLIc, suggesLI ng LIuL
KunL wus more udvunced In LIIs respecL LIun IIs EngI I sI-speukI ng
conLemporurI es und LIuL Ie wus, In IucL, wrILIng In LIe LwenLIeLI cen-
Lury. TIe LrunsIuLIon oI der Mensch us "mun" sIouId occusIon no mIs-
undersLundI ng, und Iuve so LrunsIuLed IL.
TrunsIuLor's nLroducLIon
n IIs PreIuce Lo LIe Grounduorl oj the Metcphsics oj Morcls KunL
ouLIIned LIe LIree muIn Lusks oI u moruI pII I osopIer: 1) Lo cIurIIy "LIe
supreme prIncIpIe oI moruIILy, " LIe prIncIpIe on wII cI u ruLIonuI
ugenL Is L IougIL Lo ucL InsoIur us IIs ucLIon Is moruIIy good; z) Lo j usLI Iy
LIIs prIncIpIe, LIuL Is, Lo sIow LIuL IL ucLuuIIy IoIds I or or Is bI ndI ng
upon I mperIecLI y ruLIonuI ugenLs sucI us Iumun beIngs; und ) Lo
uppIy LIIs prIncIpIe In u "meLupIysIcs oI moruIs," so us Lo obLuIn "LIe
wIoIe sysLem" oI Iumun duLIes. TIese LIree Lusks correspond rougII y
Lo KunL' s LIree muj or works In moruI pII I osopIy: LIe Grounduorl
(1;8), LIe Critique oj Prccticcl Recson (1;88), und The Metcphsics oj
Morcls (1;q;).
KunL Iud I ong I nLended Lo wrILe u "meLupIysIcs oI moruIs"; us eurIy
us 1;6; Ie wus workI ng on u book wILI LIuL LILIe.
1
One cun onIy
specuIuLe regurdI ng ILs conLenL. PerIups LIe duLIes dIscussed wouI d
Iuve been mucI LIe sume us LIose seL IorLI In The Metcphsics oj
Morcls, KunL never IncIuded, umong LIe Lusks oI u moruI pII I osopIer,
LIe dIscovery oI duLIes oLIer LIun LIose recognI zed by "common
Iumun undersLundI ng" or, In ewIs WII Le Beck' s upL pIruse, "com-
mon sense moruI knowI edge. "
z
BuL IIs urgumenLs LIuL LIey ure duLIes
wouI d Iuve been very dI I I erenL. OnI y uILer LIe Critique oj Pure Recson
wus Ie In u posILIon Lo dIsLInguIsI pureIy ruLIonuI I r om empIrIcuI
concepLs und prIncIpIes und Lo urgue, us Ie does In LIe Grounduorl oj
the Metcphsics oj Morcls, LIuL LIe supreme prIncIpIe oI uII duLIes, us
IuvIng ILs source In reuson uIone, musL be u I ormuI one. As LIe LILIe oI
LIuL work IndIcuLes, KunL wus onIy IuyIng LIe I ounduLI on I or u sysLem
oI duLIes, noL buI I dI ng LIe sysLem upon IL. BuL LIe sorL oI I ounduLI on
IuId IndIcuLed LIuL LIe sysLem musL be obLuIned by provI dI ng empIrIcuI
conLenL I or LIuL prIncIpIe.
n LIe Grounduorl und LIe Critique oj Prccticcl Recson KunL' s concern
wus noL wILI "moruIs" (Sitten) buL wILI "moruIILy" (Sittlichleit, Morcli-
tct). L wus noL IIs purpose, In oLIer words, Lo gIve un uccounL oI
wIuL duLIes Iumun beIngs Iuve. nsLeud, ussumIng LIuL LIey recognI ze
i " Trcnslctor's Introduction
duLIes prescrIbed by moruI Iuws, Ie InvesLIguLed, IIrsL, LIe munner oI
wIIIIng LIuL dIsLInguIsIes u moruIIy good ucLIon I rom u mereI y I uwIuI
one und, second, wIuL Is presupposed by LIe prIncIpIe prescrI bI ng LIIs
sorL oI voIILIon. TIe resuILs oI LIese InvesLIguLIons, uI LIougI decIsIve
I or IIs derIvuLIon oI Iumun duLIes, cunnoL oI LIemseIves yIeId uny
specIIIc duLIes. By recuIIIng brIeIIy LIe muIn concIusIons oI LIese eur-
IIer works, we sIuII be ubIe Lo see more cIeurIy wIuL wus uccompI I sIed
und wIuL remuI ned Lo be done.
By mukI ng expIIcIL wIuL Is presenL In "common sense moruI knowI -
edge" KunL reucIed LIe concIusIon LIuL moruI pII I osopIers Iud up Lo
now IuIIed Lo uccounL Ior our mosL busIc moruI concepLs. mpIIcIL In
our concepL oI u moruIIy good ucLIon Is LIe convIcLIon LIuL LIe
supreme prIncIpIe oI moruIILy, "LIe moruI Iuw," Is u I ormuI prIncIpI e
LIe LIougIL oI wIIcI Is suIII cI enL I or deLermI nI ng oneseI I Lo ucL In
uccordunce wILI IL. n sucI un ucLIon we conceIve un ugenL us consIder-
I ng wIeLIer LIe subjecLIve prIncIpIe on wIIcI Ie proposes Lo ucL, IIs
muxI m, couI d IoI d Ior everyone und us deLermI nI ng IImseI I Lo ucL or
Lo reIruI n I rom ucLIng on LIe busIs oI wIeLIer IIs muxI m so quuIIIIes.
SInce LIe ugenL' s IncenLIve Is u nonempIrIcuI concepL, LIe LIougIL oI
LIe objecLIve vuIIdILy or ruLIonuIILy
oI IIs muxI m, Ie deLermI nes IIm-

seII Lo ucL I ndependenLI y oI IIs experI ence oI nuLuruI IncIInuLIon I or
LIe resuILs oI IIs ucLIon. A perIecLIy ruLIonuI ugenL, never uI I ecLed by
ImpuIses conLrury Lo LIe prIncIpIe oI reuson expressed In LIe moruI
Iuw, wouI d necessurIIy ucL upon LIIs prIncIpIe.j or u ruLIonuI ugenL
wIose voIILIon Is uI I ecLed by sucI ImpuIses, LIe ucLIon LIuL Is objec-
LIveIy necessury Is subjecLIveIy conLIngenL; Ie musL be consLruIned Lo
ucL In uccordunce wILI LIe moruI Iuw. or IIm LIe Iuw Is un ImperuLIve;
und sInce LIe ruLIonuI necessILy oI LIe ucLIon requI red Is noL dependenL
upon ILs beI ng u meuns Lo un unLecedenL end - one udopLed on LIe
busIs oI IIs IncIInuLIons - LIe moruI Iuw does noL counseI LIe ucLIon buL
communds IL. L Is, I or sucI un ugenL, un uncondILIonuI or cuLegorIcuI
ImperuLIve; LIe ucLIon prescrIbed by IL Is IIs duLy; und IIs conscIous-
ness oI beI ng subjecL Lo u cuLegorIcuI ImperuLIve Is uwureness oI beI ng
under obIIguLIon.
I "common sense moruI knowI edge" Is noL mereIy u II gI-I I own
IunLusy, LIen, our voIILIons ure subjecL Lo un uncondILIonuI ImperuLIve,
requI rI ng LIuL we deLermI ne ourseIves Lo ucLIons by LIe L IougIL oI LIe
ruLIonuIILy oI our muxIms. Reuson ILseII gIves LIe Iuw Lo us; mereIy by
IoI dI ng beI ore us ILs own prIncIpIe, IL exercIses consLruInL upon us Lo
ucL In conIormI Ly wILI LIIs prIncIpIe. Our uwureness oI moruI con-
sLruInL or obIIguLIon LIus provIdes us wILI LIe posILIve concepL oI
I reedom. I un ugenL' s voIILIons were deLermI ned I rom wILIouL, by
some ImpuIse exLrInsIc Lo IIs wIII, LIey wouI d noL be Iree. BuL LIe
concepL oI u wIII noL deLermI ned by nuLuruI cuuses Is onIy u neguLIve
concepL oI u I ree wIII, sInce IL suys noLII ng ubouL LIe Iuw oI ILs operu-
LIon. WIuL KunL' s unuIysIs Ius dIscIosed Is LIuL LIe Iuw In quesLIon Is
LIe moruI Iuw. TIe posILIve concepL oI I reedom Is LIuL oI "LIe power
oI pure reuson Lo be oI ILseII prucLIcuI" or Lo deLermI ne LIe ugenL Lo
ucLIon by LIe prIncIpIe oI prucLIcuI ruLIonuIILy ILseII. An ugenL wIo
conceIves IImseI I us under obIIguLIon musL conceIve IImseI I us Iree.
BuL Ie wouI d noL even be ubIe Lo LIInk oI IImseII us under obIIguLIon
unIess Ie LIougIL oI IImseII us cupubIe oI doI ng wIuL LIe moruI Iuw
prescrIbes uncondILIonuIIy LIuL Ie do. TIus IIs conscIousness oI obII-
guLIon boLI provIdes LIe concepL oI I ree voIILIon und ussures IIm LIuL,
Ior purposes oI ucLIon LIougI noL oI LIeoreLIcuI knowI edge, LIe con-
cepL Ius objecLIve reuIILy, LIuL LIere Is someLII ng correspondI ng Lo LIe
concepL.
rom LIIs crypLIc uccounL oI KunL' s concIusIons In LIe Grounduorl
und LIe Critique oj Prccticcl Recson IL cun be seen LIuL duLIes ure Lo be
derIved noL I rom mun' s nuLuruI desIres buL I rom IIs cupucILy I or I ree
voIILIon. So Iur, Iowever, we know oI onIy one duLy, wII cI wIII evenLu-
uIIy be specIIIed us LIuL oI sLrIvIng Ior moruI perIecLI on, sLrIvIng Lo
muke LIe Iuw, ruLIer LIun our nuLuruI desIres und uversIons, our
IncenLIve In ucL I ng. TIuL we ougIL Lo udopL our muxI ms on LIe busIs oI
LIeIr ruLIonuIILy, LIeIr quuIIIIcuLIon Lo IoId Ior everyone, LeIIs us wIuL
I orm LIey ure Lo Iuve. BuL we need u crILerIon I or decI dI ng wIuL mux-
Ims couI d IoId us unIversuI Iuws und Ience wIuL LIe duLIes ure LIuL we
sIouId sLrIve Lo IuI IIII I rom LIe mere LIougIL LIuL LIey ure duLIes.
We uIso need Lo expI ore I urL Ier LIe ImpIIcuLIons oI LIe Grounduorl's
puzzIIng usserLIon LIuL wIereus uII "spurI ous" prIncIpIes oI moruIILy
requIre LIe wIII Lo "go ouL oI ILseII," Lo some objecL uIreudy desIred, In
seurcI oI ILs prIncIpIe (V, qq1), obIIguLIon InvoIves InsLeud "LIe reIu-
LIon oI u wIII Lo ILseII so Iur us IL deLermI nes ILseII onIy by reuson" (V,
qz;). n moruI pIIIosopIy we ure noL Lo LIInk LIuL reuson, conceIved
us u IucuILy oI mereI y LIeoreLIcuI knowI edge, guI des u conuLIve IucuILy,
LIe wIII. Pure prucLIcuI reuson is LIe wIII. YeL wILIIn "LIe wIII" LIere
musL be some sLrucLure, und Ience some dI IIerenLI uLI on, expressed In
"obIIguLIon." TIe Lwo probI ems ure cIoseIy reIuLed, und LIe dIsLIncLIon
by wIIcI KunL resoIves LIe puzzIe ubouL "LIe reIuLIon oI u wIII Lo I LseI I"
Is essenLIuI Lo IIs derIvuLIon oI duLIes.
KunL' s use oI "IumunI Ly" L IrougIouL The Metcphsics oj Morcls sug-
gesLs LIuL duLIes ure Lo be derI ved I rom LIe Grounduorl's LreuLmenL oI
IumunILy us un "objecLIve end, " ILs IormuI uLI on oI LIe cuLegorIcuI Im-
peruLIve LIuL reIers specIIIcuIIy Lo ends und prescrIbes LIuL "LIe subjecL
oI uII ends" never be LreuLed us u mere meuns Lo LIe ends oI oLIers
or even Lo IIs own ends, buL uIso us un end In ILseII.
q
n consI derI ng
wIeLIer one' s muxI m couI d IoI d us u unIversuI Iuw, one Is uIreudy
LII nkI ng oI IL us u prIncIpIe on wIIcI everyone couI d ucL. n beI ng
uwure oI obIIguLIon Lo ucL onIy on muxI ms wIIcI meeL LIIs requIre-
menL, un ugenL regurds IImseII und oLIers us I ree und Ience us IuvI ng
u "dIgnILy" - LIe sLuLus oI u person us dIsLInguIsIed I r om u "LIIng, "
uny "objecL oI I ree cIoIce" wIIcI ILseII Iucks I reedom (und cun LIere-
Iore be used us one pIeuses) (zz). WI LI LIe IIndsIgIL provI ded by The:
Metcphsics oj Morcls, LIIs IormuI uLI on mI gIL be I nLerpreLed us suyI ng;
LIuL u moruI ugenL cunnoL consIsLenLIy wIII Lo prevenL persons I rom
wIIIIng.
KunL' s deII nI LI on oI u "LIIng, " Luken I rom The Metcphsics oj Morcls,
InLroduces u Lerm, "u cupucILy I or I ree cIoIce" (jreie Willlur), wIIcI
wus noLubIy ubsenL I rom LIe Grounduorl buL Is essenLIuI Lo ILs curdInuI
concepL oI obIIguLIon.
or obIIguLIon InvoIves Lwo Lerms: u subjecL

I mposI ng obIIguLIon or exercIsIng consLruInL und u subjecL puL under
obIIguLIon or consLruIned (q1;-1q). TIe Grounduorl InvesLIguLed uL
I engLI LIe IIrsL oI LIese, mosL noLubIy In ILs IormuI uLI on oI LIe cuLegor-
IcuI ImperuLIve us LIe prIncIpIe oI uuLonomy, wIIcI expIIcILIy presenLs
pure prucLIcuI reuson us gIvIng LIe moruI Iuw. BuL u Iuw musL be gIven
Lo someone, und Lo gIve u Iuw Is Lo connecL wILI IL consLruInL Lo do wIuL
IL presenLs us objecLIveIy necessury. TIe subjecL Lo wIom LIe Iuw Is
gI ven musL be, IIrsL, cupubIe oI compI yI ng wILI LIe Iuw und, second,
uI I ecLed by ImpuIses LIuL couI d I nduce II m noL Lo compI y wILI IL. I
one reuds buck InLo LIe Grounduorl u dIsLIncLIon beLween Wille und
Willlur,
6
wIIcI KunL I nLroduced In LIe second Critique und expIoILed
IuIIy In IIs derIvuLIon oI duLIes, LIe subjecL I mposI ng obIIguLIon Is u
person regurded us IuvI ng pure prucLIcuI reuson, wIereus LIe subjecL
puL under obIIguLIon Is LIe sume person regurded us IuvI ng u cupucILy
Ior I ree cIoIce. I pure reuson Is Lo be prucLIcuI IL musL be ubIe Lo
deLermI ne ucLIons. BuL IL cun do so onIy LIrougI LIe ugenL' s muxIms,
LIe prIncIpIes on wIIcI Ie proposes Lo ucL; und wIereus Iuws Issue
I rom IIs wIII, muxI ms Issue I rom IIs cupucILy Ior I ree cIoIce (zz6). BuL
LIIs Is Lo suy LIuL prucLIcuI reuson Ius Lwo IuncLIons or ucLIvILIes: LIuL
oI gIvIng Iuws und LIuL oI udopLI ng muxIms oI ucLIon. L Is becuuse oI
LIese Lwo ucLIvILIes LIuL KunL cun speuk oI "prucLIcuI reuson puLLI ng
ILseII under obIIguLIon" (qqo).
Pure prucLIcuI reuson us IuwgIvIng mereIy presenLs Lo un ugenL LIe
I ormuI prIncIpIe expressed In LIe cuLegorIcuI ImperuLIve, "So ucL LIuL
your muxI m couI d become u unIversuI Iuw," und LIereby exercIses
consLruInL upon IIs cupucILy I or cIoIce. Becuuse IIs cupucILy Ior
cIoIce, LIougI uI I ecLed by IIs nuLuruI ImpuIses und so "noL oI ILseII
pure, " Is IIs prucLIcuI reuson us dIrecLed Lo ucLIons, IL cunnoL be deLer-
mI ned Lo ucLIons by ImpuIses urIsIng I rom sensIbIe nuLure buL cun be
so deLermI ned LIrougI LIe prIncIpIe InLrInsIc Lo prucLIcuI reuson ILseII,
by u "pure wIII." BuL Lo udopL u muxI m Is Lo deLermI ne oneseI I Lo u
cerLuIn kInd oI ucLIon by seLLIng un end Ior wIIcI one ucLs. I u moruI
ugenL' s ucLIons cunnoL be deLermI ned by IncenLIves exLrInsIc Lo IIs
prucLIcuI reuson, wIuL ends Ie udopLs cunnoL be deLermI ned by psy-
cIoIogIcuI Iuws oI nuLure. A cupucILy Ior Iree cIoIce Is, LIen, u cupucILy
Lo seL ends I or oneseII.
Iuve suggesLed LIuL LIIs dIsLIncLIon beLween u moruI ugenL' s wIII
und IIs cupucILy Ior I ree cIoIce Is I oresIudowed by LIe IormuI uLI on oI
LIe cuLegorIcuI ImperuLIve LIuL requIres us Lo LreuL "IumunI Ly, " In our
own person und In every oLIer, us un "end In ILseII." AccordI ng Lo The
Metcphsics oj Morcls, LIe cupucILy Lo seL uny end wIuLever Ior oneseII
Is "wIuL cIurucLerIzes IumunILy (us dIsLInguIsIed I r om unImuIILy)"
(qz), und un end Is "un objecL oI I ree cIoIce, LIe represenLuLI on oI
wIIcI deLermI nes IL Lo un ucLIon (by wIIcI LIe objecL Is brougIL
ubouL)" (8, 81). TII s concepL oI Iree cIoIce Is expIIcuLed gruduuI I y,
us LIe need urIses. DIvIdIng The Metcphsics oj Morcls InLo ILs Lwo purLs,
LIe Doctrine oj Riht und LIe Doctrine oj Virtue, KunL remurks In u
IooLnoLe LIuL LIe IIgIesL concepL In LIe sysLem Is LIuL oI "LIe ucL oI
Iree cIoIce In generuI " (zI8n). WIuL requIres u dIvIsIon oI LIe sysLem
InLo Lwo purLs, Ie IuLer udds, Is LIuL LIe concepL oI I reedom, common
Lo boLI, requIres u dIvIsIon oI duLIes InLo LIose oI "ouLer" or "exLernuI "
I reedom und LIose oI "I nner" or "InLernuI" I reedom (qo6). Becuuse
duLIes IuvI ng Lo do wILI LIe ucL oI Iree cIoIce ILseII beI ong Lo LIe
Doctrine oj Virtue, KunL reserves IIs dIscussIon oI ends I or LIe second
purL oI The Metcphsics oj Morcls. YeL LIIs concepL oI I ree cIoIce Is wIuL
dIsLInguIsIes KunL' s concepLIons oI boLI RI gIL und vIrLue I rom LIose
oI IIs predecessors us weII us mosL oI IIs successors, und IL mI gIL be
weII Lo expI ore IL I urL Ier uL LIe ouLseL.
The Metcphsics oj Morcls begIns wILI u dIscussIon oI wIuL Is requI red
on LIe purL oI LIe Iumun mI nd II IL Is Lo be subjecL Lo moruI Iuws.
SLurLIng wILI LIe concepL oI u "cupucILy I or desIre" In LIe broudesL
sense, u beIng' s cupucILy Lo exercIse cuusuIILy by producI ng un ucLIon,
KunL udds LIe quuIIIIcuLIons LIuL dIsLInguIsI Iumun beIngs us moruI
ugenLs I rom uII oLIer beIngs cupubIe oI exercIsIng sucI cuusuIILy. A
cupucILy Ior desIre, common Lo Iumun beIngs und oLIer unImuIs, Is
deI I ned us u beIng' s cupucILy Lo be by meuns oI ILs represenLuLIons LIe
cuuse oI LIe objecL oI LIose represenLuLIons, LIuL Is, Lo ucL Ior LIe suke
oI some eI I ecL Ioreseen und desIred. I u beI ng cun concepLuuI Ize sucI
objecLs und deLermI ne ILseII Lo ucLIons by I ormI ng ruIes I or ILs conducL,
LIen ILs cupucILy Ior desIre, wIen uccompunI ed by conscIousness oI ILs
ubIIILy Lo produce LIe objecL, Is cuIIed Willlur (upurL I r om sucI con-
scIousness, ILs ucL Is cuIIed u "wIsI"). KunL occusIonuIIy speuks oI "bruLe
cIoIce" (tierische Willlur), sInce unImuIs muy be deLermI ned Lo ucL I or
LIe suke oI some end. On LIe wIoIe, Iowever, Ie reserves Willlur
I or Iumun beIngs. rom experI ence LIey cun Ieurn wII cI oI LIeIr
nuLuruI ImpuIses ure seLLIed desIres or "IncIInuLIons," us weII us wIuL
sorL oI LIIng suLIsIIes LIem, und cun I ormuI uLe generuI ruIes I or LIeIr
conducL, InvoIvIng knowI edge oI wIuL kInds oI ucLIons wIII produce
LIe resuILs I nLended. BuL uI LIougI LIIs "cupucILy Lo ucL uccordI ng Lo
LIe concepLIon oI Iuws" - "u wIII" us LrudILIonuIIy conceIved (V, q1z) -
dIsLInguIsIes Iumun beIngs I rom oLIer unImuIs und Is u necessury
condILIon oI moruI ugency, IL Is noL oI ILseII suIII cI enL Lo muke LIem
moruI ugenLs (q18). TIuL u Iumun beI ng hcs desIres I or objecLs wII cI
Ie knows I rom experI ence wIII suLIsIy IIs IncIInuLIons Is un operuLI on
oI nuLure; In uccordunce wILI psycIoIogIcuI Iuws oI nuLure LIe objecL
represenLed produces In IIm u I eeI I ng oI pIeusure wIIcI eIIcILs u de-
sIre Ior LIuL objecL. BuL LIuL Ie IImseII mcles it his end Lo suLIsIy LIuL
desIre by producI ng LIe objecL represenLed Is un ucL oI I ree cIoIce on
IIs purL (8); und IIs cupucILy Lo seL uny end wIuLever, or Lo udopL u
muxI m, ruIses IIm ubove LIe order oI nuLuruI cuusuIILy und subjecLs IIs
cupucILy I or cIoIce Lo moruI Iuws. L Is noL by meuns oI InLrospecLIon
LIuL we know LIuL we ourseIves Iuve seL our ends; InsLeud, our con-
scIousness oI beI ng under obIIguLIon reveuIs, Ior prucLIcuI purposes,
LIuL we Iuve u cupucILy I or I ree cIoIce.
;
TIe Grounduorl, pubIIsIed I our yeurs uILer LIe Critique oj Pure
Recson, wus KunL' s IIrsL "crILIcuI" work In moruI pII I osopIy. L wouI d
noL be surprIsIng LIuL IIs LII nkI ng ubouL Iumun I reedom conLI nued
Lo deveI op durI ng LIe nexL LweIve yeurs. Moreover, LIe Lusk Ie seL
IImseII In LIe Grounduorl wus u very IImILed one. L Is L IereI ore unI or-
LunuLe LIuL LIIs work Is oILen Luken us IIs deIInILIve posILIon In moruI
pIIIosopIy und us vIrLuuIIy IdenLIcuI wILI "KunLI un moruI pII I osopIy. "
AI L IougI LIe Grounduorl IndIcuLed In u generuI wuy LIuL un ugenL' s
muxIms wouI d suppIy LIe conLenL requI red Ior uppI yI ng LIe I ormuI
prIncIpIe oI uII duLIes, LIere KunL' s concern wILI ends, LIe "muLLer" oI
voIILIon, wus essenLIuIIy Lo sIow LIuL LIe moruI Iuw, LIe cuLegorIcuI
ImperuLIve, cunnoL be derIved I rom ends udopLed on LIe busIs oI
IncIInuLIon. YeL IL Is by consI derI ng LIe reIuLIon oI Iuws Lo ends, Lo LIe
cupucILy I or I ree cIoIce, LIuL Ie uppIIes LIe cuLegorIcuI ImperuLIve.
TIe wIII, "us pure reuson uppI I ed Lo LIe cupucILy I or cIoIce Irrespec-
LIve oI ILs objecLs does noL Iuve wILIIn IL LIe muLLer oI LIe Iuw; so . . .
LIere Is noLII ng IL cun muke LIe supreme Iuw und deLermI nI ng ground
oI cIoIce excepL LIe I orm, LIe IILness oI muxI ms oI cIoIce Lo be
unIversuI Iuw" (z1q). BuL muxIms conLuIn "objecLs oI cIoIce, " boLI In
LIe sense oI ends (cenLruI Lo LIe Doctrine oj Virtue) und In LIe sense oI
wIuL cun be puL Lo use In eI I ecL I ng wIuLever ends one Ius (cenLruI Lo
LIe Doctrine oj Riht). AppI I ed Lo LIe cupucILy I or cIoIce wILI respecL
Lo ILs objecLs, LIe wIII gIves rIse Lo Iuws enubI Ing us Lo puL dI I I erenL
kInds oI objecLs Lo use - LIuL Is, deLermI nI ng wIuL rIgILs we Iuve or
cun ucquIre - und Iuws prescrIbIng wIuL ends we ougIL Lo seL I or
ourseIves - LIuL Is, wIuL vIrLues or moruI dIsposILIons we ougIL Lo
ucquIre. WIeL Ier KunL' s moruI pIIIosopIy Is un "empLy IormuI I sm"
cun be decI ded onIy uILer u cureI uI sLudy oI The Metcphsics oj Morcls,
und LIIs Is noL LIe work one wouI d Iuve expecLed on LIe busIs oI LIe
Grounduorl uIone. n IucL, KunL' s reIerences LIere Lo IIs I uL ure
"meLupIysIcs oI moruIs" wouI d suggesL LIuL Ie Iud noL gIven serIous
consIderuLIon Lo Iow Ie wouI d go ubouL uppI yI ng LIe I ormuI prIncIpIe
oI uII duLIes so us Lo obLuIn "LIe wIoI e sysLem."
8
sIuII menLI on onIy one respecL In wIIcI LIe Grounduorl gIves no
IndIcuLIon oI KunL' s procedure In The Metcphsics oj Morcls. n u IooL-
noLe Lo IIs exumpI es oI duLIes obLuIned I rom LIe prIncIpIe Ie Ius
cIurIIIed, KunL remurks LIuL, uI LIougI Ie IoIIows LIe cusLomury dIvI-
sIon oI duLIes InLo LIose Lo oneseI I und Lo oLIers und InLo perIecL und
I mperIecL duLIes, Ie depurLs I rom IL In recognI zI ng "InLernuI" us weII
us "exLernuI " perIecL duLIes. However, Ie wIII noL urgue I or LIIs dIvI-
sIon, reservI ng IL I or IIs I uL ure Metcphsics oj Morcls (V, qz m). HIs
exumpI e oI un "exLernuI " perI ecL duLy, u perI ecL duLy Lowurd oLIers,
Is LIuL oI noL mukI ng u IyIng promIse. TIe quesLIon ruIsed Is u very
generuI one: Muy muke u promI se wILI LIe InLenLIon oI noL keepI ng
IL? L Is noL LIe quesLIon oI wIeLIer muy breuk u specIIIc kInd oI
promIse mude by me und uccepLed by unoLIer - LIuL Is, u conLrucL.
TIer e Is no IndIcuLIon LIuL "exLernuI perIecL duLIes" wIII requIre u
sepuruLe purL oI u meLupIysIcs oI moruIs, u docLrIne oI RIgIL comprIs-
I ng duLIes LIuL u moruI ugenL cun be consLruIned by oLIers Lo IuIIIII.
GIven sucI u dIvIsIon, one mI gIL unLIcIpuLe LIuL "eLIIcs," LIe second
purL oI LIe sysLem oI duLIes, wIII be u docLrIne oI vIrLue, IuvI ng Lo do
wILI one' s moruI dIsposILIon, L IougI IL wouI d be more dI III cuI L Lo
Ioresee LIuL u docLrIne oI vIrLue wIII be u docLrIne oI ends, us un "end"
Ius been deI I ned. ApurL I rom sucI u dIvIsIon, one mI gIL suppose LIuL
KunL' s eLIIcs wouI d be un eLIIcs oI "ruIes" us dIsLInguIsIed I rom un
eLIIcs oI "vIrLues. "
AI L IougI The Metcphsics oj Morcls wus orIgInuIIy I nLended Lo be u
"popuI ur" work, LIe book Lo wIIcI KunL guve LIuL LILIe Is noL wILIouL
ILs dIIIIcuILIes, especIuIIy In ILs IIrsL purL. TIe LexL oI LIe Doctrine oj
Riht Is corrupL, Lo un exLenL LIuL muy Iere be I eIL undecI ded.
q
TIe
eurIy porLIons oI ILs mosL busIc dIvIsIon, "PrIvuLe RIgIL, " ure excepLIon-
uIIy crypLIc; uL IeusL purL oI LIe probI em seems Lo be LIuL uI LIougI
KunL Iud I ecLured uL IeusL LweIve LImes on Ncturrecht or NuLuruI RIgIL,
IL wus noL unLII sIorLIy beI ore LIe ucLuuI wrILIng oI The Metcphsics oj
Morcls LIuL Ie suw Iow Lo expIIcuLe LIe concepL oI "wIuL Is mIne or
yours" - LIe concepL oI u rI gIL - by meuns oI u dIsLIncLIon beLween LIe
empIrIcuI und LIe ruLIonuI concepLs oI possessIon, wILI uII LIuL Is
enLuIIed by LIIs dIsLIncLIon. By 1;q; KunL wus In u Iurry Lo produce IIs
I ong uwuILed "meLupIysIcs oI moruIs" und, In ILs mosL orIgInuI und
crucIuI purL, mukes demunds upon IIs reuders LIuL seem excessIve
even by IIs sLundurds. Becuuse LIe Doctrine oj Virtue ussumes LIuL LIe
reuder Ius musLered LIe Doctrine oj Riht, ILs nLroducLI on mukes much
oI wIuL dIsLInguIsIes LIe second purL oI LIe sysLem oI duLIes I rom
LIe IIrsL (und reLrospecLIveIy LIrows u good deuI oI IIgIL on IL). n LIe
remuI nder oI LIIs nLroducLI on sIuII uLLempL Lo gIve un overvI ew oI
KunL' s procedure In derI vI ng LIe Lwo sysLems oI Iumun duLIes. n so
doI ng sIuII uLLempL Lo IndIcuLe wIuL Is dIsLIncLIve ubouL KunL' s con-
cepLIon oI boLI RI gIL und vIrLue, In LIe Iope LIuL LIe Issues ruIsed wIII
encouruge reII ecLI on on wIeLIer Ie Ius provI ded u vIubIe I rumework
Ior LIe dIscussIon oI rIgILs und vIrLues.
n The Metcphsics oj Morcls, us we Iuve seen, "LIe ucL oI I ree cIoI ce"
becomes LIe IIgIesL concepL oI LIe sysLem, LIe IIrsL dIvIsIon oI LIIs
concepL beI ng LIuL InLo "rIgIL" und "wrong" generuIIy. WIuL Is rIgIL or
wrong, In Lurn, Is wIuL Is In conIormI Ly wILI or conLrury Lo some duLy,
no muLLer wIuL ILs conLenL or orIgIn muy be (zz-q). TIe sysLem oI
Iuws prescrIbIng duLIes comprIses Lwo subordInuLe sysLems, unI II ed by
LIe I ormuI prIncIpI e oI uII duLy und dIsLInguIsIed by LIe sorL oI IuwgIv-
I ng In wIIcI LIey orIgInuLe. DI vI dI ng u meLupIysIcs oI moruI s (z18 -
zz), KunL dIsLInguIsIes Lwo eIemenLs In uny IuwgIvIng: u Iuw, wIIcI
sLuLes LIuL someLII ng Is Lo be done or mukes IL u duLy, und consLruInL
upon LIose subjecL Lo LIe Iuw, wIIcI LIe IuwgIver connecLs wILI IL by
I urnI sII ng un IncenLIve. TIe second eI emenL Lurns ouL Lo be decIsIve.
or II LIe I uwgIver Is exLernuI, someone oLIer LIun LIose subjecL Lo LIe
Iuw, Ie cunnoL IncI ude IIs subjecLs' IncenLIve wILIIn LIe Iuw; Ie cunnoL
prescrIbe wIuL IncenLIve LIey ure Lo Iuve.
1 o
He cun Lry Lo deLer LIem
I rom breukI ng LIe Iuw onIy by meusures dIrecLed Lo LIeIr IncIInuLIons
or, more precIseIy, LIeIr dIsIncIInuLIons or uversIons. On LIIs busIs
KunL dIsLInguIsIes Lwo kInds oI duLIes, duLIes oI RIgIL und duLIes oI
vIrLue, uddI ng LIuL LIe I ormer ure "IndIrecLIy eLIIcuI." AI L IougI LIey
urIse In exLernuI IuwgIvIng, LIey ure duLIes und ure L IereI ore "Luken
up" InLo eLIIcuI IuwgIvIng, wIIcI connecLs wILI LIem ILs own IncenLIve.
TII s InILIuI dIvIsIon Is udmILLedIy ruLIer vugue, perIups deIIberuLeIy
so. TIe spIere demurcuLed I or LIe IIrsL purL oI u meLupIysIcs oI mor-
uIs Is LIe spIere oI RIgIL, Recht orlus, und wouI d be generuIIy uccepL-
ubIe wILIIn LIe LrudILIon oI NuLuruI RIgIL. BuL KunL' s generuI crILIcIsm
oI moruI pIII osopIers wIo reIIed on "spurIous" moruI prIncIpIes
exLends Lo LIose wIo worked prImurIIy wILIIn LIIs spIere. HIs dIvIsIon
oI u meLupIysIcs oI moruIs In Lerms oI IuwgIvIng, und so oI LIe kInd oI
consLruInL or obIIguLIon InvoIved In exLernuI I uwgI vI ng, sIngIes ouL u
concepL LIuL Iud gIven LrudILIonuI NuLuruI RIgIL LIeorIsLs u greuL deuI
oI LroubIe. I ke KunL, LIey were noL concerned wILI uny purLIcuIur
sysLem oI posILIve Iuws buL wILI LIe "nuLuruI Iuw" or "LIe Iuw oI nu-
Lure" LIuL Is LIe busIs oI uII posILIve Iuw und mukes IL bI ndI ng In
conscIence. TIey wouI d reudIIy ugree wILI IIm LIuL, gI ven u sysLem oI
posILIve Iuws, LIere musL be u "nuLuruI Iuw" esLubIIsIIng LIe uuLIorILy
oI u IegIsIuLor Lo enucL posILIve Iuws (zzq). ndeed, KunL seems In LIIs
LexL Lo be reIuLIng IIs projecL Lo LIeIrs. or LIe mosL purL Ie uvoIds
LIeIr Lerm "nuLuruI Iuw," preI errI ng Lo conLrusL "Iuws oI nuLure" wILI
"Iuws oI I reedom" or moruI Iuws. n IucL, Ie wouI d IncI ude LIe LrudI-
LIonuI "nuLuruI Iuwyers" umong LIose pIII osopIers wIo IuIIed Lo dIs-
LInguIsI beLween empIrIcuI und ruLIonuI concepLs und prIncIpIes,
reduced LIe docLrIne oI moruIs Lo LIe docLrIne oI IuppIness, und
LIereby "spoIIed" our commonsense moruI knowI edge oI obIIguLIon.
n oLIer words, LIey reduced u "nuLuruI Iuw," In LIe sense oI u moruI
prIncIpIe wIIcI cun be known u prIorI Lo be bIndIng, Lo u Iuw oI nuLuruI
cuusuIILy. TII s Is LIe LIeme oI LIe second dIvIsIon oI LIe nLroducLI on
Lo The Metcphsics oj Morcls, wIIcI ImmedIuLeIy precedes LIe dIvIsIon
oI LIe sysLem In Lerms oI exLernuI und InLernuI I uwgIvIng.
AI L IougI recognI zI ng LIe dI I I erence beLween gI vI ng counseI und
gIvIng Iuw, LrudILIonuI nuLuruI Iuw LIeorIsLs were Iurd puL Lo uccounL
Ior LIe dIsLIncLIve consLruInL, obIIguLIon, wIIcI LIe IuLLer InvoIves. n
gIvIng counseI one ussumes LIuL LIose Lo wIom IL Is gI ven uI reudy Iuve
some end. One muy IeI p LIem Lo cIurIIy wIuL LIIs end Is und, on LIe
busIs oI experI ence, udvIse LIem LIuL IL wouI d probubIy noL be In LIeIr
Iong-Lerm InLeresLs Lo suLIsIy some pressIng desIre; buL one musL uIIow
Ior excepLIons, und one' s counseI Ieuves LIem I ree Lo I gnore IL uL LIeIr
own rIsk. One does noL provI de un uILogeLIer dI I I erenL IncenLIve. To
resorL, us some dId, Lo u dIvIne "commund" wus no soIuLIon, sInce IL
mereIy udded consLruInL L IrougI LIe subjecLs' uversIon Lo suncLIons Lo
LIe prIncIpIe oI prudence. KunL' s Doctrine oj Riht presenLs IIs own
resoIuLIon oI LIe probIems LIuL LroubI ed LIem. IrsL, In gI vI ng posILIve
Iuw, u IegIsIuLor connecLs wILI u Iuw consLruInL by nuLuruI meuns Lo
compI y wILI IL. How cun LIIs sorL oI IuwgIvIng puL oLIers under obIIgu-
LIon Lo compI y wILI IL? Second, LIe conLenL oI posILIve Iuws Is conLIn-
genL und cIosen by LIe IegIsIuLor (zz;). TrudILIonuIIy, posILIve Iuws
were specIIIcuLIons oI "nuLuruI Iuws" und derI ved LIeIr bI ndI ng I orce
I rom LIuL oI "LIe Iuw oI nuLure. " KunL' s wuy oI resoIvIng LIe probI em
oI Iow LIose moruI prIncIpIes wIIcI ure LIe busIs oI posILIve Iuws cun
be bI ndI ng sIurpIy reduces LIe spIere oI NuLuruI RI gIL In LIe sense oI
moruI Iuws LIuL wouI d be bI ndI ng In u sLuLe oI nuLure.
KunL' s repIy Lo LIe probI em oI Iow un exLernuI IegIsIuLor cun puL
oLIers under obIIguLIon "by IIs mere cIoIce" Is, In IucL, LIe Doctrine oj
# " Trcnslctor's Introduction
Riht. We muy IIrsL consIder KunL' s LreuLmenL oI LIe compI ex probI em
In broud ouLIIne. HIs uccounL oI Iow one cun be puL under obIIguLIon
L IrougI exLernuI IuwgIvIng Is derI ved I rom LIe concepL oI obIIguLIon
us consLruInL upon LIe cupucILy I or I ree cIoIce by LIe wIII. n very
generuI Lerms, IL Is LIuL In exLernuI IuwgIvIng LIe wIII provI des LIe ruI e
buL noL uIso LIe IncenLIve I or ucLIons (Ak. qz). TIe Iuw Is Iere
regurded noL specIIIcuIIy us LIe Iuw oI one' s own wIII buL us LIuL oI "wIII
In generuI , " wIIcI couI d uIso be LIe wIII oI unoLIer (8q). SInce exLer-
nuI IuwgIvIng Ius Lo reIy upon consLruInL L IrougI LIe subjecLs' nuLuruI
uversIons, exLernuI Iuws cun prescrIbe or IorbId onIy ucLIons, noL LIe
ucL oI Iree cIoIce ILseII. BuL LIe unIversuI Iuw oI RIgIL (Rechtsesetz),
"So ucL exLernuIIy LIuL LIe I ree use oI your cIoIce cun coexIsL wILI LIe
I reedom oI everyone In uccordunce wILI u unIversuI Iuw," Is LIe I ormuI
prIncIpIe oI LIe wIII uppIIed Lo LIe spIere oI ucLIons In wII cI one
ugenL' s exercIse oI I ree cIoIce couI d uI I ecL unoLIer' s. SInce IL Is LIe
I ormuI prIncIpIe oI rIgIL ucLIons, un ugenL cun uIwuys regurd Iuws
bused upon IL us Iuws oI IIs own wIII und deLermI ne IImseI I Lo ucLIons
L IrougI LIe L IougIL oI LIeIr IuwIuIness, L IrougI LIe IncenLIve oI duLy
(zz). TII s prIncIpI e Is Indeed, us KunL noLes, one LIuL puLs us under
obIIguLIon; buL un exLernuI IuwgIver cunnoL muke uny use oI IIs sub-
jecLs' conscIousness oI consLruInL by LIeIr own IuwgIvIng reuson (zz).
TIe Iuws Ie gIves cun be IuI III I ed by ucLIons I ndependenLI y oI LIe
subjecLs' moruI dIsposILIon.
As I or LIe conLI ngenL or "cIosen" conLenL oI posILIve Iuws, LIe dIvI-
sIon oI The Doctrine oj Riht LIuL, KunL suys, Ie worked up mosL IuI I y
(zoq) esLubIIsIes LIe uuLIorILy oI u IegIsIuLor Lo puL oLIers under
obIIguLIon "by IIs mere cIoIce. " L does so by urguI ng LIuL NuLuruI
RIgIL Is deII cI enL wILI regurd boLI Lo specI IyI ng Iuws und Lo un Incen-
LIve Lo compI y wILI sucI Iuws. n uccordunce wILI prIncIpIes oI NuLuruI
RIgIL, Iumun beIngs musL be ubIe Lo ucquIre rIgILs, Lo use coercI on In
uccordunce wILI moruI prIncIpIes, und consIderuLIon oI wIuL rIgILs
LIey Iuve or cun ucquIre provIdes LIe crILerIon Ior uny use oI coercIon
wILIIn u cIvII socIeLy. BuL IL Is onIy wILIIn u cIvII condILIon, wIere LIere
Is u IegIsIuLor Lo enucL Iuws, un execuLIve Lo enI orce LIem, und u j udI -
cIury Lo seLLIe dIspuLes ubouL rIgILs by reIerence Lo sucI pubIIc Iuws,
LIuL Iumun beIngs cun do wIuL IL cun be known u prIorI LIey musL be
ubIe Lo do In uccordunce wILI moruI prIncIpIes. NuLuruI RI gIL Is noL
LIe body oI Iuws LIuL wouI d be bI ndI ng In u sLuLe oI nuLure buL InsLeud
LIe nonsLuLuLory "meLupIysIcuI IIrsL prIncIpIes" embodI ed In u cIvII
consLILuLIon (o6). KunL' s posILIon Is consIderubIy more compI ex LIun
LIuL expressed In LIe dIcLum LIuL Iuws muy Iuve uny conLenL wIuLever
or In LIe dI cLum LIuL "nuLuruI Iuws" ure bI ndI ng upurL I rom uny
Iumun Iuws.
rom KunL' s dIsLIncLIon beLween exLernuI und InLernuI IuwgIvIng,
combI ned wILI IIs dIsLIncLIon beLween u moruI ugenL' s wIII und IIs
cupucILy I or cIoIce, IL IoIIows LIuL exLernuI Iuws cun prescrIbe or IorbI d
onIy ucLIons. L uIso IoIIows LIuL LIe resLrIcLIon oI LIe spIere oI RIgIL
Lo ucLIons does noL oI ILseII udequuLeIy cIurucLerIze LIIs spIere. L
couId be suId, und Ius very oI Len been suId, LIuL LIe need I or u sysLem
oI exLernuI Iuws Is derIved I rom consIderuLIons oI Iumun weII-beIng
und LIuL LIe Iuws oI LIuL sysLem sIouI d be meusures I or promoL I ng LIe
cILIzens' weII-beIng. I "weII-beIng" Is I nLended In LIe sense oI "IuppI -
ness" - u muxI mum Iong-Lerm suLIsIucLIon oI LIeIr nuLuruI desIres or,
perIups, un InLegruLed wIoI e oI LIeIr suLIsIucLIon (Reliion uithin the
Limits oj Recson Alone, V, 8) - KunL' s concepLIon oI u moruI ugenL
ruIes ouL LIIs vIew. AI L IougI LIe spIere oI RI gIL excI udes consIder-
uLIon oI un ugenL' s IncenLIve, exLernuI Iuws ure moruI Iuws onIy InsoIur
us LIeIr prIncIpIe cun be regurded us LIe prIncIpIe oI IIs own wIII. Ls
prIncIpIe musL LIereI ore be derI ved I rom LIuL exercIse oI un ugenL' s
I reedom wII cI cun be subjecL Lo exLernuI Iuws. A sysLem oI exLernuI
Iuws Ius us ILs IuncLI on LIuL oI uIIowIng Iumun beIngs Lo exercIse LIeIr
cupucILy Ior I ree cIoIce, LIuL Is, Lo ucL Ior LIe suke oI wIuLever ends
LIey Iuve seL I or LIemseIves.
KunL derIves IIs unIversuI prIncIpIe oI RI gIL I ndependenLI y oI dIs-
LIncLIveIy eLIIcuI consIderuLIons,
11
mereIy by specI I yI ng LIe condILIon
under wII cI one ugenL' s exLernuI use oI IIs I reedom cun be compuL-
IbIe wILI LIuL oI every oLIer, LIuL Is, LIe condILIon under wIIcI IIs
ucLIons, us meuns Lo wIuLever end Ie Ius udopLed, wIII Ieuve uII oLIers
Iree Lo ucL I or wIuLever ends LIey Iuve seL I or LIemseIves. By Iorce,
LIreuLs, or decepLI on oLIers muy compeI someone Lo per I or m ucLIons
LIuL ure noL meuns Lo IIs own ends buL onIy Lo LIeIrs. SucI compuI sI on
Is wrong or InconsIsLenL wILI LIe exLernuI exercIse oI everyone' s Iree-
dom. CoercI on used Lo cIeck sucI compuI sI on Is noL onIy consIsLenL
wILI everyone' s exLernuI I reedom buL, us u cIeck upon LIe obsLucIe Lo
I reedom, u condILIon oI I reedom In uccordunce wILI u Iuw Ior every-
one' s exercIse oI I reedom. CoercI on exercIsed In uccordunce wILI u
Iuw IImILIng everyone' s exLernuI I reedom Lo LIe condI LI on oI ILs com-
puLIbIIILy wILI LIe I reedom oI every oLIer Is L IereI ore rI gIL - LIuL Is,
consIsLenL wILI ouLer I reedom under unIversuI Iuw. Hence someone Is
uuLIorI zed Lo use sucI coercIon. AnuIysIs oI LIe concepL oI RI gIL LIus
yIeIds LIe concepL oI u rIgIL, un uuLIorIzuLIon Lo use coercIon. A
sysLem oI Iuws Ior everyone' s exLernuI exercIse oI I r eedom InvoIves
someone' s beI ng uuLIorI zed Lo use coercIon.
rom LIe concepL oI u rIgIL KunL ImmedIuLeI y concI udes LIuL
Iumun beIngs, mereIy by vIrLue oI LIeIr "IumunI Ly, " Iuve one und
onIy one InnuLe rIgIL: LIe rIgIL Lo I reedom oI ucLIon. TIuL unyone Is
uuLIorI zed Lo use coercIon uguInsL someone wIo wouI d I nLerI ere wILI
sucI oI IIs ucLIons us ure compuLIbIe wILI everyone' s exLernuI use oI
I reedom IoIIows dIrecLIy I rom consIderuLIons oI wIuL Is rI gIL In uccor-
dunce wILI un exLernuI Iuw. AI I oLIer rIgILs musL be ucquI red by ucLs
oI cIoIce, und KunL Is Iur more concerned wILI Iow someone cun
rIgILIy be coerced Lo reIruI n I rom doI ng wIuL wouI d noL I nLerI ere wILI
unyone' s InnuLe rIgIL Lo I reedom oI ucLIon. Hence Ie reIeguLes LIIs
one nonucquI red rIgIL Lo LIe "proI egomenu" Lo LIe Doctrine oj Riht
und devoLes "PrIvuLe RI gIL" Lo LIe probI em oI Iow someone cun
ucquIre u rI gIL Lo un "exLernuI " objecL oI IIs cIoIce.
By unuIyzIng LIe concepL oI un exLernuI objecL oI cIoIce LIuL beI ongs
Lo someone by rIgIL (meum iuris), KunL deLermI nes LIuL LIe concepL Is
LIuL oI nonpIysIcuI or InLeIIIgIbIe possessIon oI someLII ng dIsLIncL
I rom oneseII. n order Lo use someLII ng one musL possess IL In some
sense. GrunLI ng one' s InnuLe rIgIL Lo I reedom oI ucLIon, one Is In rIgIL-
I uI possessIon oI one' s own person und (upurL I rom uny rI gIL someone
eIse Ius ucquIred) oI objecLs one Is IoI dI ng or possesses pIysIcuIIy: No
one cun II nder IIm In IIs excIusIve use oI LIem wILIouL wrongI ng IIm
by I nI rI ngI ng upon LIuL ouLer I reedom oI IIs wIIcI Is compuLI bIe wILI
everyone' s use oI I ree cIoIce. BuL II Ie cun be wronged by someone' s
use, wILIouL IIs consenL, oI un objecL Ie Is noL IoI dI ng, Ie musL
possess LIuL objecL I ndependenLI y oI IIs pIysIcuI connecLI on wILI IL. To
suy LIuL Ie cun be wronged In LIIs wuy Is Lo suy LIuL Ie possesses LIe
objecL mereIy by IIs ucL oI cIoIce, und LIuL IIs conLroI over LIe objecL,
IIs use oI coercIon Lo prevenL oLIers I rom usIng IL, Is consIsLenL wILI
LIe I reedom oI everyone.
To unuIyze u concepL, Iowever, Is noL Lo sIow LIuL we ure j usLI I I ed In
usIng IL. As u concepL oI wIuL cun be done rIgILIy, LIe concepL oI
nonpIysIcuI possessIon oI un objecL dIsLIncL I rom oneseI I cunnoL be
j usLI II ed I or LIeoreLIcuI purposes; IL cunnoL be sIown LIuL we ure en-
LILIed Lo use LIIs concepL, or LIuL someLII ng corresponds Lo IL, by
brI ngI ng IL InLo reIuLIon wILI spuce und LIme, LIe I orms oI objecLs oI
wIIcI we cun Iuve experI ence. TIe onIy wuy Lo j usLI Iy our use oI LIIs
concepL Is Lo sIow LIuL IL Is presupposed by u moruI ImperuLIve. TII s
ImperuLIve Is LIe prIncIpIe KunL cuIIs "prucLIcuI reuson' s posLuIuLe wILI
regurd Lo rIgILs," wIIcI sLuLes LIuL IL Is possIbIe Ior someone or oLIer
Lo Iuve us IIs own unyLII ng LIuL cun be puL Lo use und wII cI requIres
LIuL everyone ucL uccordIngIy. As I or LIIs prIncIpIe, KunL poInLs ouL
LIuL Lo deny IL wouI d be Lo muke one' s exLernuI exercIse oI I ree cIoIce
dependenL upon someLIIng oLIer LIun ILs uccord wILI ILs own I ormuI
prIncIpIe. To suy LIuL un objecL oI cIoIce, someLII ng usubIe, sImpIy
couI d noL be puL Lo uny use wouI d be Lo suy LIuL one' s use oI IL wouI d
be wrong even II IL were consIsLenL wILI LIe unIversuI prIncIpIe oI
RIgIL, und LIIs Is seII-conLrudIcLory. Hence IL musL be possIbIe I or
someone Lo be In InLeIIIgIbIe possessIon oI, or Lo Iuve u rI gIL Lo, uny-
LIIng Ie cun use In ucLIng Ior LIe ends Ie Ius udopLed, wIeLIer LIIs be
u LIIng, unoLIer' s cupucILy I or cIoIce, or unoLIer person. SInce one' s
I reedom oI cIoIce cunnoL be IImILed by objecLs oI cIoIce us sucI buL
onIy by LIe wIII's I ormuI prIncIpIe I or ILs exercIse uI I ecLI ng oLIers'
exLernuI I reedom, LIe posLuIuLe In quesLIon Is I ormuI uL ed us LIe I mper-
uLIve Lo ucL Lowurd oLIers In sucI u wuy LIuL wIuLever Is usubIe cun
beI ong Lo someone or oLIer.
To ucL In sucI u wuy, Iowever, Is possIbIe onIy wILIIn LIe cIvII condI-
LIon. WIuL mukes LIe cIvII condILIon necessury Is LIe ucL oI brI ngI ng un
exLernuI objecL under one' s conLroI or mukI ng IL one' s own. Someone
wIo cun puL un objecL Lo some use upurL I rom IIs pIysIcuI connecLI on
wILI IL, I or exumpI e, grow crops on u IIeId wILIouL beI ng consLunLIy
presenL on IL, cunnoL be sImpIy I orbI dden Lo do so. BuL In LukIng con-
LroI oI LIe IIeId Ie proposes Lo excI ude oLIers by I orce I r om doI ng wIuL
LIey couI d oLIerwIse rIgILIy do. I Ie usserLs u rIgIL Lo IL, Ie usserLs noL
mereIy LIuL Ie InLends Lo use I orce buL LIuL Ie Is uuLIorI zed Lo use
coercIon, LIuL oLIers ure under obIIguLIon Lo reIruI n I r om usI ng IL wILI-
ouL IIs consenL; und LIIs obIIguLIon Is supposed Lo urIse I r om IIs ucL oI
cIoIce Lo muke LIe objecL IIs own. BuL obIIguLIon Is consLruInL In
uccordunce wILI u Iuw bI ndI ng upon everyone und cunnoL urIse I r om
u "purLIcuIur cupucILy I or cIoIce" wII cI, beIng uI I ecL ed by nuLuruI de-
sIres, gIves no ussurunce oI beI ng eIIecLIveIy consLruIned by LIe I ormuI
prIncIpIe oI LIe wIII. I um Lo Iuve someLII ng exLernuI us my own
musL ussure oLIers LIuL Loo um bound by u Iuw Lo reI ruI n I r om
encroucII ng upon wIuL Is LIeIrs, or LIuL wIII use coercI on onIy In
uccordunce wILI sucI u Iuw. BuL LIIs Is possIbIe onIy II my cIoIce und
LIuL oI every oLIer wIo couI d be uI I ecLed by ILs exercIse Is "I ncI uded"
In u "generuI wIII" gIvIng Iuws I or sucI un exercIse oI cIoIce, LIuL Is,
wILIIn LIe cIvII condILIon. n u sLuLe oI nuLure, pIysIcuI possessIon cun
brI ng wILI IL LIe presumpLI on oI u rIgIL; LIuL Is, someone wIo Is wIII-
Ing Lo submIL Lo un exLernuI I uwgI vI ng wIIIe oLIers ure noL Is enLILIed
Lo use coercIon Lo prevenL LIeIr encroucII ng upon wIuL Ie possesses
provIsIonuIIy und Lo muke LIem enLer uI ong wILI II m InLo LIe cIvII
condILIon. BuL onIy In LIe cIvII condILIon cun someone' s ucL oI cIoIce
Lo excI ude oLIers I rom usIng un objecL Ie does noL possess pIysIcuIIy
be consIsLenL wILI LIe unIversuI prIncIpIe oI RIgIL. Hence prucLIcuI
reuson' s posLuIuLe wILI regurd Lo rIgILs Ieuds Lo "LIe posLuIuLe oI pub-
IIc RI gIL" - LIe commund Lo enLer cIvII socIeLy - und so yIeIds LIe "nuL-
uruI Iuw" esLubIIsIIng LIe uuLIorILy oI u IegIsIuLor Lo gIve pubIIc Iuws.
BuL pubIIc Iuws ure posILIve Iuws, LIe conLenL oI wIIcI Is conLI ngenL
und cIosen by u IegIsIuLor wIo Is LIe uuLIor oI LIe Iuw (zz;). n LIe
ubove uccounL oI Iow one cun Iuve or possess someLII ng exLernuI us
one' s own IL mI gIL seem LIuL wIuL someone Ius - LIe exLernuI objecL
oI IIs cIoIce - Is quILe cIeur und LIuL LIe cIvII condILIon Is necessury
onIy Lo guurunLee IIs possessIon. n LIuL cuse wIuL wouI d be needed Is
essenLIuIIy un execuLIve power. BuL In order Lo Iuve un exLernuI objecL
us one' s own IL Is necessury Lo ucquIre un empIrIcuI objecL by meuns oI
ucLIons In spuce und LIme. n LIIs conLexL KunL' s empIusIs Is on LIe
need I or u j udI cI ury Lo uppIy "Iuws," us dIsLInguIsIed I r om LIe very
II gI IeveI meLupIysIcuI IIrsL prIncIpIes LIuL cun be known u prIorI. To
esLubIIsI LIe need Ior cIvII socIeLy one need noL ussume LIuL Iumun
beIngs ure prone Lo vIoIence. No muLLer Iow weII-dIsposed und Iuw-
ubIdIng LIey mI gIL be, In u sLuLe oI nuLure eucI wouI d be enLILIed Lo
proceed uccordI ng Lo IIs concepLs oI rIgILs, und wIen u dIspuLe urose
LIere wouI d be no one Lo decIde IL eIIecLIveIy, sInce unyone Lo wIom
LIe purLIes mI gIL uppeuI couId In Lurn decIde LIe Issue onIy uccordI ng
Lo IIs own concepLs (1z). WIuL Is needed Is u j udge wIo cun eI I ec-
LIveIy decI de dIspuLes by reI erence Lo, I or exumpI e, u body oI conLrucL
Iuw us dIsLInguIsIed I rom LIe meLupIysIcuI IIrsL prIncIpIe pcctc sunt
sertcndc, wII cI IIes uL LIe busIs oI conLrucLuuI rIgILs.
TIer e ure, KunL Ius IndIcuLed, LIree kInds oI objecLs LIuL cun be puL
Lo use: LIIngs, unoLIer' s cupucILy I or cIoIce, und oLIer persons LIem-
seIves. Becuuse LIe wuy In wIIcI someone muy use LIese objecLs dII-
Iers In eucI cuse, LIere ure LIree kInds oI rIgILs LIuL cun be ucquIred.
So Loo LIere ure LIree wuys In wII cI someone cun ucquIre u rIgIL Lo
empIrIcuI objecLs by ucLIons perI ormed In spuce und LIme; I or unIess
sucI objecLs couI d be ucquIred In LIIs wuy LIere wouI d be noLII ng Lo
wII cI reuson' s concepL oI InLeIIIgIbIe possessIon Is uppIIcubIe. HuvI ng
consIdered wIuL Is InvoIved In IuvI ng un exLernuI objecL oI cIoIce us
one' s own, KunL dIscusses Iow someone cun ucquIre LIese LIree kInds
oI rIgILs.
n IIs dIscussIon oI "Iow Lo Iuve someLIIng exLernuI us one' s own"
KunL' s I unguuge IndIcuLed LIuL Ie wus LIInkIng prImurIIy oI rIgILs Lo
LIIngs, LIuL Is, properLy rIgILs.
1z
n IucL, IIs dIscussIon oI Iow some-
one' s ucL oI cIoIce couI d puL uII oLIers under u conLI ngenL obIIguLIon
suggesLed LIuL IuvI ng u rIgIL Lo u LIIng Is wIuL mukes u generuI wIII,
embodI ed In u IegIsIuLor, consLILuLIve oI cIvII socIeLy (z-6). or,
unIIke u conLrucLuuI rIgIL, wIIcI Is u rIgIL uguInsL u purLIcuIur person
or persons, u rI gIL Lo u LIIng Is u rI gIL uguInsL everyone. So Loo, In IIs
dIscussIon oI "Iow Lo ucquIre someLIIng exLernuI " KunL sLresses
ucquIrIng LIIngs "orIgInuIIy." AcquI rI ng u LIIng by u conLrucL presup-
poses LIuL LIe LIIng uIreudy beIongs Lo someone; moreover, boLI
purLIes Lo u conLrucL ugree Lo beI ng coerced sIouId LIey IuII Lo perI orm
wIuL LIey promIsed. TIe probI em wILI regurd Lo conLrucLs Ius Lo do
wILI Iow successIve ucLIons oI promI sI ng und uccepLI ng u promIse
couId, II onIy In prIncIpIe, consLILuLe u "meeLI ng oI mI nds, " und Is
soIved L IrougI LIe purLIes' InLeIIIgIbIe possessIon oI eucI oLIer' s
decIuruLIons oI cIoIce. TIe probI em oI orIgInuI ucquIsILIon Is more
cIuI I engIng. TIer e musL Iuve been un orIgInuI ucquIsILIon oI LIIngs,
wIIcI LIe IIcLIon oI u LucIL IIsLorIcuI conLrucL cunnoL uccounL Ior, und
sucI orIgInuI ucquIsILIon musL Iuve Luken pIuce by unIIuLeruI ucLs oI
cIoIce. AI L IougI KunL' s procedure In IundI I ng LIe probI em cun be
Ioreseen, ILs ImpIIcuLIons ure Iur-reucIIng.
ApurL I rom u conLrucL, possessIon oI u pIece oI Iund brIngs wILI IL
possessIon oI LIe movubIes on LIuL Iund. Hence, KunL' s concern Is wILI
Iow someone cun orIgInuIIy ucquIre u sepuruLe pIece oI Iund or
remove IL I rom common use (z61-z). TIuL someone musL be ubIe Lo
do so IoIIows I rom prucLIcuI reuson' s posLuIuLe. As I or LIe pIysIcuI
ucLIons requIsILe Lo ucquI rI ng u sepuruLe pIece oI Iund: I IL cun be
ucquIred by pIysIcuI ucLIons one musL be LIe IIrsL Lo Luke conLroI oI IL,
Ior oLIerwIse someone eIse wouI d uIreudy Iuve ucquI red IL; und sInce
un ucquIred rIgIL Is u reIuLIon oI someone' s conLI ngenL cIoIce Lo LIe
cIoIce oI oLIers, one musL gIve oLIers u sIgn oI wIuL one InLends Lo
do. SucI ucLIons esLubIIsI one' s uppurenL or empIrIcuI LILIe Lo u sepu-
ruLe pIece oI Iund. BuL II un I nIerence Is Lo be mude I r om pIysIcuI
Lo InLeIIIgIbIe possessIon oI IL - II, LIuL Is, LIe pIysIcuI possessor Is Lo
ucquIre u rI gIL Lo IL - u generuI wIII Is requI red Lo puL uII oLIers under
u conLIngenL obIIguLIon by LIe possessor's ucL oI cIoIce.
L mI gIL be LIougIL LIuL, gIven LIe exIsLence oI nuLIons or sLuLes, LIe
probI em oI orIgInuI ucquIsILIon Ius been soIved und LIIs provIsIonuI
ucquIsILIon Ius been mude concIusIve. DIspuLes ubouL wIuL someone
Ius ucquIred Iuve been seLLIed In uccordunce wILI pubIIc Iuws; wIuL
beIongs Lo eucI Ius been deLermI ned und Is secured Lo IIm. However,
KunL' s exumpI es IndIcuLe LIuL Ie Is LIInkIng noL onIy oI IndIvIduuI
persons buL oI nuLIons und sLuLes, wIIcI In LIeIr reIuLIon Lo one un-
oLIer ure sLIII In u sLuLe oI nuLure. GI ven LIe IInILe surIuce oI LIe eurLI,
everyone on IL Is unuvoIdubIy InvoIved In reIuLIons oI rIgILs wILI every-
one eIse; unyone' s ucquIsILIon oI u LrucL oI Iund prevenLs uII oLIers
I rom usIng IL, us LIey couI d oLIerwIse rIgILIy do, und I r om ucquI rI ng
IL. As Iur us LIe members oI u sLuLe ure concerned, LIeIr submIssIon Lo
un exLernuI IuwgIver guurunLees LIuL dIspuLes ubouL rIgILs ure seLLIed
by IeguI proceedIngs. BuL sLuLes, In LIeIr reIuLIon Lo one unoLIer,
pursue wIuL LIey Luke Lo be LIeIr rIgILs by wur. Hence KunL' s concIud-
mg remurk Is LIuL unLII "LIe orIgInuI conLrucL" LIuL esLubIIsIes LIe cIvII
condILIon exLends Lo LIe wIoI e Iumun ruce, orIgInuI ucquIsILIon Is onIy
provIsIonuI. L wouI d seem LIuL wIuL sLuLes possess Is even provIsIon-
uIIy LIeIrs onIy InsoIur us LIey ure wIIIIng Lo Ieuve LIe exIsLIng sLuLe oI
nuLure. TIe LrunsILIon I rom "PrIvuLe RI gIL" Lo "PubIIc RI gIL" (o-8)
Is u LrunsILIon Lo LIe wIoI e oI "PubIIc RIgIL": " TIe RIgIL oI u SLuLe,"
" TIe RIgIL oI NuLIons (or SLuLes)," und "CosmopoI I Lun RIgIL. "
L Ius been suId LIuL wIen KunL Is deuI I ng wILI IumIIIur subjecL
muLLer Ie wrILes weII. n compurI son wILI "PrIvuLe RIgIL, " "PubIIc
RI gIL" reuds smooLIIy. n " TIe RIgIL oI u SLuLe" KunL IIrsL dIscusses
LIe orgunIzuLIon oI u sLuLe requI red by ILs IuncLIon. egIsIuLIve uuLIor-
ILy ("sovereIgnLy") beIongs Lo LIe unILed wIII oI LIe peopI e: "No one Is
wronged by wIuL Ie consenLs Lo." WIuL Iuws LIe IegIsIuLor enucLs wIII
depend upon conLI ngenL cIrcumsLunces und cunnoL be specIIIed u
prIorI, buL LIey wIII embody LIe prIncIpIes esLubIIsIed In "PrIvuLe
RIgIL. " TIe IegIsIuLIve uuLIorILy needs un ugenL or orgun, LIe execu-
LIve uuLIorILy, Lo udupL ILs Iuws Lo LIe needs oI LIe j udI cI uI uuLIorILy
und Lo enI orce LIe judIcIury' s decIsIons In dIspuLes ubouL rIgILs. KunL
LIen dIscusses LIe rIgILs LIese uuLIorILIes musL Iuve In order Lo IuIIII I
LIeIr IuncLIon. AI L IougI LIe members oI u sLuLe Iuve no oLIer duLIes
Lo one unoLIer LIun LIose LIey Iuve by prIncIpIes oI prIvuLe RIgIL
(o6), LIey do Iuve duLIes correspondI ng Lo LIe rIgILs oI LIe uuLIorI-
LIes In u sLuLe, I or exumpI e, Lo puy Luxes Lo supporL ILs InsLILuLIons I or
deLermI nI ng und securIng LIeIr rIgILs, und Lo perI orm mIIILury servIce
wIen LIIs Is necessury Ior ILs preservuLIon.
n " TIe RIgIL oI NuLIons" KunL dIscusses wIuL rIgILs u sLuLe couI d
be suId Lo Iuve In u condILIon sucI LIuL LIere ure no rIgILs sLrIcLIy
speukIng: wIen IL Ius u rIgIL Lo go Lo wur und wIuL rIgILs IL Ius dur-
I ng u wur und uI Ler u wur. Among LIe guI dI ng prIncIpIes Iere ure LIe
rIgIL un exIsLIng sLuLe Ius, us u peopI e uIreudy orgunI zed under Iuws,
und LIe prospecL oI u permunenL peuce. "CosmopoI I Lun RI gIL" Ius Lo
do wILI someone' s rIgIL Lo uLLempL Lo enguge In commerce wILI peo-
pIe In oLIer counLrIes; us KunL noLes In IIs essuy "Towurd PerpeLuuI
Peuce," LIe spIrIL oI commerce, wII cI Is InImIcuI Lo wur, Is u powerI uI
meuns I or brI ngI ng uII LIe nuLIons oI LIe eurLI InLo peuceubIe reIuLIons
(V, 68).
AI L IougI "PubIIc RIgIL" reuds reIuLIveIy weII, uL unoLIer IeveI IL
ruIses dIIIIcuILIes. KunL mude IIs dIvIsIon oI u meLupIysIcs oI moruIs In
Lerms oI Lwo kInds oI duLIes: LIose requI red by Iuws LIuL cun be gIven
exLernuIIy und LIose requI red by Iuws LIuL cun be gIven onIy by LIe
InLernuI IuwgIvIng oI pure prucLIcuI reuson. YeL LIe supreme uuLIorILy
In u sLuLe Is suId Lo Iuve sucI duLIes us Lo gIve ILs Iuws In uccordunce
wILI prIncIpIes oI prIvuLe RI gIL und Lo brI ng LIe I orm oI LIe sLuLe InLo
uccord wILI LIe deu oI LIe orIgInuI conLrucL. TIese duLIes do noL seem
Lo consIsL In ucLIons so mucI us In udopLI ng muxIms, und LIere does
noL correspond Lo LIem u rI gIL on LIe purL oI unoLIer Lo use coercIon.
AguI n, sLuLes In LIeIr reIuLIon Lo one unoLIer ure In u sLuLe oI nuLure
buL, unIIke IndIvIduuIs In u sLuLe oI nuLure, LIey cunnoL rIgILIy be
coerced Lo enLer InLo LIe conI ederuLI on oI sLuLes wII cI wouI d be LIe
I orm oI cIvII socIeLy upproprI uLe I or LIem, one In wII cI LIere Is no
supreme coercIve uuLIorILy. L Is, Iowever, LIe duLy oI u Ieud oI sLuLe
Lo sLrIve Ior perpeLuuI peuce by seekIng Lo esLubIIsI sucI uIIIunces,
keepI ng LIe LreuLIes Ie Ius mude, und, In generuI , promoL I ng LrusL
umong sLuLes. PerIups LIese duLIes musL be cIussIIIed us duLIes oI
vIrLue. I so - II onIy seII-consLruInL L IrougI LIe L IougIL oI duLy cun
Ieud Ieuds oI sLuLe Lo IuIIIII LIem - LIe worId' s prospecLs seem very
dIm. BuL jusL us un IndIvIduuI cun consLruIn IImseII L IrougI pruden-
LIuI consIderuLIons Lo IncIude umong IIs ends LIose wII cI ure In IucL
duLIes, so IL wouI d seem LIuL Ieuds oI sLuLes muy be moLIvuLed by
seII-InLeresL Lo udopL ends LIuL ure In IucL objecLIveIy necessury. KunL' s
dIscussIon oI sucI Issues Is noL In The Doctrine oj Riht buL ruLIer In IIs
essuys on poIILIcs und IIsLory.
TIe second purL oI The Metcphsics oj Morcls Is LIe Doctrine oj Virtue,
LIe sysLem oI duLIes bused on "I nner I reedom" or I r eedom In LIe ucL
oI cIoIce ILseII. Here IL Is u quesLIon oI LIe ugenL' s moruI dIsposILIon,
oI LIe vIrLues Lo be ucquIred und LIe vIces Lo be uvoI ded. BuL KunL' s
concepLIon oI vIrLue us "moruI sLrengLI oI wIII" requIres consIderuLIon.
n LIe Doctrine oj Riht IL wus ussumed LIuL Iumun beIngs mI gIL Lry Lo
InIrInge upon one unoLIer' s I reedom, Ience LIuL LIeIr nuLuruI desIres
couId I nI I uence LIeIr cupucILy I or cIoIce und couId, In Lurn, be coun-
LerucLed by meusures dIrecLed Lo LIeIr nuLuruI uversIons. BuL onIy LIeIr
ucLIons were In quesLIon. L wus noL necessury Lo InquIre InLo LIe pos-
sIbIIILy oI LIeIr devIuLIng I r om LIe Iuw excepL InsoIur us IL wouI d be
reIevunL In courL wIeLIer und Lo wIuL degree u crIme wus commI LLed
"voIunLurIIy. "
1
n LIe Doctrine oj Virtue, Iowever, IL Is noL u quesLIon oI
sIngIe ucLIons buL oI IusLIng dIsposILIons, und LIe ugenL' s "sLuLe oI mI nd"
- IIs dIsposILIon Lo IuIIIII IIs duLIes I rom duLy - Is oI crucIuI I mpor-
Lunce. BoLI In LIe Grounduorl (V, 88-q) und In The Metcphsics oj
Morcls (z1;) KunL muInLuIned LIuL u meLupIysIcs oI moruIs, wIIIe noL
bused upon "unLIropoI ogy" or experIenLIuI knowI edge oI Iumun
beIngs, musL be uppIIed Lo IL. WIuL unLIropoI ogy reveuIs Is, IIrsL, LIuL
uII Is noL weII wILI LIe Iumun cupucILy I or Iree cIoIce; Ience I or Iumun
beIngs eLIIcs musL be u docLrIne oI vIrLue. CI oser InvesLIguLIon InLo
Iumun nuLure sIows wIuL propensILIes In IL ure purLIcuIurIy reIevunL
Lo vIrLue; IL sIows, Ior exumpI e, LIuL "uIIecLs" cun I ndeed coexIsL wILI
wIuL LIe Grounduorl cuIIed u "good wIII," now specIIIed us u vIrLuous
dIsposILIon, wIereus "pussIons" enLer more reudIIy InLo kInsIIp wILI
vIces, wIIcI ure IncompuLIbIe wILI u vIrLuous dIsposILIon (qo;-8).
1q
AI L er I nLroducI ng LIe concepL oI Iree cIoIce, KunL Look Issue wILI
LIose wIo wouI d deI I ne I ree cIoIce us LIe cupucILy Lo cIoose Ior or
uguInsL LIe Iuw (zz6). AI L IougI experI ence sIows LIuL Iumun beIngs
oI Len cIoose In opposILIon Lo LIeIr IuwgIvIng reuson, one cunnoL In-
cIude In LIIs ruLIonuI concepL ILseII LIe empIrIcuIIy known condILIons
oI ILs exercIse. TIe Iumun cupucILy I or Iree cIoIce musL, InsLeud, be
deI I ned us u cupucILy Ior cIoIce wIIcI, L IougI I nI I uenced or uI I ecL ed
by nuLuruI ImpuIses, cunnoL be deLermI ned by LIem. TIe possIbIIILy oI
someone' s cIoosI ng Lo ucL conLrury Lo LIe Iuw cunnoL be expI uI ned,
sInce Lo expIuIn un evenL Is Lo reIuLe IL Lo u precedI ng evenL us ILs cuuse.
One cun onIy suy LIuL LIe ugenL IImseI I Ius IreeI y cIosen Lo gIve some
nuLuruI desIre uscenduncy over LIe Iuw. BuL wIuL experI ence IndIcuLes
Is noL mereIy LIuL Iumun beIngs occusIonuIIy cIoose Lo devI uLe I rom
LIe Iuw, buL LIuL LIey Iuve u propensILy Lo puy more Ieed Lo LIeIr
IncIInuLIons LIun Lo LIe Iuw (z8gn). n Book oI Reliion uithin the
Limits oj Recson Alone KunL dIscussed uL I engLI "LIe rudIcuI evII In
Iumun nuLure" und IocuLed ILs uILImuLe degree In u "supreme muxI m"
oI mukI ng LIe conIormI Ly oI duLy wILI one' s IncIInuLIons LIe condILIon
oI one' s compI Iunce wILI duLy (compure 8q "Remurk" wILI Reliion
V, zzn.). n ucquI rI ng u moruIIy good dIsposILIon Iumun beIngs do
noL begI n wILI u cIeun sIuLe. A moruI "revoI uLI on" Is requI red - u
consI dered und IIrm resoIuLIon, Luken "once und I or uII," Lo muke
conIormI Ly wILI duLy LIe condILIon I or suLIsIyIng one' s IncIInuLIons
(q;;; Reliion V , q;). Even uILer LIIs revoIuLIon Ius been mude, Iow-
ever, LIe sLruggIe Lo curry IL L IrougI conLInues. AI L IougI u vIrLuous
dIsposILIon wouI d ruIe ouL uny vIce In LIe sLrIcL sense - u prIncIpIe oI
deIIberuLeIy vIoIuLIng u duLy (8o, qo8) - LIe ugenL' s cIoIce remuIns
exposed Lo LIe I nI I uence oI IIs IncIInuLIons (qoq "Remurk"; compure
8 "Remurk" und qo). He musL sLIII conLend wILI LIe Iesser degrees
oI evII LIuL KunL cuIIs LIe "IruIILy" und "I mpurI Ly" oI Iumun nuLure.
n LIe Doctrine oj Virtue KunL does noL expIIcILIy dIscuss IIs LIeory oI
LIe Lendency Lo evII presenL In Iumun beIngs, buL LIIs LIeory Is LIe
buckground oI boLI ILs purLs: LIe "EI emenLs oI ELIIcs," In wIIcI Ie
derIves specIIIc duLIes oI vIrLue, und LIe "MeLIods oI ELIIcs," In wII cI
Ie dIscusses LIe LeucIIng und LIe prucLIce oI vIrLue. AI L IougI LIe
"EIemenLs oI ELIIcs" presenLs u number oI probIems, sIuII Luke noLe
oI specIIIc duLIes onIy In reIuLIon Lo LIe prIncIpIes dIscussed In LIe
nLroducLI on Lo LIe Doctrine oj Virtue, wIere KunL conLrusLs duLIes oI
vIrLue wILI duLIes oI RIgIL und IndIcuLes Iow LIe I ormer ure Lo be
derI ved I rom LIe I ormuI prIncIpIe oI uII duLIes.
On one IeveI, LIe nLroducLIon Lo LIe Doctrine oj Virtue Is sImpIIcILy
ILseII. TIer e ure Lwo LIIngs LIuL oLIers cunnoL coerce one Lo do: Lo ucL
I rom some specIIIed IncenLIve und Lo seL un end. Hence LIe Doctrine
oj Riht, wIIcI LreuLs oI exLernuI IuwgIvIng, musL be I ndI I I erenL Lo
LIe subjecL's IncenLIve. By conLrusL, eLIIcs, wIIcI LreuLs oI LIe InLernuI
IuwgIvIng oI pure prucLIcuI reuson, musL Luke uccounL oI LIe IncenLIve
provI ded by one' s own wIII. ConsLruInL by meuns oI un IncenLIve Lo
compI y wILI u Iuw Is obIIguLIon. rom LIe perspecLIve oI obIIguLIon,
LIereIore, eLIIcs Is dIsLInguIsIed I r om LIe Doctrine oj Riht. AguI n, one
cun be coerced Lo perI orm un ucLIon buL noL Lo seL un end. One' s duLy
Is LIuL wIIcI Is prescrIbed by u Iuw. Hence LIe duLIes prescrIbed by
exLernuI Iuws, Iuws LIuL cun be gIven by unoLIer, cun consIsL onIy In
ucLIons. OnI y InLernuI or eLIIcuI IuwgIvIng cun prescrIbe us duLIes LIe
udopLIon oI ends. rom LIe perspecLIve oI duLy, eLIIcs Is uguIn dIsLIn-
guIsIed I rom LIe Doctrine oj Riht. I obIIguLIon cun be cuIIed "wIuL Is
I ormuI " und duLy "wIuL Is muLerIuI" In uny IuwgIvIng, eLIIcs Is u sepu-
ruLe dIvIsIon oI moruI pIIIosopIy wILI regurd Lo boLI LIe I orm und LIe
muLLer oI LIe moruI deLermI nuLI on oI cIoIce. TII s uccords weII
enougI wILI KunL' s dIvIsIon oI u meLupIysIcs oI moruIs. TIe Doctrine
oj Riht brIngs ouLer I reedom under Iuws: PeopIe' s compI I unce wILI
LIe sysLem oI Iuws comprI sI ng RI gIL brIngs LIe exLernuI use oI LIeIr
I ree cIoIce InLo uccord wILI LIuL oI every oLIer. TIe Doctrine oj Virtue
brIngs Inner I reedom under Iuws: CompI I unce wILI LIe sysLem oI Iuws
comprI sI ng IL brIngs one' s cupucILy I or Iree cIoIce InLo uccord wILI
one' s wIII. One' s Inner I reedom Is In dIrecL proporLI on Lo LIe respon-
sIveness oI one' s cIoIce Lo moruI consLruInL und In Inverse proporLI on
Lo ILs responsIveness Lo consLruInL by nuLuruI meuns ( 8z^. OnI y u
vIrLuous dIsposILIon cun Ieud one Lo udopL ends on LIe busIs oI LIeIr
beIng duLIes und, In Lurn, IuI II I I menL oI duLIes oI vIrLue sLrengLIens
one's vIrLuous dIsposILIon. As mI gIL be expecLed, Iowever, KunL' s
dIscussIon becomes consIderubIy more compI ex. BegI nnI ng wILI LIe
curdInuI concepL oI "vIrLue," sIuII Lry Lo deuI brI eII y wILI u Iew oI
LIese compIexILIes.
"ELIIcs consI dered In Lerms oI ILs IormuI prIncIpIe Is |Ior Iumun
beIngs| LIe scIence oI Iow one Is under obIIguLIon even wI LIouL regurd
Ior possIbIe exLernuI IuwgIvIng" (q1o). L Is, uccordIngI y, u docLrIne oI
vIrLue, vIrLue beI ng conceIved us sLrengLI oI wIII. BuL, KunL poInLs ouL,
"sLrengLI oI wIII" Is noL un udequuLe uccounL oI "vIrLue." n LIe cuse oI
u IInILe IoIy beIng, one wIose cupucILy Ior cIoIce wouI d noL be InIIu-
enced by IncIInuLIons conLrury Lo LIe Iuw, LIe wIII wouI d be "sLrong" In
LIe sense LIuL IL wouI d sImpIy presenL LIe Iuw und LIereby deLermI ne
cIoIce. VI rLue Is ruLIer LIe sLrengLI oI u Iumun wIII In overcomI ng LIe
obsLucIes (vIces) LIuL we ourseIves puL In LIe wuy oI our moruI muxI ms
(qq> q)- Becuuse oI our propensILy Lo deLermI ne our cIoIce on LIe
busIs oI our IncIInuLIons, IL Is upproprI uLe Lo speuk oI LIe Iumun wIII us
IuvIng Lo ucquIre sLrengLI In deLermI nI ng cIoIce, In order Lo resLore
LIe cupucILy I or cIoIce Lo LIe I reedom InvoIved In ILs concepL. We muy
even speuk oI vIrLue us un ucquIred upLILude or IucIIILy II we specIIy
LIuL IL Is noL u IubIL, u IucIIILy In perI ormI ng ucLIons LIuL conI orm wILI
duLy, buL InsLeud u IucIIILy oI LIe wIII In deLermInIng LIe cupucILy I or
cIoIce Lo sucI ucLIons (8-q; qo;; qoq). rom LIe perspecLIve oI obII-
guLIon, LIere Is onIy one vIrLue: LIe sLrengLI oI one's moruI IncenLIve
!"#$%&
BuL I rom LIe perspecLIve oI wIuL Iumun beIngs musL do In order Lo
ucquIre u vIrLuous dIsposILIon, LIere ure u number oI vIrLues, wIIcI
cun be specIIIed by consIderIng LIe ends or objecLs oI cIoIce LIuL
reuson prescrIbes und LIe vurIous LendencIes Lowurd vIce LIuL experI-
ence sIows Lo be presenL In Iumun beIngs. NoL surprIsIngIy, KunL
poInLs ouL LIuL we ourseIves creuLe LIe obsLucIes Lo u moruI dIsposILIon
LIrougI our Lendency Lo udopL our ends excIusIveIy on LIe busIs oI
our nuLuruI IncIInuLIons. n order Lo counLerucL LIIs Lendency we musL
subordInuLe our subjecLIve ends, LIe sum oI wIIcI we cuII our IuppI-
ness, Lo objecLIve ends, ends prescrIbed by IuwgIvIng reuson Indepen-
denLIy oI our IncIInuLIons. SucI ends wIII be ends LIuL ure "uIso" or "uL
LIe sume LIme" (zuleich, LIuL Is, "by LIeIr very concepL" |8|) duLIes,
und wIII be cuIIed "duLIes oI vIrLue."
WILIIn eLIIcs, consIdered In Lerms oI ILs dIsLIncLIve concepL oI beIng
under obIIguLIon, LIere Is no concepLuuI ImpossIbIIILy InvoIved In LIe
concepL oI un end LIuL Is uIso u duLy. WILIIn LIe Doctrine oj Riht duLIes
cun consIsL onIy In ucLIons, sInce IL Is concepLuuIIy ImpossIbIe LIuL some-
one sIouId be consLruIned by nuLuruI meuns Lo seL un end Ior IImseII;
LIIs wouId be "u conLrudIcLIon, un ucL oI I reedom wIIcI Is neverLIeIess
noL I ree" (81). Someone wIo Ius udopLed un end on LIe busIs oI IIs
IncIInuLIons, us IncIuded In IIs IuppIness, cun be consLruIned by nuLu-
ruI meuns Lo perI orm or reIruIn I rom ucLIons. TII s Is noL onIy concep-
LuuIIy buL moruIIy possIbIe; Ie cun be so consLruIned consIsLenLIy wILI
IIs exLernuI Ireedom. BuL onIy LIe ugenL cun consLruIn IImseII Lo
udopL un end. I Ie does so by nuLuruI meuns - II, Ior exumpI e, Ie con-
sLruIns IImseII Lo muke unoLIer's IuppIness IIs end I rom prudenLIuI
consIderuLIons - LIIs seII-consLruInL Is noL moruI consLruInL or obIIgu-
LIon. TIe onIy sorL oI moruI consLruInL LIuL cun be exercIsed upon IIm
Lo udopL un end Is seII-consLruInL by IIs IuwgIvIng reuson (8). Hence
one's own wIII couId prescrIbe us duLIes LIe seLLIng oI ends Ior oneseII.
BuL IL Is one LIIng Lo sIow LIuL u concepL conLuIns no conLrudIcLIon
und unoLIer Lo sIow LIuL IL Ius objecLIve reuIILy, LIuL LIere ure In IucL
ends wIIcI IL Is one's duLy Lo seL Ior oneseII.
KunL jusLIIIes our use oI LIe concepL oI un end LIuL Is uIso u duLy
by urguI ng LIuL IL Is presupposed by un ImperuLIve - In LIIs cuse,
sImpIy by u cuLegorIcuI ImperuLIve. By cuLegorIcuI ImperuLIves ucLIons
ure uncondILIonuIIy necessury ruLIer LIun necessury us meuns Lo some
end. BuL Lo udopL u muxIm Is Lo deLermIne oneseII Lo ucLIon by seLLIng
un end I or oneseII. I uII ends IeId onIy us meuns Lo I urL Ier ends, or
were necessury onIy on LIe condILIon LIuL un ugenL uIreudy Iud some
end I ndependenLI y oI IIs IuwgIvIng reuson, LIen no ucLIon wouI d be
uncondILIonuIIy necessury und u cuLegorIcuI ImperuLIve wouI d be Im-
possIbIe. I LIere were no ends LIuL ure uIso duLIes, LIere wouI d be no
duLIes uL uII (qo;). Hence LIere musL be ends LIuL ure sImpIy necessury,
or ends LIe concepL oI wIIcI InvoIves LIe concepL oI duLy (8q-).
TII s urgumenL Is uII Loo brIeI, buL IL cun perIups be II esIed ouL by
wIuL Ius been prevIousIy suId ubouL u cupucILy I or I ree cIoIce, us u
cupucILy Lo deLermI ne oneseI I Lo ucLIon by seLLIng un end I or oneseI I.
I LIe ruLIonuI necessILy oI ucLIons musL uIwuys presuppose some end
unLecedenLIy gIven, LIuL end wouI d uILImuLeIy Iuve Lo be gI ven Lo us In
uccordunce wILI psycIoIogIcuI Iuws oI nuLure. We wouI d Iuve Lo be
deLermI ned Lo ucLIon L IrougI some end (IncIuded In LIe "nuLuruI
end" oI our concepLI on oI IuppIness) LIuL we Iuve noL seL I or our-
seIves by un ucL oI I ree cIoIce, und pure reuson couI d noL be prucLIcuI.
Among our ends LIere musL, LIen, be some LIuL ure uIso duLIes. Hence
KunL IormuI uLes LIe "supreme prIncIpI e" oI LIe Doctrine oj Virtue us
"ucL In uccordunce wILI u muxI m oI ends LIuL IL cun be u unIversuI Iuw
Ior everyone Lo Iuve, " und IIs brI eI I ormuI "deducLI on" or jusLIIIcu-
LIon oI LIIs prIncIpIe presenLs pure prucLIcuI reuson us u "cupucILy I or
ends, " wII cI couI d noL deLermI ne muxI ms I or ucLIons II IL were IndII-
IerenL Lo ends (q).
1
TIe quesLIon muy be ruIsed: I LIere were no ends LIuL ure uIso
duLIes, no objecLIve ends, wouI d LIere noL uL IeusL be duLIes oI RIgIL?
On one IeveI, IL muy be suId LIuL onIy by beI ng uwure oI consLruInL
upon our cupucILy I or cIoIce by our own wIII do we know (Ior pur-
poses oI ucLIon) LIuL we ure noL deLermI ned by psycIoIogIcuI Iuws oI
nuLure. AI L IougI we mI gIL enLerLuIn u neguLIve concepL oI I reedom,
1 6
we couId noL know wIeLIer our cIoIce Iud sucI u properLy und so
wIeLIer LIere ure uny duLIes uL uII. On unoLIer IeveI, Iowever, KunL' s
dIsLIncLIon beLween "wIuL Is I ormuI " und "wIuL Is muLerIuI" In LIe
Doctrine oj Virtue ruIses u number oI probI ems regurdI ng LIe reIuLIon oI
obIIguLIon und duLy. SecLIon XV boLI summurIzes LIe nLroducLI on
Lo LIe Doctrine oj Virtue und prepures LIe wuy I or KunL' s probIemuLIc
dIvIsIon oI duLIes oI vIrLue. L L IereI ore requIres some uLLenLIon.
On ILs I ormuI sIde, In Lerms oI obIIguLIon, KunL concI udes I r om LIe
ImpossIbIIILy oI exLernuI IuwgIvIng I or duLIes oI vIrLue LIuL, us Ie
muInLuIned In V, "ELIIcs does noL gIve Iuws I or ucLIons (Ius does LIuL)
buL onIy I or muxIms oI ucLIons." TIe onIy ucLIons prescrIbed or Ior-
bI dden by moruI Iuws ure LIose LIuL ure rIgIL or wrong In uccordunce
wILI exLernuI Iuws. uws LIuL cun be gIven onIy by one' s own wIII
prescrIbe noL ucLIons buL onIy muxI ms oI udopLI ng objecLIve ends. And
I rom LIIs IL IoIIows In Lurn LIuL eLIIcuI duLIes "musL be LIougIL us
wI de" or broud duLIes LIuL ure, us Ie muInLuIned In V , duLIes oI
"wIde obIIguLIon," wIereus duLIes oI RIgIL musL be LIougIL us nurrow
or sLrIcL duLIes LIuL ure duLIes oI "nurrow obIIguLIon." or II u Iuw pre-
scrIbes us duLy onIy LIe udopLI on oI un end, LIIs Is "u sIgn" LIuL IL Ieuves
u IuLILude I or I ree cIoIce wILI regurd Lo "wIuL und Iow mucI" Is Lo be
done Lowurd LIuL end. Second, on ILs muLerIuI sIde eLIIcs Is noL mereIy
u docLrIne oI duLIes In generuI, connecLI ng wILI every duLy LIe Incen-
LIve oI duLy, buL Ius ILs own duLIes: L Is uIso u docLrIne oI ends. InuIIy,
us I or LIe dIsLIncLIon beLween obIIguLIon und duLy, KunL udds LIuL noL
every eLIIcuI obIIguLIon or obIIguLIon oI vIrLue Is u duLy oI vIrLue, sInce
respecL Ior Iuw In generuI "does noL yeL" esLubIIsI un end us u duLy.
A number oI sucI quuIIIIed commenLs regurdI ng LIIs dIsLIncLIon up-
peured eurIIer. TIer e ure "eLIIcuI duLIes" LIuL ure noL on LIuL uccounL
duLIes oI vIrLue becuuse LIey Iuve Lo do "noL so mucI" wILI u cerLuIn
end us mereIy wILI one' s IncenLIve (8). WIuL IL Is vIrLuous Lo do Is noL
on LIuL uccounL "u duLy oI vIrLue sLrIcLIy speukIng, " sInce LIe I ormer
cun Iuve Lo do mereI y wILI LIuL wIIcI Is IormuI In muxI ms (qq). A
duLy Is LIuL wII cI Is prescrIbed by u Iuw; obIIguLIon Is consLruInL Lo
compI y wILI u Iuw. KunL wIsIes Lo muInLuIn u sIurp dIsLIncLIon be-
Lween duLIes oI RIgIL "Luken up" us duLIes InLo eLIIcuI I uwgI vI ng (z1q-
zo) und duLIes oI vIrLue (und, more generuIIy, beLween duLIes und LIe
eLIIcuI obIIguLIon connecLed wILI boLI). YeL, gIven IIs deII nI LI on oI un
"end, " LIere seems Lo be u probI em InvoIved.
To upproucI LIe subjecL I rom u sIIgILIy dI I I erenL perspecLIve, KunL
noLed LIuL In LIe Doctrine oj Riht IL Is noL expecLed, sLIII Iess requI red,
LIuL muke LIe unIversuI Iuw oI RIgIL, "LIe prIncIpIe oI uII muxIms,
ILseII my muxI m; LIIs Is u demund LIuL eLIIcs mukes oI me" (z1). n
LIe Doctrine oj Riht IL Is noL requI red LIuL udopL uny muxI m, buL onIy
LIuL wIuLever muxI ms Iuve Issue In rIgIL ucLIons; In LIe Doctrine oj
Virtue, Iowever, um requI red Lo udopL us my muxI m "LIe muxI m oI
sucI ucLIons, us duLIes, LIuL Is, respecL Ior RIgIL, " und LIIs Is merILorI-
ous sInce one LIereby "mukes LIe RIgIL oI IumunI Ly, or uIso oI men,
one' s end" und goes beyond wIuL cun be requI red by rI gIL (qo-1; see
uIso qq).
1;
I, us LIe ubove quoLuLIon suggesLs, "LIe RIgIL oI Iumun-
ILy" Is Lo be Luken In Lerms oI LIe InnuLe rIgIL oI oLIers Lo I reedom oI
ucLIon und "LIe RIgIL oI men" In Lerms oI LIeIr ucquI red rIgILs,
18
LIe
probI em muy be repIrused us IoIIows. n uccordunce wILI eLIIcuI obII-
guLIon, one Is Lo muke LIe unIversuI Iuw oI RIgIL one' s muxI m. TII s Is
u commund Lo do someLII ng,
1 q
Lo udopL u muxI m or prIncIpIe oI ucLIng
I rom duLy, und KunL reIers Lo IL us "u duLy. " BuL Lo udopL u muxI m Is
Lo seL un end I or oneseII, und un end Is un objecL LIuL one InLends Lo
produce by one' s ucLIon. TIe quesLIon urIses us Lo wIuL end one Is Lo
udopL In mukI ng respecL Ior RIgIL or, more generuI I y, I or Iuw, one' s
IncenLIve, und wIy respecL I or Iuw does "noL yeL" esLubIIsI u duLy oI
vIrLue "sLrIcLIy speukIng. "
PerIups some IIgIL cun be LIrown on LIe dIsLIncLIon beLween "wIuL
Is I ormuI " und "wIuL Is muLerIuI" In LIe moruI deLermI nuLI on oI cIoIce
by KunL' s dIsLIncLIon beLween "LIe one vIrLuous dIsposILIon" und LIe
number oI vIrLues Lo wIIcI IL Ieuds, LogeLIer wILI IIs dIscussIon oI
one oI LIe ends wIIcI, Ie muInLuIns, IL Is u duLy Lo Iuve. Among LIe
IuLLer, "LIe IIgIesL, uncondILIonuI end" (q6) Is one' s moruI per-
IecLIon, wIIcI, In Lerms oI LIe subjecL' s IncenLIve, consIsLs In LIe purILy
oI IIs dIsposILIon und, In Lerms oI wIuL Is requI red by LIe Iuw, In
IuI III I Ing uII IIs duLIes (qq6). TII s end prescrIbed by reuson does noL
oI ILseII specIIy wIuL our duLIes oI vIrLue ure: TIese wIII be derI ved
In broud ouLIIne by consI derI ng muxIms one wouI d udopL on LIe busIs
oI one' s IncIInuLIons und LIen, In greuLer deLuII, by consI derI ng LIe
more specIIIc obsLucIes we Lend Lo puL In LIe wuy oI our moruI muxIms.
SInce LIere ure "vurIous moruI objecLs Lo wIIcI LIe wIII Is Ied by LIe
one prIncIpIe oI vIrLue" (qo6) - LIuL Is, vurIous ends IL prescrIbes us
duLIes - LIere wIII be u number oI vIrLues. TIe Iuw prescrI bI ng u muxI m
oI sLrIvIng Ior purILy In one' s IncenLIve does noL prescrIbe un "end" on
LIe sume pIune wILI oLIer ends LIuL ure uIso duLIes, one' s nuLuruI
perIecLIon und LIe IuppIness oI oLIers. YeL, gIven LIuL u vIrLuous
dIsposILIon Is someLII ng Lo be ucquIred, IL IuIIIIIs LIe deII nI LI on oI un
end. "WIuL Is I ormuI " In vIrLue seems Lo Iuve become LIe end or
"muLLer" In every ucL oI Iree cIoIce, wIeLIer IL be IuI II I I I ng u conLrucL
or promoLI ng unoLIer' s IuppIness. L Is LIen Iess surprI sI ng LIuL KunL
speuks oI eLIIcs us provI dI ng "u muLerIuI deL ermI nI ng ground" oI
cIoIce (Ak. 81), I or LIIs muLerIuI busIs I or deL ermI nI ng cIoIce Is j usL
LIe LIougIL LIuL LIe ucLIon or LIe end prescrIbed Is u duLy.
n LIe Doctrine oj Riht KunL derI ved empIrIcuI conLenL I or LIe
IormuI prIncIpIe oI RIgIL by consI derI ng objecLs oI cIoIce und deLer-
mInIng, Lo LIe exLenL possIbIe In "meLupIysIcuI IIrsL prIncIpIes, " wIuL
rIgILs Iumun beIngs Iuve or cun ucquIre. n LIe Doctrine oj Virtue Ie
derIves empIrIcuI conLenL Ior ILs I ormuI prIncIpIe by consI derI ng wIuL
ends cun IoI d I or everyone or wIuL vIrLues ure requI red oI u Iumun
beIng, uguIn Lo LIe exLenL possIbIe In "meLupIysIcuI IIrsL prIncIpIes. " I
un end Is I ound Lo Iuve LIe requI red I orm, LIen LIe wIII, wIIcI Is "u
cupucILy Ior desIre LIuL, In udopLI ng u ruIe, uIso gIves IL us u unIversuI
Iuw" (qo;), conLuIns u Iuw prescrIbIng LIe udopLI on oI LIuL end.
WILI regurd Lo ends us LIe "muLLer oI cIoIce" properI y speukIng,
KunL' s procedure Is Lo begIn wILI ends LIuL we wouI d udopL mereIy on
LIe busIs oI IncIInuLIon und submIL our muxI ms oI pursuI ng sucI ends
Lo LIe LesL oI wIeLIer LIey couI d quuI IIy I or u gI vI ng oI unIversuI Iuw.
WIen LIey IuII LIe LesL, LIe wIII gIves u Iuw prescrIbIng LIe udopLI on oI
un end. n LIIs wuy, KunL urgues LIuL LIe IuppI ness oI oLIers (q)
und one' s own nuLuruI perIecLI on (q1-z) ure ends LIuL IL Is one' s duLy
Lo udopL. As I or LIe IIrsL, IIs crypLIc urgumenL Lurns on Lwo poInLs:
LIuL every Iumun beIng, us u beI ng wILI needs und Ience wILI IncIInu-
LIons, mukes IIs own IuppIness IIs end und LIuL, In so doI ng, Ie mukes
IImseI I un end I or oLIers. SLrIcLIy speukIng, someone cunnoL muke
IImseI I un end I or oLIers; onIy LIey cun muke IIs IuppI ness LIeIr end.
BuL Ie wunLs oLIers Lo Iuve u muxI m oI benevoI ence Lowurd IIm LIuL,
In cuse Ie needs LIeIr IeI p Lo uLLuIn some end essenLIuI Lo IIs IuppI-
ness, wIII Ieud Lo beneII cence, und Ie cunnoL know wIo LIe oLIers
mI gIL be. nsoI ur us Ie mukes IIs own IuppIness IIs end Ie cunnoL
renounce LIe meuns Lo IL, sInce Ie wouI d LIen be mereI y wIsIIng
ruLIer LIun udopLI ng u muxI m (uccordIng Lo z1). Hence Ie wunLs
oLIers Lo be bound Lo benevoI ence Lowurd IIm I ndependenLI y oI LIeIr
nuLuruI IeeIIngs. BuL sInce obIIguLIon Is consLruInL In uccordunce wILI
u Iuw bI ndI ng upon everyone, Ie cun consIsLenLIy wIII IIs muxI m oI
mukI ng IIs own IuppIness IIs end - IIs muxI m oI benevoI ence Lowurd
IImseI I - onIy by IncIudIng IIs IuppIness In LIe IuppI ness oI Iumun
beIngs generuIIy. Hence, KunL concIudes, um permI LLed Lo do wIuL
unuvoIdubI y und gIudIy do, numeIy muke my own IuppI ness my end,
onIy by doI ng wIuL muy be reIucLunL Lo do, numeIy udopL I ng us my
end LIe IuppI ness oI Iumun beIngs In generuI .
So Loo, LIe urgumenL LIuL my own nuLuruI perI ecLI on Is un end
wII cI Is uIso u duLy begIns wILI u muxI m LIuL wouI d udopL on LIe
busIs oI my IncIInuLIons. L Is more comIorLubI e noL Lo exerL oneseI I Lo
deveI op one' s nuLuruI cupucILIes; IL Is uL IeusL urguubI e LIuL we wouI d uII
be beLLer oI I In Lerms oI IuppIness II we were Lo be conLenL wILI wIuL
nuLure guve us (qq). Cun L IereI ore wIII us u unIversuI Iuw LIuL
Iumun beIngs In generuI (und myseI I In purLIcuIur) noL muke IL LIeIr
end Lo deveI op LIeIr nuLuruI cupucILIes? cunnoL do so. or wIuL
dIsLInguIsIes Iumun ugenLs I rom oLIer unImuIs Is LIeIr cupucILy I or
I ree cIoIce, I or udopLI ng muxIms, und Lo udopL u muxI m Is Lo deLer-
mIne oneseII Lo ucLIon Lo eI I ecL un end. TIus LIe udopLI on oI u muxI m
Lo excI ude I r om one' s ends LIuL oI IuvI ng LIe cupucILy Lo eI I ecL und
Ience Lo seL ends wouI d be IncompuLIbIe wILI one' s " IumunI Ly" or
cupucILy I or ruLIonuI ugency. As I or one' s moruI perIecLI on, KunL does
noL urgue LIuL LIIs Is un end LIuL Is uIso u duLy buL onIy sLuLes wIuL Is
InvoIved In LIe moruI perIecLI on oI u Iumun beIng. SInce u vIrLuous
dIsposILIon Is ucquIred by prucLIcIng LIe vIrLues, Ie reserves Ior " TIe
EIemenLs oI ELIIcs" IIs dIscussIon oI wIuL obsLucIes or LendencIes Lo
vIce musL be combuLed und wIuL vIrLues opposed Lo LIem musL be
cuILIvuLed.
rom LIe nLroducLI on Lo LIe Doctrine oj Virtue we know oI Lwo
muxIms u vIrLuous person wIII udopL: LIuL oI beI ng IeI pI uI Lo oLIers
und LIuL oI beI ng worLIy oI LIe IumunI Ly In IIs own person. TIe
I ormer Is LIe vIrLue oI benevoI ence; LIe IuLLer mI gIL be cuIIed "Iove oI
Ionor" - uI LIougI LIe word Ehrliebe Is used I or u specIuI cIuss oI duLIes
Lo oneseI I (qzo). KunL' s dIscussIon oI LIese duLIes oI vIrLue us "I mper-
IecL duLIes" mukes IL cIeur LIuL wIuL LIe wIII prescrIbes us Iuws Is onIy
LIe udopLI on oI muxIms, noL deII nI Le ucLIons (q1-q). Hence LIey
IuIIIII IIs descrIpLIon oI "wI de" or "broud" duLIes. YeL u muxI m oI I ur-
LIerIng oLIers' IuppIness oI course precI udes u muxI m oI desLroyI ng
IL. KunL LIInks LIuL experI ence sIows LIe presence In Iumun nuLure oI
LendencIes Lowurd IngruLILude und muIIce - LendencIes Lo Luke deI IgIL
In dImInIsIIng oLIers' weII-beIng wIIcI, II udopLed us prIncIpIes,
wouId be specIIIc I orms oI LIe vIce oI IuLred oI oLIers. Hence IIs
more deLuIIed uccounL (qq8- 61) oI wIuL mI gIL be cuIIed LIe purudI gm
oI u duLy oI vIrLue, benevoIence, IncIudes noL onIy LIe vurIous dIsposI-
LIons Lo be cuILIvuLed buL uIso LIose Lo be guurded uguInsL. TII s does
noL suggesL LIuL eLIIcuI Iuws dIrecLIy prescrIbe or I orbI d specIIIc
ucLIons; LIey prescrIbe LIuL one sLrIve Lo be u cerLuIn kI nd oI person,
Ior exumpI e, u benevoI enL person. BuL LIere ure cerLuIn kInds oI
LIIngs u benevoI enL person does noL do. PerIups Ie cunnoL IeI p IeeI-
Ing j euI ous oI oLIers' good I orL une wIen Ie compures LIeIr sLuLe oI
weII-beIng wILI IIs own, buL Ie wIII noL "brood upon" IIs dIspIeusure
und "geL IL rooLed deepI y" (qo8); InsLeud, Ie wIII Luke meusures Lo
counLerucL IL. I u duLy oI vIrLue consIsLs In LIe udopLI on oI u cerLuIn
end, Ience LIe prucLIce oI u cerLuIn vIrLue, LIere wIII be u "IuLILude"
InvoIved In IuI II I I I ng IL; buL IL wouI d seem LIuL LIe prucLIce oI u vIrLue
uIso precI udes sucI ucLIons us wouI d munIIesL LIe opposILe vIce.
TIer e Is, Iowever, one duLy oI vIrLue Lo oLIers, respecL, LIuL does
noL IIL neuLIy InLo KunL' s broud cIussIIIcuLIon oI ends LIuL ure uIso
duLIes, one' s own perIecLI on und LIe IuppIness oI oLIers. UnI I ke
duLIes oI Iove, duLIes oI respecL Iuve LIeIr busIs sImpIy In LIe sLuLus
oI oLIers us moruI ugenLs ruLIer LIun us beIngs IuvI ng nuLuruI needs
und wunLs (q6z), und LIe duLy oI respecL Is expressed onIy neguLIveIy
or IndIrecLIy, by I orbI ddI ng ILs opposILe (q6q, q6;). TIe duLy noL
Lo gIve scunduI Is ukIn Lo respecL In LIuL IL InvoIves u, rI gILI uI cIuIm
on LIe purL oI oLIers us moruI beIngs (q6q), und uL one poInL KunL
IncIudes LIIs duLy under "LIe IuppI ness oI oLIers" on LIe ground LIuL
one mI gIL Ieud LIem Lo Incur pungs oI conscIence (qq). On LIe wIoI e,
Iowever, Ie does noL uLLempL Lo IncIude duLIes oI respecL under eILIer
oI LIe Lwo very broud vIrLues oI benevoI ence und Iove oI Ionor.
HIs scuLLered remurks suggesL u possIbIIILy LIuL Ie does noL expIIcILIy
dIscuss.
DuLIes oI respecL, Ie noLes, ure unuI ogous Lo duLIes oI RI gIL In LIuL
LIey Iuve Lo do wILI wIuL Is owed or due Lo oLIers; Lo vIoIuLe sucI
duLIes Is unuI ogous Lo encroucII ng upon wIuL beI ongs Lo LIem
(qqq-o, q6z- ) . YeL, L IougI "nurrow" In compurI son wILI duLIes oI
Iove, LIey ure duLIes oI vIrLue. TIe muxI ms precI uded - urrogunce,
buckbILIng, und rIdIcuIe - ure purLIcuIur munIIesLuLIons oI u dIsposI-
LIon oI conLempL I or oLIers; LIe opposILe vIrLue Is u dIsposILIon Lo
resLrIcL one' s demund upon LIeIr esLeem by LIe L IougIL oI LIeIr dIg-
nILy us moruI ugenLs. WIen KunL speuks oI LIe duLy oI "I ree" respecL
Ie Is uppurenLI y dIsLInguIsIIng LIe muxI m oI respecL I r om IeeI I ngs oI
respecL (qqq). BuL LIe duLy oI respecL Is uIso "I ree" In LIe sense LIuL
munIIesLuLIons oI dIsrespecL ure noL muLLers oI sLrIcL RIgIL, sucI us
couI d be Luken Lo courL. n eIImInuLIng I rom LIe Doctrine oj Riht wIuL
Ie cuIIed "equIvocuI rIgILs," KunL noLed LIuL we uIso use "rI gIL" In u
brouder sense (ins lctius), In wII cI IL beIongs In LIe intermundic or
spuces beLween LIe spIeres oI sLrIcL RIgIL, wILI ILs precIseIy deLer-
mI ned duLIes, und eLIIcs, wILI LIe IuLILude uIIowed by ILs Iuws (z). He
dId noL subsequenLIy dIscuss sucI muLLers us equILy.
zo
No vIrLue oI
"jusLIce" wus expIIcILIy dIscussed In LIe Doctrine oj Virtue, presumubI y
becuuse IL wus IundI ed us "respecL I or RIgIL. " PerIups duLIes oI
respecL, IIke muLLers oI equILy, wouI d be IncI uded under "RI gIL" In u
brouder sense, und LIe correspondI ng vIrLue oI jusLIce wouI d go be-
yond "sLrIcL RI gIL. "
AnoL Ier cIuss oI duLIes Is more probIemuLIc In LIuL sucI duLIes
mI gIL seem Lo be prescrIbed by "Iuws I or ucLIons" ruLIer LIun mereIy
I or muxI ms oI ucLIons. TIese ure "perI ecL duLIes Lo oneseI I, " Lo wIIcI
KunL devoLes IuI I oI LIe "EI emenLs oI ELIIcs." PerIecL duLIes Lo one-
seII ure IImILIng und neguLIve, und Iuve Lo do wILI preservI ng (us dIs-
LInguIsIed I rom perIecLIng) oneseII, regurded IIrsL us u moruI beI ng
IuvI ng un unImuI nuLure und LIen us u moruI beI ng onIy. AL one LIme
KunL LIougIL oI LreuLIng LIem us "LIe RIgIL oI IumunI Ly In one' s own
person" (see noLe 18 ubove), buL IIs dIvIsIon oI duLIes Lo oneseI I spec-
IIIes LIuL LIese "duLIes oI omIssIon," IIke LIe posILIve und "brouden-
I ng" duLIes oI perI ecLI ng oneseII, "beI ong Lo vIrLue us duLIes oI vI rLue"
(q1q). KunL' s LreuLmenL oI sucI duLIes, us weII us oI LIe "cusuIsLI-
cuI quesLIons" LIuL IoIIow IIs dIscussIon oI eucI duLy, suggesLs LIuL,
Iere uguIn, LIe cuILIvuLIon oI one' s nuLuruI und moruI perIecLI on
precI udes sucI ucLIons us wouI d munIIesL LIe vIces opposed Lo LIese
vIrLues.
n LIe cuse oI perIecL duLIes Lo oneseI I consI dered us u moruI beI ng
onIy, KunL' s LreuLmenL oI LIese duLIes, us weII us IIs preI ImInury cIur-
ucLerIzuLIon oI LIem (qzo), mukes IL cIeur LIuL wIuL Is uL Issue Iere Is
LIe uccord oI one' s muxIms wILI LIe Inner I reedom LIuL cIurucLerIzes
u moruI ugenL. WIuL Is proIIbILed ure LIe vIces oI IyIng, uvurIce, und
Trcnslctor's Introduction z ;
servIIILy, eucI oI wIIcI, Ie LIInks, Is u prIncIpIe oI deIIberuLeIy "LIrow-
Ing uwuy" one' s Inner I reedom by subordInuLIng one' s cIoIce Lo ends
udopLed on LIe busIs oI one' s IncIInuLIons uIone. L Is cIeur LIuL wIuL
LIe Iuw proIIbILs Is noL purLIcuIur ucLIons buL vIces. L wouI d be con-
Lrury Lo one' s moruI dIsposILIon, LIe "prIncIpIe oI I ndependence I rom
everyLII ng excepL LIe Iuw," Lo Iuve, I or exumpI e, u muxI m oI uvurIce,
sInce one wouI d LIen be domI nuLed by u pussIon I or uccumuI uLI ng
rIcIes. BuL LIuL one sIouId be In conLroI oI one' s desIre I or weuILI
ruLIer LIun conLroIIed by IL does noL specIIy wIeL Ier one sIouId
spend or suve In uny gIven sILuuLIon. n LIe cuse oI servIIILy KunL
uppurenLIy LIInks LIuL cerLuIn kInds oI ucLIons, I or exumpI e, prosLruL-
Ing oneseI I In LIe presence oI "sucred objecLs" or "bowI ng und scrup-
Ing" beI ore unoLIer Iumun beI ng, ure sucI cIeur munIIesLuLIons oI
LIIs vIce LIuL LIey ure excI uded by LIe vIrLue oI "Iove oI Ionor. " As I or
IyIng, Ie muy weII be ussumIng LIuL uny IIe LoId Lo unoLIer Ius ILs
uILImuLe busIs In LIe seII-decepLIon LIuL wouI d muke u vIrLuous dIspo-
sILIon ImpossIbIe (q1 "Remurk, "qq1-z; see Reliion V , 8; qzn). TIe
ussumpLIon Is quesLIonubIe; buL LIe duLy oI noL IyIng Is derI ved I rom
LIuL oI mukI ng one' s moruI perIecLI on one' s end.
So Loo, KunL' s dIscussIon oI duLIes oI omIssIon Lo oneseI I us u moruI
beIng IuvI ng un unImuI nuLure IndIcuLes LIuL wIuL Is proII bI Led Is LIe
vIce oI dIsposIng oI one' s pIysIcuI beI ng us II IL were noL LIe body oI u
moruI beIng. WIuL Is proIIbILed Is noL un ucLIon, sucI us kIIIIng oneseI I
or drI nkI ng Lo LIe exLenL LIuL one Is IncupucILuLed I or ucLIng ruLIonuIIy,
buL u muxI m oI desLroyI ng oneseI I LoLuIIy or purLIuIIy, permunenLI y or
LemporurIIy, I or LIe suke oI pIeusure or uvoI dI ng puIn. L Is noL LIe ucL
oI kIIIIng oneseI I LIuL Is I orbI dden; wIuL Is I orbI dden Is murderI ng
oneseII, depurLI ng I rom IIIe us one pIeuses, "us II no uuLIorIzuLIon
were needed I or LIIs ucLIon" oI wI LIdruwI ng I rom uII obIIguLIon (qzz).
KunL muInLuIns LIuL LIere cun be u conIIIcL oI grounds oI obIIguLIon
(zzq), und one oI IIs cusuIsLIcuI quesLIons poses j usL sucI u conIIIcL
beLween preservI ng one' s IIIe und noL IurmI ng oLIers (qz-q), Ience
LIe quesLIon oI wIeLIer In sucI u cuse one mI gIL be uuLIorI zed Lo Luke
one' s own IIIe. He does noL gIve IIs unswer Lo LIIs quesLIon; buL In LIe
cuse oI drunkenness Ie mukes IL cIeur LIuL wIuL Is I orbI dden Is u
muxI m oI IncupucILuLIng oneseII I or LIe suke oI LIe pI eusure IL InvoIves.
HuvI ng noLed LIuL sucI nurcoLIcs us opI um ure worse LIun uIcoIoI, Ie
udds LIuL LIey muy be used onIy us medIcInes (qz8). TIuL IL wouI d be
permIssIbIe Lo sLuILIIy oneseII sIouI d LIIs be necessury I or preservI ng
one' s IeuILI IndIcuLes LIuL KunL Is deuI I ng noL wILI u Iuw I or ucLIons buL
wILI LIe Iuw prescrIbIng LIe udopLI on oI un end, one' s nuLuruI perIec-
LIon und so IndIrecLIy one' s moruI perIecLIon.
uws prescrI bI ng duLIes oI vIrLue requIre onIy LIuL one Iuve muxI ms
oI promoLI ng cerLuIn ends; LIey do noL prescrIbe precIseIy wIuL Is Lo
be done Lowurd LIuL end, buL Ieuve LIIs Lo LIe ugenL' s j udgmenL . Hence
eLIIcs, unIIke LIe docLrIne oI RIgIL, IuIIs InLo u cusuIsLry, In wII cI LIe
ugenL musL decI de wIuL LIe Iuw requIres oI IIm In u gI ven cuse (q11).
I un ucLIon musL be j udged IncompuLIbIe wILI some vIrLue, IL Is
excI uded by LIe duLy Lo ucquIre und sLrengLIen LIuL vIrLue. n some
cuses, j udgmenL Ius Lo decIde wII cI oI Lwo conII I cLI ng grounds oI
obIIguLIon Is sLronger. n sLIII oLIer cuses, LIere Is u "IuLILude I or I ree
cIoIce" In wII cI one' s IncIInuLIons muy be consuILed. TIe precIse
nuLure oI "wI de" duLIes Is one oI LIe muny probI ems posed by The
Metcphsics oj Morcls In boLI ILs purLs.
n IIs PreIuce Lo LIe Critique oj Prccticcl Recson KunL cuIIed LIe
concepL oI I reedom, wIIcI Ie Iud begun Lo expI ore In LIe Ground-
uorl, LIe keysLone oI LIe wIoIe sLrucLure oI u sysLem oI pure reuson,
even oI specuIuLIve reuson (V, ). As I ur us LIe sysLem oI duLIes
promI sed In LIe Grounduorl Is concerned, The Metcphsics oj Morcls Is
IIs uLLempL Lo gIve un uccounL, In Lerms oI u Iumun beIng' s cupucILy
I or I ree cIoIce, oI wIuL cun be requI red oI IIm boLI In Lerms oI rIgILs
und In Lerms oI vIrLues. TIe I ormer Is un uccounL oI duLIes oI "ouLer
I reedom, " I reedom I rom compuI sI on by oLIers Lo ucL In pursuIL oI
wIuLever ends Ie Ius seL. TIe IuLLer Is un uccounL oI duLIes oI "I nner
I reedom, " I reedom I rom LIe I nI I uence oI IIs IncIInuLIons Lo deLer-
mIne IIs cupucILy I or cIoIce by IIs wIII. AI L IougI The Metcphsics oj
Morcls ruIses u good muny probI ems, IL seems Lo me u remurkubI e
sysLem. No one, LIInk, wouI d muInLuIn LIuL KunL Ius produced u
deIInILIve "meLupIysIcs oI moruIs. " BuL wIuL Ie Ius produced seems
Lo me IIgIIy reIevunL Lo conLemporury dIscussIons oI rIgILs. L uIso
sIows wIuL u nonprudenLI uI uccounL oI LIe vIrLues mI gIL be. My Iope
Is LIuL LIIs LrunsIuLIon oI LIe compI eLe work wIII sLImuIuLe dIscussIon oI
sucI Issues.
NoLes Lo TrunsIuLor's nLroducLIon
1 See KunL's IeLLer Lo Herder oI Muy q, 1;6; (X, ;1). ReIerences Lo KunL's
wrILIngs oLIer LIun The Metcphsics oj Morcls IncIude LIe voIume us weII us
LIe puge number oI LIe Acudemy edILIon; II no voIume Is IndIcuLed, LIe
reIerence Is Lo voIume V. On LIe IIsLory oI KunL's Iong deIuyed projecL oI
u "meLupIysIcs oI moruIs," see ewIs WIILe Beck, A Commentcr on Kcnt's
Critique oj Prccticcl Recson (CIIcugo: UnIversILy oI CIIcugo Press, Iq6o),
PP- - ! -
z Or, sImpIy, "wIuL everyone knows ubouL moruIILy." As Beck poInLs ouL,
"common sense" sIouId noL be Luken us u LecInIcuI Lerm. Kcnt: Selections
(New York & ondon: MucmIIIun, 1q88), p. zq8 n.
Or "consIsLency." TrudILIonuIIy, reuson's IuncLIon Is Lo muke InIerences und
ILs prIncIpIe Is LIuL oI nonconLrudIcLIon. One oI KunL's wuys oI movIng Irom
concepLs oI LIe undersLundIng Lo deus oI reuson In IIs LecInIcuI sense oI
"reuson" Is LIe LrudILIonuIIy recognIzed dIvIsIon oI syIIogIsms. HIs concep-
LIon oI reuson us LIe source oI deus oI LIe uncondILIoned Is cIeurIy reIevunL
Lo IIs dIscussIon oI Ireedom.
q L sIouId be noLed LIuL KunL's use oI "objecLIve end" und "IncenLIve" In The
Metcphsics oj Morcls dIIIers Irom LIe Grounduorl. n LIe Grounduorl (V,
qz6-1), KunL seems Lo cIurucLerIze u "subjecLIve end" us un end 1) Lo be
produced by one's ucLIons, und z) resLIng on un IncenLIve (Triebjeder) or sub-
jecLIve ground oI desIre (qz;). An "objecLIve end," by conLrusL, Is un Inde-
pendenLIy exIsLIng end (qz8, q;), correIuLed wILI u moLIve (eueuns-
rund) or objecLIve ground oI voIILIon (qz;), wIIcI serves us LIe supreme
IImILIng condILIon oI uII subjecLIve ends (q1). n The Metcphsics oj Morcls, un
'IncenLIve" muy be eILIer "subjecLIve" or "objecLIve," und un "end," wIIcI Is
someLIIng Lo be produced by one's ucLIon, muy be "objecLIve."
L Is uIso essenLIuI Lo KunL's uccounL oI moruI evII, wIIcI mukes u "docLrIne
oI moruIs" Ior Iumun beIngs u "docLrIne oI vIrLue," noL mereIy un uuLonomy
buL uIso un uuLocrucy oI prucLIcuI reuson (8). TIus, H. J. PuLon, In IIs
cIussIcuI commenLury on LIe Grounduorl, usks "s onIy LIe good wIII Iree?"
und, In repIy Lo LIe quesLIon, reIers Lo The Metcphsics oj Morcls' dIsLIncLIon
beLween Willlur und Wille. See The Ccteoriccl Imperctite (ondon: HuLcIIn-
son's UnIversILy Ibrury, 1qq;), p. z1.
6 On LIIs dIsLIncLIon, see Beck's Commentcr, pp. 1;;-81, us weII us IIs
"KunL's Two ConcepLIons oI LIe WIII In TIeIr PoIILIcuI ConLexL" In Studies
in the Philosoph oj Kcnt (ndIunupoIIs: Bobbs-MerrIII, 1q6), pp. z1-zq.
; n KunL's Lerms, our conscIousness oI obIIguLIon Is LIe rctio conoscendi
oI our Ireedom. TIIs Is Luken Ior grunLed In The Metcphsics oj Morcls. BuL
our Ireedom Is LIe rctio essendi oI LIe moruI Iuw (Critique oj Prccticcl Recson
V, qn).
8 Compure IIs usserLIon LIuL LIe Metcphsics oj Morcls wouId be "cupubIe oI u
IIgI degree oI popuIurILy" (V, q1) wILI IIs reservuLIon regurdIng Gurve's
requIremenL oI "popuIurILy" (zo6), und IIs expecLuLIon oI LIe euse wILI
wIIcI LIe supreme prIncIpIe oI moruIs couId be uppIIed (V, qz) wILI
ScIIIIer's IeLLer Lo EberIurd oI OcLober z6, 1;qq (cILed In Bernd udwIg's
nLroducLIon Lo IIs Philosophische ibliothel edILIon oI LIe Rechtslehre, Hum-
burg: MeIner, 1q86, p. xxI).
q udwIg's edILIon oI LIe Rechtslehre reIerred Lo In noLe 8 ubove Is u recon-
sLrucLIon oI LIe LexL on LIe IypoLIesIs, puL Iorwurd In IIs nLroduc-
LIon pp. xxvII-xxx, LIuL KunL's InsLrucLIons regurdIng LIe prepuruLIon oI
IIs munuscrIpL Ior pubIIcuLIon were mIsundersLood, wILI LIe resuIL LIuL
some purugrupIs were mIspIuced und some oI IIs preIImInury noLes were
IncIuded.
1o n vIew oI IIs reIuLIon Lo oLIer NuLuruI RIgIL LIeorIsLs, IL Is worLI noLIng
LIuL, uILIougI KunL Is LIInkIng prImurIIy In Lerms oI un exLernuI Iumun
IegIsIuLor, Ie mukes IL cIeur LIuL wIuL Ie suys Is uppIIcubIe Lo u dIvIne
exLernuI IegIsIuLor us weII (z1q).
11 TIus, LIe concepL oI "u person" common Lo boLI purLs oI The Metcphsics
oj Morcls Is sImpIy LIuL oI u subjecL wIose ucLIons cun be ImpuLed Lo IIm
(zz), LIuL Is, wIose ucLIons ure "voIunLury" In LIe sense oI noL deLermIned
by nuLuruI ImpuIses und wIo cun LIereIore be consLruIned Lo resIsL sucI
ImpuIses. An exLernuI IuwgIver needs onIy LIe neguLIve concepL oI Iree-
dom. YeL LIe prIncIpIe on wIIcI exLernuI Iuws ure bused, beIng LIuL oI LIe
compuLIbIIILy oI one person's exLernuI use oI IIs Ireedom wILI LIuL oI every
oLIer, cun be udopLed InLo eLIIcs, wIere LIe posILIve concepL oI Ireedom
comes InLo pIuy und u person Is regurded us u subjecL oI IuwgIvIng reuson;
Ience LIe commenL KunL udds Lo LIe deIInILIon oI "moruI personuIILy."
1z "ProperLy" (Eientum) Is noL Lo be Luken In LIe sense oI "reuI properLy" us
LIe Lerm Is commonIy used, LIuL Is, ownersIIp oI Iund (z6-6 und z-q).
WILI regurd Lo LIe conLenL oI posILIve Iuws, KunL's nLroducLIon Lo IIs
IecLures on Phsiccl Georcph Is IIIumInuLIng. PoIILIcuI geogrupIy, Ie sug-
gesLs, Is bused on pIysIcuI geogrupIy, sInce LIe IIrsL prIncIpIe oI u cIvII
socIeLy requIres submIssIon Lo u supreme coercIve uuLIorILy wIose Iuws wIII
be reIuLIve Lo LIe IeuLures oI LIe counLry und ILs InIubILunLs (X, 16q). SucI
IucLors us LerruIn und cIImuLe conLrIbuLe Lo IormIng wIuL KunL someLImes
cuIIs LIe "cIurucLer" oI u peopIe und so, IL muy be supposed, wouId be
reIevunL Lo wIuL MonLesquIeu cuIIed "LIe spIrIL oI LIe Iuws."
1 DIscussIng LIe concepL oI "ImpuLuLIon" In generuI, KunL noLes LIuL IL mukes
u dIIIerence wIeLIer u deed wus done In u sLuLe oI ugILuLIon or wILI cooI
deIIberuLIon (zz8).
1q n Anthropolo jrom c Prcmctic Point oj Vieu KunL dIscusses LIe uIIecLs und
LIe pussIons In consIderubIe deLuII (V, z1-;;).
1 ur Irom denyIng LIe roIe LIuL IeeIIng pIuys In vIrLue, KunL InsIsLs upon IL.
L Is LIrougI "moruI IeeIIng," produced by conscIousness oI LIe Iuw, LIuL
reuson guIns uscenduncy over LIe IncIInuLIons (qq-qo und qo8).
16 SucI u concepL wouId, Iowever, be open Lo Hume's objecLIon LIuL sucI
"Ireedom," InvoIvIng no cuusuI Iuw, wouId be equIvuIenL Lo u rundom
occurrence, Ior wIIcI un ugenL couId noL be IeId responsIbIe. See A Trectise
oj Humcn Ncture, , I-II; An Enquir Concernin Humcn Understcndin,
V.
1; TIIs, Ie udds, Is uIso LIe cuse wILI "LIe unIversuI eLIIcuI commund: 'AcL In
conIormILy wILI duLy Irom duLy.' " (q1). (So Iur, Iowever, LIe onIy duLIes
LIuL Iuve been derIved ure LIose Lo wIIcI rIgILs oI oLIers correspond.)
Compure LIe dIugrum oI duLIes oI vIrLue In X.
18 n IIs nLroducLIon Lo LIe Doctrine oj Riht KunL reIerred Lo "LIe RIgIL oI
IumunILy In one's own person" und proposed Lo LreuL perIecL duLIes Lo
oneseII us "InLernuI duLIes oI RIgIL" (ojjicic iuris internc) (z6-;, zqo). TIIs
Is quILe uL vurIunce wILI wIuL IoIIows Irom IIs dIvIsIon oI u meLupIysIcs oI
moruIs on LIe busIs oI LIe Lwo kInds oI IuwgIvIng, wIIcI produces duLIes oI
RIgIL (ojjicic iuris) und duLIes oI vIrLue (ojjicic tirtutis s. ethicc), us weII us
wILI IIs usserLIon LIuL perIecL duLIes Lo oneseII ure duLIes oI vIrLue (q1q).
I g WIuL Is prescrIbed Is noL un "ucLIon" (Hcndlun) buL InsLeud un "ucL" (Alt),
someLImes cuIIed Actus (us, e.g., LIe Critique oj Pure Recson cuIIs uppercep-
LIon Actus In B I s8n und qzn). L seems sLrunge LIuL In dIscussIng LIe busIs
Ior LIInkIng oI un end LIuL Is uIso u duLy KunL uses Alt Ior u cuLegorIcuI
ImperuLIve (8); Iowever, In Reliion (V, z1-) Ie used Actus In reIerrIng
Lo LIe busIs Ior LIe udopLIon oI muxIms, wIIcI Is ILseII u muxIm.
zo n LIe CIvII uw u number oI IucLors, IncIudIng LIe LIeory oI u sLrIcL dIvI-
sIon oI LIe powers wILIIn u sLuLe, combIned Lo obvIuLe u "courL oI equILy."
nsLeud, LIe Iuw oI LIe Iund wus Lo be so precIse LIuL, once LIe IucLs oI u cuse
Iud been deLermIned, u j udge need onIy IInd LIe uppIIcubIe provIsIon.
!"#$%&'()*$+ -).(# /.)0*)%+"(
12 #&" 31*#.)0" 12 4)5&#
PreIuce
TIe crILIque oI prccticcl reuson wus Lo be IoI I owed by u sysLem, LIe |zo|
meLupIysIcs oI "#$%&'( wIIcI IuIIs InLo meLupIysIcuI IIrsL prIncIpIes
oI LIe doctrine oj Riht
:
und meLupIysIcuI IIrsL prIncIpIes oI LIe doctrine
oj tirtue. (TIIs Is LIe counLerpurL oI LIe meLupIysIcuI IIrsL prIncIpIes oI
ncturcl science, uIreudy pubIIsIed.)
z
TIe nLroducLI on LIuL IoIIows pre-
senLs und Lo some degree mukes InLuILIve LIe I orm wII cI LIe sysLem
wIII Luke In boLI LIese purLs.
or LIe )#*+$,-. #/ 0,12+( LIe IIrsL purL oI LIe docLrIne oI moruIs,
LIere Is requI red u sysLem derI ved I rom reuson wIIcI couI d be cuIIed
LIe metcphsics oj Riht. BuL sInce LIe concepL oI RIgIL Is u pure concepL
wIIcI sLIII Iooks Lo prucLIce (uppIIcuLIon Lo cuses LIuL come up In
experIence), u metcphsiccl sstem oI RIgIL wouI d uIso Iuve Lo Luke
uccounL, In ILs dIvIsIons, oI LIe empIrIcuI vurIeLy oI sucI cuses, In order
Lo muke ILs dIvIsIon compI eLe (us Is essenLIuI In consLrucLIng u sysLem oI
reuson). BuL uhct is empiriccl cunnoL be dIvIded compI eLeI y, und II LIIs
Is uLLempLed (uL IeusL Lo upproxI muLe Lo IL), empIrIcuI concepLs cunnoL
be brougIL InLo LIe sysLem us InLegruI purLs oI IL buL cun be used onIy
us exumpI es In remurks. So LIe onIy upproprI uLe LILIe I or LIe IIrsL purL
oI The Metcphsics oj Morcls wIII be Metcphsiccl Iirst Principles oj the
Doctrine oj Riht, Ior In LIe uppIIcuLIon oI LIese prIncIpIes Lo cuses LIe
sysLem ILseII cunnoL be expecLed, buL onIy upproxI muLI on Lo IL.
AccordI ngI y, IL wIII be deuIL wILI us In LIe (eurIIer) Metcphsiccl Iirst
Principles oj Ncturcl Science: numeIy, LIuL RIgIL wIIcI beIongs Lo LIe
sysLem ouLIIned u prIorI wIII go InLo LIe LexL, wIIIe rIgILs Luken I rom
purLIcuIur cuses oI experI ence wIII be puL InLo remurks, wIIcI wIII
someLImes be exLensIve; Ior oLIerwIse IL wouI d be Iurd Lo dIsLInguIsI |zo6|
wIuL Is meLupIysIcs Iere I rom wIuL Is empIrIcuI uppIIcuLIon oI rIgILs.
PIIIosopIIc LreuLIses ure oI Len cIurged wILI beI ng obscure, I ndeed
deIIberuLeIy uncIeur, In order Lo uIIecL un IIIusIon oI deep InsIgIL.
cunnoL beLLer unLIcIpuLe or IoresLuII LIIs cIurge LIun by reudIIy com-
pIyIng wILI u duLy LIuL Gurve, u pII I osopIer In LIe Lrue sense oI LIe
word, Iuys down I or uII wrILers, buL especIuIIy I or pIIIosopIIc wrILers.
!"
6 Metcphsics oj Morcls
My onIy reservuLIon Is I mposed by LIe nuLure oI LIe scIence LIuL Is Lo
be correcLed und exLended.
TII s wIse mun rIgILIy requIres (In IIs work enLILIed Vermischte Auj-
sctze, puges z II. )
LIuL every pIIIosopIIc LeucIIng be cupubI e oI

beI ng mude populcr (LIuL Is, oI beI ng mude suIIIcIenLIy cIeur Lo LIe
senses Lo be communI cuLed Lo everyone) II LIe LeucIer Is noL Lo be
suspecLed oI beI ng muddI ed In IIs own concepLs. gIudIy udmIL LIIs
wILI LIe excepLI on onIy oI LIe sysLemuLIc crILIque oI LIe cupucILy I or
reuson ILseII, uI ong wILI uII LIuL cun be esLubIIsIed onIy by meuns oI IL;
I or LIIs Ius Lo do wILI LIe dIsLIncLIon oI LIe sensIbIe In our knowI edge
I rom LIuL wII cI Is supersensIbIe buL yeL beIongs Lo reuson. TII s cun
never become popuI ur - no I ormuI meLupIysIcs cun - uI LIougI ILs
resuILs cun be mude quILe IIIumInuLIng Ior LIe IeuILIy reuson (oI un
unwILLIng meLupIysIcIun). PopuIurILy (common I unguuge) Is ouL oI LIe
quesLIon Iere; on LIe conLrury, scIoIusLIc precision musL be InsIsLed
upon, even II LIIs Is censured us IuIr-spIILLIng (sInce IL Is LIe lcnuce
oj the schools)-, I or onIy by LIIs meuns cun precIpILuLe reuson be brougIL
Lo undersLund ILseII, beI ore mukI ng ILs dogmuLIc usserLIons.
BuL II pedcnts presume Lo uddress LIe pubIIc (I rom puIpILs or In
popuI ur wrILIngs) In LecInIcuI Lerms LIuL beI ong onIy In LIe scIooIs,
LIe crILIcuI pII I osopIer Is no more responsIbIe I or LIuL LIun LIe grum-
murIun Is I or LIe IoIIy oI LIose wIo quIbbIe over words (loodcedclus).
Here rIdIcuIe cun LoucI onIy LIe mun, noL LIe scIence.
L sounds urrogunL, conceILed, und beIILLIIng oI LIose wIo Iuve noL
yeL renounced LIeIr oId sysLem Lo usserL LIuL beI ore LIe comI ng oI LIe
|zo;| crILIcuI pIII osopIy LIere wus us yeL no pIIIosopIy uL uII. n order Lo
decIde ubouL LIIs uppurenL presumpLI on, IL need buL be usked uhether
there could recll be more thcn one philosoph. NoL onIy Iuve LIere been
dI I I erenL wuys oI pIII osopIIzIng und oI goI ng buck Lo LIe IIrsL prIncI-
pIes oI reuson In order Lo buse u sysLem, more or Iess successIuIIy,
upon LIem, buL LIere Iud Lo be muny experI menLs oI LIIs kInd, eucI
oI wIIcI mude ILs conLrIbuLIon Lo presenL-duy pII I osopIy. YeL sInce,
consI dered objecLIveIy, LIere cun be onIy one Iumun reuson, LIere
cunnoL be muny pIIIosopIIes; In oLIer words, LIere cun be onIy one
Lrue sysLem oI pII I osopIy I rom prIncIpIes, In Iowever muny dI I I erenL
und even conII I cLI ng wuys men Iuve pIIIosopIIzed ubouL one und LIe
sume proposILIon. So LIe morclist rIgILIy suys LIuL LIere Is onIy one
vIrLue und one docLrIne oI vIrLue, LIuL Is, u sIngIe sysLem LIuL connecLs
uII duLIes oI vIrLue by one prIncIpIe; LIe chemist, LIuL LIere Is onIy one
cIemIsLry (uvoIsIer's);
q
LIe teccher oj medicine, LIuL LIere Is onIy one
prIncIpIe I or sysLemuLIcuIIy cIussIIyIng dIseuses (Brown' s).
AI L IougI
LIe neu sstem excI udes uII LIe oLIers, IL does noL deLrucL I rom LIe
merILs oI eurIIer moruIIsLs, cIemIsLs, und LeucIers oI medIcIne, sInce
The Doctrine oj Riht ;
wI LIouL LIeI r dI scoverI es und even LIeIr unsuccessI uI uLLempLs we
sIouI d noL Iuve uLLuI ned LIuL unI Ly oI LIe Lrue prI ncI pI e wII cI unI I I es
LIe wIoI e oI pII I osopIy InLo one sysLem. So unyone wIo unnounces u
sysLem oI pII I osopIy us IIs own wor k suys In eI I ecL LIuL beI or e LIIs
pII I osopIy L Iere wus none uL uII. or II Ie were wI I I I ng Lo udmI L LIuL
LIere Iud been unoL Ier (und u Lrue) one, LIere wouI d L Ien be Lwo
dI I I er enL und L rue pII I osopII es on LIe sume subjecL, wII cI Is seII-
conLrudI cLory. I , L IereI ore, LIe crILIcuI pII I osopIy cuIIs ILseII u pIIIos-
opIy beI or e wII cI L Iere Iud us yeL been no pII I osopIy uL uII, IL does
no mor e LIun Ius been done, wIII be done, und I ndeed musL be done
by unyone wIo druws up u pII I osopIy on IIs own pI un.
TI e cIur ge LIuL one L II ng wII cI essenLIuIIy dI sLI nguI sIes LIe crILIcuI
pII I osopIy Is noL orI gI nuI Lo IL buL wus perIups bor r owed I r om
unoL Ier pII I osopIy (or I r om muLIemuLI cs) wouI d be less I mporL unL
buL noL uI L ogeL Ier negI I gI bI e. A revI ewer In TbI ngen cIuIms Lo Iuve
dI scovered LIuL LIe deI I nI L I on oI pII I osopIy wII cI LIe uuL Ior oI LIe
Critique oj Pure Recson gIves ouL us IIs own, noL I nconsI derubI e, dIscov-
ery Iud been puL I orL I muny yeurs eurI I er by someone eIse In uI mosL
LIe sume words. I euve IL Lo unyone Lo j udg e wIeL Ier LIe words |zo8|
intellectuclis qucedcm constructio couI d Iuve yI eI ded LIe L IougIL oI the
presentction oj c iten concept in cn c priori intuition, wII cI uL once
compI eLeI y dI sLI nguI sIes pII I osopIy I r om muLIemuLI cs. um sure LIuL
Huusen II mseI I wouI d noL Iuve uI I owed IIs words Lo be I nL erpreL ed In
LIIs wuy; I or LIe possIbIIILy oI un u prI orI InLuILIon, und LIuL spuce Is un
u prI orI I nLuI LI on und noL (us WoI I I expI uI ns IL) u j uxL uposI L I on oI u
vurIeLy oI I Lems ouLsI de one unoL Ier gI ven mereI y Lo empI rI cuI InLu-
ILIon (percepLI on), wouI d uI reudy Iuve I rI gIL ened II m oI I , sInce Ie
wouI d Iuve I eI L LIuL LIIs wus geLLI ng II m enL ungI ed In I ur-reucII ng
pII I osopII c InvesLIguLIons. To LIIs ucuLe muLIemuLI cI un LIe presenLu-
LIon mcde cs it uere b mecns oj the understcndin meunL noL II ng more
LIun un (empIrIcuI) drcuin oI u line correspondI ng Lo u concepL, In
wII cI uLLenLI on Is puId onI y Lo LIe ruI e und ubsLrucLI on Is mude I r om
unuvoI dubI e devI uLI ons In curryI ng IL ouL, us cun uIso be perceI ved In
equuIILIes consL rucL ed In geomeL ry.
As I ur us LIe spIrIL oI LIe crILIcuI pII I osopIy Is concerned, LIe lecst-
I mporL unL consI deruLI on Is LIe mI scII eI LIuL cerLuI n I mI LuLors oI IL Iuve
Porro de cctucli constructione hie non quceritur, cum ne possint quidem sensibiles jiurce cd
riorem dejinitionem ejjini, sed requiritur conitio eorum, quibus cbsoltitur jormctio, quce
intellectuclis qucedcm constructio est. C. A. Ha u s e n , Elem. Mcthes, Pcrs I , p. 8 6 A( i 7 3 4 ) .
|Moreover, what is in question here is not an actual construction, since sensible
Iigures cannot be devised in accordance with the strictness oI a deIinition; what is
required is, rather, knowledge oI what goes to make up the Iigure, and this is, as it
were, a construction made by the intellect.|
6
8 Metcphsics oj Morcls
mude by usIng some oI ILs Lerms, wIIcI In LIe Critique oj Pure Recson
ILseII cunnoL weII be repI uced by more cusLomury words, ouLsIde LIe
Critique In pubIIc excIunge oI LIougILs. TII s cerLuInIy deserves Lo be
condemned, uI LIougI In condemnI ng IL NIcoIuI
;
reserves j udgmenL us
Lo wIeLIer sucI Lerms cun be enLIreIy dIspensed wILI In LIeIr own
proper IIeId, us L IougI LIey were used everywIere mereIy Lo IIde
poverLy oI LIougIL. MeunwII I e IL Is more umusI ng Lo I uugI uL un
unpopulcr pedcnt LIun uL un uncriticcl inorcmus (Ior, In IucL, u meLu-
pIysIcIun wIo cIIngs obsLInuLeIy Lo IIs own sysLem, IeedIess oI uny
crILIque, cun be cIussed us un uncrILIcuI I gnorumus, even L IougI Ie
wIIIIuIIy inores wIuL Ie does noL wunL Lo IeL spreud sInce IL does noL
beI ong Lo IIs oI der scIooI oI LIougIL). BuL II IL Is Lrue, us SIuILesbury
|zog| usserLs,
8
LIuL u docLrIne' s ubIIILy Lo wILIsLund ridicule Is noL u bud LoucI-
sLone oI ILs LruLI (especIuIIy In LIe cuse oI u prucLIcuI docLrIne), LIen
LIe crILIcuI pIIIosopIy' s Lurn musL IInuIIy come Lo I uugI lcst und so
I uugI best wIen IL sees LIe sysLems oI LIose wIo Iuve LuIked bI g I or
sucI u I ong LIme coIIupse IIke Iouses oI curds one uI Ler unoLIer und
LIeIr udIerenLs scuLLer, u IuLe LIey cunnoL uvoId.
Towurd LIe end oI LIe book Iuve worked Iess LIorougII y over
cerLuIn secLIons LIun mIgIL be expecLed In compurI son wILI LIe eurI Ier
ones, purLIy becuuse IL seems Lo me LIuL LIey cun be eusIIy I nI erred
I rom LIe eurIIer ones und purLIy, Loo, becuuse LIe IuLer secLIons (deuI-
I ng wILI pubIIc RIgIL) ure currenLIy subjecL Lo so mucI dIscussIon, und
sLIII so ImporLunL, LIuL LIey cun weII j usLI Iy posLponI ng u decIsIve
j udgmenL I or some LIme.
Iope Lo Iuve LIe Metcphsiccl Iirst Principles oj the Doctrine oj Virtue
reudy sIorLIy.
q
The Doctrine oj Riht q
Tcble oj the ditision oj the Doctrine oj Riht |z1o|
PurL
Pritcte Riht wILI Regurd Lo ExLernuI ObjecLs
(LIe Sum oI uws TIuL Do NoL Need Lo be PromuIguLed)
CIupLer
How Lo Hcte SomeLIIng ExLernuI As One's Own
CIupLer
How Lo Acquire SomeLIIng ExLernuI
DIvIsIon oI ExLernuI AcquIsILIon
SecLIon
ProperLy RIgIL
SecLIon
ConLrucL RIgIL
SecLIon
DomesLIc RIgIL
EpIsodIc SecLIon
deuI AcquIsILIon
CIupLer
AcquIsILIon TIuL Is DependenL SubjecLIveIy
on u CourL oI JusLIce
PurL
Public Riht
(TIe Sum oI uws LIuL Need Lo be PromuIguLed)
SecLIon
TIe RIgIL oI u SLuLe
SecLIon
TIe RIgIL oI NuLIons
SecLIon
CosmopoIILun RIgIL
|un| nLroducLIon
Lo LIe MeLupIysIcs oI MoruIs
I .
!" $%& '&()$*+" +, $%& -).)/*$*&0 +, $%&
123)" 4*"5 $+ 4+6)( 7)80
TIe ccpccit jor desire Is LIe cupucILy Lo be by meuns oI one' s represen-
LuLIons LIe cuuse oI LIe objecLs oI LIese represenLuLI ons. T I e cupucILy
oI u beI ng Lo ucL In uccordunce wI LI ILs represenL uL I ons Is cuI I ed lije.
Iirst, plecsure or displecsure, suscepLIbIIILy Lo wII cI Is cuI I ed jeelin, Is
uIwuys connecL ed wILI desI re or uversI on; buL LIe converse does noL
uIwuys IoI d, sInce LIere cun be u pI eusure LIuL Is noL connecL ed wILI
uny desI re I or un obj ecL buL Is uI reudy connecL ed wILI u mere represen-
LuLIon LIuL one I or ms oI un obj ecL (regurdI ess oI wIeL Ier LIe obj ecL oI
LIe represenL uL I on exIsLs or noL). Second, pI eusure or dI spI eusure In un
obj ecL oI desI re does noL uIwuys precede LIe desI re und need noL
uIwuys be r egur ded us LIe cuuse oI LIe desI re buL cun uIso be r egur ded
us LIe eI I ecL oI IL.
TI e cupucILy I or LukI ng pI eusure or dI spI eusure In u represenL uL I on
Is cuIIed jeelin becuuse boL I oI LIese I nvoI ve wIuL Is merel subjectite In
LIe reI uLI on oI our represenL uL I on und conLuI n no reI uLI on uL uII Lo un
obj ecL I or possIbIe knowI edge oI IL (or even knowI edge oI our own
|z1z| condI LI on). WII I e even sensuLIons, upurL I r om LIe quuIILy (oI, e. g. , red,
*One can characterize sensibility as the subjective aspect oI our representations in
general; Ior it is the understanding that Iirst reIers representations to an object, i.e.,
only it thinls something by means oI them. What is subjective in our representations
may be such that it can also be reIerred to an object Ior knowledge oI it (either in
terms oI its Iorm, in which case it is called pure intuition, or in terms oI its matter,
in which case it is called sensation); in this case sensibility, as susceptibility to such
a representation, is sense. Or else what is subjective in our representations cannot
become cn element in our lnoulede because it involves onl a relation oI the represen-
tation to the subject and nothing that can be used Ior knowledge oI an object; and
then susceptibility to the representation is called jeelin, which is the eIIect oI a rep-
resentation (that may be either sensible or intellectual) upon a subject and belongs
to sensibility, even though the representation itselI may belong to the understand-
ing or to reason.
qo
The Doctrine oj Riht (:
sweeL, und so IorLI) LIey Iuve becuuse oI LIe nuLure oI LIe subjecL, ure
sLIII reI erred Lo un objecL us eIemenLs In our knowI edge oI IL, pI eusure
or dIspIeusure (In wIuL Is red or sweeL) expresses noLII ng uL uII In LIe
objecL buL sImpIy u reIuLIon Lo LIe subjecL. or LIIs very reuson pIeu-
sure und dIspIeusure cunnoL be expI uI ned more cIeurIy In LIemseIves;
InsLeud, one cun onIy specIIy wIuL resuILs LIey Iuve In cerLuIn cIrcum-
sLunces, so us Lo muke LIem recognIzubIe In prucLIce.
TIuL pIeusure wIIcI Is necessurIIy connecLed wILI desIre (Ior un
objecL wIose represenLuLIon uIIecLs IeeI I ng In LIIs wuy) cun be cuIIed
prccticcl plecsure, wIeLIer IL Is LIe cuuse or LIe eI I ecL oI LIe desIre. On
LIe oLIer Iund, LIuL pIeusure wIIcI Is noL necessurIIy connecLed wILI
desIre I or un objecL, und so Is noL uL boLLom u pIeusure In LIe exIsLence
oI LIe objecL oI u represenLuLIon buL Is uLLucIed onIy Lo LIe represenLu-
LIon by ILseII, cun be cuIIed mereIy conLempIuLIve pIeusure or incctite
deliht. We cuII IeeI I ng oI LIe IuLLer kInd oI pIeusure tcste. PrucLIcuI pII-
IosopIy, uccordIngI y, speuks oI conLempIuLIve pIeusure onIy in pcssin,
noL us II LIe concepL beloned uithin IL. As I or prucLIcuI pIeusure, LIuL
deLermI nuLI on oI LIe cupucILy I or desIre wII cI Is cuused und L IereI ore
necessurIIy preceded by sucI pIeusure Is cuIIed desire In LIe nurrow
sense;
1o
IubILuuI desIre In LIIs nurrow sense Is cuIIed inclinction, und u
connecLIon oI pIeusure wILI LIe cupucILy I or desIre LIuL LIe under-
sLundIng j udges Lo IoI d us u generuI ruIe (LIougI onIy I or LIe subjecL)
Is cuIIed un interest. So II u pIeusure necessurIIy precedes u desIre, LIe
prucLIcuI pIeusure musL be cuIIed un InLeresL oI IncIInuLIon. BuL II u
pIeusure cun onIy IoIIow upon un unLecedenL deLermI nuLI on oI LIe
cupucILy I or desIre IL Is un InLeIIecLuuI pIeusure, und LIe InLeresL In LIe
objecL musL be cuIIed un InLeresL oI reuson; I or II LIe InLeresL were
bused on LIe senses und noL on pure ruLIonuI prIncIpIes uIone, sensu-
LIon wouI d LIen Iuve Lo Iuve pIeusure connecLed wILI IL und In LIIs |z1|
wuy be ubIe Lo deLermI ne LIe cupucILy Ior desIre. AI L IougI wIere u
mereIy pure InLeresL oI reuson musL be ussumed no InLeresL oI IncIInu-
LIon cun be subsLILuLed I or IL, yeL In order Lo conI orm Lo ordI nury
speecI we cun speuk oI un IncIInuLIon I or wIuL cun be un objecL onIy
oI un InLeIIecLuuI pIeusure us u IubILuuI desIre I r om u pure InLeresL oI
reuson; buL un IncIInuLIon oI LIIs sorL wouI d noL be LIe cuuse buL
ruLIer LIe eI I ecL oI LIIs pure InLeresL oI reuson, und we couI d cuII IL u
sense-jree inclinction (propensio intellectuclis).
Concupiscence (IusLIng uILer someLIIng) musL uIso be dIsLInguIsIed
I rom desIre ILseII, us u sLImuIus Lo deLermI nI ng desIre. ConcupI scence
Is uIwuys u sensIbIe modIIIcuLIon oI LIe mI nd buL one LIuL Ius noL yeL
become un ucL oI LIe cupucILy Ior desIre.
TIe cupucILy I or desIrIng In uccordunce wILI concepLs, InsoIur us LIe
ground deLermI nI ng IL Lo ucLIon IIes wILIIn ILseII und noL In ILs objecL,
qz Metcphsics oj Morcls
Is cuIIed LIe cupucILy I or doin or rejrcinin jrom doin cs one plecses.
nsoIur us IL Is j oI ned wILI one' s conscIousness oI LIe cupucILy Lo brI ng
ubouL ILs objecL by one' s ucLIon IL Is cuIIed LIe ccpccit jor choice,
11
II
IL Is noL j oI ned wILI LIIs conscIousness ILs ucL Is cuIIed u uish. TIe
cupucILy I or desIre wIose Inner deLermI nI ng ground, Ience even wIuL
pIeuses IL, IIes wILIIn LIe subjecL' s reuson Is cuIIed LIe uill. TIe wIII Is
LIereI ore LIe cupucILy I or desIre consI dered noL so mucI In reIuLIon Lo
ucLIon (us LIe cupucILy Ior cIoIce Is) buL ruLIer In reIuLIon Lo LIe
ground deLermI nI ng cIoIce Lo ucLIon. TIe wIII ILseII, sLrIcLIy speukIng,
Ius no deLermI nI ng ground; InsoIur us IL cun deLermI ne LIe cupucILy
Ior cIoIce, IL Is InsLeud prucLIcuI reuson ILseII.
nsoIur us reuson cun deLermI ne LIe cupucILy Ior desIre In generuI ,
noL onIy choice buL uIso mere uish cun be IncI uded under LIe wIII. TIuL
cIoIce wIIcI cun be deLermI ned by pure recson Is cuIIed I ree cIoIce.
TIuL wIIcI cun be deLermI ned onIy by inclinction (sensIbIe ImpuIse,
stimulus) wouI d be unImuI cIoIce (crbitrium brutum). Humun cIoIce,
Iowever, Is u cupucILy Ior cIoIce LIuL cun I ndeed be cjjected buL noL
determined by ImpuIses, und Is LIereI ore oI ILseII (upurL I rom un
ucquIred upLILude oI reuson) noL pure buL cun sLIII be deL ermI ned Lo
ucLIons by pure wIII. Ireedom oI cIoIce Is LIIs I ndependence I rom beI ng
determined by sensIbIe ImpuIses; LIIs Is LIe neguLIve concepL oI Iree-
|z1q| dom. TIe posILIve concepL oI I reedom Is LIuL oI LIe cupucILy oI pure
reuson Lo be oI ILseII prucLIcuI. BuL LIIs Is noL possIbIe excepL by LIe
subjecLIon oI LIe muxI m oI every ucLIon Lo LIe condILIon oI ILs quuI IIy-
I ng us unIversuI Iuw. or us pure reuson uppIIed Lo LIe cupucILy I or
cIoIce IrrespecLIve oI ILs objecLs, IL does noL Iuve wILIIn IL LIe muLLer
oI LIe Iuw; so, us u cupucILy I or prIncIpIes (Iere prucLIcuI prIncIpIes,
Ience u I uwgIvIng cupucILy), LIere Is noLII ng IL cun muke LIe supreme
Iuw und deLermI nI ng ground oI cIoIce excepL LIe I orm, LIe IILness oI
muxI ms oI cIoIce Lo be unIversuI Iuw. And sInce men' s muxI ms, beI ng
bused on subjecLIve cuuses, do noL oI LIemseIves conI orm wILI LIose
objecLIve prIncIpIes, reuson cun prescrIbe LIIs Iuw onIy us un I mperu-
LIve LIuL communds or proIIbILs ubsoIuLeIy.
n conLrusL Lo Iuws oI nuLure, LIese Iuws oI I reedom ure cuIIed morcl
Iuws. As dIrecLed mereIy Lo exLernuI ucLIons und LIeIr conIormI Ly
Lo Iuw LIey ure cuIIed juridiccl Iuws; buL II LIey uIso requI re LIuL LIey
(LIe Iuws) LIemseIves be LIe deLermI nI ng grounds oI ucLIons, LIey ure
ethiccl Iuws, und LIen one suys LIuL conIormI Ly wILI j urI dI cuI Iuws Is
LIe leclit oI un ucLIon und conIormI Ly wILI eLIIcuI Iuws Is ILs morclit.
TIe I reedom Lo wIIcI LIe I ormer Iuws reI er cun be onIy I r eedom In
LIe externcl use oI cIoIce, buL LIe I reedom Lo wIIcI LIe IuLLer reI er Is
I reedom In boLI LIe exLernuI und LIe InLernuI use oI cIoIce, InsoIur us
IL Is deLermI ned by Iuws oI reuson. n LIeoreLIcuI pII I osopIy IL Is suId
LIuL onIy objecLs oI ouLer sense ure In spuce, wIereus objecLs oI ouLer
us weII us oI I nner sense ure In LIme, sInce LIe represenLuLIons oI boLI
ure sLIII represenLuLIons, und us sucI beI ong LogeLIer Lo I nner sense. So
Loo, wIeLIer I reedom In LIe exLernuI or In LIe InLernuI use oI cIoIce
Is consI dered, ILs Iuws, us pure prucLIcuI Iuws oI reuson I or I ree cIoIce
generuIIy, musL uIso be InLernuI deLermI nI ng grounds oI cIoIce, uI-
L IougI LIey sIouId noL uIwuys be consI dered In LIIs respecL.
!!"
$% &'( !)(* +, *%) &'( -(.(//0&1 ,+2 * 3(&*4'1/0./ +, 3+2*5/
L Ius been sIown eI sewIere LIuL I or nuLuruI scIence, wII cI Ius Lo do
wILI objecLs oI ouLer sense, one musL Iuve u prIorI prIncIpIes, und LIuL
IL Is possIbIe, I ndeed necessury, Lo preI I x u sysLem oI LIese prIncIpIes,
cuIIed u meLupIysIcuI scIence oI nuLure, Lo nuLuruI scIence uppIIed Lo |z1|
purLIcuIur experI ences, LIuL Is, Lo pIysIcs. SucI prIncIpIes musL be
derI ved I r om u prIorI grounds II LIey ure Lo IoI d us unIversuI In LIe
sLrIcL sense. BuL pIysIcs (uL IeusL wIen IL Is u quesLIon oI keepI ng ILs
proposILIons I ree I rom error) cun uccepL muny prIncIpIes us unIversuI
on LIe evI dence oI experI ence. So NewLon ussumed on LIe busIs oI
experI ence LIe prIncIpIe oI LIe equuIILy oI ucLIon und reucLIon In LIe
ucLIon oI bodIes upon one unoLIer, yeL exLended IL Lo uII muLerIuI
nuLure. CIemIsLs go sLIII I urL Ier und buse LIeIr mosL unIversuI Iuws oI
LIe combInuLIon und sepuruLIon oI subsLunces by LIeIr own Iorces
enLIreIy on experI ence, und yeL so LrusL Lo LIe unIversuIILy und neces-
sILy oI LIose Iuws LIuL LIey Iuve no Ieur oI dIscoverIng un error In
experI menLs mude wILI LIem.
BuL IL Is dI I I erenL wILI moruI Iuws. TIey IoId us Iuws onIy InsoIur us
LIey cun be seen Lo Iuve un u prIorI busIs und Lo be necessury. n-
deed, concepLs und j udgmenL s ubouL ourseIves und our deeds und
omIssIons sIgnIIy noLII ng moruI II wIuL LIey conLuIn cun be I eurned
mereIy I rom experI ence. And sIouI d unyone IeL IImseI I be Ied usLruy
InLo mukI ng someLII ng I rom LIuL source InLo u moruI prIncIpIe, Ie
wouI d run LIe rIsk oI LIe grossesL und mosL pernIcIous errors.
I LIe docLrIne oI moruIs were mereIy LIe docLrIne oI IuppIness IL
wouI d be ubsurd Lo seek u prIorI prIncIpIes I or IL. or Iowever pIuusI-
bIe IL muy sound Lo suy LIuL reuson, even beI ore experI ence, couI d see
LIe meuns I or ucIIevIng u IusLIng enj oymenL oI LIe Lrue j oys oI IIIe, yeL
everyLII ng LIuL Is LuugIL u prIorI on LIIs subjecL Is eILIer LuuLoIogIcuI
or ussumed wILIouL uny busIs. OnI y experI ence cun LeucI wIuL brIngs
us j oy. OnI y LIe nuLuruI drIves I or I ood, sex, resL, und movemenL, und
(us our nuLuruI predIsposILIons deveI op) Ior Ionor, I or enI urgI ng our
knowI edge und so IorLI, cun LeII eucI oI us, und eucI onIy In IIs purLIc-
uIur wuy, In wIuL Ie wIII jind LIose j oys; und, In LIe sume wuy, onIy
experI ence cun LeucI II m LIe meuns by wIIcI Lo seel LIem. AI I uppur-
qq Metcphsics oj Morcls
enLIy u prIorI reusonI ng ubouL LIIs comes down Lo noL II ng buL experI -
|z16| ence ruIsed by InducLIon Lo generuIILy, u generuIILy (secundum principic
enerclis, non unitersclis) sLIII so Lenuous LIuL everyone musL be uIIowed
counLIess excepLIons In order Lo udupL IIs cIoIce oI u wuy oI IIIe Lo IIs
purLIcuIur IncIInuLIons und IIs suscepLIbIIILy Lo suLIsIucLIon und sLIII, In
LIe end, Lo become prudenL onIy I rom IIs own or oLIers' mI sIorLunes.
BuL IL Is dI I I erenL wILI LIe LeucIIngs oI moruIILy.
1z
TIey commund
Ior everyone, wILIouL LukIng uccounL oI IIs IncIInuLIons, mereI y be-
cuuse und I nsoIur us Ie Is I ree und Ius prucLIcuI reuson. He does noL
derI ve InsLrucLIon In ILs Iuws I rom observI ng IImseII und IIs unImuI
nuLure or I rom perceI vI ng LIe wuys oI LIe worI d, wIuL Iuppens und
Iow men beIuve (uILIougI LIe Germun word Sitten, IIke LIe uLIn
mores, meuns onIy munners und cusLoms). nsLeud, reuson communds
Iow men ure Lo ucL even LIougI no exumpI e oI LIIs couI d be I ound, und
IL Lukes no uccounL oI LIe udvunLuges we cun LIereby guIn, wII cI onIy
experI ence couI d LeucI us. or uI LIougI reuson uIIows us Lo seek our
udvunLuge In every wuy possIbIe Lo us und cun even promI se us, on LIe
LesLImony oI experI ence, LIuL IL wIII probubIy be more Lo our udvunLuge
on LIe wIoIe Lo obey ILs communds LIun Lo Lrunsgress LIem, especIuIIy
II obedI ence Is uccompunI ed wILI prudence, sLIII LIe uuLIorILy oI ILs
precepLs cs commcnds Is noL bused on LIese consIderuLIons. nsLeud IL
uses LIem (us counseIs) onIy us u counLerweI gIL uguInsL I nducemenLs Lo
LIe conLrury, Lo oI I seL In udvunce LIe error oI bIused scuIes In prucLIcuI
uppruIsuI, und onIy LIen Lo ensure LIuL LIe weIgIL oI u pure prucLIcuI
reuson' s u prIorI grounds wIII Lurn LIe scuIes In I uvor oI LIe uuLIorILy
oI ILs precepLs.
I, LIereIore, u sysLem oI u prIorI knowI edge I rom concepLs uIone Is
cuIIed metcphsics, u prucLIcuI pII I osopIy, wIIcI Ius noL nuLure buL
I reedom oI cIoIce Ior ILs objecL, wIII presuppose und requI re u meLu-
pIysIcs oI moruIs, LIuL Is, IL Is ILseII u dut Lo hcte sucI u meLupIysIcs,
und every mun uIso Ius IL wILIIn IImseII, LIougI us u ruI e onIy In un
obscure wuy; I or wILIouL u prIorI prIncIpIes Iow couI d Ie beIIeve LIuL
Ie Ius u gI vI ng oI unIversuI Iuw wILIIn IImseII? BuL j usL us LIere musL
be prIncIpIes In u meLupIysIcs oI nuLure Ior uppI yI ng LIose IIgIesL
unIversuI prIncIpIes oI u nuLure In generuI Lo objecLs oI experI ence, u
|z1;| meLupIysIcs oI moruIs cunnoL dIspense wILI prIncIpIes oI uppIIcuLIon,
und we sIuII oI L en Iuve Lo Luke us our objecL LIe purLIcuIur ncture oI
mun, wIIcI Is known onIy by experI ence, In order Lo shou In IL wIuL cun
be I nI erred I r om unIversuI moruI prIncIpIes. BuL LIIs wIII In no wuy
deLrucL I rom LIe purILy oI LIese prIncIpIes or cusL doubL on LIeIr u
prIorI source. TII s Is Lo suy, In eI I ecL, LIuL u meLupIysIcs oI moruIs
cunnoL be bused upon unLIropoI ogy buL cun sLIII be uppI I ed Lo IL.
TIe counLerpurL oI u meLupIysIcs oI moruIs, LIe oL Ier member oI
LIe dIvIsIon oI prucLIcuI pIIIosopIy us u wIoIe, wouI d be moruI unLIro-
poI ogy, wII cI, Iowever, wouI d deuI onI y wI LI LIe subj ecLI ve condI -
LIons In Iumun nuL ure LIuL II nder men or IeI p L Iem In juljillin LIe
Iuws oI u meLupIysI cs oI moruI s. L wouI d deuI wI LI LIe deveI opmenL ,
spreudI ng, und sL rengL IenI ng oI moruI prI ncI pI es (In educuL I on In
scIooIs und In popuI ur InsLrucLIon), und wILI oL Ier sImIIur LeucII ngs
und precepL s bused on experI ence. L cunnoL be dI spensed wILI, buL IL
musL noL pr ecede u meLupIysI cs oI moruI s or be mI xed wILI IL; I or one
wouI d L Ien r un LIe rIsk oI brI ngI ng I orL I IuIse or uL IeusL I nduI genL
moruI Iuws, wII cI wouI d mI srepresenL us unuLLuI nubI e wIuL Ius onI y
noL been uLLuI ned j usL becuuse LIe Iuw Ius noL been seen und pre-
senLed In ILs purI Ly (In wII cI ILs sL rengLI consIsLs) or becuuse spurI ous
or I mpur e IncenLIves were used I or wIuL Is ILseII In conI ormI L y wILI
duL y und good. TII s wouI d I euve no cerLuI n moruI prI ncI pI es, eI LIer Lo
guI de j udg me nL or Lo dIscIpI Ine LIe mI nd In observunce oI duL y, LIe
precepLs oI wII cI musL be gI ven u prI orI by pur e reuson uI one.
As I or LIe II gIer dIvIsIon under wII cI LIe dIvIsIon j usL menL I oned
IuIIs, numeI y LIuL oI pII I osopIy I nLo LIeoreLI cuI und prucLIcuI pII I oso-
pIy, Iuve uI reudy expI uI ned myseI I eI sewIere (In LIe Critique oj
1udment) und expI uI ned LIuL prucLIcuI pII I osopIy cun be none oL Ier
L Iun moruI wI sdom. AnyL II ng LIuL Is prucLIcuI und possIbIe In uccor-
dunce wI LI Iuws oI nuL ure (LIe dIsLIncLIve concern oI urL)
1
depends I or
ILs precepLs enLI reI y upon LIe L Ieory oI nuL ure: OnI y wIuL Is prucLIcuI
In uccordunce wILI Iuws oI I r eedom cun Iuve prI ncI pI es LIuL ure I nde-
pendenL oI uny LIeory; I or L Iere Is no LIeory oI wIuL goes beyond LIe
properLI es oI nuLure. Hence, pII I osopIy cun undersL und by ILs prucLI-
cuI purL (us compur ed wILI ILs LIeoreLI cuI purL) no techniccll prccticcl |z18|
docLrI ne buL onI y u morcll prccticcl docLrI ne; und II LIe proI I cI ency oI
cIoI ce In uccordunce wILI Iuws oI I r eedom, In conLrusL Lo Iuws oI nu-
Lure, Is uIso Lo be cuIIed crt Iere, by LIIs wouI d Iuve Lo be undersL ood
u kI nd oI urL LIuL mukes possIbIe u sysLem oI I r eedom IIke u sysLem oI
nuLure, LruIy u dI vI ne urL were we In u posILIon uIso Lo curry ouL IuI I y, by
meuns oI IL, wIuL reuson prescrI bes und Lo puL LIe deu oI IL InLo eI I ecL .
!!!"
$% &'( )*+*,*-% -. / 0(&/1'2,*3, -. 0-4/5,6
n uII I uwgI vI ng (wIeLIer IL prescrI bes I nLernuI or exL ernuI ucLIons, und
wIeL Ier IL prescrI bes L Iem u prI orI by reuson uI one or by LIe cIoI ce oI
*A deduction oI the division oI a system, i.e. a prooI that it is both complete and
continuous - that is, that a transition Irom the concept divided to the members oI the
division takes place without a leap (ditisio per scltum) in the entire series oI subdivi-
sions - is one oI the most diIIicult conditions which the architect oI a system has to
IulIill. Even what t he hihest ditided concept would be, t he divisions oI which ar e riht
q6 Metcphsics oj Morcls
unoLIer) L Iere ure Lwo eI emenLs: .*4,&7 u lcu, wII cI represenL s un
ucLIon LIuL Is Lo be done us objectitel necessury, LIuL Is, wII cI mukes
LIe ucLIon u duL y; und ,(3-%87 un I ncenLI ve, wII cI connecL s u gr ound
I or deL ermI nI ng cIoI ce Lo LIIs ucLIon subjectitel wI LI LIe represenL u-
LIon oI LIe Iuw. Hence, LIe second eI emenL Is LIIs: LIuL LIe Iuw mukes
duL y LIe I ncenLI ve. By LIe IIrsL LIe ucLIon Is represenL ed us u duL y, und
LIIs Is u mereI y LIeoreLI cuI cognI LI on oI u possIbIe deL ermI nuL I on oI
cIoI ce, LIuL Is, oI prucLIcuI ruIes. By LIe second LIe obI I guLI on so Lo ucL
Is connecL ed In LIe subjecL wILI u gr ound I or deL er mI nI ng cIoI ce
generuI I y.
AI I I uwgI vI ng cun L IereI or e be dI sLI nguI sIed wI LI respecL Lo LIe
I ncenLI ve (even II IL ugrees wILI unoL Ier kI nd wILI respecL Lo LIe ucLI on
LIuL IL mukes u duL y, e. g. , LIese ucLIons mI gIL In uII cuses be exLernuI ).
|z1q| TIuL I uwgI vI ng wII cI mukes un ucLIon u duLy und uIso mukes LIIs duL y
LIe I ncenLI ve Is ethiccl. BuL LIuL I uwgI vI ng wII cI does noL I ncI ude LIe
IncenLIve oI duL y In LIe Iuw und so udmI Ls un I ncenLI ve oL Ier LIun LIe
deu oI duL y ILseII Is juridiccl. L Is cI eur LIuL In LIe IuLLer cuse LIIs
I ncenLI ve LIuL Is someL II ng oL Ier LIun LIe deu oI duL y musL be dr uwn
I r om sensibl dependent deL ermI nI ng gr ounds oI cIoI ce,
1 q
I ncI I nuLI ons
und uversIons, und umong LIese, I r om uversI ons; I or IL Is u I uwgI vI ng,
wII cI consLruIns, noL un uI I uremenL , wII cI InvILes.
T I e mere conI ormI L y or nonconI ormI L y oI un ucLIon wI LI Iuw, Irre-
specLIve oI LIe I ncenLI ve Lo IL, Is cuI I ed ILs leclit (I uwIuI ness); buL LIuL
conI ormI L y In wII cI LIe deu oI duL y urI sI ng I r om LIe Iuw Is uIso LIe
I ncenLI ve Lo LIe ucLIon Is cuI I ed ILs morclit.
DuLI es In uccordunce wILI rI gIL I uI
1
I uwgI vI ng cun be onI y exL ernuI
duLIes, sInce LIIs I uwgI vI ng does noL requI re LIuL LIe deu oI LIIs duL y,
wII cI Is I nLernuI , ILseII be LIe deL ermI nI ng gr ound oI LIe ugenL' s
cIoI ce; und sInce IL sLIII needs un I ncenLI ve suILed Lo LIe Iuw, IL cun
connecL onI y exL ernuI IncenLIves wILI IL. On LIe oL Ier Iund, eLIIcuI
I uwgI vI ng, wII I e IL uIso mukes I nLernuI ucLIons duLI es, does noL excI ude
exL ernuI ucLIons buL uppI I es Lo everyL II ng LIuL Is u duL y In generuI . BuL
j usL becuuse eLIIcuI I uwgI vI ng I ncI udes wI LII n ILs Iuw LIe I nLernuI
IncenLIve Lo ucLIon (LIe deu oI duLy), und LIIs I euL ure musL noL be
presenL In exL ernuI I uwgI vI ng, eLIIcuI I uwgI vI ng cunnoL be exL ernuI
(noL even LIe exL ernuI I uwgI vI ng oI u dI vI ne wIII), uI L IougI IL does Luke
up duLI es LIuL resL on unoL Ier, numeI y un exLernuI , I uwgI vI ng by muk-
I ng L Iem, cs duties, IncenLIves In ILs I uwgI vI ng.
and uron (cutjcs cut nejcs), calls I or reIl ect i on. Thi s concept is t he cct ojjree choice
in general. Teachers oI ontology similarly begin with the concepts oI somethin
and nothin, without being aware that these are already members oI a division Ior
which the concept divided is missing. This concept can be only that oI an object in
general.
The Doctrine oj Riht q;
L cun be seen I rom LIIs LIuL uII duLIes, j usL becuuse LIey ure duLIes,
beI ong Lo eLIIcs; buL IL does noL IoIIow LIuL LIe lcuitin I or LIem Is
uIwuys conLuI ned In eLIIcs: or muny oI LIem IL Is ouLsIde eLIIcs. TIus,
eLIIcs communds LIuL sLIII IuIIIII u conLrucL Iuve enLered InLo, even
LIougI LIe oLIer purLy couId noL coerce me Lo do so; buL IL Lukes LIe
Iuw (pcctc sunt sertcndc) und LIe duLy correspondI ng Lo IL I rom LIe
docLrIne oI RIgIL, us uIreudy gIven LIere. AccordI ngI y LIe gIvIng oI |zzo|
LIe Iuw LIuL promIses ugreed Lo musL be kepL IIes noL In eLIIcs buL In
Ius. AI I LIuL eLIIcs LeucIes Is LIuL II LIe IncenLIve wIIcI j urI dI cuI IuwgIv-
I ng connecLs wILI LIuL duLy, numeI y exLernuI consLruInL, were ubsenL,
LIe deu oI duLy by ILseII wouI d be suIIIcIenL us un IncenLIve. or II LIIs
were noL LIe cuse, und II LIe IuwgIvIng ILseII were noL j urI dI cuI so LIuL
LIe duLy urIsIng I rom IL wus noL reuIIy u duLy oI RIgIL (us dIsLInguIsIed
I rom u duLy oI vIrLue), LIen IuI LIIuI perI ormunce (In keepI ng wILI
promIses mude In u conLrucL) wouI d be puL In LIe sume cIuss wILI
ucLIons oI benevoI ence und LIe obIIguLIon Lo LIem, und LIIs musL noL
Iuppen. L Is no duLy oI vIrLue Lo keep one' s promIses buL u duLy oI
RIgIL, Lo LIe perI ormunce oI wIIcI one cun be coerced. BuL IL Is sLIII
u vIrLuous ucLIon (u prooI oI vIrLue) Lo do IL even wIere no coercIon
muy be cpplied. TIe docLrIne oI RI gIL und LIe docLrIne oI vIrLue ure
LIereI ore dIsLInguIsIed noL so mucI by LIeIr dI I I erenL duLIes us by
LIe dI I I erence In LIeIr IuwgIvIng, wII cI connecLs one IncenLIve or LIe
oLIer wILI LIe Iuw.
ELIIcuI IuwgIvIng (even II LIe duLIes mI gIL be exLernuI) Is LIuL wIIcI
ccnnot be exLernuI ; j urI dI cuI IuwgIvIng Is LIuL wII cI cun uIso be exLer-
nuI. So IL Is un exLernuI duLy Lo keep u promIse mude In u conLrucL; buL
LIe commund Lo do LIIs mereIy becuuse IL Is u duLy, wILIouL regurd I or
uny oLIer IncenLIve, beIongs Lo interncl IuwgIvIng uIone. So LIe obIIgu-
LIon Is ussIgned Lo eLIIcs noL becuuse LIe duLy Is oI u purLIcuIur kInd (u
purLIcuIur kInd oI ucLIon Lo wIIcI one Is bound) - I or LIere ure exLer-
nuI duLIes In eLIIcs us weII us In RIgIL - buL ruLIer becuuse LIe IuwgIv-
I ng In LIIs cuse Is un InLernuI one und cun Iuve no exLernuI IuwgIver.
or LIe sume reuson duLIes oI benevoI ence, even L IougI LIey ure
exLernuI duLIes (obIIguLIons Lo exLernuI ucLIons), ure sLIII ussIgned Lo
eLIIcs becuuse LIeIr IuwgIvIng cun be onIy InLernuI. ELIIcs Ius ILs spe-
cIuI duLIes us weII (e.g., duLIes Lo oneseI I), buL IL uIso Ius duLIes In
common wILI RIgIL; wIuL IL does noL Iuve In common wILI RIgIL Is
onIy LIe kInd oI obliction. or wIuL Is dIsLIncLIve oI eLIIcuI IuwgIvIng
Is LIuL one Is Lo perI orm ucLIons j usL becuuse LIey ure duLIes und Lo
muke LIe prIncIpIe oI duLy ILseII, wIerever LIe duLy comes I rom, LIe
suIII cI enL IncenLIve I or cIoIce. So wIIIe LIere ure muny directl ethiccl |zz1|
duLIes, InLernuI IuwgIvIng mukes LIe resL oI LIem, one und uII, IndI-
recLIy eLIIcuI.
q8 Metcphsics oj Morcls
!"#
%&'()*)+,&- ./+0'123 /4 25' 6'2,15-3)03 /4 6/&,(3
(Philosophic prccticc unitersclis)
TIe concepL oI jreedom Is u pure ruLIonuI concepL, wIIcI Ior LIIs very
reuson Is LrunscendenL Ior LIeoreLIcuI pIIIosopIy, LIuL Is, IL Is u con-
cepL sucI LIuL no InsLunce correspondI ng Lo IL cun be gIven In uny
possIbIe experIence, und oI un objecL oI wIIcI we cunnoL obLuIn uny
LIeoreLIcuI knowI edge: TIe concepL oI I reedom cunnoL IoId us u
consLILuLIve buL soIeIy us u reguIuLIve und, Indeed, mereIy neguLIve
prIncIpIe oI specuIuLIve reuson. BuL In reuson's prucLIcuI use LIe con-
cepL oI I reedom proves ILs reuIILy by prucLIcuI prIncIpIes, wIIcI ure
Iuws oI u cuusuIILy oI pure reuson Ior deLermInIng cIoIce Indepen-
denLIy oI uny empIrIcuI condILIons (oI sensIbIIILy generuIIy) und prove
u pure wIII In us, In wIIcI moruI concepLs und Iuws Iuve LIeIr source.
On LIIs concepL oI Ireedom, wIIcI Is posILIve (Irom u prucLIcuI poInL
oI vIew), ure bused uncondILIonuI prucLIcuI Iuws, wIIcI ure cuIIed
morcl. or us, wIose cIoIce Is sensIbIy uIIecLed und so does noL oI ILseII
conIorm Lo LIe pure wIII buL oILen opposes IL, moruI Iuws ure imperc-
tites (communds or proIIbILIons) und Indeed cuLegorIcuI (uncondI-
LIonuI) ImperuLIves. As sucI LIey ure dIsLInguIsIed I rom LecInIcuI
ImperuLIves (precepLs oI urL), wIIcI uIwuys commund onIy condILIon-
uIIy. By cuLegorIcuI ImperuLIves cerLuIn ucLIons ure permitted or jorbid-
den, LIuL Is, moruIIy possIbIe or ImpossIbIe, wIIIe some oI LIem or LIeIr
opposILes ure moruIIy necessury, LIuL Is, obIIguLory. or LIose ucLIons,
LIen, LIere urIses LIe concepL oI u duLy, observunce or LrunsgressIon oI
wIIcI Is Indeed connecLed wILI u pIeusure or puIn oI u dIsLIncLIve kInd
(moruI jeelin), uILIougI In prucLIcuI Iuws oI reuson we Luke no uccounL
oI LIese IeeIIngs (sInce LIey Iuve noLIIng Lo do wILI LIe bcsis oI
prucLIcuI Iuws buL onIy wILI LIe subjecLIve ejject In LIe mInd wIen our
cIoIce Is deLermIned by LIem, wIIcI cun dI IIer I rom one subjecL Lo
unoLIer |wILIouL objecLIveIy, I.e., In LIe j udgmenL oI reuson, uL uII
uddI ng Lo or deLrucLIng Irom LIe vuIIdILy or InIIuence oI LIese Iuws|).
|zzz| TIe IoIIowIng concepLs ure common Lo boLI purLs oI The Metcphsics
oj Morcls.
Dbliction Is LIe necessILy oI u Iree ucLIon under u cuLegorIcuI Imper-
uLIve oI reuson.
An ImperuLIve Is u prucLIcuI ruIe by wIIcI un ucLIon In ILseII
conLIngenL Is mcde necessury. An ImperuLIve dI IIers I rom u pruc-
LIcuI Iuw In LIuL u Iuw Indeed represenLs un ucLIon us necessury buL
Lukes no uccounL oI wIeLIer LIIs ucLIon uIreudy InIeres by un
inner necessILy In LIe ucLIng subjecL (us In u IoIy beIng) or wIeLIer
The Doctrine oj Riht qq
IL Is conLI ngenL (us In mun); I or wIere LIe I ormer Is LIe cuse LIere
Is no ImperuLIve. Hence un ImperuLIve Is u ruI e LIe represenLu-
LIon oI wII cI mcles necessury un ucLIon LIuL Is subjecLIveIy conLIn-
genL und LIus represenLs LIe subjecL us one LIuL musL be
constrcined (necessILuLed)'
6
Lo conI orm wILI LIe ruIe. A cuLegorI-
cuI (uncondILIonuI) ImperuLIve Is one LIuL represenLs un ucLIon us
objecLIveIy necessury und mukes IL necessury noL IndIrecLIy,
L IrougI LIe represenLuLIon oI some end LIuL cun be uLLuIned by
LIe ucLIon, buL L IrougI LIe mere represenLuLIon oI LIIs ucLIon
ILseII (ILs Iorm), und Ience dIrecLIy. No oLIer prucLIcuI docLrIne
cun I urnI sI InsLunces oI sucI ImperuLIves LIun LIuL wIIcI pre-
scrIbes obIIguLIon (LIe docLrIne oI moruIs). AI I oLIer ImperuLIves
ure techniccl und ure, one und uII, condILIonuI. TIe ground oI LIe
possIbIIILy oI cuLegorIcuI ImperuLIves Is LIIs: LIuL LIey reI er Lo no
oLIer properLy oI cIoIce (by wIIcI some purpose cun be uscrIbed
Lo IL) LIun sImpIy Lo ILs jreedom.
TIuL ucLIon Is permitted (licitum) wII cI Is noL conLrury Lo obIIguLIon;
und LIIs I reedom, wIIcI Is noL IImILed by uny opposI ng ImperuLIve, Is
cuIIed un uuLIorIzuLIon (jccultcs morclis). Hence IL Is obvIous wIuL
Is meunL by jorbidden (illicitum).
Dut Is LIuL ucLIon Lo wIIcI someone Is bound. L Is LIereI ore LIe
muLLer oI obIIguLIon, und LIere cun be one und LIe sume duLy (us Lo
LIe ucLIon) uI LIougI we cun be bound Lo IL In dI I I erenL wuys.
A cuLegorIcuI ImperuLIve, becuuse IL usserLs un obIIguLIon wILI
respecL Lo cerLuIn ucLIons, Is u moruIIy prucLIcuI lcu. BuL sInce |zz|
obIIguLIon InvoIves noL mereI y prucLIcuI necessILy (sucI us u Iuw In
generuI usserLs) buL uIso necessitction, u cuLegorIcuI I mperuLI ve Is u
Iuw wII cI eILIer communds or proIIbILs, dependI ng on wIeLIer
IL represenLs us u duLy LIe commIssIon or omIssIon oI un ucLIon.
An ucLIon LIuL Is neILIer communded nor proIIbILed Is mereIy
permitted, sInce LIere Is no Iuw IImILIng one' s I reedom (one's
uuLIorIzuLIon) wILI regurd Lo IL und so Loo no duLy. SucI un
ucLIon Is cuIIed moruIIy I ndI I I erenL (indijjerens, cdicphoron, res
merce jccultctis). TIe quesLIon cun be ruIsed wIeL Ier LIere ure
sucI ucLIons und, II LIere ure, wIeLIer LIere musL be permIssIve
Iuws (lex permissitc), In uddILIon Lo Iuws LIuL commund und pro-
IIbIL (lex prceceptitc, lex mcndcti und lex prohibititc, lex tetiti),
In order Lo uccounL I or someone' s beIng I ree Lo do or noL Lo do
someLII ng us Ie pIeuses. I so, LIe uuLIorIzuLIon wouI d noL
uIwuys Iuve Lo do wILI un I ndI I I erenL ucLIon (cdicphoron)-, Ior,
consI derI ng LIe ucLIon In Lerms oI moruI Iuws, no specIuI Iuw
wouI d be requI red I or IL.
!"" Metcphsics oj Morcls
An ucLIon Is cuIIed u deed InsoIur us IL comes under obIIguLory Iuws
und Ience InsoIur us LIe subjecL, In doI ng IL, Is consI dered In Lerms oI
LIe I reedom oI IIs cIoIce. By sucI un ucLIon LIe ugenL Is regurded us
LIe cuthor oI ILs eI I ecL, und LIIs, LogeLIer wILI LIe ucLIon ILseII, cun be
imputed Lo IIm, II one Is prevIousIy ucquuInLed wILI LIe Iuw by vIrLue oI
wIIcI un obIIguLIon resLs on LIese.
A person Is u subjecL wIose ucLIons cun be imputed Lo IIm. Morcl
personuIILy Is L IereI ore noLII ng oLIer LIun LIe I reedom oI u ruLIonuI
beI ng under moruI Iuws (wIereus psycIoIogIcuI personuIILy Is mereI y
LIe cupucILy Ior beI ng conscIous oI one' s IdenLILy In dI I I erenL condI-
LIons oI one' s exIsLence). rom LIIs IL IoIIows LIuL u person Is subjecL Lo
no oLIer Iuws LIun LIose Ie gIves Lo IImseII (eILIer uI one or uL IeusL
uI ong wILI oLIers).
A thin Is LIuL Lo wIIcI noLII ng cun be I mpuLed. Any objecL oI
I ree cIoIce wII cI ILseII Iucks I reedom Is L IereI ore cuIIed u LIIng (res
corporclis).
A deed Is riht or uron (rectum cut minus rectum) In generuI InsoIur
|zzq| us IL conI orms wILI duLy or Is conLrury Lo IL (jcctum licitum cut illicitum),
LIe duLy ILseII, In Lerms oI ILs conLenL or orIgIn, muy be oI uny kInd. A
deed conLrury Lo duLy Is cuIIed u trcnsression (rectus).
An unintentioncl LrunsgressIon wIIcI cun sLIII be I mpuLed Lo LIe
ugenL Is cuIIed u mere jcult (culpc). An intentioncl LrunsgressIon (I.e.,
one uccompunI ed by conscIousness oI ILs beI ng u LrunsgressIon) Is
cuIIed u crime (dolus). WIuL Is rIgIL In uccordunce wILI exLernuI Iuws
Is cuIIed just (iustum); wIuL Is noL, unjust (iniustum).
A conjlict oj duties (collisio ojjiciorum s. oblictionum) wouI d be u re-
IuLIon beLween LIem In wIIcI one wouI d cunceI LIe oLIer (wIoIIy
or In purL). BuL sInce duLy und obIIguLIon ure concepLs LIuL express
LIe objecLIve prucLIcuI necessit oI cerLuIn ucLIons und Lwo ruIes op-
posed Lo eucI oLIer cunnoL be necessury uL LIe sume LIme, II IL Is u
duLy Lo ucL In uccordunce wILI one ruIe, Lo ucL In uccordunce wILI
LIe opposILe ruI e Is noL u duLy buL even conLrury Lo duLy; so u col-
lision oj duties und obIIguLIons Is InconceIvubIe (oblictiones non colli-
duntur). However, u subjecL muy Iuve, In u ruIe Ie prescrIbes Lo IIm-
seII, Lwo rounds oI obIIguLIon (rctiones oblicndi), one or LIe oLIer oI
wIIcI Is noL suIII cI enL Lo puL IIm under obI I guLI on'
;
(rctiones oblicndi
non oblicntes), so LIuL one oI LIem Is noL u duLy. WIen Lwo sucI
grounds conIIIcL wILI eucI oLIer, prucLIcuI pIII osopIy suys, noL LIuL
LIe sLronger obIIguLIon Lukes precedence (jortior oblictio tincit), buL
LIuL LIe sLronger round oj obliction prevuIIs (jortior oblicndi rctio
tincit).
ObI IguLory Iuws I or wIIcI LIere cun be un exLernuI I uwgI vI ng ure
cuIIed externcl Iuws (lees externce) In generuI. TIose umong LIem LIuL
cun be recognI zed us obIIguLory u prIorI by reuson even wILIouL exLer-
The Doctrine oj Riht :
nuI I uwgIvIng ure I ndeed exLernuI buL ncturcl Iuws, wIereus LIose LIuL
do noL bInd wILIouL ucLuuI exLernuI IuwgIvIng (und so wI LIouL IL wouI d
noL be Iuws) ure cuIIed positite Iuws. One cun LIereI ore conceIve oI
exLernuI IuwgIvIng LIuL wouI d conLuIn onIy posILIve Iuws; buL LIen u
nuLuruI Iuw wouI d sLIII Iuve Lo precede IL, wIIcI wouI d esLubIIsI LIe
uuLIorILy oI LIe IuwgIver (I.e., IIs uuLIorIzuLIon Lo bInd oLIers by IIs
mere choice).
A prIncIpIe LIuL mukes cerLuIn ucLIons duLIes Is u prucLIcuI Iuw. A |zz|
ruIe LIuL LIe ugenL IImseII mukes IIs prIncIpIe on subjecLIve grounds
Is cuIIed IIs mcxim, Ience dI I I erenL ugenLs cun Iuve very dI I I erenL
muxIms wILI regurd Lo LIe sume Iuw.
TIe cuLegorIcuI ImperuLIve, wIIcI us sucI onIy uI I I rms wIuL obIIgu-
LIon Is, Is: AcL upon u muxI m LIuL cun uIso IoId us u unIversuI Iuw. You
musL LIereI ore IIrsL consIder your ucLIons In Lerms oI LIeIr subjecLIve
prIncIpIes; buL you cun know wIeLIer LIIs prIncIpIe uIso IoIds objec-
LIveIy onIy In LIIs wuy: TIuL wIen your reuson subjecLs IL Lo LIe LesL oI
; conceIvIng yourseI I us uIso gIvIng unIversuI Iuw L IrougI IL, IL quuIIIIes
I or sucI u gI vI ng oI unIversuI Iuw.
TIe sImpIIcILy oI LIIs Iuw In compurI son wILI LIe greuL und vurIous
consequences LIuL cun be druwn I rom IL musL seem usLonIsIIng uL IIrsL,
us musL uIso ILs uuLIorILy Lo commund wILIouL uppeurI ng Lo curry uny
IncenLIve wILI IL. BuL In wonderI ng uL u cupucILy oI our reuson Lo
deLermI ne cIoIce by LIe mere deu LIuL u muxI m quuIIIIes I or LIe
unitersclit oI u prucLIcuI Iuw, one Ieurns LIuL j usL LIese prucLIcuI
(moruI) Iuws IIrsL muke known u properLy oI cIoIce, numeIy ILs Iree-
dom, wIIcI specuIuLIve reuson wouI d never Iuve urrI ved uL, eILIer on
u prIorI grounds or L IrougI uny experI ence wIuLever, und wIIcI,
once reuson Ius urrIved uL IL, couI d In no wuy be sIown LIeoreLIcuIIy Lo
be possIbIe, uI LIougI LIese prucLIcuI Iuws sIow InconLesLubIy LIuL our
cIoIce Ius LIIs properLy. L LIen seems Iess sLrunge Lo IInd LIuL LIese
Iuws, IIke muLIemuLIcuI posLuIuLes, ure inccpcble oj bein proted und yeL
cpodictic, buL uL LIe sume LIme Lo see u wIoI e IIeId oI prucLIcuI knowI-
edge open up beI ore one, wIere reuson In ILs LIeoreLIcuI use, wILI LIe
sume deu oI I reedom or wILI uny oLIer oI ILs deus oI LIe supersen-
sIbIe, musL IInd everyLII ng cIosed LIgIL uguInsL IL. TIe conIormI Ly oI
un ucLIon wILI LIe Iuw oI duLy Is ILs leclit (leclitcs)-, LIe conIormI Ly
oI LIe muxI m oI un ucLIon wILI u Iuw Is LIe morclit (morclitcs) oI LIe
ucLIon. A mcxim Is u subjectite prIncIpIe oI ucLIon, u prIncIpIe wII cI
LIe subjecL IImseI I mukes IIs ruIe (Iow Ie wIIIs Lo ucL). A prIncIpIe oI
duLy, on LIe oLIer Iund, Is u prIncIpIe LIuL reuson prescrIbes Lo II m
ubsoIuLeIy und so objecLIveIy (Iow Ie ouht Lo ucL).
TIe supreme prIncIpIe oI LIe docLrIne oI moruIs Is, LIereI ore: AcL |zz6|
on u muxI m LIuL cun uIso IoI d us u unIversuI Iuw. Any muxI m LIuL does
noL so quuI IIy Is conLrury Lo moruIs.
uws proceed I rom LIe wIII, mcxims I rom cIoIce. n mun LIe
IuLLer Is u cupucILy I or I ree cIoIce; LIe wIII, wIIcI Is dIrecLed Lo
noLII ng beyond LIe Iuw ILseII, cunnoL be cuIIed eI LIer I ree or
unI ree, sInce IL Is noL dIrecLed Lo ucLIons buL ImmedIuLeI y Lo
gIvIng Iuws I or LIe muxIms oI ucLIons (und Is, LIereI ore, prucLIcuI
reuson ILseII). Hence LIe wIII dIrecLs wILI ubsoIuLe necessILy und
Is ILseII subject to no necessILuLIon. OnI y choice cun L IereI ore be
cuIIed jree.
BuL I reedom oI cIoIce cunnoL be deI I ned - us some Iuve LrIed
Lo deI I ne IL - us LIe cupucILy Lo muke u cIoIce I or or uguInsL LIe
Iuw (libertcs indijjerentice), even LIougI cIoIce us u phenomenon
provIdes I requenL exumpI es oI LIIs In experI ence. or we know
I reedom (us IL IIrsL becomes munIIesL Lo us L IrougI LIe moruI
Iuw) onIy us u nectite properLy In us, numeIy LIuL oI noL beI ng
necessitcted Lo ucL L IrougI uny sensIbIe deLermI nI ng grounds. BuL
we cunnoL presenL theoreticcll I reedom us u noumenon, LIuL Is,
I reedom regurded us LIe cupucILy oI mun mereIy us un InLeIII-
gence, und sIow Iow IL cun exercise constrcint upon IIs sensIbIe
cIoIce; we cunnoL LIereI ore presenL I reedom us u posILIve prop-
erLy. BuL we cun I ndeed see LIuL, uI LIougI experI ence sIows LIuL
mun us u sensible bein Ius LIe cupucILy Lo cIoose in opposition to us
weII us in conjormit uith LIe Iuw, IIs I reedom us un intelliible bein
cunnoL be dejined by LIIs, sInce uppeurunces cunnoL muke uny
supersensIbIe objecL (sucI us I ree cIoIce) undersLundubI e. We
cun uIso see LIuL I reedom cun never be IocuLed In u ruLIonuI
subjecL's beI ng ubIe Lo muke u cIoIce In opposILIon Lo IIs (IuwgIv-
Ing) reuson, even L IougI experI ence proves oI L en enougI LIuL
LIIs Iuppens (LIougI we sLIII cunnoL conceIve Iow LIIs Is possI-
bIe). or IL Is one LIIng Lo uccepL u proposILIon (on LIe busIs oI
experI ence) und unoLIer LIIng Lo muke IL LIe expositor principle
:8
(oI LIe concepL oI I ree cIoIce) und LIe unIversuI I euLure I or
|zz;| dIsLInguIsIIng IL (Irom crbitrio bruto s. serto), I or LIe IIrsL does noL
muInLuIn LIuL LIe IeuLure beI ongs necesscril Lo LIe concepL, buL
LIe second requI res LIIs. OnI y I reedom In reIuLIon Lo LIe InLernuI
IuwgIvIng oI reuson Is reuIIy u cupucILy; LIe possIbIIILy oI devIuL-
I ng I rom IL Is un IncupucILy. How cun LIuL cupucILy be deI I ned by
[erllcrt cus | LIIs IncupucILy? L wouI d be u deIInILIon LIuL udded Lo
LIe prucLIcuI concepL LIe exercise oI IL, us LIIs Is LuugIL by experI-
ence, u hbrid dejinition [cstcrderllcrun] (dejinitio hbridc) LIuL
puLs LIe concepL In u IuIse IIgIL.
A (moruIIy prucLIcuI) lcu Is u proposILIon LIuL conLuIns u cuLegorIcuI
ImperuLIve (u commund). One wIo communds (impercns) L IrougI u
The Doctrine oj Riht
Iuw Is LIe lcuiter (leislctor). He Is LIe uuLIor (cutor) oI LIe obIIguLIon
In uccordunce wILI LIe Iuw, buL noL uIwuys LIe uuLIor oI LIe Iuw. n LIe
IuLLer cuse LIe Iuw wouI d be u posILIve (conLIngenL) und cIosen
[uilllurlich]
:p
Iuw. A Iuw LIuL bInds us u prIorI und uncondILIonuIIy by
our own reuson cun uIso be expressed us proceedI ng I rom LIe wIII oI
u supreme IuwgIver, LIuL Is, one wIo Ius onIy rIgILs und no duLIes
(Ience I rom LIe dIvIne wIII); buL LIIs sIgnIIIes onIy LIe deu oI u moruI
beI ng wIose wIII Is u Iuw I or everyone, wILIouL IIs beI ng LIougIL us LIe
uuLIor oI LIe Iuw.
Imputction (imputctio) In LIe moruI sense Is LIe judment by wIIcI
someone Is regurded us LIe uuLIor (ccusc liberc) oI un ucLIon, wIIcI Is
LIen cuIIed u deed (jcctum) und sLunds under Iuws. I LIe j udgmenL uIso
currIes wILI IL LIe rI gILIuI consequences oI LIIs deed, IL Is un ImpuLu-
LIon IuvI ng rI gILI uI Iorce (imputctio iudicicric s. tclidc)\ oLIerwIse IL Is
mereIy un ImpuLuLIon cpprcisin LIe deed (imputctio diiudicctoric). TIe
(nuLuruI or moruI) person LIuL Is uuLIorI zed Lo I mpuLe wILI rI gILIuI
Iorce Is cuIIed c jude or u courL (iudex s. jorum).
I someone does more In LIe wuy oI duLy LIun Ie cun be coerced
by Iuw Lo do, wIuL Ie does Is meritorious (meritum), II wIuL Ie does Is
j usL exucLIy wIuL LIe Iuw requires, Ie does uhct is oued (debitum), IInuIIy,
II wIuL Ie does Is less LIun LIe Iuw requIres, IL Is moruIIy culpcble (de-
meritum). TIe rihtjul eI I ecL oI wIuL Is cuIpubIe Is punishment (poenc)-,
LIuL oI u merILorIous deed Is reucrd (prcemium) (ussumIng LIuL LIe
rewurd, promI sed In LIe Iuw, wus LIe I nducemenL Lo IL); conducL
In keepI ng wILI wIuL Is owed Ius no rI gILI uI eI I ecL uL uII. CIurI - |zz8|
LubIe recompense (remunerctio s. respensio) sLunds In no relction oj Riht Lo
u deed.
TIe good or bud resuILs oI un ucLIon LIuL Is owed, IIke LIe
resuILs oI omILLIng u merILorIous ucLIon, cunnoL be I mpuL ed Lo
LIe subjecL (modus imputctionis tollens).
TIe good resuILs oI u merILorIous ucLIon, IIke LIe bud resuILs oI
u wrongI uI
z o
ucLIon, cun be I mpuLed Lo LIe subjecL (modus imputc-
tionis ponens).
Subjectitel, LIe degree Lo wIIcI un ucLIon ccn be imputed (imput-
cbilitcs) Ius Lo be ussessed by LIe mugnI Lude oI LIe obsLucIes LIuL
Iud Lo be overcome. TIe greuLer LIe nuLuruI obsLucIes (oI sensI-
bIIILy) und LIe Iess LIe moruI obsLucIe (oI duLy), so mucI LIe more
merIL Is Lo be uccounLed I or u ood deed, us wIen, I or exumpI e, uL
consIderubIe seII-sucrIIIce rescue u compI eLe sLrunger I rom
greuL dIsLress.
On LIe oLIer Iund, LIe Iess LIe nuLuruI obsLucIes und LIe
greuLer LIe obsLucIe I rom grounds oI duLy, so mucI LIe more Is
q Metcphsics oj Morcls
u LrunsgressIon Lo be I mpuLed (us cuIpubIe). Hence, LIe sLuLe oI
mI nd oI LIe subjecL, wIeLIer Ie commILLed LIe deed In u sLuLe
oI ugILuLIon or wILI cooI deIIberuLIon, mukes u dI I I erence In
ImpuLuLIon, wIIcI Ius resuILs.
|zzg|
nLroducLIon
Lo LIe DocLrIne oI RIgIL
!"#
%&'( (&) *+,(-./) +0 1.2&( 34
TIe sum oI LIose Iuws I or wIIcI un exLernuI I uwgIvIng Is possIbIe Is
cuIIed LIe Doctrine oj Riht (Ius). I LIere Ius ucLuuIIy been sucI IuwgIv-
Ing, IL Is LIe docLrI ne oI positite Riht, und one versed In LIIs, u j urI sL
(Iurisconsultus), Is suId Lo be experienced in the lcu (Iurisperitus) wIen Ie
noL onIy knows exLernuI Iuws buL uIso knows LIem exLernuIIy, LIuL Is,
In LIeIr uppIIcuLIon Lo cuses LIuL come up In experI ence. SucI knowI -
edge cun uIso be cuIIed lecl expertise (lurisprudentic), buL wILIouL boLI
LogeLIer IL remuIns mere juridiccl science (Iurisscientic). TIe IusL LILIe
beIongs Lo sstemctic knowI edge oI LIe docLrIne oI nuLuruI RIgIL (Ius
ncturce), uI LIougI one versed In LIIs musL suppIy LIe I mmuLubI e prIn-
cIpIes I or uny gI vI ng oI posILIve Iuw.
!5#
%&'( 34 1.2&(6
Ike LIe mucI-cILed query "wIuL Is LruLI?" puL Lo LIe IogIcIun, LIe
quesLIon "wIuL Is RIgIL?" mI gIL weII emburruss LIe jurist II Ie does noL
wunL Lo Iupse InLo u LuuLoIogy or, InsLeud oI gIvIng u unIversuI soIuLIon,
reI er Lo wIuL LIe Iuws In some counLry uL some LIme prescrIbe. He cun
I ndeed sLuLe wIuL Is IuId down us rIgIL
z1
(quid sit iuris), LIuL Is, wIuL LIe
Iuws In u cerLuIn pIuce und uL u cerLuIn LIme suy or Iuve suId. BuL
wIeLIer wIuL LIese Iuws prescrIbed Is uIso rIgIL, und wIuL LIe unIver-
suI crILerIon Is by wIIcI one couI d recognIze rIgIL us weII us wrong |zo|
(iustum et iniustum)
zz
- LIIs wouI d remuI n II dden I rom II m unIess Ie
Ieuves LIose empIrIcuI prIncIpIes beII nd I or u wIIIe und seeks LIe
sources oI sucI j udgmenL s In reuson uIone, so us Lo esLubIIsI LIe busIs
I or uny possIbIe gIvIng oI posILIve Iuws (uILIougI posILIve Iuws cun
serve us exceIIenL guI des Lo LIIs). I ke LIe wooden Ieud In PIuedrus'
IubIe, u mereI y empIrIcuI docLrIne oI RIgIL Is u Ieud LIuL muy be
beuuLI IuI buL unIorLunuLeI y IL Ius no bruIn.
!!
#$$ Metcphsics oj Morcls
TIe concepL oI RIgIL, InsoIur us IL Is reIuLed Lo un obIIguLIon corre-
spondIng Lo IL (I.e., LIe moruI concepL oI RIgIL), Ius Lo do, jirst, onIy
wILI LIe exLernuI und Indeed prucLIcuI reIuLIon oI one person Lo
unoLIer, InsoIur us LIeIr ucLIons, us IucLs,
z
cun Iuve (dIrecL or IndIrecL)
InIIuence on eucI oLIer. BuL, second, IL does noL sIgnIIy LIe reIuLIon oI
one's cIoIce Lo LIe mere wIsI (Ience uIso Lo LIe mere need) oI LIe
oLIer, us In ucLIons oI beneIIcence or cuIIousness, buL onIy u reIuLIon Lo
LIe oLIer' s choice. Third, In LIIs recIprocuI reIuLIon oI cIoIce no uccounL
uL uII Is Luken oI LIe mctter oI cIoIce, LIuL Is, oI LIe end eucI Ius In mInd
wILI LIe objecL Ie wunLs; IL Is noL usked, Ior exumpIe, wIeLIer some-
one wIo buys goods Irom me Ior IIs own commercIuI use wIII guIn by
LIe LrunsucLIon or noL. AI I LIuL Is In quesLIon Is the jorm In LIe reIuLIon
oI cIoIce on LIe purL oI boLI, InsoIur us cIoIce Is regurded mereIy us
jree, und wIeLIer LIe ucLIon oI one cun be unILed wILI LIe I reedom oI
LIe oLIer In uccordunce wILI u unIversuI Iuw.
RIgIL Is LIereIore LIe sum oI LIe condILIons under wIIcI LIe cIoIce
oI one cun be unILed wILI LIe cIoIce oI unoLIer In uccordunce wILI u
unIversuI Iuw oI Ireedom.
sc.
7&) 8/.9)-4': ;-./,.<:) [Prinzip] +0 1.2&(
"Any ucLIon Is riht II IL cun coexIsL wILI everyone' s I reedom In uccor-
dunce wILI u unIversuI Iuw, or II on ILs muxIm LIe I reedom oI cIoIce oI
eucI cun coexIsL wILI everyone' s I reedom In uccordunce wILI u unIver-
suI Iuw."
I LIen my ucLIon or my condILIon
zq
generuIIy cun coexIsL wILI LIe
I reedom oI everyone In uccordunce wILI u unIversuI Iuw, wIoever IIn-
|z1| ders me In IL does me uron, Ior LIIs IIndrunce (resIsLunce) cunnoL
coexIsL wILI I reedom In uccordunce wILI u unIversuI Iuw.
L uIso IoIIows I rom LIIs LIuL IL cunnoL be requIred LIuL LIIs prIncIpIe
oI uII muxIms be ILseII In Lurn my muxIm, LIuL Is, IL cunnoL be requIred
LIuL I mcle it the mcxim oI my ucLIon; Ior unyone cun be I ree us Iong us
do noL ImpuIr IIs I reedom by my externcl cction, even LIougI um
quILe I ndI IIerenL Lo IIs I reedom or wouId IIke In my IeurL Lo InIrInge
upon IL. TIuL muke IL my muxIm Lo ucL rIgILIy Is u demund LIuL eLIIcs
mukes on me.
TIus LIe unIversuI Iuw oI RIgIL [Rechtsesetz], so ucL exLernuIIy LIuL
LIe Iree use oI your cIoIce cun coexIsL wILI LIe I reedom oI everyone
In uccordunce wILI u unIversuI Iuw, Is Indeed u Iuw [Gesetz], wIIcI Iuys
un obIIguLIon on me, buL IL does noL uL uII expecL, Iur Iess demund, LIuL
mselj should IImIL my I reedom Lo LIose condILIons j usL Ior LIe suke
oI LIIs obIIguLIon; InsLeud, reuson suys onIy LIuL I reedom is IImILed Lo
LIose condILIons In conIormI Ly wILI LIe deu oI IL und LIuL IL muy uIso
be ucLIveIy [tctlich] IImILed by oLIers; und IL suys LIIs us u posLuIuLe LIuL
Is IncupubIe oI I urL Ier prooI .
z
WIen one' s uIm Is noL Lo LeucI vIrLue
buL onIy Lo seL I orLI wIuL Is riht, one muy noL und sIouI d noL repre-
senL LIuL Iuw oI RIgIL us ILseII LIe IncenLIve Lo ucLIon.
!*#
1.2&( 34 =+//),()> ?.(& '/ "@(&+-.A'(.+/ (+ 84) =+)-,.+/
ResIsLunce LIuL counLerucLs LIe II nderI ng oI un eI I ecL promoLes LIIs
eI I ecL und Is consIsLenL wILI IL. Now wIuLever Is wrong Is u II ndrunce
Lo I reedom In uccordunce wILI unIversuI Iuws. BuL coercIon Is u IIn-
drunce or resIsLunce Lo I reedom. TIer eI or e, II u cerLuIn use oI Iree-
dom Is ILseII u II ndrunce Lo I reedom In uccordunce wILI unIversuI Iuws
(I.e., wrong), coercIon LIuL Is opposed Lo LIIs (us u hinderin oj c hin-
drcnce to jreedom) Is consIsLenL wILI I reedom In uccordunce wILI unI-
versuI Iuws, LIuL Is, IL Is rIgIL. Hence LIere Is connecLed wILI RIgIL by
LIe prIncIpIe oI conLrudIcLIon un uuLIorIzuLIon Lo coerce someone wIo
I nIrI nges upon IL.
BC#
" B(-.,( 1.2&( ='/ ":4+ 5) 1)<-)4)/()> '4 (&) ;+44.D.:.(E
+0 ' F@::E 1),.<-+,': 84) +0 =+)-,.+/ 7&'( 34 =+/4.4()/(
?.(& C9)-E+/)G4 F-))>+H ./ ",,+->'/,)
?.(& 8/.9)-4': I'?4
TII s proposILIon suys, In eI I ecL, LIuL RIgIL sIouId noL be conceIved us
mude up oI Lwo eIemenLs, numeIy un obIIguLIon In uccordunce wILI u
Iuw und un uuLIorIzuLIon oI IIm wIo by IIs cIoIce puLs unoLIer under
obIIguLIon Lo coerce IIm Lo IuIIIII IL. nsLeud one cun IocuLe LIe concepL
oI RIgIL dIrecLIy In LIe possIbIIILy oI connecLI ng unIversuI recIprocuI
coercIon wILI LIe I reedom oI everyone. TIuL Is Lo suy, j usL us RIgIL
generuIIy Ius us ILs objecL onIy wIuL Is exLernuI In ucLIons, so sLrIcL
RIgIL, numeI y LIuL wIIcI Is noL mI ngI ed wILI unyLII ng eLIIcuI,
requIres onIy exLernuI grounds I or deLermI nI ng cIoIce; I or onIy LIen
Is IL pure und noL mI xed wILI uny precepLs oI vIrLue. OnI y u compIeLeI y
exLernuI RIgIL cun LIereI ore be cuIIed strict (RIgIL In LIe nurrow
sense). TII s Is I ndeed bused on everyone' s conscIousness oI obIIguLIon
In uccordunce wILI u Iuw; buL II IL Is Lo remuI n pure, LIIs conscIousness
muy noL und cunnoL be uppeuI ed Lo us un IncenLIve Lo deLermI ne IIs
cIoIce In uccordunce wILI LIIs Iuw. SLrIcL RIgIL resLs InsLeud on LIe
prIncIpIe oI ILs beI ng possIbIe Lo use exLernuI consLruInL LIuL cun coex-
IsL wILI LIe I reedom oI everyone In uccordunce wILI unIversuI Iuws.
|zz|
TIus, wIen IL Is suId LIuL u credILor Ius u rIgIL Lo requI re IIs debLor Lo
puy IIs debL, LIIs does noL meun LIuL Ie cun remI nd LIe debLor LIuL IIs
reuson ILseII puLs IIm under obIIguLIon Lo perI orm LIIs; IL meuns
InsLeud LIuL coercIon wIIcI consLruIns everyone Lo puy IIs debLs cun
coexIsL wILI LIe I reedom oI everyone, I ncI udI ng LIuL oI debLors, In
uccordunce wILI u unIversuI exLernuI Iuw. RIgIL und uuLIorIzuLIon Lo
use coercIon L IereI ore meun one und LIe sume LIIng.
TIe Iuw oI u recIprocuI coercIon necessurIIy In uccord wILI LIe
I reedom oI everyone under LIe prIncIpIe oI unIversuI I reedom
Is, us IL were, LIe construction oI LIuL concepL, LIuL Is, LIe presenLu-
LIon oI IL In pure InLuILIon u prIorI, by unuIogy wILI presenLI ng
LIe possIbIIILy oI bodIes movI ng IreeIy under LIe Iuw oI LIe equcl-
it oj cction cnd recction. n pure muLIemuLIcs we cunnoL derIve
LIe properLIes oI ILs objecLs ImmedIuLeIy I rom concepLs buL cun
dIscover LIem onIy by consLrucLIng concepLs. SImIIurIy, IL Is noL
so mucI LIe concept oI RIgIL us ruLIer u IuIIy recIprocuI und equuI
coercIon brougIL under u unIversuI Iuw und consIsLenL wILI IL,
LIuL mukes LIe presenLuLIon oI LIuL concepL possIbIe. Moreover,
|z| j usL us u pureI y I ormuI concepL oI pure muLIemuLIcs (e.g., oI
geomeLry) underIIes LIe dynumIcuI concepL |oI LIe equuIILy oI
ucLIon und reucLIon|, reuson Ius Luken cure Lo IurnI sI LIe under-
sLundIng us I ur us possIbIe wILI u prIorI InLuILIons I or consLrucL-
I ng LIe concepL oI RIgIL. A rIgIL IIne (rectum), one LIuL Is sLruIgIL,
Is opposed Lo one LIuL Is curted on LIe one Iund und Lo one LIuL
Is oblique on LIe oLIer Iund. As opposed Lo one LIuL Is curved,
sLruIgILness Is LIuL inner propert oI u IIne sucI LIuL LIere Is onIy
one IIne beLween Lwo gIven poInLs. As opposed Lo one LIuL Is
obIIque, sLruIgILness Is LIuL position oI u line Lowurd unoLIer In-
LersecLIng or LoucII ng IL sucI LIuL LIere cun be onIy one IIne (LIe
perpendI cuI ur) LIuL does noL IncIIne more Lo one sIde LIun Lo LIe
oLIer und LIuL dIvIdes LIe spuce on boLI sIdes equuIIy. AnuI o-
gousIy Lo LIIs, LIe docLrIne oI RIgIL wunLs Lo be sure LIuL uhct
belons Lo eucI Ius been deLermI ned (wILI muLIemuLIcuI exucLI-
Lude). SucI exucLILude cunnoL be expecLed In LIe docLrI ne oI vIr-
Lue, wIIcI cunnoL reIuse some room Ior excepLIons (lctitudinem).
BuL wILIouL mukI ng IncursIons InLo LIe provInce oI eLIIcs, one
IInds Lwo cuses LIuL Iuy cIuIm Lo u decIsIon ubouL rIgILs, uI LIougI
no one cun be I ound Lo decI de LIem, und LIuL beI ong us IL were
wILIIn LIe intermundic oI EpIcurus. We musL IIrsL sepuruLe LIese
Lwo cuses I r om LIe docLrIne oI RIgIL proper, Lo wII cI we ure
ubouL Lo proceed, so LIuL LIeIr wuverI ng prIncIpIes wIII noL uI I ecL
LIe IIrm busIc prIncIpIes oI LIe docLrIne oI RIgIL.
AppendIx Lo LIe nLroducLIon Lo LIe
DocLrIne oI RIgIL
!" $%&'()*+, -'./01 2Ius cequitocum)
An uuLIorIzuLIon Lo use coercIon Is connecLed wILI uny rIgIL In LIe
ncrrou sense (ius strictum). BuL peopIe uIso LIInk oI u rIgIL In u uider
sense (ius lctium), In wIIcI LIere Is no Iuw by wIIcI un uuLIorIzuLIon Lo |zq|
use coercIon cun be deLermIned. TIere ure Lwo sucI Lrue or uIIeged
rIgILs, equit und LIe riht oj necessit. TIe IIrsL udmILs u rIgIL wILIouL
coercIon, LIe second, coercIon wILIouL u rIgIL. L cun eusIIy be seen
LIuL LIIs equIvocuLIon reuIIy urIses I rom LIe IucL LIuL LIere ure cuses In
wIIcI u rIgIL Is In quesLIon buL Ior wIIcI no j udge cun be uppoInLed
Lo render u decIsIon.
!"
Equit ( AequILus)
Equit (consIdered objecLIveIy) Is In no wuy u busIs Ior mereIy cuIIIng
upon unoLIer Lo IuIIIII un eLIIcuI duLy (Lo be benevoIenL und kInd).
One wIo demunds someLIIng on LIIs busIs sLunds InsLeud upon IIs
riht, excepL LIuL Ie does noL Iuve LIe condILIons LIuL u j udge needs In
order Lo deLermIne by Iow mucI or In wIuL wuy IIs cIuIm couId be
suLIsIIed. Suppose LIuL LIe Lerms on wIIcI u LrudIng compuny wus
Iormed were LIuL LIe purLners sIouId sIure equuIIy In LIe proIILs, buL
LIuL one purLner neverLIeIess did more LIun LIe oLIers und so lost
more wIen LIe compuny meL wILI reverses. By equit Ie cun demund
more I rom LIe compuny LIun mereIy un equuI sIure wILI LIe oLIers.
n uccordunce wILI proper (sLrIcL) RIgIL, Iowever, IIs demund wouId
be reIused; Ior II one LIInks oI u j udge In LIIs cuse, Ie wouId Iuve no
deIInILe purLIcuIurs (dctc) Lo enubIe IIm Lo decIde Iow mucI Is due by
LIe conLrucL. Or suppose LIuL u domesLIc servunL Is puId IIs wuges uL
LIe end oI u yeur In money LIuL Ius deprecIuLed In LIe InLervuI, so LIuL
Ie cunnoL buy wILI IL wIuL Ie couId Iuve bougIL wILI IL wIen Ie
concIuded LIe conLrucL. TIe servunL cunnoL uppeuI Lo IIs rIgIL Lo
be compensuLed wIen Ie geLs LIe sume umounL oI money buL IL Is oI
unequuI vuIue. He cun uppeuI onIy on grounds oI equILy (u muLe
dIvInILy wIo cunnoL be Ieurd); Ior noLIIng wus specIIIed ubouL LIIs In
LIe conLrucL, und u j udge cunnoL pronounce In uccordunce wILI IndeI-
InILe condILIons.
L uIso IoIIows I rom LIIs LIuL u court oj equit (In u conIIIcL wILI oLIers
ubouL LIeIr rIgILs) InvoIves u conLrudIcLIon. OnIy wIere LIe j udge' s
|z| own rIgILs ure concerned, und Ie cun dIspose oI LIe cuse I or IIs own
person, muy und sIouId Ie IIsLen Lo equILy, us, I or exumpI e, wIen LIe
crown ILseII beurs LIe dumuges LIuL oLIers Iuve I ncurred In ILs servIce
und I or wIIcI LIey peLILIon IL Lo I ndemnI I y LIem, even L IougI IL couI d
rejecL LIeIr cIuIm by sLrIcL RIgIL on LIe preLexL LIuL LIey underL ook
LIIs servIce uL LIeIr own rIsk.
TIe motto (dictum) oI equit Is, "LIe sLrIcLesL RIgIL Is LIe greuLesL
wrong" (summum ius summc iniuric). BuL LIIs evII cunnoL be remedI ed
by wuy oI wIuL Is IuId down us rIgIL, even L IougI IL concerns u cIuIm
Lo u rIgIL; Ior LIIs cIuIm beI ongs onIy Lo LIe court oj conscience (jorum
poli) wIereus every quesLIon oI wIuL Is IuId down us rI gIL musL be
brougIL beI ore citil Riht (jorum soli).
II.
The Riht oj Necessit (us NecessILuLIs)
TII s uIIeged rI gIL Is supposed Lo be un uuLIorIzuLIon Lo Luke LIe IIIe oI
unoLIer wIo Is doI ng noLII ng Lo Iurm me, wIen um In dunger oI
IosIng my own IIIe. L Is evIdenL LIuL were LIere sucI u rIgIL LIe
docLrIne oI RIgIL wouI d Iuve Lo be In conLrudIcLIon wILI ILseII. or LIe
Issue Iere Is noL LIuL oI u uronjul ussuIIunL upon my IIIe wIom
IoresLuII by deprI vI ng IIm oI IIs IIIe (ius inculpctce tutelce), In wIIcI
cuse u recommenduLI on Lo sIow moderuLI on (modercmen) beI ongs noL
Lo RIgIL buL onIy Lo eLIIcs. L Is InsLeud u muLLer oI vIoIence beI ng
permILLed uguInsL someone wIo Ius used no vIoIence uguInsL me.
L Is cIeur LIuL LIIs usserLIon Is noL Lo be undersLood objecLIveIy, In
Lerms oI wIuL u Iuw prescrIbes, buL onIy subjecLIveIy, us LIe verdIcL
z6
LIuL wouI d be gI ven by u courL. n oLIer words, LIere cun be no pencl
lcu LIuL wouI d ussIgn LIe deuLI penuILy Lo someone In u sIIpwreck
wIo, In order Lo suve IIs own IIIe, sIoves unoLIer, wIose IIIe Is equuIIy
In dunger, oI I u pIunk on wIIcI Ie Iud suved IImseII. or LIe punIsI-
menL LIreuLened by LIe Iuw couI d noL be greuLer LIun LIe Ioss oI IIs
own IIIe. A penuI Iuw oI LIIs sorL couI d noL Iuve LIe eI I ecL I nLended,
sInce u LIreuL oI un evII LIuL Is sLIII uncertcin (deuLI by u j udI cI uI verdIcL)
cunnoL ouLweI gI LIe Ieur oI un evII LIuL Is certcin (drownIng). Hence
|z6| LIe deed oI suvIng one' s IIIe by vIoIence Is noL Lo be j udged inculpcble
(inculpcbile) buL onIy unpunishcble (impunibile), und by u sLrunge conI u-
sIon jurIsLs Luke LIIs subjectite I mpunI Ly Lo be objectite I mpunI Ly (conIor-
mILy wILI Iuw).
TIe moLLo oI LIe rIgIL oI necessILy suys: "NecessILy Ius no Iuw"
(necessitcs non hcbet leem). YeL LIere couId be no necessILy LIuL wouI d
muke wIuL Is wrong conI orm wILI Iuw.
The Doctrine oj Riht :
One sees LIuL In boLI uppruIsuIs oI wIuL Is rIgIL (In Lerms oI u rIgIL
oI equILy und u rIgIL oI necessILy) LIe equitocction (cequitocctio) urIses
I rom conI usI ng LIe objecLIve wILI LIe subjecLIve busIs oI exercIsIng LIe
rI gIL (beIore reuson und beI ore u courL). WIuL someone by IImseI I
recognIzes on good grounds us rIgIL wIII noL be conI I rmed by u courL,
und wIuL Ie musL j udge Lo be oI ILseII wrong Is LreuLed wILI InduI-
gence by u courL; Ior LIe concepL oI RIgIL, In LIese Lwo cuses, Is noL
Luken In LIe sume sense.
DIvIsIon oI LIe DocLrIne oI RIgIL
!"
$%&%'() *+,+-+.& ./ *01+%- ./ 2+341
One cun IoIIow UI pI un In mukI ng LIIs dIvIsIon II u sense Is uscrIbed Lo
IIs I ormuI us wIIcI Ie muy noL Iuve LIougIL dIsLIncLIy In LIem buL
wIIcI cun be expIIcuLed [entuiclelt] I r om LIem or puL InLo LIem. TIey
ure LIe IoI I owI ng:
1) e cn honorcble mcn (honeste tite). Rihtjul honor (honestcs luridicc)
z;
consIsLs In usserLIng one' s worLI us u mun In reIuLIon Lo oLIers, u
duLy expressed by LIe suyIng, "Do noL muke yourseI I u mere
meuns I or oLIers buL be uL LIe sume LIme un end I or LIem. " TII s
duLy wIII be expI uI ned IuLer us obIIguLIon I rom LIe Riht oI Iumun-
ILy In our own person (Lex iusti).
z) Do not uron cnone (neminem lcede) even II, Lo uvoId doI ng so, you
sIouId Iuve Lo sLop ussocIuLIng wILI oLIers und sIun uII socIeLy
(Lex iuridicc).
|z;| ) (I you cunnoL IeI p ussocIuLIng wILI oLIers), enter InLo u socIeLy
wILI LIem In wIIcI eucI cun keep wIuL Is IIs (suum cuique tribue).
I LIIs IusL I ormuI u were LrunsIuLed "GIve Lo eucI wIuL Is his," wIuL
IL suys wouI d be ubsurd, sInce one cunnoL gIve unyone someLII ng
Ie uIreudy Ius. n order Lo muke sense IL wouI d Iuve Lo reud:
"Enter u condILIon In wIIcI wIuL beIongs Lo eucI cun be secured Lo
IIm uguInsL everyone eIse" (Lex iustitice).
So LIe ubove LIree cIussIcuI IormuI us serve uIso us prIncIpIes Ior
dIvIdIng LIe sysLem oI duLIes oI RIgIL InLo interncl duLIes, externcl
duLIes, und duLIes LIuL InvoIve LIe derIvuLIon oI LIe IuLLer I rom LIe
prIncIpIe oI LIe I ormer by subsumpLIon.
6z
The Doctrine oj Riht 6
5"
$%&%'() *+,+-+.& ./ 2+341-
1) As sysLemuLIc doctrines, RI gILs ure dI vI ded InLo ncturcl Riht, wII cI
resLs onI y on u prI orI prI ncI pI es, und positite (sLuLuLory) RI gIL ,
wII cI proceeds I r om LIe wIII oI u IegIsIuLor.
z) TI e II gIesL dIvIsIon oI rIgILs, us (moruI) ccpccities I or puL L I ng
oL Iers under obI I guLI ons (I.e., us u I uwI uI busIs, titulum, I or doI ng
so), Is LIe dIvIsIon InLo inncte und ccquired rI gIL. An I nnuLe rI gIL Is
LIuL wII cI beI ongs Lo everyone by nuLure, I ndependenL I y oI uny
ucL LIuL wouI d esLubIIsI u rI gIL;
z8
un ucquI red rI gIL Is LIuL I or
wII cI sucI un ucL Is requI red.
WIuL Is I nnuLeI y mI ne or yours cun uIso be cuI I ed wIuL Is interncll
mI ne or yours (meum tel tuum internum); I or wIuL Is exLernuI I y mI ne or
yours musL uIwuys be ucquI red.
There Is Dnl Dne Inncte Riht
Ireedom ( I ndependence I r om beI ng consLruI ned by unoL Ier' s cIoI ce),
I nsoI ur us IL cun coexI sL wILI LIe I r eedom oI every oL Ier In uccordunce
wILI u unI versuI Iuw, Is LIe onI y orI gI nuI rI gIL beI ongI ng Lo every mun
by vI rLue oI IIs IumunI L y. TII s prI ncI pI e oI I nnuLe I r eedom uI reudy
I nvoI ves LIe I oI I owI ng uuLIorI zuLI ons, wII cI ure noL reuIIy dIsLIncL
I r om IL (us II LIey were members oI LIe dIvIsIon oI some II gIer
concepL oI u rI gIL): I nnuLe equclit, LIuL Is, I ndependence I r om beI ng
bound by oL Iers Lo more LIun one cun In Lurn bI nd L Iem; Ience u
mun' s quuIILy oI beI ng his oun mcster (sui iuris), us weII us beI ng u mun |z8|
beond reprocch (iusti), sInce beI or e Ie per I or ms uny ucL uI I ecL I ng rI gILs
Ie Ius done no wr ong Lo unyone; und II nuI I y, IIs beI ng uuL IorI zed Lo
do Lo oLIers unyL II ng LIuL does noL In ILseII dI mI nI sI wIuL Is LIeIrs, so
I ong us LIey do noL wunL Lo uccepL IL - sucI LII ngs us mereI y communI -
cuLI ng IIs L IougIL s Lo L Iem, LeI I I ng or promI sI ng L Iem someL II ng,
wIeL Ier wIuL Ie suys Is Lrue und sIncere or unL rue und I nsI ncere
(teriloquium cutjclsiloquium)-, I or IL Is enLIreI y up Lo L Iem wIeL Ier LIey
wunL Lo beI I eve II m or noL.
Telling an untruth intentionally, even though merely Irivolously, is usually called a
lie (mendccium), because it can also harm someone, at least to the extent that iI he
ingenuously repeats it others ridicule him as gullible. The only kind oI untruth we
want to call a lie, in the sense becrin upon rihts, is one that directly inIringes upon
another's right, e.g., the Ialse allegation that a contract has been concluded with
someone, made in order to deprive him oI what is his (jclsiloquium dolosum). And
this distinction between closely related concepts is not without basis; Ior when
loo Metcphsics oj Morcls
TI e uI m In I nL roducI ng sucI u dIvIsIon wI LII n LIe sysLem oI nuLuruI
RI gIL (so I ur us IL Is concerned wI LI I nnuLe rIgIL) Is LIuL wIe n u dI spuLe
urIses ubouL un ucquI red rI gIL und LIe quesLI on comes up, on wIom
does LIe bur den oI pr ooI (onus probcndi) IuII, eI LIer ubouL u conL rover-
sIuI IucL or, II LIIs Is seLLIed, ubouL u conLroversI uI rI gIL, someone wIo
reI uses Lo uccepL LIIs obI I guLI on cun uppeuI meLIodI cuI I y Lo IIs I nnuLe
rI gIL Lo I r eedom (wII cI Is now specI I I ed In ILs vurI ous reIuLIons), us I I
Ie were uppeuI I ng Lo vurI ous buses I or rIgILs.
WI L I regurd Lo wIuL Is I nnuLeI y, Ience I nLernuI I y, mI ne or yours,
L Iere ure noL severuI rihts, L Iere Is onI y one rI gIL. SI nce LIIs II gIesL
dIvIsIon consIsLs oI Lwo members very unequuI In conLenL, IL cun be puL
In LIe pr oI egomenu und LIe dIvIsIon oI LIe docLrI ne oI RI gIL cun r eI er
onI y Lo wIuL Is exL ernuI I y mI ne or yours.
|zq| Ditision oj the Metcphsics oj Morcls cs c Whole
AI I duLI es ure eI L Ier duties oj Riht (ojjicic iuris), LIuL Is, duLI es I or
wII cI exL ernuI I uwgI vI ng Is possIbIe, or duties oj tirtue (ojjicic tirtutis
s. ethicc), I or wII cI exL ernuI I uwgI vI ng Is noL possIbIe. DuLI es oI vI rLue
cunnoL be subj ecL Lo exL ernuI I uwgI vI ng sImpIy becuuse L Iey Iuve Lo
do wI LI un end wII cI (or LIe IuvI ng oI wII cI) Is uIso u duL y. No
exL ernuI I uwgI vI ng cun brI ng ubouL someone' s seLLIng un end I or II m-
seII (becuuse LIIs Is un I nLernuI ucL oI LIe mI nd), uI L IougI IL muy pre-
scrIbe exL ernuI ucLIons LIuL I eud Lo un end wI LIouL LIe subj ecL mukI ng
IL IIs end.
BuL wIy Is LIe docLrI ne oI moruI s usuuIIy cuI I ed (especIuIIy by
CI cero) u docL rI ne oI duties und noL uIso u docLrI ne oI rihts, even
L IougI rI gILs Iuve reI erence Lo duLIes? TI e reuson Is LIuL we
know our own I r eedom ( I rom wII cI uII moruI Iuws, und so uII
rI gILs us weII us duLI es proceed) onI y L Ir ougI LIe morcl imperc-
tite, wII cI Is u proposI LI on commundI ng duL y, I r om wII cI LIe
cupucILy I or puL L I ng oLIers under obI I guLI on, LIuL Is, LIe concepL
oI u rI gIL, cun uI L erwurd be expI I cuL ed |entuiclelt].
zp
someone merely says what he thinks, another always remains Iree to take it as he
pleases. But a rumor, having some basis, that this is a man whose talk cannot be
believed comes so close to the reproach oI calling him a liar that the borderline
separating what belongs to Ius Irom what must be assigned to ethics can only be
drawn in just this way.
The Doctrine oj Riht
n LIe docLrIne oI duLIes mun cun und sIouId be represenLed In Lerms
oI LIe properLy oI IIs cupucILy I or I reedom, wIIcI Is wIoIIy supersen-
sIbIe, und so Loo mereI y In Lerms oI IIs humcnit, IIs personuIILy Inde-
pendenL oI pIysIcuI uLLrIbuLes (homo noumenon), us dIsLInguIsIed I r om
LIe sume subjecL represenLed us uI I ecLed by pIysIcuI uLLrIbuLes, mcn
(homo phcenomenon). AccordI ngI y RIgIL und end, reIuLed In Lurn Lo
duLy In LIIs LwoIoI d properLy, yIeId LIe IoI I owI ng dIvIsIon:
D V S ON
In Accordunce wILI LIe ObjecLIve ReIuLIon oI uw Lo DuLy
|zqo|
mperIecL DuLy
TIe subjecLs beLween wIom u reIuLIon oI rIgIL Lo duLy cun be LIougIL
oI (wIeLIer udmIssIbIy or noL) cun sLund reIuLed Lo eucI oLIer In
dI I I erenL wuys, und so u dIvIsIon cun uIso be mude I r om LIIs poInL oI
vIew.
|241|
65
PerIecL DuLy
loo Metcphsics oj Morcls
D V S ON
In Accordunce wILI LIe ReIuLIon oI LIe SubjecL mposIng
ObIIguLIon Lo LIe SubjecL PuL Under ObIIguLIon.
1. z.
TIe reIuLIon In Lerms oI TIe reIuLIon In Lerms oI
rIgILs oI men Lowurd beIngs rIgILs oI men Lowurd beIngs
LIuL Iuve neILIer rIgILs LIuL Iuve rIgILs us weII
nor duLIes. us duLIes.
Vccct" Adest
or LIese ure beIngs IuckIng or LIIs Is u reIuLIon
reuson, wIIcI cun neILIer oI men Lo men.
bInd us nor by wIIcI we cun
be bound.
3- 4-
TIe reIuLIon In Lerms oI TIe reIuLIon In Lerms oI
rIgILs oI men Lowurd beIngs rIgILs oI men Lowurd u
LIuL Iuve onIy duLIes buL beIng LIuL Ius onIy rIgILs
no rIgILs. " buL no duLIes (God).
Vccct Vccct
or LIese wouId be men AL IeusL In pIIIosopIy,
wILIouL personuIILy (serIs, sInce sucI u beIng Is noL
sIuves). un objecL oI possIbIe
experIence.
So onI y In Number z Is L Iere I ound u recl reI uLIon beL ween rI gIL und
duLy. T I e reuson LIuL IL Is noL Lo be I ound In Number q Is LIuL LIIs
wouI d be u trcnscendent duLy, LIuL Is, u duLy I or wII cI no correspond-
I ng exL ernuI subj ecL I mposI ng LIe obI I guLI on cun be iten, so LIuL LIe
reI uLI on Iere Is onI y idecl I r om u LIeoreLI cuI poI nL oI vI ew, LIuL Is, u
reI uLI on Lo u LIougIL-enLI L y |Gedcnlendin|. We ourseI ves mcle LIe
concepL oI LIIs beI ng, buL LIIs concepL Is noL uI L ogeL Ier empt, I nsLeud
IL Is I ruI L I uI In r eI er ence Lo ourseI ves und Lo muxI ms oI I nLernuI moruI -
ILy, und so I or un I nLernuI prucLIcuI purpose, I nusmucI us our enLI re
|zqz| immcnent dut (LIuL wII cI cun be I uI I I I I ed) IIes onI y In LIIs reI uLI on LIuL
cun mereI y be L IougIL oI .
o
Vccct mi ght be r ender ed "has no members, " Adest " has members. "
The Doctrine oj Riht 6;
und so on, everyLII ng
LIuL InvoIves noL onIy LIe conLenLs oI u scIenLIIIc docLrIne oI moruIs buL
uIso ILs urcIILecLonIc I orm, once ILs meLupIysIcuI IIrsL prIncIpIes Iuve
Lruced ouL compIeLeIy LIe unIversuI prIncIpIes I or IL.
TIe IIgIesL dIvIsIon oI nuLuruI RI gIL cunnoL be LIe dIvIsIon (some-
LImes mude) InLo ncturcl und socicl RIgIL; IL musL InsLeud be LIe dIvI-
sIon InLo nuLuruI und citil RIgIL, LIe I ormer oI wII cI Is cuIIed pritcte
Riht und LIe IuLLer public Riht. or u stcte oj ncture Is noL opposed Lo
u socIuI buL Lo u cIvII condILIon, sInce LIere cun cerLuInIy be socIeLy In
u sLuLe oI nuLure, buL noL citil socIeLy (wIIcI secures wIuL Is mI ne or
yours by pubIIc Iuws). TII s Is wIy RIgIL In u sLuLe oI nuLure Is cuIIed
prIvuLe RIgIL.
| z q |
P R V A T E R G H T
C O N C E R N N G W H A T S E X T E R N A Y M N E
O R Y O U R S N G E N E R A
C H A P T E R
How Lo Huve SomeLIIng ExLernuI
us One's Own
o
TIu L Is rihtjull mine (meum iuris) wI LI wII cI um so connecL ed LIuL
unoLIer' s use oI IL wI LIouL my consenL wouI d wr ong me. T I e subjec-
LIve condI LI on oI uny possIbIe use Is possession.
BuL someL II ng externcl wouI d be mI ne onI y II muy ussume LIuL
couI d be wr onged by unoLIer' s use oI u LII ng
1
even thouh I cm not in
possession oj it. So IL wouI d be seI I-conLrudI cLory Lo suy LIuL Iuve
someL II ng exL ernuI us my own II LIe concepL oI possessIon couI d noL
Iuve dI I I erenL meunI ngs, numeI y sensible possessIon und intelliible
possessIon, und by LIe I or mer couI d be undersL ood phsiccl possessIon
buL by LIe IuLLer u merel rihtjul possessIon oI LIe sume obj ecL.
BuL LIe expressI on "un obj ecL Is externcl to me" cun meun eI LIer LIuL
IL Is un obj ecL mereI y distinct I r om me (LIe subjecL) or eIse LIuL IL Is uIso
Lo be I ound In cnother locction (positus) In spuce or LI me. OnI y II IL Is
L uken In LIe IIrsL sense cun possessIon be L IougIL oI us ruLI onuI posses-
sIon; I I L uken In LIe second sense IL wouI d Iuve Lo be cuI I ed empI rI cuI
possessIon. Intelliible possessIon (II LIIs Is possIbIe) Is possessIon oI un
|zq6| obj ecL uithout holdin it (detentio).
!"#
!"#$%&'$( "* !+',$-,'& .('#"/ 0-$1 .(2'+3 $" .-21$#
4
5
L Is possIbIe I or me Lo Iuve uny exL ernuI obj ecL oI my cIoI ce us mI ne,
LIuL Is, u muxI m by wII cI, II IL were Lo become u Iuw, un obj ecL oI
cIoI ce wouI d in itselj (objecLIveIy) Iuve Lo belon to no one (res nullius) Is
conL rury Lo rI gILs.

or un obj ecL oI my cIoI ce Is someL II ng LIuL Iuve LIe phsiccl
power Lo use. I IL were neverLIeI ess ubsoI uLeI y noL wI LII n my rihtjul
power Lo muke use oI IL, LIuL Is, II LIe use oI IL couI d noL coexI sL wI LI
LIe I r eedom oI everyone In uccordunce wILI u unI versuI Iuw (wouI d be
wrong), L Ien I r eedom wouI d be deprI vI ng ILseII oI LIe use oI ILs cIoI ce
!"
678
The Doctrine oj Riht $ 8
wILI regurd Lo un objecL oI cIoIce, by puLLIng uscble objecLs beyond uny
possIbIIILy oI beI ng used, In oLIer words, IL wouId unnIIIIuLe LIem In u
prucLIcuI respecL und muke LIem InLo res nullius, even L IougI In LIe
use oI LIIngs cIoIce wus IormuI I y consIsLenL wILI everyone' s ouLer
I reedom In uccordunce wILI unIversuI Iuws. BuL sInce pure prucLIcuI
reuson Iuys down onIy I ormuI Iuws us LIe busIs I or usI ng cIoIce und
LIus ubsLrucLs I rom ILs muLLer, LIuL Is, I rom oLIer properLIes oI LIe
objecL protided onl thct it is cn object oj choice, IL cun conLuIn no ubsoIuLe
proIIbILIon uguInsL usI ng sucI un objecL, sInce LIIs wouI d be u conLru-
dIcLIon oI ouLer I reedom wILI ILseII. BuL un objecL oI my choice Is LIuL
wIIcI Iuve LIe pIysIcuI cupucILy Lo use us pIeuse, LIuL wIose use IIes
wILIIn my pouer (potentic). TII s musL be dIsLInguIsIed I rom IuvI ng LIe
sume objecL under my conLroI (in potestctem mecm redcctum), wII cI
presupposes noL mereIy |sucI| u ccpccit buL uIso un cct oI cIoIce. BuL
In order Lo thinl oj someLII ng sImpIy us un objecL oI my cIoIce IL Is
suIII cI enL I or me Lo be conscIous oI IuvIng IL wILIIn my power. L
Is LIereI ore un u prIorI presupposILIon oI prucLIcuI reuson Lo regurd
und LreuL uny objecL oI my cIoIce us someLII ng LIuL couI d objecLIveIy
be mIne or yours.
TII s posLuIuLe cun be cuIIed u permIssIve prIncIpIe (lexpermissitc)
(
|zq;|
oI prucLIcuI reuson, wIIcI gIves us un uuLIorIzuLIon LIuL couI d noL be
goL I r om mere concepLs oI RI gIL us sucI, numeIy Lo puL uII oLIers
under un obIIguLIon, wIIcI LIey wouI d noL oLIerwIse Iuve, Lo reI ruI n
I rom usIng cerLuIn objecLs oI our cIoIce becuuse we Iuve been LIe IIrsL
Lo Luke LIem InLo our possessIon. Reuson wIIIs LIuL LIIs IoI d us u
prIncIpIe, und IL does LIIs us prccticcl reuson, wII cI exLends ILseII u prI-
orI by LIIs posLuIuLe oI reuson.
.
WIoever wunLs Lo usserL LIuL Ie Ius u LIIng us IIs own musL be In
possessIon oI un objecL, sInce oLIerwIse Ie couId noL be wronged

by
unoLIer' s use oI IL wILIouL IIs consenL. or II someLII ng ouLsIde LIIs
objecL wII cI Is noL connecLed wILI IL by rIgILs uIIecLs IL, IL wouI d noL be
ubIe Lo uI I ecL IImseII (LIe subjecL) und do IIm uny wrong.
!"#
9:;"#-$-"/ "* $1( <"/,(;$ "* 9:$(+/'& =>?(,$#
@1'$ A+( B-/( "+ C"%+#
TIer e cun be onIy three exLernuI objecLs oI my cIoIce: 1) u (corporeuI)
thin exLernuI Lo me; z) unoLIer' s choice Lo perI orm u specIIIc deed
%o& Metcphsics oj Morcls
(prcestctio); ) unoLIer' s stctus In reIuLIon Lo me. TIese ure objecLs oI
my cIoIce In Lerms oI LIe cuLegorIes oI substcnce, ccusclit, und commu-
nit beLween myseII und exLernuI objecLs In uccordunce wILI Iuws oI
I reedom.
u) cunnoL cuII un objecL In spcce (u corporeuI LIIng) mI ne unIess, eten
thouh I cm not in phsiccl possession oj it, cun sLIII usserL LIuL um
ucLuuIIy In some oLIer (Ience noL pIysIcuI) possessIon oI IL. So
sIuII noL cuII un uppIe mIne becuuse Iuve IL In my Iund (possess
IL pIysIcuIIy), buL onIy II cun suy LIuL possess IL even L IougI
Iuve puL IL down, no muLLer wIere. n LIe sume wuy, sIuII noL be
ubIe Lo suy LIuL LIe Iund on wIIcI Iuve IuIn down Is mI ne becuuse
um on IL, buL onIy II cun usserL LIuL IL sLIII remuIns In my
possessIon even LIougI Iuve I eIL LIe pIuce. or someone wIo
LrIed In LIe IIrsL cuse (oI empIrIcuI possessIon) Lo wresL LIe uppI e
|zq8| I rom my Iund or Lo drug me uwuy I rom my resLIng pIuce wouI d
I ndeed wrong me wILI regurd Lo wIuL Is interncll mI ne (Ireedom);
buL Ie wouI d noL wrong me wILI regurd Lo wIuL Is exLernuIIy mIne
unIess couId usserL LIuL um In possessIon oI LIe objecL even
wILIouL IoI dI ng IL. couId noL LIen cuII LIese objecLs (LIe uppI e
und LIe resLIng pIuce) mIne.
b) cunnoL cuII LIe perjormcnce oI someLII ng by unoLIer' s cIoIce
mIne II uII cun suy Is LIuL IL cume InLo my possessIon ct the scme
time LIuL Ie promIsed IL (pcctum re initum), buL onIy II cun usserL
LIuL um In possessIon oI LIe oLIer' s cIoIce (Lo deLermI ne II m Lo
perI orm IL) even LIougI LIe LIme Ior IIs perI ormI ng IL Is sLIII
Lo come. TIe oLIer' s promIse Is L IereI ore I ncI uded In my beIong-
Ings und goods (oblictio cctitc), und cun counL IL us mI ne noL
mereI y II (us In LIe IIrsL cuse) uIreudy Iuve uhct ucs promised In my
possessIon, buL even L IougI do noL possess IL yeL. So musL be
ubIe Lo LIInk LIuL um In possessIon oI LIIs objecL I ndependenLI y
oI beI ng IImILed by LemporuI condILIons, und so I ndependenLI y oI
empIrIcuI possessIon.
,D cunnoL cuII u uije, u child, u sertcnt, or, In generuI , unoLIer per-
son mIne becuuse um now In cIurge oI LIem us members oI my
IouseIoI d or Iuve LIem wILIIn my resLruInIng wuIIs und In
my conLroI und possessIon, buL onIy II, uI LIougI LIey Iuve wILI-
druwn I rom sucI consLruInL und do noL possess LIem (empIrI-
cuIIy), cun sLIII suy LIuL possess LIem mereIy by my wIII, Ience
merel rihtjull, us I ong us LIey exIsL somewIere or uL some LIme.
OnI y II und InsoIur us cun usserL LIIs ure LIey I ncI uded In my
beIongIngs.
The Doctrine oj Riht ;:
.
E(*-/-$-"/ "* $1( <"/,(;$ "* 9:$(+/'& =>?(,$#
@1'$ A+( B-/( "+ C"%+#
TIe nomincl dejinition [Ncmenerllcrun] oI wIuL Is exLernuIIy mIne -
LIuL wIIcI suIIIces onIy Lo distinuish LIe objecL I rom uII oLIers und
urIses I rom u compIeLe und deLermInuLe exposition oI LIe concepL -
wouId be: TIuL ouLsIde me Is exLernuIIy mIne wIIcI IL wouId be u
wrong (un I nIrI ngemenL upon my I reedom LIuL cun coexIsL wILI LIe |zqq|
I reedom oI everyone In uccordunce wILI u unIversuI Iuw) Lo prevenL
me I rom usIng us F pIeuse. BuL LIe recl dejinition [Sccherllcrun| oI LIIs
concepL - LIuL wIIcI uIso suIIIces Ior LIe deduction oI IL (Ior knowI edge
oI LIe possIbIIILy oI LIe objecL) - goes IIke LIIs: SomeLIIng exLernuI Is
mIne II F wouId be wronged by beIng dIsLurbed In my use oI IL eten
thouh I cm not in possession oj it (noL IoIdIng LIe objecL). F musL be In
some sorL oI possessIon oI un exLernuI objecL II IL Is Lo be cuIIed mine,
Ior oLIerwIse someone wIo uIIecLed LIIs objecL uguInsL my wIII wouId
noL uIso uIIecL me und so wouId noL wrong me. So, In consequence oI
q, intelliible possession (possessio noumenon) musL be ussumed Lo be
possIbIe II someLIIng exLernuI Is Lo be mIne or yours. EmpIrIcuI posses-
sIon (IoIdIng) Is LIen onIy possessIon In cppecrcnce (possessio phcenom-
enon), uILIougI LIe object ILseII LIuL F possess Is noL Iere LreuLed, us IL
wus In LIe TrunscendenLuI AnuIyLIc, us un uppeurunce buL us u LIIng In
ILseII; I or LIere reuson wus concerned wILI LIeoreLIcuI knowI edge oI
LIe nuLure oI LIIngs und Iow Iur IL couId exLend, buL Iere IL Is con-
cerned wILI LIe prucLIcuI deLermInuLIon oI cIoIce In uccordunce wILI
Iuws oIjreedom, wIeLIer LIe objecL cun be known LIrougI LIe senses or
LIrougI LIe pure undersLundIng uIone, und Riht Is u pure prucLIcuI
rctioncl concept oI cIoIce under Iuws oI Ireedom.
or LIe sume reuson IL Is noL upproprIuLe Lo speuk oI possessIng u
rIgIL Lo LIIs or LIuL objecL buL ruLIer oI possessIng IL merel rihtjull,
Ior u rIgIL Is uIreudy un InLeIIecLuuI possessIon oI un objecL und IL
wouId muke no sense Lo speuk oI possessIng u possessIon.
!"#
E(3%,$-"/ "* $1( <"/,(;$ "* B(+(&G .-21$*%& !"##(##-"/
"* '/ 9:$(+/'& =>?(,$ (possessio noumenon)
TIe quesLIon, How Is IL possIbIe Ior somethin externcl to be mine or ours?
resoIves ILseII InLo LIe quesLIon, How Is merel rihtjul (InLeIIIgIbIe)
possession possIbIe? und LIIs, In Lurn, InLo LIe LIIrd quesLIon, How Is u
snthetic u prIorI proposILIon oI RIgIL possIbIe?
AI I proposILIons oI RIgIL ure u prIorI proposILIons, sInce LIey ure
prIncIpIes oI reuson (dictcminc rctionis). An u prIorI proposI LI on oI
|zo| RIgIL wILI regurd Lo empiriccl possession Is cncltic, I or IL suys noLII ng
more LIun wIuL IoIIows I rom empIrIcuI possessIon In uccordunce wILI
LIe prIncIpIe oI conLrudIcLIon, numeIy LIuL II um IoI dI ng u LII ng (und
so pIysIcuIIy connecLed wILI IL), someone wIo uIIecLs IL wI LIouL my
consenL (e.g., snuLcIes un uppI e I rom my Iund) uIIecLs und dImInIsIes
wIuL Is InLernuIIy mI ne (my I reedom), so LIuL IIs muxI m Is In dIrecL
conLrudIcLIon wILI LIe uxI om oI RIgIL.
6
So LIe proposI LI on ubouL
empIrIcuI possessIon In conIormI Ly wILI rIgILs does noL go beyond LIe
rIgIL oI u person wILI regurd Lo IImseII.
On LIe oLIer Iund, u proposILIon ubouL LIe possIbIIILy oI possessIng
u LIIng externcl to mselj wIIcI puLs usIde uny condILIons oI empIrIcuI
possessIon In spuce und LIme (und Ience presupposes LIe possIbIIILy oI
possessio noumenon), goes beyond LIose IImILIng condILIons; und sInce IL
uI I I rms possessIon oI someLII ng even wILIouL IoI dI ng IL, us necessury
I or LIe concepL oI someLII ng exLernuI LIuL Is mIne or yours, it is
snthetic. Reuson Ius LIen LIe Lusk oI sIowI ng Iow sucI u proposILIon,
wIIcI goes beyond LIe concepL oI empIrIcuI possessIon, Is possIbIe u
prIorI.
;
|n LIIs wuy, I or exumpI e, LukIng possessIon oI u sepuruLe pIece oI
Iund Is un ucL oI prIvuLe cIoIce, wILIouL beI ng unscnctioned. TIe pos-
sessor buses IIs ucL on un InnuLe possession in common oI LIe surIuce oI
LIe eurLI und on u generuI wIII correspondI ng u prIorI Lo IL, wIIcI
permILs pritcte possession on IL (oLIerwIse, unoccupI ed LIIngs wouI d
In LIemseIves und In uccordunce wILI u Iuw be mude LIIngs LIuL be-
I ong Lo no one). By beI ng LIe IIrsL Lo Luke possessIon Ie orIgInuIIy
ucquIres u deII nI Le pIece oI Iund und resIsLs wILI rI gIL (iure) uny-
one eIse wIo wouI d prevenL II m I rom mukI ng prIvuLe use oI IL. YeL
sInce Ie Is In u sLuLe oI nuLure, Ie cunnoL do so by IeguI proceedI ngs
[ton rechtsueen] (de iure) becuuse LIere does noL exIsL uny pubIIc Iuw In
LIIs sLuLe.
Even II u pIece oI Iund were consI dered or decI ured Lo be jree, LIuL
Is, open Lo unyone' s use, one couI d sLIII noL suy LIuL IL Is I ree by nuLure
or oriincll Iree, prIor Lo uny ucL esLubIIsIIng u rIgIL; I or LIuL wouI d
uguIn be u reIuLIon Lo LIIngs, numeIy Lo LIe Iund, wIIcI wouI d reI use
possessIon oI ILseII Lo unyone; InsLeud one wouI d suy LIuL LIIs Iund Is
I ree becuuse oI u proIIbILIon on everyone Lo muke use oI IL, und Ior
LIIs, possessIon oI IL In common Is requI red, wIIcI cunnoL Luke pIuce
wILIouL u conLrucL. BuL Iund LIuL cun be I ree onIy In LIIs wuy musL
reuIIy be In LIe possessIon oI uII LIose (joIned LogeLIer) wIo IorbI d or
suspend one unoLIer' s use oI IL.
TII s oriincl communI Ly oI Iund, und wILI IL oI LIIngs upon IL |z1|
(communio jundi oriincric), Is un deu LIuL Ius objecLIve (rIgIL-
IuIIy prucLIcuI) reuIILy. TII s kInd oI communI Ly musL be sIurpIy
dIsLInguIsIed I rom u primitite communit (communio primcetc),
wII cI Is u IIcLIon; I or u prImILIve communI Ly wouI d Iuve Lo be
one LIuL wus instituted und urose I r om u conLrucL by wII cI every-
one guve up prIvuLe possessIons und, by unILIng IIs possessIons
wILI LIose oI everyone eIse, LrunsIormed LIem InLo u coIIecLIve
possessIon; und IIsLory wouI d Iuve Lo gIve us prooI oI sucI u
conLrucL. BuL IL Is conLrudIcLory Lo cIuIm LIuL sucI u procedure Is
un oriincl LukIng possessIon und LIuL eucI mun couI d und sIouId
Iuve bused IIs sepuruLe possessIon upon IL.
Residin on Iund (sedes) Is Lo be dIsLInguIsIed I rom beI ng In
possessIon (possessio) oI IL, und settlin or mukI ng u seLLIemenL
(incolctus), wIIcI Is u IusLIng prIvuLe possessIon oI u pIuce depen-
denL upon LIe presence oI LIe subjecL on IL, Is Lo be dIsLInguIsIed
I rom LukIng possessIon oI Iund wILI LIe InLenLIon oI some duy
ucquI rI ng IL. um noL LuIkIng Iere ubouL seLLIIng us u second ucL
Lo esLubIIsI u rIgIL, wIIcI cun eILIer IoIIow upon LukI ng posses-
sIon or noL Luke pIuce uL uII; I or seLLIIng oI LIIs kInd wouI d noL be
orIgInuI possessIon buL wouI d be possessIon derI ved I r om oLIers'
consenL.
MereI y pIysIcuI possessIon oI Iund (IoIdIng IL) Is uIreudy u
rIgIL Lo u LIIng, LIougI cerLuInIy noL oI ILseII suIII cI enL I or
regurdI ng IL us mIne. ReIuLIve Lo oLIers, sInce (us I ur us one
knows) IL Is IIrsL possessIon, IL Is consIsLenL wILI LIe prIncIpIe oI
ouLer I reedom und Is uIso ImpIIed In orIgInuI possessIon In com-
mon, wIIcI provIdes u prIorI LIe busIs on wIIcI uny prIvuLe pos-
sessIon Is possIbIe. AccordI ngI y, Lo I nLerIere wILI LIe use oI u
pIece oI Iund by LIe IIrsL occupunL oI IL Is Lo wrong IIm. TukI ng
IIrsL possessIon Ius LIereI ore u rI gILIuI busIs (titulus possessionis),
wII cI Is orIgInuI possessIon In common; und LIe suyIng " Huppy
ure LIose wIo ure In possessIon" (becti possidentes), becuuse none
Is bound Lo cerLIIy IIs possessIon, Is u busIc prIncIpIe oI nuLuruI
RIgIL, wIIcI Iuys down LukIng IIrsL possessIon us u rI gILI uI busIs
I or ucquIsILIon on wIIcI every IIrsL possessor cun reIy.|
n un u prIorI theoreticcl prIncIpIe, numeIy, un u prIorI InLuILIon
wouI d Iuve Lo underI I e LIe gIven concepL (us wus esLubIIsIed In |zz|
LIe Critique oj Pure Recson)-, und so someLII ng wouI d Iuve Lo be
cdded to LIe concepL oI possessIon oI un objecL. BuL wILI LIIs
prucLIcuI prIncIpIe LIe opposILe procedure Is IoI I owed und uII
condILIons oI InLuILIon LIuL esLubIIsI empIrIcuI possessIon musL
be remoted (dIsregurded), In order Lo extend LIe concepL oI posses-
sIon beyond empIrIcuI possessIon und Lo be ubIe Lo suy: L Is
possIbIe I or uny exLernuI objecL oI my cIoIce Lo be reckoned us
rIgILIuI I y mI ne II Iuve conLroI oI IL (und onIy I nsoIur us Iuve
conLroI oI IL) wILIouL beI ng In possessIon oI IL.
TIe possIbIIILy oI LIIs kInd oI possessIon, und so LIe deducLI on
oI LIe concepL oI nonempIrIcuI possessIon, Is bused on LIe posLu-
IuLe oI prucLIcuI reuson wILI regurd Lo rIgILs: "LIuL IL Is u duLy oI
RIgIL Lo ucL Lowurd oLIers so LIuL wIuL Is exLernuI (usubIe) couI d
uIso become someone' s, " LogeLIer wILI LIe exposILIon oI LIe con-
cepL oI un exLernuI objecL LIuL beI ongs Lo someone, sInce LIuL
concepL resLs sImpIy on LIuL oI nonphsiccl possessIon. TIer e Is,
Iowever, no wuy oI provI ng oI ILseII LIe possIbIIILy oI nonpIysI-
cuI possessIon or oI IuvI ng uny InsIgIL InLo IL (jusL becuuse IL Is u
ruLIonuI concepL Ior wIIcI no correspondI ng InLuILIon cun be
gIven); ILs possIbIIILy Is InsLeud un ImmedIuLe consequence oI LIe
posLuIuLe reI erred Lo. or II IL Is necessury Lo ucL In uccordunce
wILI LIuL prIncIpIe oI RIgIL, ILs InLeIIIgIbIe condILIon (u mereI y
rI gILI uI possessIon) musL LIen uIso be possIbIe. No one need be
surprIsed LIuL theoreticcl prIncIpIes ubouL exLernuI objecLs LIuL ure
mI ne or yours geL IosL In LIe InLeIIIgIbIe und represenL no exLen-
sIon oI knowI edge, sInce no LIeoreLIcuI deducLI on cun be gI ven
I or LIe possIbIIILy oI LIe concepL oI I reedom on wIIcI LIey ure
bused. L cun onIy be I nI erred I rom LIe prucLIcuI Iuw oI reuson
(LIe cuLegorIcuI ImperuLIve), us u IucL oI reuson.
!"#
!""#$%&'$() '( +,-.%'/ (0 12".3$.)%. (0 '4. 53$)%$"#.
64&' 7' 7/ 5(//$,#. 0(3 8(9.'4$): 12'.3)&# 6( ;.
<$). (3 =(>3/
TIe concepL oI mereI y rI gILIuI possessIon Is noL un empIrIcuI concepL
|z| (dependenL upon condILIons oI spuce und LIme) und yeL IL Ius prucLIcuI
reuIILy, LIuL Is, IL musL be uppIIcubIe Lo objecLs oI experI ence, knowI-
edge oI wIIcI Is dependenL upon LIose condILIons. TIe wuy Lo pro-
ceed wILI LIe concepL oI u rIgIL wILI respecL Lo sucI objecLs, so LIuL
LIey cun be exLernuI objecLs LIuL ure mI ne or yours, Is LIe IoI I owI ng.
SInce LIe concepL oI u rIgIL Is sImpIy u ruLIonuI concepL, IL cunnoL be
uppIIed directl Lo objecLs oI experI ence und Lo LIe concepL oI empIrIcuI
possession, buL musL IIrsL be uppIIed Lo LIe undersLundI ng' s pure con-
cepL oI possession In generuI. So LIe concepL Lo wIIcI LIe concepL oI u
rIgIL Is dIrecLIy uppIIed Is noL LIuL oI holdin (detentio), wIIcI Is un
empIrIcuI wuy oI LII nkI ng oI possessIon, buL ruLIer LIe concepL oI
hctin,
8
In wII cI ubsLrucLIon Is mude I rom uII spuLIuI und LemporuI
condILIons und LIe objecL Is LIougIL oI onIy us under m control (in
potestcte mecpositum esse). So Loo LIe expressIon externcl does noL meun
exIsLIng In u plcce other LIun wIere um, or LIuL my decIsIon und
uccepLunce ure occurrI ng uL u dI I I erenL LIme I rom LIe mukI ng oI LIe
oI I er; IL meuns onIy un objecL distinct I rom me. Now prucLIcuI reuson
requIres me, by ILs prIncIpIe oI RIgIL, Lo uppI y mI ne or yours Lo objecLs
noL In uccordunce wILI sensIbIe condILIons buL In ubsLrucLIon I rom
LIem, sInce IL Ius Lo do wILI u deLermInuLIon oI cIoIce In uccordunce
wILI Iuws oI I reedom, und IL uIso requIres me Lo LIInk oI possessIon oI
LIem In LIIs wuy, sInce onIy u concept oj the understcndin cun be sub-
sumed under concepLs oI RIgIL. sIuII LIereI ore suy LIuL possess u
IIeId even L IougI IL Is In u pIuce quILe dI I I erenL I rom wIere ucLuuIIy
um. or Iere we ure speukI ng onIy oI un InLeIIecLuuI reIuLIon Lo un
objecL, InsoIur us Iuve IL under m control (LIe undersLundI ng' s con-
cepL oI possessIon I ndependenL oI spuLIuI deLermInuLIons), und LIe
objecL Is mine becuuse my wIII Lo use IL us pIeuse does noL conIIIcL wILI
LIe Iuw oI ouLer I reedom. Here prucLIcuI reuson requIres us Lo LIInk oI
possessIon cpcrt jrom possessIon oI LIIs objecL oI my cIoIce In uppeur-
unce (IoIdIng IL), Lo LIInk oI IL noL In Lerms oI empIrIcuI concepLs buL
oI concepLs oI LIe undersLundI ng, LIose LIuL cun conLuIn u prIorI
condILIons oI empIrIcuI concepLs. Upon LIIs Is bused LIe vuIIdILy oI
sucI u concepL oI possessIon (possessio noumenon), us u itin oj lcu LIuL
IoIds I or everyone; I or sucI IuwgIvIng Is InvoIved In LIe expressIon
"LIIs exLernuI objecL Is mine," sInce by IL un obIIguLIon Is IuId upon uII
oLIers, wIIcI LIey wouI d noL oLIerwIse Iuve, Lo reIruI n I rom usI ng LIe
objecL.
So LIe wuy Lo Iuve someLII ng exLernuI us wIuL Is mIne consIsLs In
u mereIy rI gILIuI connecLIon oI LIe subjecL's wIII wILI LIuL objecL |zq|
In uccordunce wILI LIe concepL oI InLeIIIgIbIe possessIon, I ndepen-
denLIy oI uny reIuLIon Lo IL In spuce und LIme. L Is noL becuuse occupy
u pIuce on LIe eurLI wILI my body LIuL LIIs pIuce Is someLII ng exLernuI
LIuL Is mIne (Ior LIuL concerns onIy my ouLer jreedom, Ience onIy
possessIon oI myseII, noL u LIIng exLernuI Lo me, so LIuL IL Is onIy un
InLernuI rIgIL). L Is mIne II sLIII possess IL even L IougI Iuve IeIL
IL I or unoLIer pIuce; onIy LIen Is my exLernuI rIgIL InvoIved. And
unyone wIo wunLs Lo muke my conLI nuous occupuLI on oI LIIs pIuce
by my person LIe condILIon oI my IuvI ng IL us mIne musL eILIer
usserL LIuL IL Is noL uL uII possIbIe Lo Iuve someLII ng exLernuI us mIne
(und LIIs conIIIcLs wILI LIe PosLuIuLe z) or eIse requI re LIuL In order
Lo Iuve IL us mIne be In Lwo pIuces uL once. SInce LIIs umounLs
Lo suyIng LIuL um Lo be In u pIuce und uIso noL be In IL, Ie conLru-
dIcLs IImseII.
TII s cun uIso be uppIIed Lo LIe cuse oI my IuvI ng uccepLed u prom-
Ise. or my IuvI ng und possessIon |Hcbe und esitz] In wIuL wus
promI sed Is noL unnuI I ed by LIe promIsor' s suyIng uL one LIme "LIIs
LIIng Is Lo be yours" und LIen uL u IuLer LIme suyIng oI LIe sume LIIng
" now wIII LIuL IL noL be yours. " or In sucI InLeIIecLuuI reIuLIons IL Is
us II LIe promI sor Iud suId, wILIouL uny LIme beLween LIe Lwo decIuru-
LIons oI IIs wIII, "LIIs Is Lo be yours" und uIso "LIIs Is noL Lo be yours, "
wIIcI Is seII-conLrudIcLory.
TIe sume IoIds oI LIe concepL oI rI gILI uI possessIon oI u person, us
I ncI uded In LIe subjecL's beI ongI ngs (IIs wI Ie, cIIId, servunL). TII s
domesLIc communI Ly und LIe possessIon oI LIeIr respecLIve sLuLus vIs-
u-vIs one unoLIer by uII ILs members Is noL unnuI I ed by LIeIr beI ng
uuLIorI zed Lo sepuruLe I rom one unoLIer und go Lo dI I I erenL plcces, I or
wIuL connecLs LIem Is u reIuLIon in terms oj rihts, und wIuL Is exLernuII y
mI ne or yours Iere Is bused, us In LIe precedI ng cuses, enLIreIy on LIe
ussumpLIon LIuL pureI y ruLIonuI possessIon wILIouL IoI dI ng eucI oLIer
Is possIbIe.
RIgILIuI I y prucLIcuI reuson Is I orced InLo u crILIque oI ILseII In
LIe concepL oI someLII ng exLernuI LIuL Is mI ne or yours, und LIIs
by un unLInomy oI proposILIons concernI ng LIe possIbIIILy oI sucI
u concepL; LIuL Is, onIy by un unuvoIdubI e dIuIecLIc In wII cI boLI
|z| LIesIs und unLILIesIs muke equuI cIuIms Lo LIe vuIIdILy oI Lwo con-
dILIons LIuL ure InconsIsLenL wILI eucI oLIer Is reuson I orced,
even In ILs prucLIcuI use (IuvIng Lo do wILI rIgILs), Lo muke u dIs-
LIncLIon beLween possessIon us uppeurunce und possessIon LIuL Is
LIInkubIe mereIy by LIe undersLundI ng.
TIe thesis suys: It is possible Lo Iuve someLII ng exLernuI us mI ne
even L IougI um noL In possessIon oI IL.
TIe cntithesis suys: It is not possible Lo Iuve someLII ng exLernuI
us mIne unIess um In possessIon oI IL.
Solution: BoLI proposILIons ure Lrue, LIe IIrsL II undersLund,
by LIe word possessIon, empIrIcuI possessIon (possessio phcenom-
enon), LIe second II undersLund by IL pureI y InLeIIIgIbIe posses-
sIon (possessio noumenon). BuL we cunnoL see Iow InLeIIIgIbIe pos-
sessIon Is possIbIe und so Iow IL Is possIbIe I or someLII ng exLernuI
Lo be mI ne or yours, buL musL I nIer IL I rom LIe posLuIuLe oI
prucLIcuI reuson. WILI regurd Lo LIIs posLuIuLe IL Is purLIcuIurIy
noLeworLIy LIuL prucLIcuI reuson extends ILseII wILIouL InLuILIons
und wILIouL even needI ng uny LIuL ure u prIorI, mereI y by lect-
in out empIrIcuI condILIons, us IL Is j usLI II ed In doI ng by LIe
Iuw oI I reedom. n LIIs wuy IL cun Iuy down snthetic u prIorI
proposILIons ubouL RIgIL, LIe prooI oI wIIcI (us wIII soon be
The Doctrine oj Riht ;;
sIown) cun uILerwurds be udduced, In u prucLIcuI respecL, In un
unuIyLIc wuy.
q
!" !$ %&$$'()* "& +,-* .&/*"0'12 34"*51,) ,$ 61*7$ 681
61)9 '1 , :'20";<) =&1>'"'&1? <1>*5 ,1 @<"0&5'"9 A'-'12
B,8$ %<()'C)9? D0," !$? '1 , ='-') =&1>'"'&1
WIen decI ure (by word or deed), wIII LIuL someLII ng exLernuI Is
Lo be mIne, LIereby decIure LIuL everyone eIse Is under obIIguLIon Lo
reI ruI n I r om usI ng LIuL objecL oI my cIoIce, un obIIguLIon no one
wouI d Iuve were IL noL I or LIIs ucL oI mI ne Lo esLubIIsI u rIgIL. TII s
cIuIm InvoIves, Iowever, ucknowI edgI ng LIuL In Lurn um under obII-
guLIon Lo every oLIer Lo reIruI n I r om usI ng wIuL Is exLernuIIy IIs; I or
LIe obIIguLIon Iere urIses I rom u unIversuI ruIe IuvI ng Lo do wILI
exLernuI rIgILIuI reIuLIons. um LIereIore noL under obIIguLIon Lo
Ieuve exLernuI objecLs beI ongI ng Lo oLIers unLoucIed unIess everyone
eIse provIdes me ussurunce LIuL Ie wIII beIuve In uccordunce wILI LIe |z6|
sume prIncIpIe wILI regurd Lo wIuL Is mIne. TII s ussurunce does noL
requI re u specIuI ucL Lo esLubIIsI u rIgIL, buL Is uIreudy conLuIned In LIe
concepL oI un obIIguLIon correspondI ng Lo un exLernuI rIgIL, sInce
LIe unIversuIILy, und wILI IL LIe recIprocILy, oI obIIguLIon urIses I rom u
unIversuI ruIe. Now u unIIuLeruI wIII cunnoL serve us u coercIve Iuw I or
everyone wILI regurd Lo possessIon LIuL Is exLernuI und LIereI ore
conLIngenL, sInce LIuL wouI d I nIrI nge upon I reedom In uccordunce
wILI unIversuI Iuws. So IL Is onIy u wIII puLLIng everyone under obIIgu-
LIon, Ience onIy u coIIecLIve generuI (common) und powerI uI wIII, LIuL
cun provI de everyone LIIs ussurunce. BuL LIe condILIon oI beI ng under
u generuI exLernuI (I.e., pubIIc) IuwgIvIng uccompunI ed wILI power Is
LIe cIvII condILIon. So onIy In u cIvII condILIon cun someLII ng exLernuI
be mIne or yours.
Corollcr: I IL musL be possIbIe, In Lerms oI rIgILs, Lo Iuve un exLer-
nuI objecL us one' s own, LIe subjecL musL uIso be permI LLed Lo consLruIn
everyone eIse wILI wIom Ie comes InLo conIIIcL ubouL wIeLIer un
exLernuI objecL Is IIs or unoLIer' s Lo enLer uI ong wILI IIm InLo u cIvII
consLILuLIon.
!1 , .","* &; E,"<5* .&/*"0'12 34"*51,) =,1 @C"<,))9
F* G'1* &5 H&<5$ (<" 61)9 %5&-'$'&1,))9
WIen peopI e ure under u cIvII consLILuLIon, LIe sLuLuLory Iuws ob-
LuInIng In LIIs condILIon cunnoL I nIrI nge upon ncturcl Riht (I.e., LIuL
RI gIL wIIcI cun be derI ved I rom u prIorI prIncIpIes I or u cIvII consLILu-
LIon); und so LIe rI gILI uI prIncIpIe "wIoever ucLs on u muxI m by wII cI
IL becomes ImpossIbIe Lo Iuve un objecL oI my cIoIce us mI ne wrongs
me, " remuIns In Iorce. or u cIvII consLILuLIon Is j usL LIe rI gILI uI condI-
LIon, by wIIcI wIuL beIongs Lo eucI Is onIy secured, buL noL ucLuuIIy
seLLIed [eientlich cber nicht cusemccht| und deLermI ned. Any guurun-
Lee, LIen, uIreudy presupposes wIuL beIongs Lo someone (Lo wIom IL
secures IL). PrIor Lo u cIvII consLILuLIon (or In cbstrcction I r om IL) exLer-
nuI objecLs LIuL ure mIne or yours musL LIereI ore be ussumed Lo be
possIbIe, und wILI LIem u rIgIL Lo consLruIn everyone wILI wIom we
couI d Iuve uny deuIIngs Lo enLer wILI us InLo u consLILuLIon In wII cI
exLernuI objecLs cun be secured us mI ne or yours. PossessIon In unLIcI-
|
z
;| puLIon oI und prepuruLI on Ior LIe cIvII condILIon, wII cI cun be bused
onIy on u Iuw oI u common wIII, possessIon wII cI L IereI ore uccords
wILI LIe possibilit oI sucI u condILIon, Is protisioncll rihtjul posses-
sIon, wIereus possessIon I ound In un cctucl cIvII condILIon wouI d be
conclusite possessIon. PrIor Lo enLerI ng sucI u condILIon, u subjecL wIo
Is reudy I or IL resIsLs wILI rIgIL LIose wIo ure noL wIIIIng Lo submIL
Lo IL und wIo wunL Lo I nLerIere wILI IIs presenL possessIon; I or LIe wIII
oI uII oLIers excepL I or IImseII, wIIcI proposes Lo puL II m under
obIIguLIon Lo gIve up u cerLuIn possessIon, Is mereIy unilctercl, und
Ience Ius us IILLIe I uwIuI Iorce In denyI ng IIm possessIon us Ie Ius In
usserLIng IL (sInce LIIs cun be I ound onIy In u generuI wIII), wIereus Ie
uL IeusL Ius LIe udvunLuge oI beI ng compuLIbIe wILI LIe InLroducLIon
und esLubIIsImenL oI u cIvII condILIon. n summury, LIe wuy Lo Iuve
someLII ng exLernuI us one' s own in c stcte oj ncture is pIysIcuI posses-
sIon LIuL Ius In ILs Iuvor LIe rI gILIuI presumption LIuL IL wIII be mude
InLo rI gILIuI possessIon L IrougI beI ng unILed wILI LIe wIII oI uII In u
pubIIc IuwgIvIng, und In unLIcIpuLIon oI LIIs IoIds compcrctitel us
rI gILIuI possessIon.
n uccordunce wILI LIe I ormuI u Hcpp is he uho is in possession
(becti possedentes), LIIs preroguLI ve oI RIgIL urIsIng I r om empIrI-
cuI possessIon does noL consIsL In ILs beI ng unnecessury I or LIe
possessor, sInce Ie Is presumed Lo be un honest mcn, Lo IurnI sI
prooI LIuL IIs possessIon Is In conIormI Ly wILI rI gIL (Ior LIIs
IoIds onIy In dIspuLes ubouL rIgILs). TII s preroguLI ve urIses
InsLeud I rom LIe cupucILy unyone Ius, by LIe posLuIuLe oI prucLI-
cuI reuson, Lo Iuve un exLernuI objecL oI IIs cIoIce us IIs own.
ConsequenLI y, uny IoI dI ng oI un exLernuI objecL Is u condI LI on
wIose conIormI Ly wILI rIgIL Is bused on LIuL posLuIuLe by u prevI-
ous ucL oI wIII; und so I ong us LIIs condILIon does noL conII IcL wILI
unoLIer' s eurIIer possessIon oI LIe sume objecL Ie Is provIsIonuIIy
The Doctrine oj Riht ;q
j usLI II ed, In uccordunce wILI LIe Iuw oI ouLer I reedom, In prevenLI ng
unyone wIo does noL wunL Lo enLer wILI IIm InLo u condILIon oI pubIIc
I uwIuI I reedom I rom usurpI ng LIe use oI LIuL objecL, In order Lo puL
Lo IIs own use, In conIormI Ly wILI LIe posLuIuLe oI reuson, u LII ng LIuL
wouI d oLIerwIse be unnIIIIuLed prucLIcuIIy.
|z8| C HAP T E R
How Lo AcquIre SomeLIIng ExLernuI
1o.
!"#"$%& ($)#*)+&" ,- ./0"$#%& 1*23)4)0),#
ucquIre someLII ng wIen brI ng IL ubouL (ej j i ci o) LIuL IL becomes mine.
SomeLII ng exLernuI Is orIgInuIIy mI ne wIIcI Is mIne wI LIouL uny ucL
LIuL esLubIIsIes u rIgIL Lo IL. BuL LIuL ccquisition Is orIgInuI wII cI Is noL
derI ved I rom wIuL Is unoLIer' s.
NoLII ng exLernuI Is orIgInuIIy mIne, buL IL cun I ndeed be ccquired
orIgInuIIy, LIuL Is, wILIouL beI ng derI ved I rom wIuL Is unoLIer' s. A
condILIon oI communI Ly (communio) oI wIuL Is mI ne und yours cun
never be LIougIL Lo be orIgInuI buL musL be ucquI red (by un ucL LIuL
esLubIIsIes un exLernuI rIgIL), uI LIougI possessIon oI un exLernuI
objecL cun orIgInuIIy be onIy possessIon In common. Even II one LIInks
(probIemuLIcuIIy) oI un oriincl communI Ly (communio mei et tui orii-
ncric), IL musL sLIII be dIsLInguIsIed I r om u primitite communI Ly (com-
munio primcetc), wIIcI Is supposed Lo Iuve been InsLILuLed In LIe
eurIIesL time oI reIuLIons oI rIgILs umong men und cunnoL be bused, IIke
LIe I ormer, on prIncIpIes buL onIy on IIsLory.
qo
AI L IougI prImILIve, IL
wouI d uIwuys Iuve Lo be LIougIL Lo be ucquIred und derI ved (communio
deritctc).
TIe prIncIpIe oI exLernuI ucquIsILIon Is us IoIIows: TIuL Is mI ne
wIIcI brI ng under my control (In uccordunce wILI LIe Iuw oI ouLer
jreedom)] wIIcI, us un objecL oI my cIoIce, Is someLII ng LIuL Iuve LIe
cupucILy Lo use (In uccordunce wILI LIe posLuIuLe oI prucLIcuI reuson);
und wIIcI, IInuIIy, uill Lo be mIne (In conIormI Ly wILI LIe deu oI u
possIbIe unILed uill).
TIe uspecLs (cttendendc) oI oriincl ucquIsILIon ure LIereI ore: 1)
Apprehension oI un objecL LIuL beI ongs Lo no one; oLIerwIse IL wouI d
conIIIcL wILI unoLIer' s I reedom In uccordunce wILI unIversuI Iuws.
TII s cpprehension Is LukIng possessIon oI un objecL oI cIoIce In spuce
und LIme, so LIuL LIe possessIon In wIIcI puL myseI I Is possessio
phcenomenon. z) Gitin c sin (declcrctio) oI my possessIon oI LIIs objecL
8o
The Doctrine oj Riht 8:
und oI my ucL oI cIoIce Lo excI ude everyone eIse I rom IL. ) Appropric- |zq|
tion (cpproprictio), us LIe ucL oI u generuI wIII (In deu) gI vI ng un exLer-
nuI Iuw L IrougI wIIcI everyone Is bound Lo ugree wILI my cIoIce. TIe
vuIIdILy oI LIIs IusL uspecL oI ucquIsILIon, on wIIcI resLs LIe concIusIon
"LIIs exLernuI objecL Is mine," LIuL Is, LIe concIusIon LIuL my possessIon
IoIds us possessIon merel b riht (possessio noumenon), Is bused on LIIs:
SInce uII LIese ucLs hcte to do uith c riht und so proceed I rom prucLIcuI
reuson, In LIe quesLIon oI wIuL Is IuId down us rIgIL ubsLrucLIon cun be
mude I rom LIe empIrIcuI condILIons oI possessIon, so LIuL LIe concIu-
sIon, "LIe exLernuI objecL Is mI ne, " Is correcLIy druwn I rom sensIbIe Lo
InLeIIIgIbIe possessIon.
OrI gI nuI ucquIsILIon oI un exLernuI objecL oI cIoIce Is cuIIed tclin
control oI IL (occupctio ),
q1
und onIy corporeuI LIIngs (subsLunces) cun be
ucquI red orIgInuIIy. WIen IL Lukes pIuce, wIuL IL requIres us LIe condI-
LIon oI empIrIcuI possessIon Is prIorILy In LIme Lo unyone eIse wIo
wunLs Lo Luke conLroI oI LIe objecL (qui prior tempore potior iure). As
orIgInuI, IL Is onIy LIe resuIL oI u unilctercl cIoIce, Ior II IL requI red u
bIIuLeruI cIoIce LIe ucquIsILIon wouI d be derI ved I rom LIe conLrucL oI
Lwo (or more) persons und so I rom wIuL Is unoLIer' s. L Is noL eusy Lo
see Iow un ucL oI cIoIce oI LIuL kInd couI d esLubIIsI wIuL beI ongs
Lo someone. However, II un ucquIsILIon Is jirst IL Is noL LIereI ore orii-
ncl. or LIe ucquIsILIon oI u pubIIc rI gILIuI condILIon by LIe unI on oI
LIe wIII oI uII I or gIvIng unIversuI Iuw wouI d be un ucquIsILIon sucI LIuL
none couI d precede IL, yeL IL wouI d be derI ved I rom LIe purLIcuIur wIIIs
oI eucI und wouI d be omnilctercl, wIereus orIgInuI ucquIsILIon cun
proceed onIy I r om u unIIuLeruI wIII.
Ditision oj the Acquisition oj Somethin Externcl Thct Is Mine or Yours
1) n Lerms oI LIe mctter (LIe objecL), ucquIre eILIer u corporeuI
thin (subsLunce), or unoLIer' s perjormcnce (cuusuIILy), or unoLIer
person IImseII, LIuL Is, LIe sLuLus oI LIuL person, InsoIur us geL u
rI gIL Lo muke urrungemenLs ubouL IIm
qz
(deuI wILI IIm).
z) n Lerms oI LIe jorm (LIe kInd oI ucquIsILIon), IL Is eILIer u riht to |z6o|
c thin (ius recle), or u riht ccinst c person (ius personcle), or u riht
to c person clin to c riht to c thin (ius recliter personcle), LIuL Is,
possessIon (LIougI noL use) oI unoLIer person us u LIIng.
) n Lerms oI LIe bcsis oI LIe ucquIsILIon in Riht (titulus), someLII ng
exLernuI Is ucquIred L IrougI LIe ucL oI u unilctercl, bilctercl or
omnilctercl cIoIce (jccto, pccto, lee). AI L IougI LIIs Is noL, sLrIcLIy
speukIng, u specIuI member oI LIe dIvIsIon oI rIgILs, IL Is sLIII un
uspecL oI LIe wuy ucquIsILIon Is currIed ouL.
SecLIon
On ProperLy RIgIL
!""#
%&'( )* ' +,-&( (. ' /&,0-1
TIe usuuI exposILIon oI u riht to c thin (ius recle, ius in re), LIuL "IL Is
u rI gIL ccinst eter possessor oj it," Is u correcL nomI nuI deIInILIon. BuL
wIuL Is IL LIuL enubIes me Lo recover un exLernuI objecL I rom unyone
wIo Is IoI dI ng IL und Lo consLruIn IIm (per tindicctionem) Lo puL me In
possessIon oI IL uguIn? CouI d LIIs exLernuI rI gILI uI reIuLIon oI my
cIoIce be u direct reIuLIon Lo u corporeuI LIIng? Someone wIo LIInks
LIuL IIs rIgIL Is u dIrecL reIuLIon Lo LIIngs ruLIer LIun Lo persons wouI d
Iuve Lo LIInk (LIougI onIy obscureIy) LIuL sInce LIere corresponds Lo
u rI gIL on one sIde u duLy on LIe oLIer, un exLernuI LII ng uIwuys
remuIns under obliction Lo LIe IIrsL possessor even L IougI IL Ius I eIL IIs
Iunds; LIuL, becuuse IL Is uIreudy under obIIguLIon Lo IIm, IL rejecLs
unyone eIse wIo preLends Lo be LIe possessor oI IL. So Ie wouI d LIInk
oI my rIgIL us II IL were u ucrdicn spirit uccompunyI ng LIe LIIng,
uIwuys poInLIng me ouL Lo wIoever eIse wunLed Lo Luke possessIon oI IL
und proLecLIng IL uguInsL uny IncursIons by LIem. L Is L IereI ore ubsurd
Lo LIInk oI un obIIguLIon oI u person Lo LIIngs or LIe reverse, even
L IougI IL muy be permIssIbIe, II need be, Lo muke LIIs rI gILI uI reIuLIon
percepLIbIe by pI cLurI ng IL und expressI ng IL In LIIs wuy.
So LIe reuI deII nI LI on wouI d Iuve Lo go IIke LIIs: A riht to c thin Is
|z61| u rIgIL Lo LIe prIvuLe use oI u LII ng oI wIIcI um In (orIgInuI or
InsLILuLed) possessIon In common wILI uII oLIers. or LIIs possessIon In
common Is LIe onIy condILIon under wIIcI IL Is possIbIe I or me Lo
excI ude every oLIer possessor I rom LIe prIvuLe use oI u LII ng (ius
contrc quemlibet huius rei possessorem) sInce, unIess sucI u possessIon In
common Is ussumed, IL Is InconceIvubIe Iow , wIo um noL In posses-
sIon oI LIe LIIng, couId sLIII be wronged by oLIers wIo ure In pos-
sessIon oI IL und ure usIng IL. By my unIIuLeruI cIoIce cunnoL bInd
unoLIer Lo reI ruI n I rom usIng u LIIng, un obIIguLIon Ie wouI d noL
oLIerwIse Iuve; Ience cun do LIIs onIy LIrougI LIe unILed cIoIce oI
uII wIo possess IL In common. OLIerwI se wouI d Iuve Lo LIInk oI u
rIgIL Lo u LIIng us II LIe LIIng Iud un obIIguLIon Lo me, I rom wIIcI my
rIgIL uguInsL every oLIer possessor oI IL Is LIen derI ved; und LIIs Is un
ubsurd wuy oI represenLI ng IL.
By LIe Lerm ProperLy RIgIL (ius recle) sIouId be undersLood noL
onIy u rIgIL Lo u LIIng (ius in re) buL uIso LIe sum oI uII LIe prIncIpIes
IuvI ng Lo do wILI LIIngs beI ng mIne or yours. BuL IL Is cIeur LIuL u mun
wIo wus uII uI one on LIe eurLI couI d reuIIy neILIer Iuve nor ucquIre
uny exLernuI LIIng us IIs own, sInce LIere Is no reIuLIon wIuLever oI
obIIguLIon beLween IIm, us u person, und uny oLIer exLernuI objecL, us
u LIIng. Hence, speukIng sLrIcLIy und IILeruIIy, LIere Is uIso no (dIrecL)
rI gIL Lo u LIIng. WIuL Is cuIIed u rIgIL Lo u LIIng Is onIy LIuL rIgIL
someone Ius uguInsL u person wIo Is In possessIon oI IL In common
wILI uII oLIers (In LIe cIvII condILIon).
!"2#
3,4*( 5678,*,(,.0 .9 ' /&,0- :'0 ;<
=0>? 5678,*,(,.0 .9 @'0A
und (undersLood us uII IubILubIe ground) Is Lo be regurded us LIe
substcnce wILI respecL Lo wIuLever Is movubIe upon IL, wIereus LIe
exIsLence oI LIe IuLLer Is Lo be regurded onIy us inherence. JusL us In u
LIeoreLIcuI sense uccIdenLs cunnoL exIsL upurL I rom u subsLunce, so In
u prucLIcuI sense no one cun Iuve wIuL Is movubIe on u pIece oI Iund us
IIs own unIess Ie Is ussumed Lo be uIreudy In rI gILIuI possessIon oI
LIe Iund.
or suppose LIuL LIe Iund beI onged Lo no one: couI d LIen remove |z6z|
every movubI e LIIng on IL I rom ILs pIuce und Luke IL I or myseI I unLII
LIey were uII gone, wILIouL LIereby I nI rI ngI ng upon LIe I reedom oI
unyone eIse wIo Is noL now IoI dI ng IL; buL wIuLever cun be desLroyed,
u Lree, u Iouse und so IorLI, Is movubIe (uL IeusL In Lerms oI ILs muLLer),
und II u LIIng LIuL cunnoL be moved wILIouL desLroyI ng ILs I orm Is
cuIIed immotcble, LIen by wIuL Is mIne or yours wILI regurd Lo LIuL
Is undersLood noL ILs subsLunce buL wIuL udIeres Lo IL, wII cI Is noL LIe
LIIng ILseII.
1.
50? B,<6< .9 @'0A :'0 ;< 5678,4<A =4,-,0'>>?C '0A
(&< B.**,D,>,(? .9 E86& 5678,*,(,.0 )* ;'*<A .0 (&< =4,-,0'>
:.FF80,(? .9 @'0A ,0 G<0<4'>
TIe IIrsL proposILIon resLs on LIe posLuIuLe oI prucLIcuI reuson (z).
TIe prooI oI LIe second proposILIon Is us IoIIows.
AI I men ure orIgInuIIy (I.e., prIor Lo uny ucL oI cIoIce LIuL esLubIIsIes
u rIgIL) In u possessIon oI Iund LIuL Is In conIormI Ly wILI rIgIL, LIuL Is,
LIey Iuve u rIgIL Lo be wIerever nuLure or cIunce (upurL I rom LIeIr
wIII) Ius pIuced LIem. TII s kInd oI possessIon (possessio) - wIIcI Is
Lo be dIsLInguIsIed I rom resIdence (sedes), u cIosen und LIereI ore
un ucquI red lcstin possessIon - Is possessIon in common becuuse LIe
spIerIcuI surIuce oI LIe eurLI unILes uII LIe pIuces on ILs surIuce; Ior II
ILs surIuce were un unbounded pIune, men couId be so dIspersed on IL
LIuL LIey wouId noL come InLo uny communILy wILI one unoLIer, und
communILy wouId noL LIen be u necessury resuIL oI LIeIr exIsLence on
LIe eurLI. TIe possessIon by uII men on LIe eurLI LIuL precedes uny
ucLs oI LIeIrs wIIcI wouId esLubIIsI rIgILs (LIuL Is consLILuLed by nuLure
ILseII) Is un oriincl possession in common (communio possessionis orii-
ncric), LIe concepL oI wIIcI Is noL empIrIcuI und dependenL upon
LemporuI condILIons, IIke LIuL oI u supposed primitite possession in com-
mon (communio primcetc), wIIcI cun never be proved. OrIgInuI posses-
sIon In common Is, ruLIer, u prucLIcuI ruLIonuI concepL wIIcI conLuIns
u prIorI LIe prIncIpIe In uccordunce wILI wIIcI uIone men cun use u
pIuce on LIe eurLI In uccordunce wILI prIncIpIes oI RIgIL.
1q.
)0 =4,-,0'> 5678,*,(,.0C (&< 56( +<78,4<A (. H*('D>,*&
' +,-&( )* /'I,0- :.0(4.> Joccupctio)
TIe onIy condILIon under wIIcI tclin possession (cpprehensio), begIn-
nIng Lo IoId (possessionis phsicce) u corporeuI LIIng In spuce, conIorms
wILI LIe Iuw oI everyone' s ouLer I reedom (Ience u prIorI) Is LIuL oI
priorit In LIme, LIuL Is, onIy InsoIur us IL Is LIe jirst LukIng possessIon
(prior cpprehensio), wIIcI Is un ucL oI cIoIce. BuL LIe wIII LIuL u LIIng
(und so Loo u specIIIc, sepuruLe pIuce on LIe eurLI) Is Lo be mIne, LIuL
Is, upproprIuLIon oI IL (cpproprictio), In orIgInuI ucquIsILIon cun be onIy
unilctercl (toluntcs unilcterclis s. propric). AcquIsILIon oI un exLernuI
objecL oI cIoIce by u unIIuLeruI wIII Is tclin control oI IL. So orIgInuI
ucquIsILIon oI un exLernuI objecL, und Ience Loo oI u specIIIc und
sepuruLe pIece oI Iund, cun Luke pIuce onIy LIrougI LukIng conLroI oI
IL (occupctio).
No InsIgIL cun be Iud InLo LIe possIbIIILy oI ucquIrIng In LIIs wuy,
nor cun IL be demonsLruLed by reusons [durch Grunde dcrtun |; ILs possI-
bIIILy Is InsLeud un ImmedIuLe consequence oI LIe posLuIuLe oI prucLIcuI
reuson. BuL LIe uIoresuId wIII cun j usLI Iy un exLernuI ucquIsILIon onIy
InsoIur us IL Is IncIuded In u wIII LIuL Is unILed u prIorI (I.e., onIy LIrougI
LIe unIon oI LIe cIoIce oI uII wIo cun come InLo prucLIcuI reIuLIons
wILI one unoLIer) und LIuL communds ubsoIuLeIy. or u unIIuLeruI wIII
(und u bIIuLeruI buL sLIII pcrticulcr wIII Is uIso unIIuLeruI) cunnoL puL
everyone under un obIIguLIon LIuL Is In ILseII conLIngenL; LIIs requIres
u wIII LIuL Is omnilctercl, LIuL Is unILed noL conLIngenLIy buL u prIorI und
LIereIore necessurIIy, und becuuse oI LIIs Is LIe onIy wIII LIuL Is IuwgIv-
Ing. or onIy In uccordunce wILI LIIs prIncIpIe oI LIe wIII Is IL possIbIe
Ior LIe Iree cIoIce oI eucI Lo uccord wILI LIe I reedom oI uII, und
LIereIore possIbIe I or LIere Lo be uny rIgIL, und so Loo possIbIe I or uny
exLernuI objecL Lo be mIne or yours.
|z6|
1. |z6q|
E.F<(&,0- :'0 ;< 5678,4<A :.06>8*,K<>? =0>? ,0 ' :,K,>
:.0*(,(8(,.0L ,0 ' E('(< .9 M'(84< )( :'0 5>*. ;< 5678,4<AC
D8( =0>? B4.K,*,.0'>>?
A cIvII consLILuLIon, LIougI ILs reuIIzuLIon Is subjecLIveIy conLIngenL, Is
sLIII objecLIveIy necessury, LIuL Is, necessury us u duLy. WI LI regurd Lo
sucI u consLILuLIon und ILs esLubIIsImenL LIere Is L IereI ore u reuI
prIncIpIe oI nuLuruI RIgIL [Rechtsesetz der Nctur] Lo wII cI uny exLernuI
ucquIsILIon Is subjecL.
TIe empiriccl title oI ucquIsILIon wus LukIng pIysIcuI possessIon
(cpprehensio phsicc), bused on LIe orIgInuI communI Ly oI Iund. SInce
LIere Is onIy possessIon In cppecrcnce Lo puL under possessIon In uccor-
dunce wILI ruLIonuI concepLs oI RIgIL, u LILIe Lo Luke InLeIIecLuuI posses-
sIon (seLLIng usIde uII empIrIcuI condILIons oI spuce und LIme) musL
correspond Lo LIIs empIrIcuI LILIe oI ucquIsILIon. TII s InLeIIecLuuI LILIe
Is LIe busIs oI LIe proposILIon: "WIuL brI ng under my conLroI In
uccordunce wILI Iuws oI ouLer I reedom und wIII Lo become mIne
becomes mI ne. "
BuL LIe rctioncl title oI ucquIsILIon cun IIe onIy In LIe deu oI u wIII oI
uII unILed u prIorI (necessurIIy Lo be unILed), wIIcI Is Iere LucILIy
ussumed us u necessury condILIon (conditio sine quc non)\ I or u unIIuLeruI
wIII cunnoL puL oLIers under un obIIguLIon LIey wouI d noL oLIerwIse
Iuve. BuL LIe condILIon In wIIcI LIe wIII oI uII Is ucLuuIIy unILed I or
gIvIng Iuw Is LIe cIvII condILIon. TIer eI or e someLII ng exLernuI cun be
oriincll ucquIred onIy In conIormI Ly wILI LIe deu oI u cIvII condILIon,
LIuL Is, wILI u vIew Lo IL und Lo ILs beI ng brougIL ubouL, buL prI or Lo ILs
reuIIzuLIon (Ior oLIerwIse ucquIsILIon wouI d be derIved). Hence orii-
ncl ucquIsILIon cun be onIy protisioncl. Conclusite ucquIsILIon Lukes pIuce
onIy In LIe cIvII condILIon.
SLIII, LIuL provIsIonuI ucquIsILIon Is Lrue ucquIsILIon; Ior, by LIe pos-
LuIuLe oI prucLIcuI reuson wILI regurd Lo rIgILs, LIe possIbIIILy oI
ucquIrIng someLII ng exLernuI In wIuLever condILIon men muy IIve
LogeLIer (und so uIso In u sLuLe oI nuLure) Is u prIncIpIe oI prIvuLe
RIgIL, In uccordunce wILI wIIcI eucI Is j usLI II ed In usI ng LIuL coercIon
wIIcI Is necessury II men ure Lo Ieuve LIe sLuLe oI nuLure und enLer LIe
cIvII condILIon, wIIcI cun uIone muke uny ucquIsILIon concIusIve.
TIe quesLIon urIses, Iow Iur does uuLIorIzuLIon Lo Luke posses- |z6|
sIon oI u pIece oI Iund exLend? As Iur us LIe cupucILy I or con-
LroIIIng IL exLends, LIuL Is, us Iur us wIoever wunLs Lo upproprI -
uLe IL cun deI end IL - us II LIe Iund were Lo suy, II you cunnoL
proLecL me you cunnoL commund me. TII s Is Iow LIe dIspuLe
over wIeLIer LIe seu Is jree or closed uIso Ius Lo be decI ded; Ior
exumpI e, us Iur us u cunnon sIoL cun reucI no one muy IIsI, IuuI
up umber I r om LIe oceun II oor, und so IorLI, uI ong LIe cousL oI
u LerrILory LIuL uIreudy beI ongs Lo u cerLuIn sLuLe. Moreover, In
order Lo ucquIre Iund Is IL necessury Lo deveI op IL (buIId on IL,
cuILIvuLe IL, druIn IL, und so on)? No. or sInce LIese I orms (oI
specIIIcuLIon) ure onIy uccIdenLs, LIey muke no objecL oI dIrecL
possessIon und cun beI ong Lo wIuL LIe subjecL possesses onIy
InsoIur us LIe subsLunce Is uIreudy recognI zed us IIs. WIen IIrsL
ucquIsILIon Is In quesLIon, deveI opI ng Iund Is noLII ng more LIun
un exLernuI sIgn oI LukIng possessIon, I or wIIcI muny oLIer sIgns
LIuL cosL Iess eI I orL cun be subsLILuLed. urL Iermore, muy one
purLy I nLerIere wILI unoLIer In ILs cct oI LukIng possessIon, so LIuL
neILIer enjoys LIe rIgIL oI prIorILy und LIe Iund remuIns uIwuys
Iree, beI ongI ng Lo no one? NoL entirel, sInce one purLy cun pre-
venL unoLIer I rom LukIng possessIon onIy by beI ng on udj ucenL
Iund, wIere IL ILseII cun be prevenLed I rom beIng, cbsolute IIn-
drunce wouI d be u conLrudIcLIon. BuL uith respect to u cerLuIn pIece
oI Iund (IyIng beLween LIe Lwo), IeuvIng IL unused, us neutrcl
LerrILory Lo sepuruLe LIe Lwo purLIes, wouI d sLIII be consIsLenL wILI
LIe rIgIL oI LukIng conLroI. n LIuL cuse, Iowever, LIIs Iund reuIIy
beIongs Lo boLI In common und Is noL someLII ng belonin to no
one (res nullius), j usL becuuse IL Is used by boLI Lo keep LIem upurL.
AguI n, cun unyone Iuve u LIIng us IIs own on Iund no purL oI
wIIcI beIongs Lo someone? Yes, us In MongoI I u wIere, sInce uII
LIe Iund beI ongs Lo LIe peopI e, LIe use oI IL beIongs Lo eucI IndI-
vIduuI, so LIuL unyone cun Ieuve IIs puck IyIng on IL or recover
possessIon oI IIs Iorse II IL runs uwuy, sInce IL Is IIs. However, IL
|z66| Is onIy by meuns oI u contrcct LIuL unyone cun Iuve u movubIe
LIIng us IIs on Iund LIuL beIongs Lo unoLIer. InuIIy, cun Lwo
neI gIborI ng peopIes (or IumIIIes) resIsL eucI oLIer In udopLI ng u
cerLuIn use oI Iund, Ior exumpI e, cun u IunLI ng peopI e resIsL u
pusLurIng peopI e or u I urmI ng peopI e, or LIe IuLLer resIsL u peo-
pIe LIuL wunLs Lo pIunL orcIurds, und so IorLI? CerLuInIy, sInce us
I ong us LIey keep wILIIn LIeIr boundurI es LIe wuy LIey wunL Lo
lite on LIeIr Iund Is up Lo LIeIr own dIscreLIon (res mercejccultctis).
usLIy, IL cun sLIII be usked wIeLIer, wIen neILIer nuLure nor
cIunce buL j usL our own wIII brIngs us InLo LIe neI gIborIood oI
u peopI e LIuL IoIds ouL no prospecL oI u cIvII unI on wILI IL, we
sIouId noL be uuLIorIzed Lo I ound coIonIes, by I orce II need be,
In order Lo esLubIIsI u cIvII unI on wILI LIem und brI ng LIese men
(suvuges) InLo u rI gILIuI condILIon (us wILI LIe AmerI cun ndIuns,
LIe HoLLenLoLs, und LIe InIubILunLs oI New HoIIund); or (wIIcI Is
noL mucI beLLer), Lo I ound coIonIes by I ruuduI enL purcIuse oI
LIeIr Iund, und so become owners oI LIeIr Iund, mukI ng use oI
our superIorILy wILIouL regurd I or LIeIr IIrsL possessIon. SIouI d
we noL be uuLIorIzed Lo do LIIs, especIuIIy sInce nuLure ILseII
(wIIcI ubIors u vucuum) seems Lo demund IL, und greuL expunses
oI Iund In oLIer purLs oI LIe worI d, wIIcI ure now spIendIdIy
popuI uLed, wouI d Iuve oLIerwIse remuI ned unI nIubI Led by cIvI-
IIzed peopI e or, I ndeed, wouI d Iuve Lo remuI n I orever unI nIub-
ILed, so LIuL LIe end oI creuLIon wouI d Iuve been IrusLruLed? BuL
IL Is eusy Lo see LIrougI LIIs veII oI InjusLIce (JesuILIsm), wIIcI
wouI d suncLIon uny meuns Lo good ends. SucI u wuy oI ucquI rI ng
Iund Is L IereI ore Lo be repudI uLed.
TIe I ndeLermI nucy, wILI respecL Lo quunLILy us weII us quuIILy,
oI LIe exLernuI objecL LIuL cun be ucquIred mukes LIIs probI em
(oI LIe soIe, orIgInuI exLernuI ucquIsILIon) LIe IurdesL oI uII Lo
soIve. SLIII, LIere musL be some orIgInuI ucquIsILIon or oLIer oI
wIuL Is exLernuI , sInce noL uII ucquIsILIon cun be derI ved. So LIIs
probI em cunnoL be ubundoned us InsoIubIe und InLrInsIcuIIy
ImpossIbIe. BuL even II IL Is soIved LIrougI LIe orIgInuI conLrucL,
sucI ucquIsILIon wIII uIwuys remuIn onIy provIsIonuI unIess LIIs
conLrucL exLends Lo LIe enLIre Iumun ruce.
16. |z6;|
!"#$%&'&$( $* '+, -$(.,#' $* /0&1&(23
4.56&%&'&$( $* 72(8
AI I men ure orIgInuIIy In common possession oI LIe Iund oI LIe enLIre
eurLI (communio jundi oriincric) und eucI Ius by nuLure LIe uill Lo use
IL (lex insti), wIIcI, becuuse LIe cIoIce oI one Is unuvoIdubIy opposed
by nuLure Lo LIuL oI unoLIer, wouI d do uwuy wILI uny use oI IL II LIIs
wIII dId noL uIso conLuIn LIe prIncIpIe I or cIoIce by wIIcI u pcrticulcr
possession I or eucI on LIe common Iund couI d be deLermI ned (lex
iuridicc). BuL LIe Iuw LIuL Is Lo deLermI ne Ior eucI wIuL Iund Is mIne or
yours wIII be In uccordunce wILI LIe uxI om oI ouLer I reedom onIy II IL
proceeds I rom u wIII LIuL Is unILed oriincll und u prIorI (LIuL presup-
poses no rI gILI uI ucL Ior ILs unIon). Hence IL proceeds onIy I rom u wIII
In LIe cIvII condILIon (lex iustitice distributitce), wIIcI uIone deLermI nes
wIuL Is riht, wIuL Is rihtjul, und wIuL Is lcid doun cs riht. BuL In LIe
I ormer condILIon, LIuL Is, beI ore LIe esLubIIsImenL oI LIe cIvII condI-
LIon buL wILI u vIew Lo IL, LIuL Is, protisioncll, IL Is u dut Lo proceed In
uccordunce wILI LIe prIncIpIe oI exLernuI ucquIsILIon. AccordI ngI y,
LIere Is uIso u rI gILIuI ccpccit oI LIe wIII Lo bInd everyone Lo recognI ze
LIe ucL oI LukIng possessIon und oI upproprI uLI on us vuIId, even L IougI
IL Is onIy unIIuLeruI. TIer eI ore provIsIonuI ucquIsILIon oI Iund, Lo-
geLIer wILI uII ILs rI gILIuI consequences, Is possIbIe.
ProvIsIonuI ucquIsILIon, Iowever, needs und guIns LIe I uvor [Gunst]
oI u prIncIpIe (lex permissitc) Ior deLermI nI ng LIe IImILs oI possIbIe
rI gILIuI possessIon. SInce LIIs ucquIsILIon precedes u rI gILI uI condILIon
und, us onIy I eudI ng Lo IL, Is noL yeL concIusIve, LIIs I uvor does noL
exLend beyond LIe poInL uL wIIcI others (purLIcIpunLs) consenL Lo ILs
esLubIIsImenL. BuL II LIey ure opposed Lo enLerI ng IL (LIe cIvII condI-
LIon), und us I ong us LIeIr opposILIon IusLs, LIIs Iuvor currIes wILI IL uII
LIe eIIecLs oI ucquIsILIon In conIormI Ly wILI rIgIL, sInce I euvIng LIe
sLuLe oI nuLure Is bused upon duLy.
|z68| 1;.
9,86.'&$( $* '+, -$(.,#' $* /0&1&(23 4.56&%&'&$(
We Iuve I ound LIe title oI ucquIsILIon In un orIgInuI communI Ly oI
Iund, und L IereI ore oI exLernuI possessIon subjecL Lo spuLIuI condI-
LIons. We Iuve I ound LIe mcnner oj ccquisition In LIe empIrIcuI con-
dILIons oI LukIng possessIon (cpprehensio), j oI ned wILI LIe wIII Lo Iuve
LIe exLernuI objecL us one' s own. Now we sLIII need Lo expIIcuLe [ent-
uicleln] I rom prIncIpIes oI pure prucLIcuI reuson wILI regurd Lo rIgILs
ccquisition ILseII, LIuL Is, LIe exLernuI mI ne or yours, wII cI IoIIows I rom
LIe Lwo eIemenLs gIven; LIuL Is, we need Lo expIIcuLe InLeIIIgIbIe posses-
sIon (possessio noumenon) oI un objecL I rom wIuL Is conLuI ned In LIe
concepL oI IL.
TIe concept belonin to Riht [Rechtsberijj] oI wIuL Is externcll mIne
or yours, so I ur us LIIs Is u substcnce, cunnoL meun, us I ur us LIe Lerm
externcl to me Is concerned, In unoLIer plcce LIun wIere um, I or IL Is
u ruLIonuI concepL; InsLeud, sInce onIy u pure concepL oI LIe under-
sLundIng cun be subsumed under u ruLIonuI concepL, LIe Lerm cun
meun mereIy someLII ng distinct I rom me. And |us I ur us LIe Lerm mine
Is concerned| LIIs ruLIonuI concepL cunnoL sIgnIIy LIe concepL oI em-
pIrIcuI possessIon (u conLInuuI LukIng possessIon, us IL were), buL onIy
LIuL oI hctin cn externcl object under m control (LIe connecLI on oI LIe
objecL wILI me InsoIur us LIIs Is LIe subjecLIve condILIon oI ILs beI ng
possIbIe I or me Lo use IL), wIIcI Is u pure concepL oI LIe undersLund-
Ing. Now II LIese sensIbIe condILIons oI possessIon, us u reIuLIon oI u
person Lo objects LIuL Iuve no obIIguLIon, ure IeIL ouL or dI sregurded
(ubsLrucLed Irom), possessIon Is noLII ng oLIer LIun u reIuLIon oI u
person Lo persons, uII oI wIom ure bound, wILI regurd Lo LIe use oI
LIe LIIng, by LIe uill oI LIe IIrsL person, InsoIur us IIs wIII conI orms
wILI LIe uxI om oI ouLer I reedom, wILI LIe postulcte oI IIs cupucILy Lo
use exLernuI objecLs oI cIoIce, und wILI LIe lcuitin oI LIe wIII oI uII
LIougIL us unILed u prIorI. TII s, LIen, Is intelliible possession oI u LIIng,
The Doctrine oj Riht 8q
LIuL Is, possessIon by mere rIgIL, even LIougI LIe objecL (LIe LII ng
possess) Is u sensIbIe objecL.
TIe IIrsL workI ng, encIosIng, or, In generuI , trcnsjormin oI u
pIece oI Iund cun IurnI sI no LILIe oI ucquIsILIon Lo IL; LIuL Is,
possessIon oI un uccIdenL cun provI de no busIs Ior rI gILI uI pos-
sessIon oI LIe subsLunce. WIuL Is mIne or yours musL InsLeud be
derI ved I rom ownersII p oI LIe subsLunce In uccordunce wILI LIIs
ruIe (cccessorium sequitur suum principcle), und wIoever expends |z6q|
IIs Iubor on Iund LIuL wus noL uIreudy IIs Ius IosL IIs puIns und
LoII Lo wIo wus IIrsL. TII s Is so cIeur oI ILseII LIuL IL Is Iurd Lo
ussIgn uny oLIer cuuse Ior LIuL opInIon, wIIcI Is so oId und sLIII
so wI despreud, LIun LIe LucIL prevuIenL decepLI on oI personI I yI ng
LIIngs und oI LIInkIng oI u rIgIL Lo LIIngs us beI ng u rIgIL directl
uguInsL LIem, us II someone couI d, by LIe work Ie expends upon
LIem, puL LIIngs under un obIIguLIon Lo serve II m und no one
eIse; I or oLIerwIse peopI e wouI d probubIy noL Iuve pussed so
IIgILIy over LIe quesLIon LIuL nuLuruIIy urIses (uIreudy noLed
ubove), "How Is u rIgIL Lo u LII ng possIbIe?" or u rIgIL uguInsL
every possessor oI u LIIng meuns onIy un uuLIorIzuLIon on LIe
purL oI someone' s purLIcuIur cIoIce Lo use un objecL, InsoIur us
LIIs uuLIorIzuLIon cun be LIougIL us conLuIned In u synLIeLIc
generuI wIII und us In uccord wILI LIe Iuw oI LIIs wIII.
As I or corporeuI LIIngs on Iund LIuL Is uIreudy mIne, II LIey do
noL oLIerwIse beI ong Lo unoLIer LIey beI ong to me wILIouL my
needI ng u purLIcuIur ucL esLubIIsIIng u rI gIL In order Lo muke
LIem mIne (noL jccto buL lee), I or LIey cun be regurded us uccI-
denLs I nIerI ng In LIe subsLunce (iure rei mece). AnyL II ng eIse LIuL
Is so connecLed wILI u LIIng oI mIne LIuL unoLIer cunnoL sepuruLe
IL I rom wIuL Is mIne wILIouL cIungI ng LIIs uIso beI ongs Lo me
(e.g., goId pIuLIng, mI xI ng some sLuII beI ongI ng Lo me wILI oLIer
muLerIuIs, uIIuvIum, or uIso, u cIunge In u rIverbed udj oI nI ng my
I und und LIe resuILIng exLensIon oI my Iund, und so IorLI).
WIeL Ier Iund LIuL exLends beyond dry Iund cun be ucquIred -
LIuL Is, wIeLIer u LrucL oI LIe oceun II oor cun be ucquIred (LIe
rIgIL Lo IIsI oI I my sIore, Lo brI ng up umber und so IorLI) - musL
be decI ded In uccordunce wILI LIe sume prIncIpIes. My possession
exLends us Iur us Iuve LIe mecIunIcuI ubIIILy, I r om wIere
reside, Lo secure my Iund uguInsL encroucImenL by oLIers (e.g., us
I ur us cunnon reucI I rom LIe sIore), und up Lo LIIs IImIL LIe seu
Is cIosed (mcre clcusum). BuL sInce IL Is noL possIbIe Lo reside on LIe
II gI seus LIemseIves, possessIon uIso cunnoL exLend Lo LIem und
LIe open seus ure Iree (mcre liberum). BuL LIe owner oI u sIore
cunnoL IncIude, In IIs rIgIL Lo ucquIre, wIuL Is unInLenLIonuIIy
|z;o| ucshed up on shore, wIeLIer men or LIIngs beI ongI ng Lo LIem,
sInce LIIs Is noL wrongI ng II m (noL u deed uL uII), und L IougI u
LIIng Ius been cusL up on Iund wII cI beIongs Lo someone, IL
cunnoL be LreuLed us u res nullius. On LIe oLIer Iund, u rIver cun
be orIgInuIIy ucquI red by someone wIo Is In possessIon oI boLI
bunks, us Iur us IIs possessIon oI LIe bunks exLends; Ie cun'
ucquIre LIe rIver j usL us Ie cun ucquIre uny dry Iund subjecL Lo LIe
condILIons menLI oned ubove.
An exLernuI objecL LIuL In Lerms oI ILs subsLunce beI ongs Lo some-
one Is IIs propert (dominium), In wIIcI uII rIgILs In LIIs LII ng
I nIere (us uccIdenLs oI u subsLunce) und wIIcI LIe owner (domi-
nus) cun, uccordIngI y, dIspose oI us Ie pIeuses (ius disponendi de re
suc). BuL I rom LIIs IL IoIIows LIuL un objecL oI LIIs sorL cun be onIy
u corporeuI LII ng (Lo wIIcI one Ius no obIIguLIon). So u mun cun
be IIs own musLer (sui iuris) buL cunnoL be LIe owner oj himselj (sui
dominus) (cunnoL dIspose oI IImseII us Ie pIeuses) - sLIII Iess cun
Ie dIspose oI oLIer men us Ie pIeuses - sInce Ie Is uccounLubI e Lo
LIe IumunILy In IIs own person. TII s Is noL, Iowever, LIe proper
pIuce Lo dIscuss LIIs poInL, wIIcI Ius Lo do wILI LIe RIgIL oI
IumunI Ly, noL LIuL oI men. L Is menLI oned onIy IncIdenLuIIy, I or
u beLLer undersLundI ng oI wIuL wus dIscussed u IILLIe eurIIer.
urLIermore, LIere cun be Lwo compI eLe owners oI one und LIe
sume LIIng, wILIouL ILs beI ng boLI mIne und yours In common;
LIey muy onIy be possessors In common oI wIuL belons to onl one
oj them cs his. TII s Iuppens wIen one oI LIe so-cuIIed j oI nL own-
ers (condomini) Ius onIy IuII possessIon wILIouL use, wIIIe LIe
oLIer Ius uII LIe use oI LIe LII ng uI ong wILI possessIon oI IL. So
LIe one wIo Ius IuII possessIon wILIouL use (dominus directus)
onIy resLrIcLs LIe oLIer (dominus utilis) Lo some conLInuuI perI or-
munce wILIouL LIereby IImILIng IIs use oI LIe LIIng.
|z;1| SecLIon
On ConLrucL RIgIL
18.
My possessIon oI unoLIer' s cIoIce, In LIe sense oI my cupucILy Lo
deLermI ne IL by my own cIoIce Lo u cerLuIn deed In uccordunce wILI
Iuws oI I reedom (wIuL Is exLernuIIy mI ne or yours wILI respecL Lo LIe
cuusuIILy oI unoLIer), Is c rIgIL (oI wIIcI cun Iuve severuI uguInsL LIe
The Doctrine oj Riht $ %
sume person or uguInsL oLIers); buL LIere Is onIy u sIngIe sum (sysLem)
oI prIncIpIes, contrcct Riht, In uccordunce wILI wIIcI cun be In LIIs
sorL oI possessIon.
A rI gIL uguInsL u person cun never be ucquI red orIgInuIIy und on
one' s own InILIuLIve (Ior LIen IL wouI d noL conI orm Lo LIe prIncIpIe oI
LIe consIsLency oI my cIoIce wILI LIe I reedom oI everyone, und wouI d
L IereI ore be wrong). So Loo, cunnoL ucquIre u rIgIL uguInsL unoLIer
L IrougI u deed oI IIs LIuL Is contrcr to riht (jccto iniusto clterius)-, I or
even II Ie Ius wronged me und Iuve u rIgIL Lo demund compensu-
LIon I rom IIm, by LIIs wIII sLIII onIy preserve wIuL Is mI ne undI mI n-
IsIed buL wIII noL ucquIre more LIun wIuL prevIousIy Iud.
AcquIsILIon L IrougI unoLIer' s deed Lo wIIcI deLermI ne II m In
uccordunce wILI prIncIpIes oI RIgIL Is, uccordIngIy, uIwuys derI ved
I r om wIuL Is IIs; und LIIs derIvuLIon, us un ucL LIuL esLubIIsIes u rIgIL,
cunnoL Luke pIuce L IrougI u nectite ucL oI LIe oLIer, numeIy IIs
cbcndonin or renouncin wIuL Is IIs (per derelictionem cut renuncic-
tionem)\ I or by sucI un ucL LIIs wouI d onIy ceuse Lo beI ong Lo one or LIe
oLIer, buL noLII ng wouI d be ucquIred. TII s derIvuLIon cun Luke pIuce
onIy by trcnsjerrin (trcnslctio), wIIcI Is possIbIe onIy L IrougI u com-
mon wIII by meuns oI wIIcI LIe objecL Is uIwuys under LIe conLroI oI
one or LIe oLIer, sInce us one gIves up IIs sIure In LIIs common
underL ukI ng |Gemeinschcjt| LIe objecL becomes LIe oLIer' s L IrougI IIs
uccepLunce oI IL (und so by u posILIve ucL oI cIoIce). TrunsI er oI LIe
propert oI one Lo unoLIer Is clienction. An ucL oI LIe unI Led cIoIce oI
Lwo persons by wIIcI unyLII ng uL uII LIuL beIongs Lo one pusses Lo LIe
oLIer Is u contrcct.
1q. |z;z|
or every conLrucL LIere ure Lwo prepcrctor und Lwo constitutite rIgIL-
I uI ucLs oI cIoIce. TIe IIrsL Lwo (oI neotictin) ure ojjerin (oblctio) und
cssent (cpprobctio) Lo IL; LIe Lwo oLIers (oI concludin) ure promise (pro-
missum) und ccceptcnce (ccceptctio). or un oI I erI ng cunnoL be cuIIed u
promI se upurL I rom u preIImInury j udgmenL LIuL wIuL Is oI I ered (oblc-
turn) wouI d be ccceptcble Lo LIe promIsee. TII s Is IndIcuLed by LIe IIrsL
Lwo decIuruLIons, buL by LIem uIone noLII ng Is us yeL ucquIred.
BuL wIuL beI ongs Lo LIe promI sor does noL puss Lo LIe promIsee (us
uccepLunL) by LIe sepcrcte wIII oI eILIer buL onIy by LIe united uill oI
boLI, und consequenLI y onIy InsoIur us boLI wIIIs ure decI ured simultc-
neousl. BuL LIIs cunnoL Luke pIuce by empIrIcuI ucLs oI decIuruLIon,
wII cI musL necessurIIyJoJJow> eucI oLIer In LIme und ure never sImuILu-
neous. or II Iuve promI sed und LIe oLIer now wunLs Lo uccepL, cun
sLIII durI ng LIe InLervuI (Iowever sIorL IL muy be) regreL IuvI ng
promI sed, sInce um sLIII Iree beI ore Ie uccepLs; und becuuse oI LIIs
LIe one wIo uccepLs IL, I or IIs purL, cun consIder IImseII us noL bound
Lo IIs counLerdecI uruLIon uILer LIe promIse. TIe exLernuI IormuIILIes
(solemnic) In concI udI ng u conLrucL (sIukIng Iunds, or breukI ng u
sLruw, stipulc, IeId by boLI persons), und uII LIe conII rmuLI ons buck
und IorLI oI LIe decIuruLIons LIey Iuve mude, munIIesL LIe perpI exI Ly
oI LIe conLrucLIng purLIes us Lo Iow und In wIuL wuy LIey ure goI ng Lo
represenL LIeIr decIuruLIons us exIsLIng simultcneousl, uL LIe sume
momenL, uI LIougI LIey cun onIy be successIve. TIey sLIII do noL suc-
ceed In LIIs, sInce LIeIr ucLs cun onIy IoIIow eucI oLIer In LIme, so LIuL
wIen one ucL is LIe oLIer Is eILIer not et or Is no loner.
OnI y u LrunscendenLuI deducLI on oI LIe concepL oI ucquIsILIon by
conLrucL cun remove uII LIese dIIIIcuILIes. L Is Lrue LIuL In un exLernuI
reIuLIon oI rihts my LukIng possessIon oI unoLIer' s cIoIce (und IIs
LukIng possessIon oI mIne In Lurn), us LIe busIs Ior deLermI nI ng IL Lo u
deed, Is IIrsL LIougIL oI empIrIcuIIy, by meuns oI u decIuruLIon und
counLerdecI uruLI on oI LIe cIoIce oI eucI In LIme; LIIs Is LIe sensIbIe
condILIon oI LukIng possessIon, In wIIcI boLI ucLs requI red I or esLub-
IIsIIng LIe rIgIL cun onIy IoIIow one upon unoLIer. SInce, Iowever,
|z;| LIuL reIuLIon (us u rI gILIuI reIuLIon) Is pureI y InLeIIecLuuI, LIuL posses-
sIon Is represenLed L IrougI LIe wIII, wIIcI Is u ruLIonuI cupucILy I or
gIvIng Iuws, us InLeIIIgIbIe possessIon (possessio noumenon) In ubsLrucLIon
I rom LIose empIrIcuI condILIons, us wIuL Is mIne or yours. Here boLI
ucLs, promIse und uccepLunce, ure represenLed noL us IoI I owI ng one
upon unoLIer buL (us II IL were pcctum re initum) us proceedI ng I rom u
sIngIe common wIII (LIIs Is expressed by LIe word simultcneousl), und
LIe objecL (promissum) Is represenLed, by omILLIng empIrIcuI condI-
LIons, us ucquIred In uccordunce wILI u prIncIpIe oI pure prucLIcuI
reuson.
TIuL LIIs Is LIe Lrue und LIe onIy possIbIe deducLI on oI LIe
concepL oI ucquIsILIon by conLrucL Is suIIIcIenLIy conI I rmed by
LIe puInsLukIng buL uIwuys IuLIIe eI I orLs oI LIose wIo InvesLIguLe
rIgILs (e.g., Moses MendeI ssoIn In IIs 1erusclem )
q
Lo produce u
prooI oI ILs possIbIIILy. TIe quesLIon wus, uh ouht Lo keep my
promIse? I or thct , ouht Lo keep IL everyone reudIIy grusps. BuL
IL Is ubsoIuLeIy ImpossIbIe Lo IurnI sI u prooI oI LIIs cuLegorIcuI
ImperuLIve, j usL us IL Is ImpossIbIe I or u geomeL er Lo prove by
meuns oI I nIerences bused on reuson uIone [Vernunjtschlussel LIuL
In order Lo muke u LrIungIe Ie musL Luke LIree IInes (un unuIyLIc
proposILIon), Lwo oI wIIcI LogeLIer musL be greuLer LIun LIe
LIIrd (u synLIeLIc proposILIon, buL boLI proposILIons ure u prIorI).
TIuL ougIL Lo keep my promIse Is u posLuIuLe oI pure reuson
(pure us ubsLrucLIng I rom uII sensIbIe condILIons oI spuce und
LIme In wIuL concerns LIe concepL oI RIgIL). TIe docLrIne LIuL IL
Is possIbIe Lo ubsLrucL I rom LIose condILIons wILIouL gI vI ng up
possessIon oI LIe promIse Is ILseII LIe deducLI on oI LIe concepL oI
ucquIsILIon by conLrucL, j usL us wus LIe cuse In LIe precedI ng
IeudI ng I or LIe docLrIne oI ucquIsILIon oI exLernuI LIIngs by
LukIng conLroI oI LIem.
zo.
By u conLrucL ucquIre someLII ng exLernuI. BuL wIuL Is IL LIuL
ucquIre? SInce IL Is onIy LIe cuusuIILy oI unoLIer' s cIoIce wILI respecL
Lo u perI ormunce Ie Ius promI sed me, wIuL ucquIre dIrecLIy by u
conLrucL Is noL un exLernuI LII ng buL ruLIer IIs deed, by wIIcI LIuL |z;q|
LIIng Is brougIL under my conLroI so LIuL muke IL mIne. By u conLrucL
L IereI ore ucquIre unoLIer' s promI se (noL wIuL Ie promIsed), und
yeL someLII ng Is udded Lo my exLernuI beIongIngs; Iuve become
enriched [termoender] (locupletior) by ucquIrIng un ucLIve obIIguLIon on
LIe I reedom und LIe meuns [Vermoen] oI LIe oLIer. TII s riht oI mI ne
Is, Iowever, onIy u rIgIL ccinst c person, numeIy u rIgIL uguInsL u
specijic pIysIcuI person, und I ndeed u rIgIL Lo ucL upon IIs cuusuIILy
(IIs cIoIce) Lo perjorm someLII ng I or me; IL Is noL u riht to c thin, u
rIgIL uguInsL LIuL morcl person wIIcI Is noLII ng oLIer LIun LIe deu oI
LIe choice oj cll united c priori, by wIIcI uIone cun ucquIre c riht
ccinst eter possessor oj the thin, wIIcI Is wIuL consLILuLes uny rI gIL Lo
u LIIng.
TrunsI er by conLrucL oI wIuL Is mIne Lukes pIuce In uccordunce
wILI LIe Iuw oI conLInuILy (lex continui), LIuL Is, possessIon oI LIe
objecL Is noL I nLerrupLed I or u momenL durI ng LIIs ucL; I or oLIer-
wIse wouI d ucquIre, In LIIs condILIon, un objecL us someLII ng
LIuL Ius no possessor (res tccuc), Ience wouI d ucquIre IL orIgI-
nuIIy, und LIIs conLrudIcLs LIe concepL oI conLrucL. Becuuse oI
LIIs conLInuILy, Iowever, LIuL wIIcI LrunsIers wIuL Is mIne Lo LIe
oLIer Is noL one oI LIe Lwo sepuruLe wIIIs (promittentis et ccceptcn-
tis), buL LIeIr unILed wIII. So LIe LrunsIer does noL Luke pIuce In
sucI u wuy LIuL LIe promI sor IIrsL ubundons (derelinquit) IIs pos-
sessIon I or LIe oLIer' s udvunLuge, or renounces (renuncict) IIs
rIgIL, und LIe oLIer ImmedIuLeIy Lukes IL up, or LIe reverse.
TrunsI er Is LIereI ore un ucL In wIIcI un objecL beIongs, I or u
momenL, Lo boLI LogeLIer, j usL us wIen u sLone LIuL Ius been
LIrown reucIes LIe upex oI ILs puruboIIc puLI IL cun be regurded
us, I or j usL u momenL, sImuILuneousIy rIsIng und IuIIIng, und so
IIrsL pussIng I rom ILs rIsIng moLIon Lo ILs IuIIIng.
!"#$
n u conLrucL by wIIcI u LII ng Is ucquIred, IL Is noL ucquI red by cccep-
tcnce (ccceptctio) oI LIe promIse, buL onIy by deliter (trcditio) oI wIuL
wus promIsed. or uny promIse Ius Lo do wILI u perjormcnce, und II
wIuL Is promI sed Is u LIIng, LIe perI ormunce cun be dI scIurged onIy
|z;| by un ucL In wIIcI LIe promI sor puLs LIe promIsee In possessIon oI LIe
LIIng, LIuL Is, deIIvers IL Lo IIm. So beI ore LIe LII ng Is deI I vered und
receIved, LIe perI ormunce Ius noL yeL Luken pIuce; LIe LII ng Ius noL
yeL pussed I rom one Lo LIe oLIer und so Ius noL been ucquI red by LIe
promIsee. Hence LIe rIgIL LIuL urIses I rom u conLrucL Is onIy u rIgIL
uguInsL u person, und becomes u rIgIL Lo u thin onIy by deIIvery oI
LIe LIIng.
A conLrucL LIuL Is ImmedIuLeIy IoI I owed by deIIvery (pcctum re
initum) excI udes uny InLervuI beLween ILs beIng concI uded und ILs
beI ng dI scIurged und requIres no I urL Ier sepuruLe ucL by wII cI
wIuL beIongs Lo one Is LrunsIerred Lo LIe oLIer. BuL II u (deIInILe
or IndeIInILe) LIme I or deI IverIng LIe LIIng Is uIIowed beLween
LIe concIusIon und LIe dIscIurge oI LIe conLrucL, LIe quesLIon
urIses wIeLIer LIe LIIng uIreudy beI ongs Lo LIe uccepLor by LIe
conLrucL, prIor Lo ILs beIng deI Ivered, und IIs rIgIL Is u rI gIL Lo LIe
LIIng, or wIeLIer u sepuruLe conLrucL IuvI ng Lo do onIy wILI ILs
beI ng deI Ivered musL be udded, so LIuL LIe rIgIL ucquI red by
mere uccepLunce Is onIy u rIgIL uguInsL u person und becomes u
rIgIL Lo u LIIng onIy by ILs beI ng deIIvered. TIuL LIe IuLLer Is
reuIIy LIe cuse Is cIeur I rom LIe IoIIowIng.
I concI ude u conLrucL ubouL u LIIng LIuL wunL Lo ucquIre,
I or exumpI e, u Iorse, und uL LIe sume LIme puL IL In my sLubIe or
oLIerwIse In my pIysIcuI possessIon, IL Is LIen mI ne (ti pccti re
initi), und my rIgIL Is u riht to the thin. BuL II Ieuve IL In LIe
seIIer's Iunds, wILIouL mukI ng uny sepuruLe urrungemenLs wILI
II m us Lo wIo Is Lo be In pIysIcuI possessIon oI LIe LII ng (holdin
IL) beI ore Luke possessIon oI IL (cpprehensio), und so beI ore LIe
cIunge oI possessIon, LIen LIIs Iorse Is noL yeL mIne, und wIuL
Iuve ucquIred Is onIy u rIgIL uguInsL u specIIIc person, numeI y LIe
seIIer, to put me in possession (poscendi trcditionem), wIIcI Is LIe
subjecLIve condILIon oI ILs beI ng possIbIe Ior me Lo use IL us
pIeuse. My rIgIL Is onIy u rIgIL uguInsL u person, Lo requI re oI LIe
seIIer perjormcnce (prcestctio) oI IIs promIse Lo puL me In posses-
sIon oI LIe LIIng. Now II u conLrucL does noL IncIude deIIvery ct
the scme time (us pcctum re initum), so LIuL some LIme eIupses
beLween ILs beI ng concI uded und my LukIng possessIon oI wIuL |z;6|
um ucquIrIng, durI ng LIIs LIme cunnoL guIn possessIon wILIouL
exercIsIng u sepuruLe ucL Lo esLubIIsI LIuL rIgIL, numeIy u posses-
sor cct (cctum possessorium), wII cI consLILuLes u sepuruLe conLrucL.
TII s conLrucL consIsLs In my suyIng LIuL sIuII send I or LIe LIIng
(LIe Iorse) und LIe seIIer's ugreeI ng Lo IL. or IL Is noL u muLLer oI
course LIuL LIe seIIer wIII Luke cIurge, uL IIs own rIsk, oI some-
LIIng I or unoLIer' s use; LIIs InsLeud requIres u sepuruLe conLrucL,
by wIIcI LIe one wIo Is uIIenuLIng u LII ng sLIII remuIns ILs owner
jor c specijied time (und musL beur uny rIsk LIuL mI gIL uI I ecL IL).
OnI y II LIe one wIo Is ucquI rI ng LIe LII ng deIuys beyond LIIs
LIme cun LIe seIIer regurd II m us ILs owner und LIe LII ng us
deI Ivered Lo IIm. BeI ore LIIs possessory ucL uII LIuL Ius been
ucquIred L IrougI LIe conLrucL Is LIereIore u rIgIL uguInsL u per-
son, und LIe promIsee cun ucquIre un exLernuI LIIng onIy by ILs
beI ng deIIvered.
SecLIon
On RIgILs Lo Persons AkIn Lo RIgILs
Lo TIIngs
qq
!""#
TII s RI gIL Is LIuL oI possessIon oI un exLernuI objecL cs c thin und use
oI IL cs c person. WIuL Is mIne or yours In Lerms oI LIIs RI gIL Is wIuL Is
mIne or yours domesticcll, und LIe reIuLIon oI persons In LIe domesLIc
condILIon Is LIuL oI u communI Ly oI I ree beIngs wIo I or m u socIeLy oI
members oI u wIoI e cuIIed u household (oI persons sLundIng In commu-
nit wILI one unoLIer) by LIeIr uI I ecLI ng one unoLIer In uccordunce
wILI LIe prIncIpIe oI ouLer I reedom (ccusclit). AcquIsILIon oI LIIs
sLuLus, und wILIIn IL, LIereI ore Lukes pIuce neILIer by u deed on one' s
own InILIuLIve (jccto) nor by u conLrucL (pccto) uIone buL by prIncIpIe
(:lee); Ior, sInce LIIs kInd oI rIgIL Is neILIer u rI gIL Lo u LIIng nor
mereIy u rIgIL uguInsL u person buL uIso possessIon oI u person, IL musL
be u rI gIL IyIng beyond uny rIgILs Lo LIIngs und uny rIgILs uguInsL per-
sons. TIuL Is Lo suy, IL musL be LIe RIgIL oI IumunI Ly In our own
person, I rom wIIcI LIere IoIIows u nuLuruI permIssIve prIncIpIe, by
LIe I uvor oI wII cI LIIs sorL oI ucquIsILIon Is possIbIe I or us.
|z;;| z.
n Lerms oI LIe objecL, ucquIsILIon In uccordunce wILI LIIs prIncIpIe Is
oI LIree kInds: A mcn ucquIres u uije, u couple ucquIres children, und u
jcmil ucquIres sertcnts. WIuLever Is ucquIred In LIIs wuy Is uIso InuIIen-
ubIe und LIe rI gIL oI possessors oI LIese objecLs Is LIe most personcl oI
uII rIgILs.
!" $%& '()%$ *+ ,*-&.$(/ 0*/(&$1
2($3& 45
6788(7)& '()%$
zq.
Sexucl union (commercium sexucle) Is LIe recIprocuI use LIuL one Iumun
beI ng mukes oI LIe sexuuI orguns und cupucILIes oI unoL Ier (usus mem-
brorum et jccultctum sexuclium clterius). TII s Is eILIer u ncturcl use (by
wIIcI procreuLI on oI u beI ng oI LIe sume kInd Is possIbIe) or un unnct-
urcl use, und unnuLuruI use Lukes pIuce eILIer wILI u person oI LIe
sume sex or wILI un unImuI oI u nonIumun specIes. SInce sucI Lruns-
gressIons oI prIncIpIe, cuIIed unnuLuruI (criminc ccrnis contrc ncturcm)
or uIso unmenLI onubI e vIces, do wrong Lo IumunILy In our own per-
son, LIere ure no IImILuLIons or excepLIons wIuLsoever LIuL cun suve
LIem I rom beI ng repudI uLed compIeLeIy.
NuLuruI sexuuI unIon Lukes pIuce eILIer In uccordunce wILI mere
unImuI ncture (tcc libido, tenus tolitcc, jornicctio) or In uccordunce
wILI principle. SexuuI unI on In uccordunce wILI prIncIpI e Is mcrrice
(mctrimonium), LIuL Is, LIe unI on oI Lwo persons oI dI I I erenL sexes I or
I I IeI ong possessIon oI eucI oLIer' s sexuuI uLLrIbuLes. TIe end oI begeL-
LIng und brI ngI ng up cIIIdren muy be un end oI nuLure, I or wII cI IL
I mpI unLed LIe IncIInuLIons oI LIe sexes Ior eucI oLIer; buL IL Is noL
requisite Ior Iumun beIngs wIo murry Lo muke LIIs LIeIr end In order
Ior LIeIr unI on Lo be compuLIbIe wILI rIgILs, I or oLIerwIse murrI uge
wouI d be dIssoIved wIen procreuLIon ceuses.
Even II IL Is supposed LIuL LIeIr end Is LIe pIeusure oI usI ng eucI
oLIer' s sexuuI uLLrIbuLes, LIe murrI uge conLrucL Is noL up Lo LIeIr dIs-
|z;8| creLIon buL Is u conLrucL LIuL Is necessury by LIe prIncIpIe oI IumunI Ly,
LIuL Is, II u mun und u womun wunL Lo enjoy eucI oLIer' s sexuuI
uLLrIbuLes LIey must necessurIIy murry, und LIIs Is necessury In uccor-
dunce wILI pure reuson' s prIncIpIes oI RIgIL.
z.
or LIe nuLuruI use LIuL one sex mukes oI LIe oLIer' s sexuuI orguns Is
enjoment, Ior wIIcI one gIves ILseII up Lo LIe oLIer. n LIIs ucL u Iumun
beI ng mukes IImseII InLo u LIIng, wIIcI conIIIcLs wILI LIe RI gIL oI
IumunI Ly In IIs own person. TIer e Is onIy one condILIon under wIIcI
LIIs Is possIbIe: LIuL wIIIe one person Is ucquIred by LIe oLIer cs ij it
uere c thin, LIe one wIo Is ucquIred ucquIres LIe oLIer In Lurn; I or In
LIIs wuy eucI recIuIms ILseII und resLores ILs personuIILy. BuL ucquI rI ng
u member oI u Iumun beI ng Is uL LIe sume LIme ucquI rI ng LIe wIoI e
person, sInce u person Is un ubsoIuLe unILy. Hence IL Is noL onIy udmIs-
sIbIe I or LIe sexes Lo surrender Lo und uccepL eucI oLIer Ior enj oymenL
under LIe condILIon oI murrIuge, buL IL Is possIbIe I or LIem Lo do so
onl under LIIs condILIon. TIuL LIIs riht ccinst c person Is uIso clin to
c riht to c thin resLs on LIe IucL LIuL II one oI LIe purLners In u mur-
rIuge Ius I eIL or gIven ILseII InLo someone eIse's possessIon, LIe oLIer
purLner Is j usLI II ed, uIwuys und wILIouL quesLIon, In brI ngI ng ILs purL-
ner buck under ILs conLroI, j usL us IL Is j usLI II ed In reLrIevIng u LIIng.
z6.
or LIe sume reusons, LIe reIuLIon oI LIe purLners In u murrI uge Is u
reIuLIon oI equclit oI possessIon, equuIILy boLI In LIeIr possessIon oI
eucI oLIer us persons (Ience onIy In monocm, sInce In poI ygumy LIe
person wIo surrenders IerseII guIns onIy u purL oI LIe mun wIo geLs
Ier compI eLeI y, und LIereI ore mukes IerseI I InLo u mere LIIng), und
uIso equuIILy In LIeIr possessIon oI muLerIuI goods. As I or LIese, LIe
purLners ure sLIII uuLIorIzed Lo I orgo LIe use oI u purL, L IougI onIy by
u sepuruLe conLrucL.
or LIIs reuson IL IoIIows LIuL neILIer concubI nuge nor II rI ng
u person I or enj oymenL on one occusIon (pcctumjornicctionis) Is u
conLrucL LIuL couI d IoId In RIgIL. As I or LIe IuLLer, everyone wIII
udmIL LIuL u person wIo Ius concI uded sucI u conLrucL couI d noL |z;q|
rI gILIuI I y be IeI d Lo LIe IuI II I I menL oI Ier promIse II sIe regreLs
IL. So, wILI regurd Lo LIe I ormer, u conLrucL Lo be u concubine (us
pcctum turpe) uIso comes Lo noLII ng; Ior LIIs wouI d be u conLrucL
Lo let und hire (locctio-conductio) u member Ior unoLIer' s use, In
wIIcI, becuuse oI LIe InsepurubIe unILy oI members In u person,
sIe wouI d be surrenderI ng IerseII us u LIIng Lo LIe oLIer' s cIoIce.
AccordI ngI y, eILIer purLy cun cunceI LIe conLrucL wILI LIe oLIer
us soon us IL pIeuses wILIouL LIe oLIer IuvIng grounds I or com-
pI uInIng ubouL uny I nI rI ngemenL oI ILs rIgILs. TIe sume consId-
eruLIons uIso IoI d Ior u morgunuLIc murrI uge, wII cI Lukes udvun-
Luge oI LIe InequuIILy oI EsLuLe oI LIe Lwo purLIes Lo gIve one oI
LIem domI nuLI on over LIe oLIer; I or In IucL morgunuLIc murrI uge
Is noL dI I I erenL, In Lerms oI nuLuruI RIgIL onIy, I rom concubI nuge
und Is no Lrue murrIuge. I LIe quesLIon Is LIereI ore posed,
wIeLIer IL Is uIso In conIIIcL wILI LIe equuIILy oI LIe purLners I or
LIe Iuw Lo suy oI LIe Iusbund' s reIuLIon Lo LIe wI Ie, Ie Is Lo be
your musLer (Ie Is LIe purLy Lo dIrecL, sIe Lo obey): TII s cunnoL
be regurded us conIIIcLIng wILI LIe nuLuruI equuIILy oI u coupI e II
LIIs domI nunce Is bused onIy on LIe nuLuruI superIorILy oI LIe
Iusbund Lo LIe wI Ie In IIs cupucILy Lo promoLe LIe common
InLeresL oI LIe IouseIoI d, und LIe rIgIL Lo dIrecL LIuL Is bused on
LIIs cun be derI ved I rom LIe very duLy oI unILy und equuIILy wILI
respecL Lo LIe end.
z;.
A murrI uge conLrucL Is consummcted onIy b conjucl sexucl intercourse
(copulc ccrnclis). A conLrucL mude beLween Lwo persons oI opposILe
sex, eILIer wILI u LucIL undersLundI ng Lo reIruI n I rom sexuuI InLer-
course or wILI uwureness LIuL one or boLI ure IncupubIe oI IL, Is u
simulcted contrcct, wIIcI InsLILuLes no murrI uge und cun uIso be dIs-
soIved by eILIer oI LIem wIo pIeuses. BuL II IncupucILy uppeurs onIy
uILerwurds, LIuL rIgIL cunnoL be IorIeI Led L IrougI LIIs uccIdenL I or
wIIcI no one Is uL IuuIL.
|z8o| Aquisition oI u wI I e or oI u Iusbund LIereI ore Lukes pIuce neILIer
jccto (by InLercourse) wILIouL u conLrucL precedI ng IL nor pccto (by u
mere murrI uge conLrucL wILIouL InLercourse IoI I owI ng IL) buL onIy lee,
LIuL Is, us LIe rI gILIuI consequence oI LIe obIIguLIon noL Lo enguge In
sexuuI unI on excepL L IrougI possession oI eucI oLIer' s person, wIIcI Is
reuIIzed onIy L IrougI LIe use oI LIeIr sexuuI uLLrIbuLes by eucI oLIer.
!"#$% ''(
)*+%,#*$ -"./#
z8.
JusL us LIere urose I rom one' s duLy Lo oneseII, LIuL Is, Lo LIe IumunI Ly
In one' s own person, u rIgIL (ius personcle) oI boLI sexes Lo ucquIre eucI
oLIer us persons in the mcnner oj thins by murrI uge, so LIere IoIIows
I rom procrection In LIIs communI Ly u duLy Lo preserve und cure I or ILs
ojjsprin, LIuL Is, cIIIdren, us persons, Iuve by LIeIr procreuLI on un
orIgInuI InnuLe (noL ucquIred) rIgIL Lo LIe cure oI LIeIr purenLs unLII
LIey ure ubIe Lo Iook uILer LIemseIves, und LIey Iuve LIIs rI gIL dIrecLIy
on LIe busIs oI prIncIpIe (lee), LIuL Is, wILIouL uny specIuI ucL beI ng
requI red Lo esLubIIsI LIIs rIgIL.
or LIe oI I sprI ng Is u person, und IL Is ImpossIbIe Lo I orm u concepL
oI LIe producLI on oI u beIng endowed wILI I reedom L IrougI u pIysI-
The Doctrine oj Riht qq
cuI operuLI on. So I rom u prccticcl poInL oI vIew IL Is u quILe correcL und |z81|
even necessury deu Lo regurd LIe ucL oI procreuLIon us one by wIIcI
we Iuve brougIL u person InLo LIe worI d wILIouL IIs consenL und on
our own InILIuLIve, I or wIIcI deed LIe purenLs Incur un obIIguLIon Lo
muke LIe cIIId conLenL wILI IIs condILIon so I ur us LIey cun. TIey
cunnoL desLroy LIeIr cIIId us II Ie were someLII ng LIey Iud mcde (sInce
u beI ng endowed wILI I reedom cunnoL be u producL oI LIIs kInd) or us
II Ie were LIeIr properLy, nor cun LIey even j usL ubundon II m Lo
cIunce, sInce LIey Iuve brougIL noL mereI y u worIdIy beI ng buL u cILI-
zen oI LIe worI d InLo u condILIon wIIcI cunnoL now be I ndI I I erenL Lo
LIem even j usL uccordI ng Lo concepLs oI RIgIL.
!"#$
rom LIIs duLy LIere musL necessurIIy uIso urIse LIe rIgIL oI purenLs Lo
mcnce und deveI op LIe cIIId, us I ong us Ie Ius noL yeL musLered LIe
use oI IIs members or oI IIs undersLundI ng: LIe rI gIL noL onIy Lo I eed
und cure I or II m buL Lo educuLe IIm, Lo deveI op IIm boLI prcmcti-
ccll, so LIuL In LIe I uL ure Ie cun Iook uILer IImseII und muke IIs wuy
In IIIe, und morcll, sInce oLIerwIse LIe IuuIL Ior IuvI ng negIecLed IIm
wouI d IuII on LIe purenLs. TIey Iuve LIe rIgIL Lo do uII LIIs unLII LIe
LIme oI IIs emuncIpuLIon (emcncipctio), wIen LIey renounce LIeIr
purenLuI rIgIL Lo dIrecL IIm us weII us uny cIuIm Lo be compensuLed I or
LIeIr supporL und puIns up LIII now. AI L er LIey Iuve compI eLed IIs
No concepL cun be I or med oI Iow IL Is possIbIe I or God to crecte I r ee beI ngs, I or IL
seems us II uII LIeI r I uL ur e ucLIons wouI d Iuve Lo be pr edeL er mI ned by LIuL IIrsL ucL,
I ncI uded In LIe cIuI n oI nuLuruI necessILy und L Ier eI or e noL I ree. BuL LIuL sucI
beI ngs (we men) ure sLIII I r ee LIe cuLegorI cuI I mperuL I ve proves I or moruI I y prucLI cuI
purposes, us L Ir ougI un uuLIorI LuLI ve decI sI on oI reuson wI L IouL ILs beI ng ubI e Lo
muke LIIs reI uLI on oI cuuse Lo eI I ecL compreIensI bI e I or LIeoreLI cuI purposes, sInce
boL I ure supersensI bI e. AI I LIuL one cun requI re oI reuson Ier e wouI d be mereI y Lo
pr ove LIuL L Iere Is no conLrudI cLI on In LIe concepL oI u crection oj jree beins, und IL
cun do LIIs II IL sIows LIuL LIe conL rudI cL I on urIses onI y II, uI ong wI LI LIe cuL egory
oI cuusuIILy, LIe temporcl condition, wII cI cunnoL be uvoI ded In reI uLI on Lo sensIbIe
obj ecLs (numeI y, LIuL LIe gr ound oI un eI I ecL precedes IL), Is uIso I nL r oduced In LIe
reI uLI on oI supersensI bI e beI ngs. As I or LIe supersensI bI e, II LIe cuusuI concepL Is Lo
obLuI n obj ecLI ve reuIILy I or LIeoreLI cuI purposes, LIe L emporuI condI L I on wouI d Iuve
Lo be I nL roduced Ier e Loo. BuL LIe conLrudI cLI on vunI sIes II LIe pur e cuL egory
(wI LIouL u scIemu puL under IL) Is used In LIe concepL oI creuLI on wILI u moruI I y
prucLIcuI und L Ier eI or e non-sensI bI e I nLenL.
I LIe pII I osopII c j urI sL reII ecLs on LIe dI I I I cuI L y oI LIe pr obI em Lo be resoI ved
und LIe necessILy oI soI vI ng IL Lo suLIsIy prI ncI pI es oI RI gIL In LIIs muLLer, Ie wIII noL
IoI d LIIs I nvesLI guLI on, uII LIe wuy buck Lo LIe IIrsL eI emenL s oI L runscendenL uI
pII I osopIy In u meLupIysI cs oI moruI s, Lo be unnecessury ponder I ng LIuL geLs IosL
In poI nLI ess obscurI Ly.
! " " Metcphsics oj Morcls
educuLIon, LIe onIy obIIguLIon (Lo IIs purenLs) wILI wII cI LIey cun
cIurge IIm Is u mere duLy oI vIrLue, numeIy LIe duLy oI gruLILude.
|z8z| rom u cIIId' s personuIILy IL uIso IoIIows LIuL LIe rIgIL oI purenLs Is
noL j usL u rIgIL Lo u LIIng, sInce u cIIId cun never be consI dered us LIe
properLy oI IIs purenLs, so LIuL LIeIr rIgIL Is noL uIIenubIe (ius person-
clissimum). BuL LIIs rIgIL Is uIso noL j usL u rIgIL uguInsL u person, sInce
u cIIId sLIII beI ongs Lo IIs purenLs us wIuL Is LIeIrs (Is sLIII In LIeIr
possession IIke u LII ng und cun be brougIL buck even uguInsL IIs wIII InLo
IIs purenLs' possessIon I rom unoLIer' s possessIon). L Is, InsLeud, u
rIgIL Lo u person clin to c riht to c thin.
rom LIIs IL Is evIdenL LIuL, In LIe docLrIne oI RIgIL, LIere musL
necessurIIy be udded Lo LIe IeudIngs rIgILs Lo LIIngs und rIgILs uguInsL
persons LIe IeudI ng rihts to persons clin to rihts to thins, LIe dIvIsIon
mude up LIII now Ius noL been compI eLe. or wIen we speuk oI LIe
rIgILs oI purenLs Lo cIIIdren us purL oI LIeIr IouseIoI d, we ure reIer-
rI ng noL mereIy Lo LIe cIIIdren' s duLy Lo reLurn wIen LIey Iuve run
uwuy buL Lo LIe purenLs' beI ng j usLI II ed In LukIng conLroI oI LIem und
I mpoundI ng LIem us LIIngs (IIke domesLIc unImuIs LIuL Iuve gone
usLruy).
!"#$% '''(
)"*+# ,- . /%.0 ,- #+% /,12%+,$0
!%&$
TIe cIII dren oI u IouseIoI d, wIo LogeLIer wILI LIeIr purenLs I ormed
u jcmil, reucI LIeIr mcjorit (mciorennes) wILIouL uny conLrucL Lo wILI-
druw I rom LIeIr I ormer dependence, mereIy by uLLuInIng LIe ubIIILy Lo
supporL LIemseIves (wIIcI Iuppens purLIy us u nuLuruI comI ng oI uge
In LIe generuI course oI nuLure, purLIy In keepI ng wILI LIeIr purLIcuIur
nuLuruI quuIILIes). n oLIer words, LIey become LIeIr own musLers (sui
iuris) und ucquIre LIIs rIgIL wILIouL uny specIuI ucL Lo esLubIIsI IL und
so mereIy by prIncIpIe (lee). JusL us LIey ure noL In debL Lo LIeIr
purenLs I or LIeIr educuLIon, so LIe purenLs ure reIeused In LIe sume
wuy I rom LIeIr obIIguLIon Lo LIeIr cIII dren, und boLI cII I dren und
purenLs ucquIre or reucquIre LIeIr nuLuruI I reedom. TIe domesLIc
socIeLy LIuL wus necessury on prIncIpIe Is now dIssoIved.
|z8| BoLI purLIes cun now muInLuIn wIuL Is ucLuuIIy LIe sume IouseIoI d
buL wILI u dI I I erenL I orm oI obIIguLIon, numeIy, us LIe connecLIon oI
LIe Ieud oI LIe IouseIoI d wILI servunLs (muIe or I emuI e servunLs
oI LIe Iouse). WIuL LIey muInLuIn Is LIe sume domesLIc socIeLy buL IL
Is now u socIeLy under the hecd oj the household (societcs herelis), I ormed
by u conLrucL L IrougI wIIcI LIe Ieud oI LIe IouseIoI d esLubIIsIes u
domesLIc socIeLy wILI LIe cIII dren wIo Iuve now uLLuIned LIeIr mujor-
ILy or, II LIe IumIIy Ius no cIIIdren, wILI oLIer I ree persons (members
The Doctrine oj Riht 1o1
oI LIe IouseIoI d). TII s wouI d be u socIeLy oI unequuIs (one purLy bein
in commcnd or beI ng ILs Ieud, LIe oLIer obein, I.e., servIng) (impercntis
et subiecti domestici).
ServunLs ure IncI uded In wIuL beIongs Lo LIe Ieud oI u IouseIoI d
und, us I ur us LIe I orm (LIe uc oj his bein in possession )
q
Is concerned,
LIey ure IIs by u rIgIL LIuL Is IIke u rIgIL Lo u LIIng; Ior II LIey run uwuy
I rom IIm Ie cun brI ng LIem buck In IIs conLroI by IIs unIIuLeruI
cIoIce. BuL us Iur us LIe muLLer Is concerned, LIuL Is, wIuL use Ie cun
muke oI LIese members oI IIs IouseIoI d, Ie cun never beIuve us
II Ie owned LIem (dominus serti); I or IL Is onIy by u conLrucL LIuL Ie
Ius brougIL LIem under IIs conLroI, und u conLrucL by wIIcI one
purLy wouI d compIeLeIy renounce ILs I reedom Ior LIe oLIer' s udvun-
Luge wouI d be seII-conLrudIcLory, LIuL Is, nuII und voId, sInce by IL one
purLy wouI d ceuse Lo be u person und so wouI d Iuve no duLy Lo keep
LIe conLrucL buL wouI d recognIze onIy Iorce. (TIe rIgIL oI ownersII p
wILI regurd Lo someone wIo Ius IorIeI Led IIs personuIILy by u crIme Is
noL under consIderuLIon Iere.)
TIe conLrucL oI LIe Ieud oI u IouseIoI d wILI servunLs cun LIereI ore
noL be sucI LIuL IIs use oI LIem wouI d umounL Lo usin them up; und IL
Is noL I or IIm uIone Lo j udge ubouL LIIs, buL uIso I or LIe servunLs (wIo,
uccordIngI y, cun never be serIs); so LIe conLrucL cunnoL be concI uded
I or IIIe buL uL mosL onIy I or un unspecI II ed LIme, wILIIn wIIcI one
purLy muy gIve LIe oLIer noLIce. BuL cIII dren (even LIose oI someone
wIo Ius become u sIuve L IrougI IIs crIme) ure uL uII LImes Iree. or
every mun Is born Iree, sInce Ie Ius noL yeL commILLed u crIme; und
LIe cosL oI educuLI ng IIm unLII Ie comes oI uge cunnoL be uccounLed
uguInsL IIm us u debL LIuL Ie Ius Lo puy oI I . or LIe sIuve wouI d Iuve
Lo educuLe IIs cIII dren II Ie couI d, wILIouL cIurgI ng LIem wILI LIe
cosL oI LIeIr educuLIon, und II Ie cunnoL LIe obIIguLIon devoIves on
IIs possessor.
|z8q|
So we see Iere uguIn, us In LIe Lwo precedI ng IeudIngs, LIuL LIere Is u
rIgIL Lo persons ukIn Lo u rIgIL Lo LIIngs (oI LIe Ieud oI LIe Iouse over
servunLs); I or Ie cun IeLcI servunLs buck und demund LIem I rom
unyone In possessIon oI LIem, us wIuL Is exLernuIIy IIs, even beI ore LIe
reusons LIuL muy Iuve Ied LIem Lo run uwuy und LIeIr rIgILs Iuve been
InvesLIguLed.
3,*4.#"5 3"6"2",7
,- 8$$ )"*+#2 !+.# 9.7 :% 85;1"<%0 => 9,7#<.5#
1.
A meLupIysIcuI docLrIne oI RIgIL cun be requI red Lo enumeruLe c priori
LIe members oI u dIvIsIon (ditisio loicc) In u compI eLe und deII nI Le
!o" Metcphsics oj Morcls
wuy, und Lo esLubIIsI LIereby u Lrue sstem oI LIem. nsLeud oI provI d-
I ng u sysLem, uny empiriccl ditision Is mereIy jrcmentcr (pcrtitio), und
Ieuves IL uncerLuIn wIeLIer LIere ure noL uddILIonuI members LIuL
wouI d be needed Lo IIII ouL LIe enLIre spIere oI LIe concepL dI vI ded.
A dIvIsIon In uccordunce wILI un u prIorI prIncIpIe (In conLrusL wILI
empIrIcuI dIvIsIons) cun be cuIIed domctic.
Every conLrucL consIsLs In ILseII, LIuL Is, consI dered objectitel, oI Lwo
ucLs LIuL esLubIIsI u rIgIL: u promI se und ILs uccepLunce. AcquIsILIon
L IrougI uccepLunce Is noL u pcrt oI u conLrucL (unIess LIe conLrucL Is
c. pcctum re initum, wIIcI requIres deIIvery) buL LIe rIgILIuIIy necessury
result oI IL. BuL consI dered subjectitel - LIuL Is, us Lo wIeL Ier LIIs
ruLIonuIIy necessury resuIL (LIe ccquisition wIIcI ouht Lo occur) wIII
ucLuuIIy result (be LIe ncturcl resuIL) - uccepLI ng LIe promI se sLIII gIves
me no ucrcntee LIuL IL wIII ucLuuIIy resuIL. SInce LIIs guurunLee beI ongs
exLernuIIy Lo LIe moduIILy oI u conLrucL, numeIy certcint oI ucquIsILIon
by meuns oI u conLrucL, IL Is un uddILIonuI IucLor servI ng Lo compI eLe
LIe meuns I or ucIIevIng LIe ucquIsILIon LIuL Is LIe purpose oI u con-
LrucL. or LIIs, LIree persons ure InvoIved: u promisor, un ccceptor, und
u ucrcntor. TIe uccepLor, I ndeed, guIns noLII ng more wILI regurd Lo
LIe objecL by meuns oI LIe guurunLor und IIs sepuruLe conLrucL wILI
LIe promIsor, buL Ie sLIII guIns LIe meuns oI coercIon I or obLuI nI ng
wIuL Is IIs.
|z8| n uccordunce wILI LIese prIncIpIes oI IogIcuI (ruLIonuI) dIvIsIon
LIere ure, sLrIcLIy speukIng, onIy LIree sImpIe und pure kInds oI con-
LrucL. TIer e ure I nnumerubI e mI xed und empIrIcuI kInds oI conLrucL,
wIIcI udd sLuLuLory und convenLIonuI Iuws Lo LIe prIncIpIes oI wIuL Is
mIne or yours In uccordunce wILI pure Iuws oI reuson; buL LIey IIe
beyond LIe spIere oI LIe meLupIysIcuI docLrIne oI RIgIL, wII cI Is uII
LIuL sIouId be consI dered Iere.
Every conLrucL Ius Ior ILs purpose eILIer A, unilctercl ucquIsI-
LIon (u gruLuILous conLrucL) or B, ucquIsILIon b both pcrties (un
onerous conLrucL), or no ucquIsILIon buL onIy C, ucrcnteein uhct
belons to someone (LIIs conLrucL cun be gruLuILous on one sIde buL
cun sLIII be onerous on LIe oLIer sIde).
A. A rctuitous conLrucL (pcctum rctuitum) Is:
u) Keepin goods on LrusL (depositum),
b) Lendin u LIIng (commodctum),
c) Mclin c ijt (donctio).
:? Onerous conLrucLs.
'? A conLrucL Lo cliencte someLII ng (permutctio lcte sic dictc).
u) crter (permutctio stride sic dictc). Goods I or goods.
b) uin cnd sellin (emtio tenditio). Goods I or money.
The Doctrine oj Riht 1o
c) Locn jor Consumption (mutuum). endI ng u LII ng on LIe
condILIon oI ILs beI ng reLurned onIy In kInd (e.g., gruIn
I or gruIn, or money Ior money).
. A conLrucL Lo let und hire (locctio conductio).
u. Lendin c thin oj mine Lo unoLIer Ior IIs use (locctio
rei). nsoIur us LIe conLrucL Is onerous, u pcment oj
interest muy uIso be udded (pcctum usurcrium) II repuy-
menL cun be mude onIy In kInd,
. A conLrucL oI lettin oj uorl on IIre, LIuL Is, grunLI ng
unoLIer LIe use oI my powers I or u specIIIed prIce
(merces). By LIIs conLrucL LIe worker Is II red IeI p
(mercenncrius).
;. A contrcct empouerin cn cent. CurryI ng on unoLIer' s
uIIuI rs In IIs pIuce und in his ncme. I someone currIes
on unoLIer' s uIIuIrs In pIuce oI IIm buL noL uIso In IIs
nume, LIIs Is cuIIed ccrrin on his cjjcirs wILIouL beI ng
commissioned Lo do so (estio neotii)', buL wIen LIIs Is
done In LIe oLIer' s nume we speuk oI u mcndcte. As u
conLrucL oI IIrIng LIIs Is un onerous conLrucL (mcndc-
tum onerosum).
C. Contrccts protidin securit (ccutio). |z86|
u) A j oI nL itin cnd tclin oj c plede (pinus).
b) Assumin licbilit I or unoLIer' s promIse (jideiussio).
c) Personcll touchin jor c person's perjormcnce oI someLII ng
(prcestctio obsidis).
n LIIs LubIe oI uII LIe wuys oI trcnsjerrin (trcnslctio) wIuL
beI ongs Lo one Lo unoLIer ure Lo be I ound concepLs oI objecLs or
InsLrumenLs oI LrunsIer LIuL |seem Lo be| enLIreIy empIrIcuI und
LIuL, even In Lerms oI LIeIr possIbIIILy, Iuve no proper pIuce In u
metcphsiccl docLrIne oI RIgIL, In wIIcI dIvIsIon musL be mude
In uccordunce wILI u prIorI prIncIpIes, ubsLrucLIng I rom LIe muL-
Ler LIuL Is excIunged (wIIcI couI d be convenLIonuI) und con-
sIderIng onIy LIe I orm. SucI, I or exumpI e, Is LIe concepL oI
mone, In conLrusL Lo uII oLIer uIIenubIe LIIngs, numeI y oods,
under LIe IeudI ng oI buin cnd sellin, us weII us LIe concepL oI
u bool. BuL IL wIII be sIown LIuL LIe concepL oI money, us LIe
greuLesL und mosL useIuI meuns men Iuve Ior exchcne oI LIIngs,
cuIIed buin cnd sellin (commerce), und so Loo LIe concepL oI u
book, us LIe greuLesL meuns I or excIungI ng LIougILs, cun sLIII be
resoIved InLo pure InLeIIecLuuI reIuLIons. So LIe LubIe oI pure
conLrucLs need noL be mude I mpure by unyLII ng empIrIcuI mI xed
InLo IL.
I.
Whct Is Mone?
Mone Is u L II ng LIuL cun be used onIy by beI ng cliencted. TII s Is u good
nomincl dejinition [.Ncmenerllcrun| oI IL (us gI ven by AcIenwuI I ! " #
$
LIuL
Is Lo suy, IL Is suI I I cI enL I or dI sLI nguI sII ng LIIs kI nd oI obj ecL oI cIoI ce
I r om uny oLIer, L IougI IL LeIIs us noL II ng ubouL LIe possIbIIILy oI sucI
u LII ng. SLIII, I r om LIe nomI nuI deI I nI LI on one cun see LIIs mucI: jirst,
LIuL LIe uIIenuLIon oI money In excIunge Is I nL ended noL us u gI I L buL
I or reciproccl ucquIsILIon (by u pcctum onerosum); und second, LIuL money
represents uII goods, sInce IL Is conceI ved us u unIversuIIy uccepLed mere
mecns oI commerce (wILIIn u nuLIon), us opposed Lo LII ngs wII cI ure
|z8;| oods, wII cI Iuve vuI ue In LIemseI ves und ure reI uLed Lo LIe purLI cuI ur
needs oI one or unoL Ier In LIe nuLIon.
A busIeI oI gruI n Ius LIe greuLesL dIrecL vuI ue us u meuns I or
suLIsIyIng Iumun needs. L cun be used us I odder I or unImuIs, wII cI
nourI sI us, LrunsporL us, und work In pIuce oI us; by meuns oI IL,
I urL Iermore, LIe Iumun popuI uL I on Is I ncreused und preserved, und
In Lurn noL onI y ruIses LIese nuLuruI producLs uguI n buL uIso IeI ps Lo
suLIsIy our needs wILI LIe producLs oI urL, by buI I dI ng Iouses, mukI ng
cIoLIes, provI dI ng LIe enj oymenL s we seek und, In generuI , uII LIe
convenI ences LIuL I or m LIe goods oI IndusLry [Industrie], By conLrusL,
LIe vuI ue oI money Is onI y IndIrecL. One cunnoL enj oy money ILseII or
muke I mmedI uL e use oI IL In uny wuy. YeL IL Is sLIII u meuns LIuL, umong
uII LIIngs, Ius LIe greuLesL useIuI ness.
On LIIs busIs u preI I mI nury recl dejinition oI money cun be gI ven: IL
Is LIe unIversuI mecns b uhich men exchcne their industriousness |or
I ndusLry|
q;
uith one cnother. TIus u nuLIon' s weuI LI, I nsoI ur us IL Is
ucquI red by meuns oI money, Is reuIIy onIy LIe sum oI LIe I ndusLry
wILI wII cI men puy one unoL Ier und wII cI Is represenL ed by LIe
money In cIrcuI uLIon wILIIn IL.
T I e LII ng Lo be cuIIed money musL, L IereI ore, Iuve cosL us mucI
industr Lo pr oduce or Lo obLuI n I r om oLIer men us LIe industr by
wII cI LIose goods (nuLuruI or urLIIIcIuI producLs) ure ucquI red I or
wII cI LIuL I ndusLry Is excIunged. or I I IL were eusIer Lo pr ocure LIe
sL uI I cuIIed money LIun goods, more money wouI d L Ien come InLo
LIe murkeL LIun goods I or suIe; und sInce LIe seIIer wouI d Iuve Lo Iuve
expended mor e IndusLry I or IIs goods LIun LIe buyer, wIo goL LIe
money mor e reudIIy, I ndusLry In producI ng goods, und L IereI ore
Lrude In generuI , wouI d dI mI nI sI und be curLuI I ed, uI ong wILI LIe
producLI ve I ndusLry [Eruerbjleiss] LIuL resuILs In LIe nuLIon' s weuILI.
Hence bunk noLes und promI ssory noLes cunnoL be r egur ded us money,
The Doctrine oj Riht 1o
L IougI LIey cun subsLILuLe I or IL LemporurIIy; I or LIey cosL uImosL no
IndusLry Lo produce und LIeIr vuIue Is bused soIeIy on LIe opI nI on LIuL
LIey wIII conLInue us beI ore Lo be converLIbIe InLo hcrd ccsh, buL II IL Is
evenLuuIIy dIscovered LIuL LIere Is noL enougI Iurd cusI I or wIIcI |z88|
LIey cun be reudIIy und secureIy excIunged, LIIs opI nI on suddenI y
coIIupses und mukes IuIIure oI puymenL InevILubIe. So LIe producLI ve
IndusLry oI LIose wIo work LIe goId und sIIver mInes In Peru or New
MexI co, especIuIIy In vIew oI LIe IndusLry vuInIy expended In seurcIes
I or deposILs LIuL ure so oI Len unsuccessIuI, Is uppurenLI y sLIII greuLer
LIun LIuL expended on LIe munuI ucL ure oI goods In Europe; und LIIs
excess oI IndusLry wouI d be dIsconLInued I rom noL beI ng puId, IeLLIng
LIose counLrIes soon sInk InLo poverLy, II LIe Europeuns dId noL
Increuse LIeIr IndusLry proporLIonuLeI y L IrougI beI ng sLImuIuLed by
LIose very muLerIuIs, so LIuL LIe I uxurIes LIey oI I er consLunLIy sLImu-
IuLe In oLIers u desIre I or mInIng. n LIIs wuy IndusLry |In one counLry|
uIwuys rIvuIs IndusLry |In unoLIer|.
BuL Iow Is IL possIbIe LIuL wIuL were orIgInuIIy onIy goods IInuIIy
becume money? TII s wouI d Iuppen II u powerI uI , opuI enL ruler wIo
orIgInuIIy used u muLerIuI I or LIe udornmenL und spI endor oI IIs
uLLendunLs (IIs courL) cume Lo Ievy Luxes on IIs subjecLs In LIIs muLerIuI
(us goods) (e.g., goId, sIIver, copper, or u kInd oI beuuLI IuI seusIeII,
couries, or us In LIe Congo u kInd oI muLLIng cuIIed mclutes, In SeneguI
Iron IngoLs, or on LIe cousL oI GuI neu even bIuck sIuves), und In Lurn
puId wILI LIIs sume muLerIuI LIose IIs demund moved Lo IndusLry In
procurI ng IL, In uccordunce wILI excIunge reguIuLIons wILI LIem und
umong LIem (on u murkeL or excIunge). n LIIs wuy onIy (so IL seems
Lo me) couI d u cerLuIn mercIundI se Iuve become u I uwIuI meuns oI
excIunge oI LIe IndusLry oI subjecLs wILI one unoLIer, und LIereby
uIso become LIe weuILI oI LIe nuLIon, LIuL Is, mone.
TIe InLeIIecLuuI concepL under wIIcI LIe empIrIcuI concepL oI
money IuIIs Is L IereI ore LIe concepL oI u LIIng LIuL, In LIe cIrcuIuLIon
oI possessIons (permutctio publicc), deLermInes LIe price oI uII oLIer
LIIngs (goods), umong wIIcI even LIe scIences beI ong, InsoIur us LIey
wouI d noL oLIerwIse be LuugIL Lo oLIers. TIe umounL oI money In u
nuLIon L IereI ore consLILuLes ILs weuILI (opulentic). or LIe prIce (pre-
tium) oI u LII ng Is LIe j udgmenL oI LIe pubIIc ubouL ILs tclue (tclor) In
proporLI on Lo LIuL wIIcI serves us LIe unIversuI meuns Lo represenL
recIprocuI excIunge oI industr (ILs cIrcuIuLIon). AccordI ngI y, wIere
LIere Is u greuL deuI oI Lrude, neILIer old nor copper Is regurded us |z8q|
sLrIcLIy money buL onIy us mercIundIse, sInce LIere Is Loo IILLIe goId
und Loo mucI copper I or LIem Lo be eusIIy puL InLo cIrcuIuLIon und yeL
uvuIIubIe In suIIIcIenLIy smuII purLs, us Is necessury Ior LIe excIunge oI
mercIundI se, or u muss oI IL, In LIe smuIIesL purcIuse. Silter (more or
Iess uI I oyed wILI copper) Is, uccordI ngI y, Luken us LIe pr oper muLerI uI
I or money und LIe meusure I or reckonI ng prIces In LIe greuL L rude oI
LIe worI d; oL Ier meLuI s (even mor e so, nonmeLuI I I c muLerIuIs) cun be
I ound us money onI y In u nuLI on wIer e L Iere Is IILLIe Lrude. BuL wIen
LIe IIrsL Lwo meLuIs ure noL onI y weI gIed buL uIso sL umped, LIuL Is,
provI ded wILI u sIgn I ndI cuLI ng Iow mucI LIey ure Lo be worL I, LIey
ure I uwI uI money, LIuL Is, coince.
" Money Is L Ier eI or e" (uccordI ng Lo Adu m SmI LI) "LIuL muLerI uI
L II ng LIe uI I enuLI on oI wII cI Is LIe meuns und uL LIe sume LI me LIe
meusure oI LIe I ndusLry by wII cI men und nuLI ons curry on L rude wI LI
one unoL Ier. "
q8
TII s deI I nI L I on |Erllcrun| brI ngs LIe empI rI cuI con-
cepL oI money Lo un InLeIIecLuuI concepL by I ookI ng onI y Lo LIe jorm oI
wIuL eucI purLy provI des In reL urn I or LIe oL Ier In oner ous conLrucLs
(und ubsLrucLI ng I r om LIeIr muLLer), L Iereby brI ngI ng IL Lo LIe concepL
oI RI gIL In LIe excIunge oI wIuL Is mI ne or yours generuI I y (commutctio
lcte sic dictc), so us Lo presenL LIe LubIe ubove us u dogmuL I c dI vI sI on u
prI orI , wII cI Is upproprI uL e Lo LIe meLupIysI cs oI RI gIL us u sysLem.
Whct Is c ool?
A book Is u wrI L I ng (IL does noL muLLer, Iere, wIeL Ier IL Is wrI LLen In
Iund or seL In Lype, wIeL Ier IL Ius I ew or muny puges), wII cI repre-
senLs u dI scourse LIuL someone deI I vers Lo LIe pubI I c by vIsIbIe IInguIs-
LIc sIgns. One wIo specls Lo LIe pubI I c In IIs own nume Is cuI I ed LIe
cuthor (cutor). One wIo, L Ir ougI u wrI LI ng, dI scourses pubI I cI y In
unoLIer' s (LIe uuLIor' s) nume Is u publisher. WIe n u pubI I sIer does LIIs
wI LI LIe uuLIor' s permI ssI on, Ie Is LIe I egI LI muLe pubI I sIer; buL II Ie
does IL wI L IouL LIe uuLIor' s permI ssI on, Ie Is un IIIegILImuLe pubI I sIer,
LIuL Is, un uncuthorized publisher. T I e sum oI uII LIe reproducL I ons oI
LIe orI gI nuI wrI L I ng (LIe copIes) Is un edition.
Uncuthorized Publishin oj ools
(p
Is Iorbidden cs c Mctter oj Riht
"
A uritin Is noL un I mmedI uL e sIgn oI u concept (us Is, I or exumpI e, un
eL cII ng LIuL represenL s u cerLuI n person In u portrcit, or u work In
|zqo| pI usLer LIuL Is u bust). L Is ruL Ier u discourse Lo LIe pubI I c; LIuL Is, LIe
uuL Ior specls pubIIcIy L Ir ougI LIe pubI I sIer. BuL LIe publisher speuks
( L IrougI IIs I or emun, opercrius, LIe prI nLer), noL In IIs own nume (Ior
Ie wouI d L Ien puss II mseI I oI I us LIe uuLIor), buL In LIe nume oI LIe
uuL Ior; und so Ie Is enLILIed Lo do LIIs onI y wIen LIe uuL Ior ites him
The Doctrine oj Riht $%&
c mcndcte (mcndctum). Now IL Is Lrue LIuL un unuuLIorI zed pubIIsIer
uIso speuks, by un edILIon on IIs own InILIuLIve, In LIe nume oI LIe
uuLIor, buL Ie does so wILIouL IuvI ng been gIven u munduLe by LIe
uuLIor (erit se mcndctcrium cbsque mcndctc). He LIereI ore commILs
LIe crIme oI sLeuIIng LIe proIILs I rom LIe pubIIsIer wIo wus uppoI nLed
by LIe uuLIor (wIo Is LIereI ore LIe onIy IegILImuLe one), proIILs LIe
IegILImuLe pubIIsIer couI d und wouI d Iuve derI ved I rom LIe use oI IIs
rIgIL (jurtum usus). So uncuthorized publishin oj bools is jorbidden cs c
mctter oj Riht.
WIy does unuuLIorI zed pubIIsIIng, wIIcI sLrIkes one even uL IIrsL
gIunce us unjusL, sLIII Iuve un uppeurunce oI beIng rI gILIuI ? Becuuse
on the one hcnd u book Is u corporeuI crtijcct (opus mechcnicum) LIuL
cun be reproduced (by someone In IegILImuLe possessIon oI u copy
oI IL), so LIuL LIere Is u riht to c thin wILI regurd Lo IL. Dn the other
hcnd u book Is uIso u mere discourse oI LIe pubIIsIer Lo LIe pubIIc, wIIcI
LIe pubIIsIer muy noL repeuL pubIIcIy wILIouL IuvI ng u munduLe
I r om LIe uuLIor Lo do so (prcestctio operce), und LIIs Is u riht ccinst
c person. TIe error consIsLs In mIsLukIng one oI LIese rIgILs I or
LIe oLIer.
TIer e Is unoLIer cuse, under conLrucLs Lo IeL und IIre (B, , u), In
wII cI LIe conIusI on oI u rIgIL uguInsL u person wILI u rIgIL Lo u
LIIng Is muLerIuI I or dIspuLes, LIuL oI rentin to c tencnt (ius incolctus).
TIe quesLIon urIses wIeLIer un owner wIo Ius Ieused IIs Iouse (or
Iund) Lo someone und seIIs IL Lo someone eIse beI ore LIe Ieuse expIres
Is bound Lo uLLucI Lo LIe conLrucL oI suIe LIe condILIon LIuL LIe Ieuse Is
Lo conLInue, or wIeLIer one cun suy LIuL purcIuse breuks u Ieuse
(LIougI noLIce Is Lo be gIven LIe Iessee, LIe LIme beI ng deLermI ned by
cusLom). On LIe IIrsL uILernuLIve LIe Iouse ucLuuIIy Iud un encumbrcnce
(onus) on IL, u rI gIL Lo LIIs LII ng LIuL LIe Iessee Iud ucquI red In IL (LIe |zq1|
Iouse). TII s cun I ndeed Luke pIuce (by enLerI ng LIIs encumbrunce In
LIe Iund regIsLer, us I ncI uded In LIe conLrucL Lo Ieuse); buL LIen LIIs
wouI d noL be u mere conLrucL Lo Ieuse, buL one Lo wII cI unoLIer
conLrucL Iud Iud Lo be udded (one Lo wIIcI Iew I undI ords wouI d
ugree). So LIe suyIng "PurcIuse breuks u Ieuse" Is vuIId, LIuL Is, u IuII
rIgIL Lo u LIIng (properLy) ouLweI gIs uny rIgIL uguInsL u person LIuL
cunnoL exIsL LogeLIer wILI IL. BuL IL Is sLIII IeIL open I or LIe Iessee
Lo compI uIn, on LIe busIs oI IIs rIgIL uguInsL u person, LIuL Ie Is Lo
be compensuLed Ior uny dumuges urIsIng I rom LIe breukI ng oI LIe
conLrucL.
EpIsodIc SecLIon.
On "#$%& '()*+,+-+./ oI un ExLernuI
ObjecL oI CIoIce
0123
cuII ucquIsILIon idecl II IL InvoIves no cuusuIILy In LIme und Is L IereI ore
bused on u mere Idec oI pure reuson. L Is noneLIeIess true, noL ImugI-
nury, ucquIsILIon, und LIe onIy reuson do noL cuII IL reuI Is LIuL LIe ucL
oI ucquIrIng Is noL empIrIcuI, sInce LIe subjecL ucquIres I rom unoLIer
wIo eILIer does not et exIsL (onIy LIe possIbIIILy LIuL Ie muy exIsL Is
udmILLed) or wIo Ius cecsed to exist, or wIen LIe subjecL no loner exists,
so LIuL comI ng InLo possessIon Is mereIy u prucLIcuI deu oI reuson.
TIer e ure LIree kInds oI sucI ucquIsILIon: 1) by proloned possession, z)
by inheritcnce, und ) by merit surtitin decth (meritum immortcle), LIuL Is,
LIe cIuIm Lo u good repuLuLIon uILer deuLI. AI I LIree cun, I ndeed, Luke
eI I ecL onIy In u pubIIc rI gILIuI condILIon, buL LIey ure noL bcsed onIy on
ILs consLILuLIon und LIe cIosen sLuLuLes In IL: LIey ure uIso conceIvubIe
u prIorI In LIe sLuLe oI nuLure und musL be conceIved us prI or Lo sucI
sLuLuLes, In order LIuL Iuws In LIe cIvII consLILuLIon muy uI Lerwurds be
udupLed Lo LIem (sunt iuris ncturce).
"3
'()*+,+-+./ 45 67.&./8$# 6.,,$,,+./
9:
!""#
ucquIre unoLIer' s properLy mereIy by lon possession oj it (usuccpio),
noL becuuse muy IegILImuLeIy presume LIuL Ie consenLs Lo my ucquIr-
|zqz| I ng IL (per consensum prcesumtum), nor becuuse cun ussume LIuL, sInce
Ie does noL conLrudIcL me, Ie hcs iten it up (rem derelictcm), buL
becuuse, even II LIere sIouId be someone wIo wus LIe Lrue owner und
us sucI IuId cIuIm Lo IL (u cIuImunL) muy sLIII exclude IIm mereIy by
vIrLue oI my I ong possessIon, I gnore IIs exIsLence up Lo now, und curry
on us II Ie exIsLed up Lo LIe LIme oI my possessIon onIy us u LIougIL-
enLILy, even II sIouI d IuLer Ieurn oI IIs reuIILy us weII us LIuL oI IIs
cIuIm. AI L IougI LIIs wuy oI ucquIrIng Is cuIIed ucquIsILIon by superun-
nuuLIon oI cIuIms (per prcescriptionem), LIIs Is noL uI LogeLIer correcL,
sInce excIusIon oI cIuIms Is Lo be regurded onIy us u resuIL oI ucquIsI-
LIon: AcquIsILIon musL Iuve come IIrsL. L Ius now Lo be proved LIuL IL
Is possIbIe Lo ucquIre someLII ng In LIIs wuy.
The Doctrine oj Riht $%'
Someone wIo does noL exercIse u conLInuous possessor cct (cctus
possessorius) wILI regurd Lo un exLernuI LIIng, us someLII ng LIuL Is IIs,
Is rIgILIy regurded us someone wIo does noL exIsL uL uII (us ILs posses-
sor). or Ie cunnoL compI uIn oI beI ng wronged us I ong us Ie does
noLII ng Lo j usLI I y IIs LILIe oI possessor; und even II IuLer on, wIen
unoLIer Ius uIreudy Luken possessIon oI IL, Ie decIures IImseII ILs
possessor, uII Ie Is suyIng Is LIuL Ie wus once ILs owner, noL LIuL Ie sLIII
Is und LIuL IIs possessIon Ius remuI ned unI nLerrupLed wILIouL u
conLI nuous rI gILIuI ucL. Hence II someone does noL use u LII ng Ior
u I ong LIme, onIy u rI gILIuI possessory ucL, und I ndeed one LIuL
Is conLInuousIy muInLuIned und documenLed, cun guurunLee LIuL IL
Is IIs.
or suppose LIuL IuIIure Lo perI orm LIIs possessory ucL dI d noL resuIL
In unoLIer' s beI ng ubIe Lo buse u I I rm rIgIL (possessio irrejrccbilis) on
IIs I uwIuI possessIon In good IuILI (possessio bonce jidei) und regurd
IImseI I us IuvI ng ucquIred LIe LII ng LIuL Is In IIs possessIon. TIe n no
ucquIsILIon uL uII wouI d be concIusIve (guurunLeed); uII ucquIsILIon
wouI d be onIy provIsIonuI (up Lo LIe presenL), sInce InvesLIguLIon oI
LIe pusL cunnoL reucI uII LIe wuy buck Lo LIe IIrsL possessor und IIs ucL
oI ucquIsILIon. TIe presumpLI on on wIIcI proI onged possessIon (usu-
ccpio) Is bused Is LIereI ore noL mereIy In conjormit uith riht (permIL-
Led, iustc) us u conjecture buL Is uIso In uccord wILI rIgILs (prcesumtio iuris
et de iure) us un ussumpLIon In Lerms oI coercIve Iuws (suppositio leclis).
WIoever IuIIs Lo documenL IIs possessory ucL Ius IosL IIs cIuIm Lo LIe
presenL possessor, und LIe IengLI oI LIme durI ng wIIcI Ie IuIIed Lo do
IL (wIIcI cunnoL und need noL be specIIIed) Is puL I orwurd onIy Lo |zq|
supporL LIe cerLuInLy oI IIs omIssIon. TIuL u IILIerLo unknown pos-
sessor couI d uIwuys geL someLII ng buck (recover IL) wIen IIs posses-
sory ucL Ius been I nLerrupLed (even L IrougI no IuuIL oI IIs own)
conLrudIcLs LIe ubove posLuIuLe oI prucLIcuI reuson wILI regurd Lo
rIgILs (dominic rerum incertc jccere).
I Ie Is u member oI u commonweuI LI, LIuL Is, IIves In LIe cIvII con-
dILIon, LIe sLuLe (represenLIng IIm) cun I ndeed preserve IIs possessIon
I or IIm, uI LIougI IL wus I nLerrupLed us prIvuLe possessIon, und u
presenL possessor need noL prove IIs LILIe oI ucquIsILIon by LrucIng
IL buck Lo LIe IIrsL possessor or busIng IL on proI onged possessIon.
n LIe sLuLe oI nuLure, Iowever, proI onged possessIon Is In conI orm-
ILy wILI rIgIL noL, sLrIcLIy speukIng, Ior ucquIrIng u LII ng buL I or
muInLuInIng possessIon oI IL wILIouL un ucL esLubIIsIIng LIe rIgIL; und
LIIs I mmunI Ly I rom cIuIms Is uIso usuuIIy cuIIed ucquIsILIon. PrescrIp-
LIon oI un eurIIer possessor LIereI ore beIongs Lo nuLuruI RIgIL (est iuris
ncturce).
!!"
!$%&'()*$+&
(Acquisitio hcereditctis)
!"#$
Inheritcnce Is LrunsIer (trcnslctio) oI LIe beIongIngs und goods oI some-
one wIo Is dyIng Lo u survIvor by ugreemenL oI LIe wIIIs oI boLI.
AcquIsILIon by LIe heir (hceredis instituti) und IeuvIng by LIe testctor (tes-
tctoris), LIuL Is, LIIs cIunge oI beIongIngs, Lukes pIuce In one momenL,
numeIy LIe momenL uL wIIcI LIe LesLuLor ceuses Lo exIsL (crticulo
mortis). L Is LIereIore noL, sLrIcLIy speukIng, u LrunsIer (trcnslctio) In
LIe empIrIcuI sense, sInce LIIs ussumes Lwo ucLs IoIIowIng eucI oLIer,
numeIy LIe ucLs by wIIcI one person IIrsL Ieuves IIs possessIons und
LIe oLIer LIen comes InLo LIem. nsLeud IL Is un IdeuI ucquIsILIon. Now
InIerILunce In LIe sLuLe oI nuLure cunnoL be conceIved oI wILIouL u
lcst uill (dispositio ultimce toluntctis). WIeLIer LIIs Is u contrcct oj inheri-
tcnce (pcctum successorium) or u unilctercl disposition to the heir (testcmen-
tum) umounLs Lo LIe quesLIon, wIeLIer und Iow IL Is possIbIe I or
beIongIngs Lo puss I rom one Lo LIe oLIer precIseIy uL LIe momenL uL
|zqq| wIIcI LIe subjecL ceuses Lo exIsL. TIe quesLIon oI Iow IL Is possIbIe Lo
ucquIre by InIerILunce musL uccordIngIy be InvesLIguLed upurL I rom
LIe muny wuys In wIIcI IL cun be currIed ouL (wIIcI ure I ound onIy In
u commonweuILI).
"L Is possIbIe Lo ucquIre someLIIng LIrougI dIsposILIon Lo LIe IeIr."
or LIe LesLuLor, CuIus, promIses und In IIs IusL wIII decIures Lo TILIus,
wIo knows noLIIng oI LIIs promIse, LIuL upon IIs deuLI IIs beIongIngs
ure Lo puss Lo TILIus. As Iong us Ie IIves, CuIus LIereIore remuIns soIe
owner oI IIs beIongIngs. Now IL Is Lrue LIuL by u unIIuLeruI wIII uIone
noLIIng cun puss Lo LIe oLIer person; Ior LIIs LIere Is requIred, besIdes
LIe promIse, uccepLunce (ccceptctio) by LIe oLIer purLy und u sImuILu-
neous wIII (toluntcs simultcnec), wIIcI Is sLIII IuckIng Iere; Ior us I ong
us CuIus Is uIIve, TILIus cunnoL expIIcILIy uccepL, so us Lo ucquIre by IIs
uccepLunce, sInce CuIus Ius promIsed onIy on LIe occusIon oI IIs deuLI
(oLIerwIse LIe properLy wouId Ior u momenL be common properLy,
und LIIs Is noL LIe LesLuLor's wIII). TILIus, Iowever, sLIII LucILIy ucquIres
u proprIeLury rIgIL Lo LIe Iegucy us u rIgIL Lo u LIIng: NumeIy, Ie Ius
LIe excIusIve rIgIL Lo uccepL IL (ius in re iccente), so LIuL LIe Iegucy uL LIe
momenL oI deuLI Is cuIIed hcereditcs iccens. Now, sInce every mun
wouId necessurIIy uccepL sucI u rIgIL (sInce Ie cun uIwuys guIn buL
never Iose by IL), und so uccepLs LucILIy, und sInce TILIus, uILer CuIus'
deuLI, Is In LIIs sILuuLIon, Ie cun ucquIre LIe bequesL by uccepLunce oI
LIe promIse, und LIe bequesL Ius noL become uILogeLIer ownerIess (res
nullius) In LIe meunLIme buL onIy tcccnt (res tccuc). or TILIus uIone
The Doctrine oj Riht :::
Ius LIe rIgIL Lo muke LIe cIoIce us Lo wIeLIer or noL Ie wunLs Lo muke
LIe beIongIngs IeIL Lo IIm IIs own.
AccordIngIy, LesLumenLs ure uIso vuIId In uccordunce wILI mere
nuLuruI RIgIL (sunt iuris ncturce). TII s usserLIon, Iowever, Is Lo be
Luken us meunI ng LIuL LesLumenLs ure IIL Ior und worLI beIng
InLroduced und suncLIoned In LIe cIvII condILIon (II LIIs mukes ILs
uppeurunce some duy). or onIy LIe cIvII condILIon (LIe generuI
wIII In IL) conIIrms possessIon oI u Iegucy wIIIe IL Iovers beLween
uccepLunce und rejecLIon und sLrIcLIy speukIng beIongs Lo no one.
,!" -./01
2&*3($4 5&%($6 * 7886 9&:;)*)(8$ *<)&' =$&>? @&*)%
(onc jcmc dejuncti)
!"%$
L wouId be ubsurd Lo LIInk LIuL someone wIo Ius dIed cun sLIII possess
someLIIng uILer IIs deuLI (und so wIen Ie no Ionger exIsLs), II wIuL Ie
IeIL beIInd were u LIIng. BuL u ood reputction Is un InnuLe exLernuI
beIongIng, LIougI un IdeuI one onIy, LIuL cIIngs Lo LIe subjecL us u
person, u beIng oI sucI u nuLure LIuL cun und musL ubsLrucL I rom
wIeLIer Ie ceuses Lo be enLIreIy uL IIs deuLI or wIeLIer Ie survIves us
u person; Ior In LIe conLexL oI IIs rIgILs In reIuLIon Lo oLIers, ucLuuIIy
regurd every person sImpIy In Lerms oI IIs IumunILy, Ience us homo
noumenon. So uny uLLempL Lo sLuIn someone' s repuLuLIon by IuIseIood
uILer IIs deuLI Is suspecL, becuuse IL Is uL IeusL ungenerous Lo spreud
reproucIes uguInsL one wIo Is ubsenL und cunnoL deI end IImseII,
unIess one Is quILe cerLuIn oI LIem. NeverLIeIess, u weII-Iounded uccu-
suLIon uguInsL IIm Is sLIII In order (so LIuL LIe prIncIpIe de mortuis nihil
nisi bene
c
Is IncorrecL).
or u mun Lo ucquIre by un IrreproucIubIe IIIe und LIe deuLI LIuL
ends IL u (neguLIveIy) good nume, wIIcI conLInues Lo be IIs wIen Ie no
I onger exIsLs us homo phcenomenon, Ior LIose wIo survIve IIm (reIuLIves
or sLrungers) Lo be uIso uuLIorIzed by rIgIL Lo deI end IIm (Ior
unproved cIurges ure dungerous Lo LIem us weII, sInce LIey couId geL
sImIIur LreuLmenL wIen LIey dIe); Ior u mun Lo be ubIe Lo ucquIre sucI
u rIgIL, Is, suy, u pIenomenon us sLrunge us IL Is undenIubIe, u pIe-
nomenon oI reuson gIvIng Iuw u prIorI LIuL exLends ILs communds und
proIIbILIons even beyond LIe IImILs oI IIIe. I unyone spreuds IL ubroud
LIuL someone wIo Ius dIed commILLed u crIme wIIcI In IIs IIIeLIme
wouId Iuve mude IIm dIsIonorubIe or onIy conLempLIbIe, wIoever
" " Speuk noL II ng buL good ubouL LIe deud. "
Ioo Metcphsics oj Morcls
cun produce prooI LIuL LIIs cIurge Is un InLenLIonuI unLruLI und u IIe
cun LIen pubIIcIy decI ure LIe one wIo spreud LIe evII gossIp u cuIum-
nIuLor und so Luke uwuy IIs Ionor. He couId noL do LIIs unIess Ie
couI d rIgILIy ussume LIuL LIe deud mun wus wronged by IL, even
|zq6| L IougI Ie Is deud, und LIuL LIIs deI ense brIngs IIm suLIsIucLIon even
L IougI Ie no I onger exIsLs. An upoIogIsL need noL prove IIs uuLIo-
rIzuLIon Lo pIuy LIe roIe oI upoIogIsL I or LIe deud, I or every mun
InevILubIy urroguLes LIIs Lo IImseII us beI ongI ng noL mereI y Lo duLy oI
vIrLue (duLy regurded eLIIcuIIy) buL Lo LIe rIgIL oI IumunI Ly us sucI;
und LIe sLuIn on LIe deud person need noL Iuve been prej udIcIuI Lo
uny purLIcuIur person, sucI us IIs IrI ends und reIuLIves, Lo j usLI I y sucI
censure. L Is L IereI ore IndIspuLubIe LIuL LIere Is u busIs I or sucI un
IdeuI ucquIsILIon und Ior u mun' s rI gIL uILer IIs deuLI uguInsL LIose
wIo survIve IIm, even LIougI no deducLI on oI ILs possIbIIILy cun be
gIven.
BuL one Is noL Lo dr uw I r om LIIs uny vI sI onury concI usI ons ubouL presenL I menL s oI
u I uL ur e I I Ie or ubouL unseen reI uLI ons Lo dI sembodI ed souIs. or wIuL Is under
dIscussIon Ier e does noL go beyond LIe pureI y moruI und rI gIL I uI reI uLI ons Lo be
I ound u mong men dur I ng I I Ie us weII. TIe s e ure reI uLI ons In wII cI men sLund us
InLeI I IgIbI e beI ngs, I nsoI ur us one loiccll puts cside, LIuL Is, cbstrccts jrom, ever yL II ng
pIysI cuI (I.e., everyL II ng beI ongI ng Lo LIeI r exI sLence In spuce und LI me); buL one
does noL r emove me n I r om LIIs nuL ure oI LIeIrs und IeL L Iem become spIrILs, In
wII cI condI L I on LIey wouI d I eeI LIe I nj ury oI LIose wIo sI under L Iem. Someone
wIo, u Iundr e d yeurs I r om now, IuIseIy repeuL s someL II ng evII ubouL me I nj ures me
rI gIL now; I or In u reI uLI on pureI y oI rI gILs, wII cI Is enLI reI y I nLeI I ecLuuI , ubsLruc-
LIon Is mude I r om uny pIysI cuI condI LI ons (oI LIme), und wIoever robs me oI my
Ionor (u sI underer) Is j usL us punI sIubI e us II Ie Iud done IL dur I ng my I I I eL I me -
punI sIubI e, Iowever, noL by u crI mI nuI courL buL onI y by pubI I c opI nI on, wII cI,
In uccordunce wI LI LIe rI gIL oI reLrI buLI on, InIIIcLs on II m LIe sume Ioss oI LIe
Ionor Ie dI mI nI sIed In unoL Ier. Even u plcicrism LIuL u wrI L er perpeL ruL es on u
deud person, L IougI IL does noL I ndeed sLuIn LIe deud person' s Ionor buL onI y
sLeuIs u purL oI IL I r om II m, Is sLIII uvenged wI LI rI gIL, us IuvI ng wr onge d II m
(robbed LIe mun).
C H A P T E R
On AcquIsILIon TIuL s DependenL
SubjecLIveIy upon LIe DecIsIon
oI u PubIIc CourL oI JusLIce
!
"
#$
I by nuLuruI RI gIL Is undersL ood onI y nonsLuLuLory RI gIL, Ience
sI mpI y RI gIL LIuL cun be known u prI orI by everyone' s reuson, nuLuruI |zq;|
RI gIL wIII I ncI ude noL onI y the justice LIuL IoI ds umong persons In LIeI r
excIunges wI LI one unoL Ier (iustitic commutctitc) buL uIso dI sLrI buLI ve
j usLI ce (iustitic distributitc), I nsoI ur us IL cun be known u prI orI In uccor-
dunce wILI LIe prI ncI pI e oI dIsLrIbuLIve j usLI ce Iow ILs decI sI ons (senten-
tic) wouI d Iuve Lo be reucIed.
T I e moruI person LIuL udmI nI sLers j usLI ce Is u court (jorum) und
ILs udmI nI sLruLI on oI j usLI ce Is u judment (indicium). AI I LIIs Is Iere
L IougIL ouL u prI orI onI y In uccordunce wILI condI LI ons oI RI gIL, wILI-
ouL L ukI ng uccounL oI Iow sucI u consLI LuLI on Is Lo be ucLuuIIy seL up
und orgunI zed (stctutes, Ience empI rI cuI prI ncI pI es, beI ong Lo un ucLuuI
consLILuLIon).
So LIe quesLI on Iere Is noL mereI y wIuL Is riht in itselj, LIuL Is, Iow
every mun Ius Lo j udg e ubouL IL on IIs own, buL wIuL Is rI gIL beI or e u
courL , LIuL Is, wIuL Is IuId down us rI gIL. And Iere L Iere ure jour cuses
In wII cI Lwo dI I I er enL und opposI ng j udgmenL s cun resuI L und persIsL
sIde by sIde, becuuse LIey ure mude I r om Lwo dI I I er enL poI nLs oI vI ew,
boL I oI wII cI ure Lrue: one In uccordunce wILI prI vuLe RI gIL, LIe oL Ier
In uccordunce wI LI LIe deu oI pubI I c RI gIL. TIe s e cuses ure: 1) u
contrcct to mcle c ijt (pcctum donctionis), z) u contrcct to lend c thin
(commodctum), ) recoterin someL II ng (tindicctio); (q) tclin cn octh
(iurcmentum).
L Is u c ommon IuuI L (titium subreptionis) oI experL s on RI gIL Lo
misrepresent, us II IL were uIso LIe obj ecLI ve prI ncI pI e oI wIuL Is
rI gIL In ILseII, LIuL rI gIL I uI prI ncI pI e wII cI u courL Is uuL IorI zed
und I ndeed bound Lo udopL I or ILs own use (Ience I or u subj ecLI ve
purpose) In or der Lo pr onounce und j udg e wIuL beI ongs Lo eucI
us IIs rI gIL, uI L IougI LIe IuLLer Is very dI I I er enL I r om LIe I or mer .
! " #
L Is LIereI ore oI no sIIgIL I mporLunce Lo recognI ze LIIs specIIIc
dIsLIncLIon und Lo druw uLLenLIon Lo IL.
!"
$% & '(%)*&+) )( ,&-. & /01)
!"#$
n uccordunce wILI pritcte Riht, LIIs conLrucL (donctio), by wII cI
cliencte uithout remunerction (rctis) wIuL Is mIne, u LII ng oI mI ne (or
my rIgIL), InvoIves u reIuLIon oI myseII, LIe donor (doncns), Lo unoLIer,
|zq8| LIe recIpIenL (donctorius), by wIIcI wIuL Is mIne pusses Lo LIe recIpIenL
by IIs uccepLunce oI IL (donum). BuL IL Is noL Lo be presumed LIuL
InLend by LIIs conLrucL Lo be coerced Lo keep my promI se und so uIso
Lo gIve up my jreedom gruLuILousIy und, us IL were, Lo LIrow myseII
uwuy (nemo suum icctcre prcesumitur). YeL LIIs Is wIuL wouI d Iuppen In
uccordunce wILI RIgIL In LIe cIvII condILIon, wIere LIe one wIo Is Lo
receIve my gI IL cun coerce me Lo curry ouL my promIse. So, II LIe muLLer
were Lo come beI ore u courL, LIuL Is, In uccordunce wILI pubIIc RIgIL,
IL wouI d eILIer Iuve Lo be presumed LIuL LIe donor consenLed Lo LIIs
coercIon, wIIcI Is ubsurd, or eIse LIe courL In ILs j udgmenL (verdIcL)
sImpIy Lukes no uccounL oI wIeLIer LIe donor dId or dId noL wunL Lo
reserve IIs I reedom Lo go buck on IIs promIse, buL Lukes uccounL onIy
oI wIuL Is cerLuIn, numeIy, LIe promIse und LIe promIsee' s uccepLunce
oI IL. So even II, us cun weII be supposed, LIe promI sor L IougIL LIuL
Ie couI d noL be bound Lo keep IIs promI se sIouId Ie regreL IuvI ng
mude IL beI ore IL Is LIme Lo IuIIIII IL, LIe courL ussumes LIuL Ie wouI d
Iuve Iud Lo muke LIIs reservuLIon expressIy, und LIuL II Ie dI d noL Ie
couI d be coerced Lo IuIIIII IIs promIse. TIe courL udopLs LIIs prIncIpIe
becuuse oLIerwIse ILs verdIcL on rIgILs wouI d be mude InIInILeIy more
dI III cuI L or even ImpossIbIe.
2"
$% & '(%)*&+) )( 3.%4 & 560%7
!"%$
n LIIs conLrucL (commodctum) by wIIcI permIL someone Lo use wILI-
ouL compensuLIon someLII ng oI mIne, II LIe purLIes Lo LIe conLrucL
ugree LIuL this ter scme thin Is Lo be brougIL under my conLroI uguIn,
LIe borrower (commodctcrius) cunnoL presume LIuL LIe LIIng' s owner
(commodcns) uIso ussumes every rIsk (ccsus) oI possIbIe Ioss oI LIe LIIng,
or oI wIuL mukes IL useIuI, LIuL mI gIL urIse I rom ILs IuvI ng been puL
InLo LIe borrower' s possessIon. or IL Is noL u muLLer oI course LIuL LIe
owner, In uddILIon Lo grunLI ng LIe borrower LIe use oI IIs LII ng (sucI
The Doctrine oj Riht " 11
Ioss Lo IImseII us Is InsepurubIe I rom purLI ng wILI IL), Ius uIso Issued
LIe borrower u ucrcntee uguInsL uny dumuge LIuL couI d urIse I rom IIs |zqq|
IuvI ng IeL IL ouL oI IIs cusLody. A sepuruLe conLrucL wouI d Iuve Lo be
mude ubouL LIuL. So LIe quesLIon cun onIy be, on wIIcI oI LIe Lwo, LIe
I ender or LIe borrower, Is IL I ncumbenL Lo uLLucI expressIy Lo u con-
LrucL Lo Iend LIe condILIon ubouL ussumIng LIe rIsk I or possIbIe dum-
uge Lo LIe LIIng? Or, II no sucI condILIon Is uLLucIed, wIo cun be
presumed Lo Iuve creed Lo guurunLee LIe Iender' s properLy (by LIe
reLurn oI IL, or ILs equIvuIenL, Lo IIm)? NoL LIe I ender, I or IL cunnoL
be presumed LIuL Ie Ius gruLuILousIy ugreed Lo more LIun LIe mere
use oI LIe LII ng (numeIy, LIuL Ie Ius uIso underLuken Lo guurunLee LIe
properLy). L Is, ruLIer, LIe borrower, becuuse In LukIng on LIIs guur-
unLee Ie perI orms noLII ng more LIun Is uIreudy conLuI ned In LIe
conLrucL.
Suppose, I or exumpI e, LIuL IuvI ng been cuugIL In LIe ruIn go InLo
u Iouse und usk Lo borrow u couL, wII cI Is LIen perIups permunenLI y
sLuIned wIen someone cureIessIy pours dIscoIorIng muLerIuI I rom u
wI ndow, or Is sLoIen I rom me wIen go InLo unoLIer Iouse und Luke
IL oI I . Everyone wouI d IInd IL ubsurd Lo suy LIuL need do noLII ng
more LIun reLurn LIe couL us IL Is, or LIuL Iuve onIy Lo reporL LIuL LIe
LIeIL occurred und LIuL IL wus uL mosL u muLLer oI courLesy I or me Lo
commIseruLe wILI LIe owner over IIs Ioss, sInce Ie couI d demund
noLII ng on LIe busIs oI IIs rIgIL. BuL no one wouI d LIInk IL ubsurd II,
In requesLIng Lo use someLIIng, uIso usk ILs owner beI oreIund Lo Luke
on IImseII LIe rIsk oI uny mIscIunce LIuL mI gIL Iuppen Lo IL wIIIe IL
Is In my Iunds, becuuse um poor und unubIe Lo compensuLe II m I or
LIe Ioss. No one wIII IInd LIIs superI I uous und rIdIcuIous, excepL,
perIups, wIen LIe I ender Is known Lo be u rIcI und consIderuLe mun,
sInce IL wouI d LIen be uImosL InsuILIng IIm noL Lo presume LIuL Ie
wouI d generousI y remIL my debL In LIIs cuse.
Now II (us LIe nuLure oI u conLrucL Lo Iend InvoIves) noLII ng Is sLIpu-
IuLed In IL ubouL u possIbIe mIscIunce (ccsus) LIuL mI gIL uI I ecL LIe
LIIng, so LIuL ugreemenL ubouL LIIs cun onIy be presumed, u conLrucL
Lo Iend Is un uncerLuIn conLrucL (pcctum incertum) wILI regurd Lo wIuL |oo|
Is mI ne und wIuL Is yours by IL. ConsequenLI y, LIe j udgmenL ubouL LIIs,
LIuL Is, LIe decIsIon us Lo wIo musL beur LIe mI sIorLune, cunnoL be
mude I rom LIe condILIons oI LIe conLrucL ILseII; IL cun be decI ded onIy
us IL wouI d be decI ded bejore c court, wIIcI uIwuys consIders onIy wIuL
Is cerLuIn In LIe cuse (wIIcI Is Iere LIe possessIon oI LIe LIIng us
properLy). So LIe j udgmenL In LIe stcte oj ncture, LIuL Is, In Lerms oI LIe
InLrInsIc cIurucLer oI LIe muLLer, wIII go IIke LIIs: TIe dumuge resuIL-
I ng I r om mIscIunce Lo u LIIng I ouned IuIIs on LIe borrouer (ccsum sentit
commodctcrius). BuL In LIe citil condition, und so beIore u courL, LIe
verdIcL wIII come ouL: TIe dumuge IuIIs on LIe lender (ccsum sentit
dominus). TII s verdIcL wIII Indeed be gIven on dI IIerenL grounds I rom
LIe decree oI sound reuson uIone, sInce u pubIIc j udge cunnoL geL
InvoIved In presumpLIons us Lo wIuL LIe one purLy or LIe oLIer muy
Iuve LIougIL. He cun consIder onIy LIuL wIoever Ius noL uLLucIed u
sepuruLe conLrucL sLIpuIuLIng LIuL Ie Is I ree I rom uny dumuges Lo LIe
LIIng IenL musL IImseII beur LIem. Hence LIe dI IIerence beLween LIe
j udgmenL LIuL u courL musL muke und LIuL wIIcI eucI Is jusLIIIed In
mukIng Ior IImseII by IIs prIvuLe reuson Is u poInL LIuL Is by no meuns
Lo be overIooked In umendI ng j udgmenL s ubouL rIgILs.
!"
$% &'()*'+, -&'.)//'//0)%1 )2 3)4'560%7 8)/5
(tindicctio)
!"#$
L Is cIeur I rom LIe I oregoI ng LIuL someLIIng oI mIne LIuL conLInues Lo
exIsL remuIns mIne even LIougI um noL conLInuousIy IoI dI ng IL; LIuL
IL does noL oI ILseII ceuse Lo be mIne upurL Irom some ucL by wIIcI
gIve up my rIgIL Lo IL (derelictionis tel clienctionis), und LIuL Iuve u
rIgIL Lo LIIs LIIng (ius recle) und LIereIore u rIgIL uguInsL uhoeter IoIds
IL, noL mereIy u rIgIL uguInsL u specIIIc person (ius personcle). BuL LIe
quesLIon now Is wIeLIer LIIs rIgIL musL uIso be regurded b eterone
else us ownersIIp LIuL conLInues oI ILseII, ij I hcte onl not renounced IL,
wIen LIe LIIng Is In unoLIer' s possessIon.
Suppose LIuL someone Ius IosL u LIIng (res cmissc) und LIuL someone
eIse Lukes IL in ood jcith (bonc jide), us u supposed IInd. Or suppose LIuL
|o1| geL u LIIng by ILs beIng IormuIIy uIIenuLed by someone possessIng IL
wIo represenLs IImseII us ILs owner uILIougI Ie Is noL. SInce cunnoL
ucquIre u LIIng I rom someone wIo is not its ouner (c non domino), LIe
quesLIon urIses wIeLIer um excIuded by LIe reuI owner I rom uny
rIgIL Lo LIIs LIIng und IeIL wILI onIy u personuI rIgIL uguInsL LIe
IIIegILImuLe possessor. TII s Is obvIousIy LIe cuse II ucquIsILIon Is j udged
mereIy In uccordunce wILI LIe InLrInsIc grounds LIuL jusLIIy IL (In LIe
sLuLe oI nuLure), noL In uccordunce wILI wIuL Is upproprIuLe Ior u
courL.
L musL be possIbIe Ior wIuLever cun be uIIenuLed Lo be ucquIred by
someone or oLIer. TIe IegILImucy oI ucquIsILIon, Iowever, resLs
enLIreIy on LIe I orm In uccordunce wILI wIIcI wIuL Is possessed by
unoLIer Is LrunsIerred Lo me und uccepLed by me, LIuL Is, on LIe
IormuIILIes oI LIe ucL oI excIunge (commutctio) beLween LIe possessor
oI LIe LIIng und LIe one ucquIrIng IL, by wIIcI u rIgIL Is esLubIIsIed;
The Doctrine oj Riht " ::;
muy noL usk Iow LIe possessor obLuIned possessIon oI IL, sInce LIIs
wouI d uI reudy be un oI I ense (quilibet prcesumitur bonus, donee etc.).
Suppose, now, LIuL IL IuLer Lurns ouL LIuL LIe possessor wus noL LIe
owner buL LIuL someone eIse wus. cunnoL LIen suy LIuL LIe owner
couI d sLruIgILwuy Luke LIe LIIng I r om me (us Ie couI d I r om unyone
eIse wIo mI gIL be IoI dI ng IL). or Iuve sLoIen noLII ng I rom IIm, buL
Iuve, I or exumpI e, bougIL u Iorse oI I ered I or suIe In LIe pubIIc mur-
keL In conIormI Ly wILI LIe Iuw (titulo emti tenditi). TIe LILIe oI ucquIsI-
LIon on my purL Is IndIspuLubIe sInce (us buyer) um noL bound or even
uuLIorI zed Lo seurcI LIe oLIer' s (LIe seIIer's) LILIe oI possessIon - LIIs
InvesLIguLIon wouI d go on Lo InIInILy In un uscendI ng serIes. I LIe
purcIuse Is IormuI I y correcL, become noL j usL LI e putctite buL LIe true
owner oI LIe Iorse.
BuL uguInsL LIIs, LIe IoI I owI ng urgumenL urIses wILI regurd Lo rIgILs.
Any ucquIsILIon I rom one wIo Is noL LIe owner oI u LII ng (c non dom-
ino) Is nuII und voId. cun derIve no more I rom unoLIer LIun wIuL Ie
IegILImuLeIy Ius. Even LIougI, In buyI ng u sLoIen Iorse I or suIe In LIe
murkeL, proceed quILe correcLIy us Iur us LIe I orm oI ucquIsILIon
(modus ccquierendi) Is concerned, ruy LILIe oI ucquIsILIon Is sLIII deIecLIve,
sInce LIe Iorse dId noL beI ong Lo LIe one wIo ucLuuIIy soId IL. muy
weII be ILs possessor in ood jcith (possessor boncjidei), buL um sLIII onIy
ILs puLuLIve owner (dominus putctitus) und LIe Lrue owner Ius u rIgIL Lo |oz|
recoter IL (rem sucm tindiccndi).
I one usks wIuL Is Lo be IuId down us rI gIL in itselj (In LIe sLuLe oI
nuLure) In LIe ucquIsILIon oI exLernuI LIIngs In uccordunce wILI prIncI-
pIes oI jusLIce In men' s excIunges wILI one unoLIer (iustitic commutc-
titc), LIen one musL unswer us IoIIows. I someone InLends Lo ucquIre
un exLernuI LII ng In LIIs wuy IL Is In IucL necessury I or IIm Lo InvesLI-
guLe wIeLIer LIe LII ng Ie wunLs Lo ucquIre does noL uIreudy beI ong Lo
someone eIse; LIuL Is Lo suy, even II Ie Ius sLrIcLIy observed LIe I ormuI
condILIons I or derI vI ng LIe LIIng I rom wIuL beIongs Lo unoLIer (Ius
bougIL LIe Iorse In LIe murkeL In LIe proper wuy), us I ong us Ie
remuI ns I gnorunL us Lo wIeLIer someone eIse (oLIer LIun LIe seIIer) Is
LIe Lrue owner oI IL, LIe mosL Ie couI d Iuve ucquIred Is onIy u riht
ccinst c person wILI regurd Lo LIe LII ng (ius cd rem), so LIuL II someone
comes IorLI wIo cun documenL IIs prevIous ownersII p oI IL, noLII ng
Is IeIL Lo LIe uIIeged new owner buL Lo Iuve IegILImuLeIy enj oyed LIe
use oI IL up Lo LIIs momenL us ILs possessor In good IuILI. SInce IL Is
IurgeIy ImpossIbIe Lo dIscover wIo wus ubsoIuLeIy IIrsL (LIe orIgInuI
owner) In LIe serIes oI puLuLIve owners derI vI ng LIeIr rI gIL I rom eucI
oLIer, no Lrude In exLernuI LIIngs, no muLLer Iow weII IL muy ugree
wILI LIe I ormuI condILIons oI LIIs kInd oI jusLIce (iustitic commutctitc),
cun guurunLee u secure ucquIsILIon.
Here uguIn reuson gIvIng Iuws wILI regurd Lo rIgILs comes IorLI wILI
u prIncIpIe oI distributite justice, oI udopLIng us ILs guI dI ng ruIe I or LIe
IegILImucy oI possessIon, noL LIe wuy IL wouId be j udged in itselj by LIe
prIvuLe wIII oI eucI (In LIe sLuLe oI nuLure), buL LIe wuy IL wouI d be
j udged beIore u court In u condILIon brougIL ubouL by LIe unILed wIII
oI uII (In u cIvII condILIon). n u cIvII condILIon, conIormILy wILI LIe
IormuI condILIons oI ucquIsILIon, wIIcI oI LIemseIves esLubIIsI onIy u
rIgIL uguInsL u person, Is posLuIuLed us un udequuLe subsLILuLe Ior LIe
muLerIuI grounds (wIIcI esLubIIsI derIvuLIon Irom wIuL beI onged Lo u
prevIous uIIeged owner); und wIuL Is in itselj c. rIgIL uguInsL u person,
uhen brouht bejore c court, IoIds us u rIgIL Lo u LIIng. A Iorse, I or ex-
|| umpIe, LIuL someone puLs up Ior suIe In u pubIIc murkeL reguIuLed by
poIIce ordInunces becomes my properLy II uII LIe ruIes oI buyI ng und
seIIIng ure sLrIcLIy observed (buL In sucI u wuy LIuL LIe Lrue owner re-
LuIns LIe rIgIL Lo puL Iorwurd u cIuIm uguInsL LIe seIIer on LIe ground
oI IIs eurIIer, unIorIeI Led possessIon oI IL); und wIuL wouI d oLIerwIse
be my rIgIL uguInsL u person Is converLed InLo u rIgIL Lo u LIIng, In
uccordunce wILI wIIcI cun Luke (recover) IL us mIne wIerever IInd
IL, wILIouL IuvIng Lo geL InvoIved In Iow LIe seIIer obLuIned IL.
So IL Is onIy Ior LIe suke oI u courL's verdIcL (in jctorem iustitice
distributitce) LIuL u rIgIL Lo u LIIng Is Luken und LreuLed noL cs it is in
itselj (us u rIgIL uguInsL u person) buL us IL cun be most recdil und sureIy
juded (us u rIgIL Lo u LIIng), und yeL In uccordunce wILI u pure u prIorI
prIncIpIe. On LIIs prIncIpIe vurIous sLuLuLory Iuws (ordInunces) ure
subsequenLIy bused, LIe prImury purpose oI wIIcI Is Lo seL up condI-
LIons under wIIcI uIone u wuy oI ucquIrIng Is Lo Iuve rI gILIuI Iorce,
condILIons such thct c jude cun ussIgn Lo eucI wIuL Is IIs most recdil
cnd uith lecst hesitction. or exumpIe, In LIe suyIng "PurcIuse breuks u
Ieuse," wIuL Is u rIgIL Lo u LIIng (LIe Ieuse) In uccordunce wILI LIe
nuLure oI LIe conLrucL, LIuL Is, In ILseII, IoIds us u mere rIgIL uguInsL u
person; und converseIy, us In LIe cuse dIscussed ubove, wIuL Is In ILseII
onIy u rIgIL uguInsL u person IoIds us u rIgIL Lo u LIIng. n sucI cuses
LIe quesLIon Is wIuL prIncIpIes u courL In LIe cIvII condILIon sIouId reIy
on In order Lo proceed mosL sureIy In ILs verdIcLs ubouL LIe rIgILs
beI ongIng Lo eucI.
!"
$% &'()*+*%, -).+.%/001 23 $./4
5
6
(Ccutio iurctoric)
789"
No oLIer reuson couId be gIven LIuL couId bInd men us u muLLer oI
RIgIL |rechtlich| Lo beliete und ucknowIedge LIuL LIere ure gods LIun
LIuL LIey couI d LIereby sweur un ouLI und be consLruIned Lo be LruLI-
I uI In wIuL LIey suy und IuI LIIuI In keepI ng LIeIr promIses by LIeIr
Ieur oI un uII-seeIng, uImIgILy power wIose vengeunce LIey wouI d
Iuve soIemnIy cuIIed down upon LIemseIves In cuse LIeIr decIuruLIons
were IuIse. TIuL In requI rI ng ouLIs one does noL counL on men' s |oq|
moruIILy In LIese Lwo respecLs buL onIy on LIeIr bIInd supersLILIon Is
cIeur I rom LIIs: LIuL one does noL expecL uny guurunLee merel I rom
LIeIr solemn decIuruLIons beI ore u courL In muLLers oI rIgILs, even
L IougI everyone cIeurIy sees LIe duLy Lo be LruLIIuI In u cuse IuvI ng
Lo do wILI wIuL Is mosL sucred oI uII umong men (LIe RIgIL oI men).
So mere IuIry LuIes ure LIe IncenLIve In LukIng ouLIs, us, I or exumpI e,
uccordI ng Lo Mursden' s LesLImony, LIe Rujungs, u pugun peopI e oI
SumuLru, sweur by LIe bones oI LIeIr deud uncesLors even LIougI LIey
do noL beIIeve LIuL LIere Is u IIIe uILer deuLI; or us LIe Negroes oI
GuI neu Luke un ouLI on LIeIr jetish,, sucI us u bIrd' s IeuLIer, cuIIIng
upon IL Lo breuk LIeIr neck, und so IorLI. TIey beIIeve LIuL un InvIsIbIe
power, wIeLIer IL Ius undersLundI ng or noL, uIreudy Ius by ILs nuLure
LIIs mugIcuI power LIuL wIII come InLo pIuy by LIeIr InvocuLIons. TII s
sorL oI beIIeI Is cuIIed reIIgIon buL sIouI d sLrIcLIy be cuIIed supersLILIon.
L Is, Iowever, IndIspensubIe I or LIe udmInIsLruLIon oI jusLIce sInce,
wILIouL counLI ng on IL, u court wouI d noL be suIIIcIenLIy In u posILIon Lo
uscerLuIn IucLs kepL secreL und gIve LIe rIgIL verdIcL. A Iuw bI ndI ng u
peopI e Lo Luke ouLIs Is LIereI ore obvIousIy IuId down onIy on beIuI I oI
LIe j udI cI uI uuLIorILy.
BuL now LIe quesLIon Is, wIuL busIs Is LIere I or LIe obIIguLIon LIuL
someone beI ore u courL Is supposed Lo Iuve, Lo uccepL unoLIer' s ouLI
us u prooI , vuIId I or RIgIL, oI LIe LruLI oI IIs LesLImony, wIIcI puLs un
end Lo uII dIspuLe? TIuL Is Lo suy, wIuL bInds me us u muLLer oI RIgIL
Lo beIIeve LIuL unoLIer (wIo sweurs un ouLI) Ius uny reIIgIon, so us Lo
muke my rIgILs dependenL upon IIs ouLI? So Loo, cun be bound Lo
Luke un ouLI? BoL I ure wrong In LIemseIves.
YeL wILI reI erence Lo u courL, und so In LIe cIvII condILIon, II one
udmILs LIuL LIere Is no oLIer meuns LIun un ouLI Ior geLLI ng uL LIe
LruLI In cerLuIn cuses, one musL ussume LIuL everyone Ius u reIIgIon,
so LIuL IL cun be used us un expedI enL (in ccsu necessitctis) I or LIe
purpose oI proceedI ngs ubouL rIgILs bejore c court, wIIcI regurds LIIs
spIrILuuI coercIon (torturc spirituclis) us u Iundy meuns, In keepI ng wILI
men' s propensILy Lo supersLILIon, I or uncoverI ng secreLs und consId-
ers ILseII uuLIorI zed Lo use IL becuuse oI LIIs. BuL LIe IegIsIuLIve uuLIor-
ILy ucLs In u wuy LIuL Is IundumenLuI I y wrong In conI errI ng uuLIorI-
zuLIon Lo do LIIs on LIe j udI cI uI uuLIorILy, sInce even In LIe cIvII condI-
LIon coercIon Lo Luke ouLIs Is conLrury Lo Iumun I reedom, wIIcI musL ||
noL be IosL.
An ouLI oI oI I I ce Is usuuIIy promissor, un ouLI, numeI y, LIuL LIe
oIIIcIuI eurnesLIy resoltes Lo IuIIIII IIs posL In conIormI Ly wILI IIs
duLIes. I IL were cIunged InLo un cssertoric ouLI - II, LIuL Is, LIe
oIIIcIuI wus bound, perIups uL LIe end oI u yeur (or more),
Lo sweur LIuL Ie Iud IuILIIuIIy IuI II I I ed IIs oI I I ce durI ng LIuL
LIme - LIIs wouI d urouse IIs conscIence more LIun un ouLI Ie
Lukes us u promI se; Ior IuvI ng Luken u promIssory ouLI, Ie cun
uIwuys muke LIe excuse Lo IImseII IuLer on LIuL wILI LIe besL oI
InLenLIons Ie dI d noL Ioresee LIe dIIIIcuILIes wII cI Ie experI -
enced onIy IuLer, durI ng LIe udmInIsLruLIon oI IIs oI I I ce. More-
over, Ie wouI d be more concerned ubouL beI ng uccused oI IuI I I ng
In IIs duLy II un observer were goI ng Lo Iook uL LIe sum oI IIs
oI I enses LIun II LIey were mereIy censured one uI Ler LIe oL Ier
(und LIe eurIIer ones Iuve been IorgoLLen). BuL u courL cun cer-
LuInIy noL demund sweurIng Lo u beliej (de credulitcte). or In LIe
IIrsL pIuce IL InvoIves u seII-conLrudIcLIon; LIIs LII ng I nLermedI uLe
beLween opI nI on und knowI edge Is LIe sorL oI LII ng LIuL one cun
dure Lo beL on buL cerLuInIy noL Lo sweur Lo. Second, u j udge wIo
requIres sweurI ng Lo u beIIeI I rom u purLy In order Lo I I nd ouL
someLII ng reIevunL Lo IIs purpose, even II LIIs purpose Is LIe
common good, commILs u gruve oI I ense uguInsL LIe conscIen-
LIousness oI LIe person LukIng LIe ouLI, purLIy by LIe LIougIL-
Iessness Lo wIIcI LIe ouLI mIsIeuds II m und by wIIcI LIe j udge
deIeuLs IIs own purpose, purLIy by LIe pungs oI conscIence u mun
musL IeeI, wIen Ie cun II nd u cerLuIn muLLer very IIkeIy Loduy,
consI dered I rom u cerLuIn poInL oI vIew, buL quILe unIIkeIy Lo-
morrow, wIen Ie consIders IL I rom u dI I I erenL poInL oI vIew. A
j udge LIereI ore wrongs one wIom Ie consLruIns Lo Luke sucI
un ouLI.
!"#$%&'&($ *"(+ ,-#' .% /&$0 (" 1(2"%
&$ # 3'#'0 (* 4#'2"0 '( ,-#' .% /&$0 (" 1(2"%
&$ # 5&6-'*27 8($9&'&($ :0$0"#77;
<=>?
A rI gILIuI condILIon Is LIuL reIuLIon oI men umong one unoLIer LIuL
|o6| conLuIns LIe condILIons under wIIcI uI one everyone Is ubIe Lo enjo IIs
rIgILs, und LIe I ormuI condILIon under wIIcI LIIs Is possIbIe In uccor-
dunce wILI LIe deu oI u wIII gI vI ng Iuws I or everyone Is cuIIed pubIIc
jusLIce. WILI reI erence Lo eILIer LIe possIbIIILy or LIe ucLuuIILy or LIe
necessILy oI possessIon oI objecLs (LIe muLLer oI cIoIce) In uccordunce
wILI Iuws, pubIIc jusLIce cun be dI vI ded InLo protectite justice (iustitic
tutctrix), justice in men's ccquirin jrom one cnother (iustitic commutctitc)
The Doctrine oj Riht " :z:
und distributite justice (iustitic distributitc). n LIese LIe Iuw suys, jirst,
mereIy wIuL conducL Is InLrInsIcuIIy riht [recht] In Lerms oI ILs I orm (lex
iusti) \ second, wIuL |objecLs| ure cupubIe oI beI ng covered exLernuIIy by
Iuw, In Lerms oI LIeIr muLLer, LIuL Is, wIuL wuy oI beI ng In possessIon
Is rihtjul [rechtlich] (lex iuridicc)-, third, wIuL Is LIe decIsIon oI u courL In
u purLIcuIur cuse In uccordunce wILI LIe gIven Iuw under wIIcI IL IuIIs,
LIuL Is wIuL Is lcid doun cs riht [Rechtens] (lex iustitice). Becuuse oI LIIs
u courL Is ILseII cuIIed LIe justice oI u counLry, und wIeLIer sucI u LIIng
exIsLs or does noL exIsL Is LIe mosL I mporLunL quesLIon LIuL cun be
usked ubouL uny urrungemenLs IuvI ng Lo do wILI rIgILs.
A condILIon LIuL Is noL rI gILIuI , LIuL Is, u condILIon In wIIcI LIere Is
no dIsLrIbuLIve jusLIce, Is cuIIed u sLuLe oI nuLure (stctus ncturclis). WIuL
Is opposed Lo u sLuLe oI nuLure Is noL (us AcIenwuI I LIInks) u condILIon
LIuL Is socicl und LIuL couI d be cuIIed un urLIIIcIuI condILIon (stctus
crtijiciclis), buL ruLIer LIe citil condILIon (stctus citilis), LIuL oI u socIeLy
subjecL Lo dIsLrIbuLIve jusLIce. or In LIe sLuLe oI nuLure, Loo, LIere cun
be socIeLIes compuLIbIe wILI rIgILs (e.g., conj uguI , puLernuI, domesLIc
socIeLIes In generuI , us weII us muny oLIers); buL no Iuw, "You ougIL Lo
enLer LIIs condILIon, " IoIds u prIorI I or LIese socIeLIes, wIereus IL cun
be suId oI u rihtjul condILIon LIuL uII men wIo couI d (even InvoIunLur-
IIy) come InLo reIuLIons oI rIgILs wILI one unoLIer ouht Lo enLer LIIs
condILIon.
TIe IIrsL und second oI LIese condILIons cun be cuIIed LIe condILIon
oI pritcte Riht, wIereus LIe LIIrd und IusL cun be cuIIed LIe condI-
LIon oI public Riht. TIe IuLLer conLuIns no I urL Ier or oLIer duLIes oI
men umong LIemseIves LIun cun be conceIved In LIe I ormer sLuLe; LIe
muLLer oI prIvuLe RI gIL Is LIe sume In boLI. TIe Iuws oI LIe condI LI on
oI pubIIc RIgIL, uccordIngIy, Iuve Lo do onIy wILI LIe rI gILI uI I orm oI
men' s ussocIuLIon (consLILuLIon), In vIew oI wIIcI LIese Iuws musL nec-
essurIIy be conceIved us pubIIc.
TIe citil union (unio citilis) cunnoL ILseII be cuIIed u societ, I or be-
Lween LIe commcnder (impercns)
und LIe subject (subditus) LIere Is no |o;|

purLnersIIp. TIey ure noL IeIIow-members: One Is subordincted to, noL
coordincted uith LIe oLIer; und LIose wIo ure coordI nuLe wILI one
unoLIer musL I or LIIs very reuson consIder LIemseIves equuIs sInce
LIey ure subjecL Lo common Iuws. TIe cIvII unI on is noL so mucI u
socIeLy buL ruLIer mcles one.
<=@?
rom prIvuLe RIgIL In LIe sLuLe oI nuLure LIere proceeds LIe posLuIuLe
oI pubIIc RIgIL: WIen you cunnoL uvoId IIvIng sIde by sIde wILI uII
oLIers,
q
you ougIL Lo Ieuve LIe sLuLe oI nuLure und proceed wILI LIem
InLo u rI gILIuI condILIon, LIuL Is, u condILIon oI dIsLrIbuLIve jusLIce. TIe
ground oI LIIs posLuIuLe cun be expIIcuLed |entuicleln| unuIyLIcuIIy
I rom LIe concepL oI Riht In exLernuI reIuLIons, In conLrusL wILI tiolence
(tiolentic).
No one Is bound Lo reIruI n I rom encroucII ng on wIuL unoLIer pos-
sesses II LIe oLIer gIves IIm no equuI ussurunce LIuL Ie wIII observe LIe
sume resLruInL Lowurd IIm. No one, LIereI ore, need wuIL unLII Ie Ius
I eurned by bILLer experI ence oI LIe oLIer' s conLrury dIsposILIon; I or
wIuL sIouId bInd II m Lo wuIL LIII Ie Ius suI I ered u Ioss beI ore Ie
becomes prudenL, wIen Ie cun quILe weII perceIve wILIIn II mseI I LIe
IncIInuLIon oI men generuIIy Lo Iord IL over oLIers us LIeIr musLer (noL
Lo respecL LIe superIorILy oI LIe rIgILs oI oLIers wIen LIey IeeI supe-
rIor Lo LIem In sLrengLI or cunnIng)? And IL Is noL necessury Lo wuIL I or
ucLuuI IosLIIILy; one Is uuLIorI zed Lo use coercIon uguInsL someone wIo
uI reudy, by IIs nuLure, LIreuLens II m wILI coercIon. (Quilibet prcesumi-
tur mclus, donee securitctem dederit oppositi.)
GI ven LIe InLenLIon Lo be und Lo remuI n In LIIs sLuLe oI exLernuII y
IuwIess I reedom, men do one cnother no wrong uL uII wIen LIey I eud
umong LIemseIves; I or wIuL IoIds I or one IoIds uIso In Lurn I or LIe
oLIer, us II by muLuuI consenL (uti pcrtes de iure suo disponunt, itc ius est).
BuL In generuI LIey do wrong In LIe IIgIesL degree by wunLI ng Lo be
|o8| und Lo remuIn In u condILIon LIuL Is noL rI gILIuI , LIuL Is, In wII cI no
one Is ussured oI wIuL Is IIs uguInsL vIoIence.
TII s dIsLIncLIon beL ween wIuL Is mereI y I ormuI I y wr ong und wIuL Is uIso muLerI uI I y
wr ong Ius muny uppI I cuLI ons In LIe docL rI ne oI RI gIL. An enemy wIo, I nsLeud oI
IonorubI y curryI ng ouL IIs sur r ender ugr eemenL wI LI LIe gurrI son oI u besI eged
I orLress, mIsLreuLs L Iem us LIey mur cI ouL or oL IerwI se breuks LIe ugr eemenL ,
cunnoL compI uI n oI beI ng wr onged II IIs opponenL pI uys LIe sume LrIck on II m
wIe n Ie cun. BuL In generuI LIey do wr ong In LIe II gIesL degr ee, becuuse LIey Luke
uwuy uny vuIIdILy I r om LIe concepL oI RI gIL ILseII und Iund ever yL II ng over Lo
suvuge vI oI ence, us II by Iuw, und so subverL LIe RI gIL oI men us sucI.
P U B C R G H T |
n |
S E C T ON
TIe RIgIL oI u SLuLe
!"#$
T I e sum oI LIe Iuws LIuL need Lo be pr omuI guL ed generuI I y In or der
Lo br I ng ubouL u rI gIL I uI condI L I on Is public Riht. PubI Ic RI gIL Is
L IereI ore u sysLem oI Iuws I or u peopI e, LIuL Is, u muI L I L ude oI men, or
I or u muI L I L ude oI peopI es, LIuL, becuuse LIey uI I ecL one unoL Ier, need
u rI gIL I uI condI LI on under u wIII unI L I ng L Iem, u constitution (constitu-
tio), so LIuL LIey muy enj oy wIuL Is IuId down us rI gIL. TII s condI L I on
oI LIe I ndI vI duuI s wI LII n u peopI e In reI uLI on Lo one unoL Ier Is cuI I ed
u citil condI L I on (stctus citilis), und LIe wIoI e oI I ndI vI duuI s In u rI gIL-
I uI condI LI on, In reI uLI on Lo ILs own member s Is cuI I ed u stcte (cititcs).
Becuuse oI ILs I or m, by wII cI uII ure unI Led L Ir ougI LIeI r c ommon
InLeresL In beI ng In u rI gIL I uI condI LI on, u sLuLe Is cuI I ed u commonueclth
(respublicc lctius sic dictc). n reI uLI on Lo oL Ier peopI es, Iowever, u sLuLe
Is cuIIed sImpI y u pouer (potentic) (Ience LIe wor d potentcte). Becuuse
LIe unI on oI LIe member s Is ( presumed Lo be) one LIey I nIerI Led, u
sLuLe Is uIso cuI I ed u nuLI on (ens). Hence, under LIe generuI concepL oI
pubI I c RI gIL we ure Ied Lo LII nk noL onI y oI LIe RI gIL oI u sLuLe buL uIso
oI u Riht oj nctions (ius entium).
SInce LIe eurLI' s surI uce Is noL

unI I mI Led buL cI osed, LIe concepLs oI LIe RI gIL oI u sLuLe und oI u RI gIL
oI nuLIons I eud InevILubIy Lo LIe deu oI u Riht jor cll nctions (ius
entium) or cosmopolitcn Riht (ius cosmopoliticum). So II LIe prI ncI pI e oI
ouL er I r eedom IImILed by Iuw Is I uckI ng In uny one oI LIese L Iree
possIbIe I or ms oI rI gIL I uI condI LI on, LIe I r umewor k oI uII LIe oLIers Is
unuvoI dubI y under mI ned und musL IInuIIy coI I upse.
!""$ & #
' (
)
L Is noL experI ence I r om wII cI we I eurn oI men' s muxI m oI vI oI ence
und oI LIeI r muI evoI enL L endency Lo uLLuck one unoL Ier beI or e exLer-
nuI IegIsIuLIon
endowed wI LI power uppeurs. L Is L IereI ore noL some

IucL LIuL mukes coercI on L Ir ougI pubI I c Iuw necessury. On LIe con-
1z
Lrury, Iowever weII dIsposed und Iuw-ubIdIng men mI gIL be, IL sLIII IIes
u prIorI In LIe ruLIonuI deu oI sucI u condILIon (one LIuL Is noL
rIgILIuI ) LIuL beI ore u pubIIc I uwIuI condILIon Is esLubIIsIed, IndIvIduuI
men, peopIes, und sLuLes cun never be secure uguInsL vIoIence I r om
one unoLIer, sInce eucI Ius ILs own rIgIL Lo do uhct seems riht cnd ood
to it und noL Lo be dependenL upon unoLIer' s opI nI on ubouL LIIs. So,
unIess IL wunLs Lo renounce uny concepLs oI RIgIL, LIe IIrsL LII ng IL Ius
Lo resoIve upon Is LIe prIncIpIe LIuL IL musL Ieuve LIe sLuLe oI nuLure,
In wIIcI eucI IoIIows ILs own j udgmenL , unILe ILseII wILI uII oLIers
(wILI wII cI IL cunnoL uvoId InLerucLIng), subjecL ILseII Lo u pubIIc I uwIuI
exLernuI coercIon, und so enLer InLo u condILIon In wII cI wIuL Is Lo be
recognI zed us beI ongI ng Lo IL Is deLermI ned b lcu und Is uIIoLLed Lo IL
by udequuLe pouer (noL ILs own buL un exLernuI power); LIuL Is Lo suy,
IL ougIL ubove uII eIse Lo enLer u cIvII condILIon.
L Is Lrue LIuL LIe sLuLe oI nuLure need noL, j usL becuuse IL Is nuLuruI,
be u sLuLe oI injustice (iniustus), oI deuI I ng wILI one unoLIer onIy In
Lerms oI LIe degree oI I orce eucI Ius. BuL IL wouI d sLIII be u sLuLe detoid
oj justice (stctus iustitic tccuus), In wII cI, wIen rIgILs ure in dispute (ius
controtersum), LIere wouI d be no j udge compeLenL Lo render u verdIcL
IuvI ng rI gILIuI Iorce. Hence eucI muy ImpeI LIe oLIer by Iorce Lo
Ieuve LIIs sLuLe und enLer InLo u rI gILI uI condILIon; I or uI LIougI eucI
cun ucquIre someLII ng exLernuI by LukIng conLroI oI IL or by conLrucL In
uccordunce wILI ILs concepts oj Riht, LIIs ucquIsILIon Is sLIII onIy proti-
sioncl us I ong us IL does noL yeL Iuve LIe suncLIon oI pubIIc Iuw, sInce IL
Is noL deLermI ned by pubIIc (dIsLrIbuLIve) jusLIce und secured by un
uuLIorILy puLLI ng LIIs rIgIL InLo eI I ecL.
I no ucquIsILIon were recognI zed us rI gILIuI even In u provI-
sIonuI wuy prIor Lo enLerI ng LIe cIvII condILIon, LIe cIvII condILIon
ILseII wouId be ImpossIbIe. or In Lerms oI LIeIr I orm, Iuws con-
cernI ng wIuL Is mIne or yours In LIe sLuLe oI nuLure conLuIn LIe
sume LIIng LIuL LIey prescrIbe In LIe cIvII condILIon, InsoIur us
LIe cIvII condILIon Is LIougIL oI by pure ruLIonuI concepLs uIone.
TIe dI I I erence Is onIy LIuL LIe cIvII condILIon provIdes LIe condI-
LIons under wII cI LIese Iuws ure puL InLo eI I ecL (In keepI ng wILI
dIsLrIbuLIve jusLIce). So II exLernuI objecLs were noL eve n protision-
cll mI ne or yours In LIe sLuLe oI nuLure, LIere wouI d uIso be no
duLIes oI RIgIL wILI regurd Lo LIem und LIereI ore no commund
Lo Ieuve LIe sLuLe oI nuLure.
!"*$
A stcte (cititcs) Is u unI on oI u muILILude oI men under Iuws oI RIgIL.
nsoIur us LIese ure u prIorI necessury us Iuws, LIuL Is, InsoIur us LIey
|1|
The Doctrine oj Riht " 1z
IoIIow oI LIemseIves I rom concepLs oI exLernuI RIgIL us sucI (ure noL
sLuLuLory), ILs I orm Is LIe I orm oI u sLuLe us sucI, LIuL Is, oI the stcte cs
Idec, us IL ougIL Lo be In uccordunce wILI pure prIncIpIes oI RIgIL. TII s
deu serves us u norm (normc) I or every ucLuuI unI on InLo u common-
weuILI (Ience serves us u norm I or ILs InLernuI consLILuLIon).
Every sLuLe conLuIns LIree cuthorities wILIIn IL,
;
LIuL Is, LIe generuI
unI Led wIII consIsLs oI LIree persons (trics politicc): LIe soterein cuthor-
it [Herrschereuclt] (sovereIgnLy) In LIe person oI LIe IegIsIuLor;
8
LIe
executite cuthorit In LIe person oI LIe ruI er (In conIormI Ly Lo Iuw); und
LIe judicicl cuthorit (Lo uwurd Lo eucI wIuL Is IIs In uccordunce wILI LIe
Iuw) In LIe person oI LIe j udge (potestcs leislctoric, rectoric et iudicicric).
TIese ure IIke LIe LIree proposILIons In u prucLIcuI syIIogIsm: LIe
muj or premIse, wII cI conLuIns LIe lcu oI L IuL wIII; LIe mI nor premI se,
wII cI conLuIns LIe commcnd Lo beIuve In uccordunce wILI LIe Iuw, I.e.
LIe prIncIpIe oI subsumpLIon under LIe Iuw; und LIe concIusIon,
wIIcI conLuIns LIe terdict (senLence), wIuL Is IuId down us rIgIL In LIe
cuse uL Iund.
!"#$
TIe IegIsIuLIve uuLIorILy cun beI ong onIy Lo LIe unI Led wIII oI LIe
peopI e. or sInce uII RIgIL Is Lo proceed I rom IL, IL ccnnot do unyone
wrong by ILs Iuw. Now, wIen someone mukes urrungemenLs ubouL
cnother, IL Is uIwuys possIbIe I or IIm Lo do LIe oLIer wrong; buL Ie
cun never do wrong In wIuL Ie decIdes upon wILI regurd Lo IImseII
(Ior tolenti nonjit iniuric)." TIer eI or e onIy LIe concurrI ng und unILed |1q|
wIII oI uII, InsoIur us eucI decIdes LIe sume LIIng I or uII und uII I or
eucI, und so onIy LIe generuI unILed wIII oI LIe peopI e, cun be Ieg-
IsIuLIve.
TIe members oI sucI u socIeLy wIo ure unILed I or gIvIng Iuw (soci-
etcs citilis), LIuL Is, LIe members oI u sLuLe, ure cuIIed citizens oj c stcte
(cites). n Lerms oI rIgILs, LIe uLLrIbuLes oI u cILIzen, InsepurubIe I rom
IIs essence (us u cILIzen), ure: I uwIuI jreedom, LIe uLLrIbuLe oI obeyI ng
no oLIer Iuw LIun LIuL Lo wIIcI Ie Ius gIven IIs consenL; cIvII equclit,
LIuL oI noL recognI zI ng umong LIe people uny superI or wILI LIe moruI
cupucILy Lo bInd II m us u muLLer oI RIgIL In u wuy LIuL Ie couI d noL In
Lurn bI nd LIe oLIer; und LIIrd, LIe uLLrIbuLe oI cIvII independence, oI
owI ng IIs exIsLence und preservuLIon Lo IIs own rIgILs und powers us
u member oI LIe commonweuI LI, noL Lo LIe cIoIce oI unoLIer umong
LIe peopI e. rom IIs I ndependence IoIIows IIs cIvII personuIILy, IIs
uLLrIbuLe oI noL needI ng Lo be represenLed by unoLIer wIere rIgILs ure
concerned.
" " No wr ong Is done Lo someone wIo consenLs. "
TIe onIy quuIIIIcuLIon I or beI ng u cILIzen Is beI ng IIL Lo voLe.
BuL beI ng IIL Lo voLe presupposes LIe I ndependence oI someone
wIo, us one oI LIe peopI e, wunLs Lo be noL j usL u purL oI LIe com-
monweuI LI buL uIso u member oI IL, LIuL Is, u purL oI LIe common-
weuILI ucLIng I r om IIs own cIoIce In communI Ly wILI oLIers.
TII s quuIILy oI beI ng I ndependenL, Iowever, requIres u dIsLInc-
LIon beLween cctite und pcssite cILIzens, L IougI LIe concepL oI u
pussIve cILIzen seems Lo conLrudIcL LIe concepL oI u cILIzen us
sucI. TIe IoI I owI ng exumpI es cun serve Lo remove LIIs dI III cuI Ly:
un upprenLIce In LIe servIce oI u mercIunL or urLIsun; u domesLIc
servunL (us dIsLInguIsIed I rom u cIvII servunL); u mI nor (nctu-
rcliter tel citiliter), uII women und, In generuI, unyone wIose pres-
ervuLIon In exIsLence (IIs beI ng I ed und proLecLed) depends noL
on IIs munugemenL oI IIs own busIness buL on urrungemenLs
mude by unoLIer (excepL LIe sLuLe). AI I LIese peopI e Iuck cIvII
personuIILy und LIeIr exIsLence Is, us IL were, onIy I nIerence. TIe
woodcuLLer IIre Lo work In my yurd; LIe bIucksmILI In ndIu,
wIo goes InLo peopIe' s Iouses Lo work on Iron wILI IIs Iummer,
unvII, und beIIows, us compured wILI LIe Europeun curpenLer or
|
1
| bIucksmILI wIo cun puL LIe producLs oI IIs work up us goods I or
suIe Lo LIe pubIIc; LIe prIvuLe LuLor, us compured wILI LIe scIooI-
LeucIer; LIe LenunL I urmer us compured wILI LIe IeuseIoId
I urmer, und so I orLI; LIese ure mere underI I ngs [Hcndlcner] oI
LIe commonweuI LI becuuse LIey Iuve Lo be under LIe dIrecLIon
or proLecLIon oI oLIer IndIvIduuIs, und so do noL possess cIvII
I ndependence.
TII s dependence upon LIe wIII oI oLIers und LIIs InequuIILy Is,
Iowever, In no wuy opposed Lo LIeIr I reedom und equuIILy cs
men, wIo LogeLIer muke up u peopI e; on LIe conLrury, IL Is onIy
In conIormI Ly wILI LIe condILIons oI I reedom und equuIILy LIuL
LIIs peopI e cun become u sLuLe und enLer InLo u cIvII consLILuLIon.
BuL noL uII persons quuI I Iy wILI equuI rIgIL Lo voLe wILIIn LIIs
consLILuLIon, LIuL Is, Lo be cILIzens und noL mere ussocIuLes In LIe
sLuLe. or I r om LIeIr cupucILy Lo demund LIuL uII oLIers LreuL
LIem In uccordunce wILI LIe Iuws oI nuLuruI I reedom und equuI-
ILy us pcssite purLs oI LIe sLuLe IL does noL IoIIow LIuL LIey uIso
Iuve LIe rI gIL Lo munuge LIe sLuLe ILseII us cctite members oI IL,
LIe rIgIL Lo orgunI ze IL or Lo cooperuLe I or I nLroducI ng cerLuIn
Iuws. L IoIIows onIy LIuL, wIuLever sorL oI posILIve Iuws LIe cILI-
zens mI gIL voLe Ior, LIese Iuws musL sLIII noL be conLrury Lo LIe
nuLuruI Iuws oI I reedom und oI LIe equuIILy oI everyone In LIe
peopI e correspondI ng Lo LIIs I reedom, numeIy LIuL unyone cun
work IIs wuy up I rom LIIs pussIve condILIon Lo un ucLIve one.
The Doctrine oj Riht " 1z;
!"#$
AI I LIose LIree uuLIorILIes In u sLuLe ure dIgnILIes |Wurden], und sInce
LIey urIse necessurIIy I rom LIe deu oI u sLuLe us sucI, us essenLIuI I or
LIe esLubIIsImenL (consLILuLIon) oI IL, LIey ure citic dinities. TIey
comprIse LIe reIuLIon oI u superior over uII (wIIcI, I rom LIe vIewpoInL
oI Iuws oI I reedom, cun be none oLIer LIun LIe unI Led peopI e ILseII) Lo
LIe muI LI Lude oI LIuL peopI e severuIIy us subjects, LIuL Is, LIe reIuLIon oI
u commcnder (impercns) Lo those uho obe (subditus). TIe ucL by wIIcI u
peopI e I orms ILseII InLo u sLuLe Is LIe oriincl contrcct. ProperI y speuk-
Ing, LIe orIgInuI conLrucL Is onIy LIe deu oI LIIs ucL, In Lerms oI wIIcI
uIone we cun LIInk oI LIe IegILImucy oI u sLuLe. n uccordunce wILI LIe
orIgInuI conLrucL, everyone (omnes et sinuli) wILIIn c.people gIves up IIs
exLernuI I reedom In order Lo Luke IL up uguIn ImmedIuLeI y us u mem-
ber oI u commonweuI LI, LIuL Is, oI u peopI e consI dered us u sLuLe
(unitersi). And one cunnoL suy: A sLuLe, mun In u sLuLe Ius sucrIIIced u "#$%&
pcrt oI IIs InnuLe ouLer I reedom I or LIe suke oI un end, buL ruLIer, Ie
Ius reIInquIsIed enLIreIy IIs wIId, IuwIess I reedom In order Lo IInd IIs
I reedom us sucI undI mI nI sIed, In u dependence upon Iuws, LIuL Is, In
u rI gILI uI condILIon, sInce LIIs dependence urIses I rom IIs own IuwgIv-
I ng wIII.
'()*
AccordI ngI y, LIe LIree uuLIorILIes In u sLuLe ure, jirst, coordI nuLe wILI
one unoLIer (potestctes coordinctce) us so muny moruI persons, LIuL Is,
eucI compI emenLs LIe oLIers Lo compI eLe LIe consLILuLIon oI u sLuLe
(icomplementum cd sujjicienticm). BuL, second, LIey ure uIso subordincte
(subordinctce) Lo one unoLIer, so LIuL one oI LIem, In ussIsLIng unoLIer,
cunnoL uIso usurp ILs IuncLIon; InsLeud, eucI Ius ILs own prIncIpIe, LIuL
Is, IL I ndeed communds In ILs cupucILy us u purLIcuIur person, buL sLIII
under LIe condILIon oI LIe wIII oI u superIor. Third, LIrougI LIe unIon
oI boLI eucI subjecL Is upporLI oned IIs rIgILs.
q
L cun be suId oI LIese uuLIorILIes, regurded In LIeIr dIgnILy, LIuL LIe
wIII oI LIe leislctor (leislctoris) wILI regurd Lo wIuL Is exLernuIIy mI ne
or yours Is irreprocchcble (irreprehensible)\ LIuL LIe execuLIve power oI
LIe supreme ruler (summi rectoris) Is irresistible, und LIuL LIe verdIcL oI LIe
IIgIesL jude (supremi iudicis) Is irretersible (cunnoL be uppeuI ed).
!"%$
TIe ruler oI u sLuLe (rex, princeps) Is LIuL (moruI or nuLuruI) person Lo
wIom LIe execuLI ve uuLIorILy (potestcs executoric) beIongs. He Is LIe
cent oI LIe sLuLe, wIo uppoInLs LIe mugIsLruLes und prescrIbes Lo LIe
peopI e ruIes In uccordunce wILI wIIcI eucI oI LIem cun ucquIre some-
LII ng or preserve wIuL Is IIs In conIormI Ly wILI LIe Iuw (LIrougI
subsumpLIon oI u cuse under IL). Regurded us u moruI person, Ie Is
cuIIed LIe directorcte, LIe governmenL. HIs directites Lo LIe peopI e, und
Lo LIe mugIsLruLes und LIeIr superI or (LIe mInIsLer) wIom Ie cIurges
wILI cdministerin the stcte (ubernctio), ure ordI nunces or decrees (noL
Iuws); I or LIey ure dIrecLed Lo decIsIons In purLIcuIur cuses und ure
gIven us subjecL Lo beI ng cIunged. A otejnment LIuL wus uIso IegIsIuLIve
wouI d Iuve Lo be cuIIed u despotic us opposed Lo u pctriotic governmenL ;
buL by u puLrIoLIc governmenL Is undersLood noL u pcternclistic one
|
:
;| (reimen pcterncle), wIIcI Is LIe mosL despoLIc oI uII (sInce IL LreuLs
cILIzens us cIIIdren), buL one sertin the nctite lcnd (reimen cititctis et
pctrice). n IL LIe sLuLe (cititcs) does LreuL ILs subjecLs us members oI one
IumIIy buL IL uIso LreuLs LIem us cILIzens oI LIe sLuLe, LIuL Is, In uccor-
dunce wILI Iuws oI LIeIr own I ndependence: EucI Is In possessIon oI
IImseII und Is noL dependenL upon LIe ubsoIuLe wIII oI unoLIer uIong-
sIde II m or ubove IIm.
So u peopIe' s Ieud oI sLuLe (IegIsIuLor) cunnoL uIso be ILs ruler
[Reent], sInce LIe ruI er Is subjecL Lo LIe Iuw und so Is puL under obII-
guLIon L IrougI LIe Iuw by cnother, numeIy LIe sovereIgn. TIe sover-
eIgn cun uIso Luke LIe ruIer' s uuLIorILy uwuy I rom IIm, depose IIm, or
reI orm IIs udmInIsLruLIon. BuL IL cunnoL punish II m (und LIe suyIng
common In EngI und, LIuL LIe kIng, LIuL Is, LIe supreme execuLI ve
uuLIorILy, cun do no wrong, meuns no more LIun LIIs); I or punIsI-
menL Is, uguIn, un ucL oI LIe execuLIve uuLIorILy, wIIcI Ius LIe su-
preme cupucILy Lo exercise coercion In conIormI Ly wILI LIe Iuw, und IL
wouI d be seII-conLrudIcLory I or II m Lo be subjecL Lo coercIon.
InuIIy, neILIer LIe Ieud oI sLuLe nor ILs ruI er [Reierer] cun jude,
buL cun onIy uppoI nL j udges us mugIsLruLes. A peopI e j udges ILseII
L IrougI LIose oI ILs IeIIow cILIzens wIom IL desIgnuLes us ILs represen-
LuLIves I or LIIs by u Iree cIoIce und, I ndeed, desIgnuLes especIuIIy I or
eucI ucL. or u verdIcL (u senLence) Is un IndIvIduuI ucL oI pubIIc jusLIce
(iustitice distributitce) perI ormed by un udmInIsLruLor oI LIe sLuLe (u
j udge or courL) upon u subjecL, LIuL Is, upon someone beI ongI ng Lo LIe
peopI e; und so LIIs ucL Is InvesLed wILI no uuLIorILy Lo ussIgn (uIIoL) Lo
u subjecL wIuL Is IIs. SInce eucI IndIvIduuI umong u peopI e Is onIy
pussIve In LIIs reIuLIonsIIp (Lo LIe uuLIorILIes), II eILIer LIe IegIsIuLIve
or LIe execuLIve uuLIorILy were Lo decI de In u conLroversIuI cuse wIuL
beI ongs Lo IIm, IL mI gIL do II m u wrong, sInce IL wouI d noL be LIe
peopI e ILseII doI ng LIIs und pronouncI ng u verdIcL oI uilt or not uilt
upon u IeIIow cILIzen. BuL once LIe IucLs In u IuwsuIL Iuve been esLub-
IIsIed, LIe courL Ius j udI cI uI uuLIorILy Lo uppI y LIe Iuw, und Lo render
The Doctrine oj Riht g 1zq
Lo eucI wIuL Is IIs wI LI LIe IeI p oI LIe execuL I ve uuLIorI Ly. Hence onI y
LIe people cun gI ve u j udg me nL upon one oI ILs members, uI L IougI onI y
I ndI recLI y, by meuns oI represenLuLI ves (LIe j ur y) wIom IL Ius deI e-
guLed. L wouI d uIso be beneuL I LIe dI gnI Ly oI LIe Ieud oI sLuLe Lo pI uy
LIe j udge, LIuL Is, Lo puL II mseI I In u posILIon wIer e Ie couI d do wr ong |18|
und so Iuve IIs decI sI on uppeuI ed (c ree mcle injormcto cd reem melius
injormcndum).
c
TIe r e ure L Ius L Iree dIsLIncL uuLIorI LI es (potestcs leislctoric, execu-
toric, iudicicric) by wII cI u sLuLe (cititcs) Ius ILs uuL onomy, LIuL Is, by
wII cI IL I or ms und preserves ILseII In uccordunce wI LI Iuws oI I ree-
dom. A sLuLe's uell-bein consIsLs In LIeI r beI ng unI L ed (sclus rei publicce
supremc lex est).
b
By LIe weI I -beI ng oI u sLuLe musL noL be undersL ood
LIe ueljcre oI ILs cILIzens und LIeI r hcppiness, I or IuppI ness cun perIups
come Lo L Iem mor e eusIIy und us LIey wouI d IIke IL Lo In u sLuLe oI
nuL ure (us Rousseuu usserLs) or even under u despoLI c governmenL . By
LIe weI I -beI ng oI u sLuLe Is undersL ood, I nsLeud, LIuL condI L I on In wII cI
ILs consLI LuLI on conI or ms mosL IuI I y Lo prI ncI pI es oI RI gIL; IL Is LIuL
condI LI on wII cI reuson, b c ccteoriccl imperctite, mukes IL obI I guLory
I or us Lo sLrIve uI L er.
!"#"$%& (")%$*
+# ,-" .//"0,1 23,- ("4%$5 ,6 (34-,1 7-%, 86&&62
/$6) ,-" 9%,:$" 6/ ,-" ;3<3& =#36#
>?
A peopI e sIouI d noL inquire wILI uny prucLIcuI uI m In vIew InLo LIe
orI gI n oI LIe s upr eme uuLIorI Ly Lo wII cI IL Is subjecL, LIuL Is, u subj ecL
ouht not to rctionclize I or LIe suke oI ucLIon |uerltcti ternunjteln ] ubouL
LIe orI gI n oI LIIs uuLIorI Ly, us u rI gIL LIuL cun sLIII be cuI I ed InLo ques-
LIon (ius controtersum) wI LI r egur d Lo LIe obedI ence Ie owes IL. or,
sInce u peopI e musL be r egur ded us uI reudy unI L ed under u generuI
IegIsIuLIve wIII In or der Lo j udg e wILI rI gIL I uI I orce ubouL LIe supr eme
uuLIorI Ly |Stcctseuclt] (summum imperium), IL cunnoL und muy noL
j udg e oLIerwI se LIun us LIe presenL Ieud oI sLuLe (summus impercns)
wIIIs IL Lo. WIeL Ier u sLuLe begun wI LI un ucLuuI conLrucL oI submI ssI on
(pcctumsubiectionis citilis) us u IucL, or wIeL Ier power cume IIrsL und Iuw
urrI ved onI y uI L erwurd, or even wIeL Ier LIey sIouI d Iuve I oI I owed In
""Irom a king badly instructed to a king to be better instructed"
' The well-being oI the commonwealth is the supreme law." The saying seems to
s t e m I r o m Ci c e r o, De Leibus 3, 8: "Sclus populi supremc lex esto."
LIIs order: or u peopI e uIreudy subjecL Lo cIvII Iuw LIese ruLIonuIIzu-
LIons ure uILogeLIer poInLIess und, moreover, LIreuLen u sLuLe wILI
dunger. I u subjecL, IuvI ng pondered over LIe uILImuLe orIgIn oI LIe
uuLIorILy now ruI I ng, wunLed Lo resIsL LIIs uuLIorILy, Ie wouI d be
|1q| punI sIed, goL rId oI, or expeIIed (us un ouLIuw, exlex) In uccordunce
wILI LIe Iuws oI LIIs uuLIorILy, LIuL Is, wILI every rIgIL. A Iuw LIuL Is so
IoIy (InvIoIubIe) LIuL IL Is uIreudy u crIme even Lo cuII IL In doubL in c
prccticcl uc, und so Lo suspend ILs eI I ecL I or u momenL , Is LIougIL us
II IL musL Iuve urIsen noL I rom men buL I rom some IIgIesL, IIuwIess
IuwgIver; und LIuL Is wIuL LIe suyIng "AI I uuLIorILy Is I r om God"
meuns. TII s suyIng Is noL un usserLIon ubouL LIe historiccl bcsis oI LIe
cIvII consLILuLIon; IL InsLeud seLs I orLI un deu us u prucLIcuI prIncIpIe oI
reuson: LIe prIncIpIe LIuL LIe presenLIy exIsLIng IegIsIuLIve uuLIorILy
ougIL Lo be obeyed, wIuLever ILs orIgIn.
Now I r om LIIs prIncIpIe IoIIows LIe proposILIon: TIe Ieud oI u sLuLe
Ius onIy rIgILs uguInsL IIs subjecLs und no duLIes (LIuL Ie cun be
coerced Lo IuIIIII). Moreover, even II LIe orgun oI LIe Ieud oI u sLuLe,
LIe ruler, proceeds conLrury Lo Iuw, I or exumpI e, II Ie goes uguInsL LIe
Iuw oI equuIILy In ussIgnIng LIe burdens oI LIe sLuLe In muLLers oI
LuxuLIon, recruILIng und so IorLI, subjecLs muy I ndeed oppose LIIs
InjusLIce by complcints (rctcminc) buL noL by resIsLunce.
ndeed, even LIe consLILuLIon cunnoL conLuIn uny urLIcIe LIuL wouI d
muke IL possIbIe I or LIere Lo be some uuLIorILy In u sLuLe Lo resIsL LIe
supreme communder |obersten ejehlshcber] In cuse Ie sIouI d vIoIuLe
LIe Iuw oI LIe consLILuLIon, und so Lo IImIL IIm.
6o
or someone wIo Is
Lo IImIL LIe uuLIorILy In u sLuLe musL Iuve even more power [Mccht]
LIun Ie wIom Ie IImILs, or uL IeusL us mucI power us Ie Ius; und, us
u IegILImuLe communder [Gebieter] wIo dIrecLs LIe subjecLs Lo resIsL, Ie
musL uIso be ubIe Lo protect LIem und Lo render u j udgmenL IuvI ng
rI gILI uI Iorce In uny cuse LIuL comes up; consequenLIy Ie Ius Lo be
ubIe Lo commund resIsLunce pubIIcIy. n LIuL cuse, Iowever, LIe su-
preme communder [obersten ejehlshcber] In u sLuLe Is noL LIe supreme
communder; InsLeud, IL Is LIe one wIo cun resIsL IIm, und LIIs Is
seII-conLrudIcLory. n LIuL cuse LIe sovereIgn beIuves L IrougI ILs mIn-
IsLer us uIso LIe ruI er und so us u despoL; und LIe IIIusIon LIuL uIIows us
Lo LIInk oI LIe peopI e, L IrougI ILs depuLIes, us LIe IImILIng uuLIorILy
(LIougI IL Ius, properI y speukIng, onIy IegIsIuLIve uuLIorILy) cunnoL
conceuI LIe despoLIsm, so LIuL IL does noL come Lo IIgIL I rom LIe meu-
sures LIe mInIsLer Lukes. TIe peopI e, In beIng represenLed by ILs dep-
uLIes (In purIIumenL), Ius, In LIese guurdI uns oI ILs I reedom und rIgILs,
men wIo Iuve u IIveIy InLeresL In posILIons I or LIemseIves und LIeIr
IumIIIes, In LIe urmy, LIe nuvy und LIe cIvII servIce, LIuL depend on
The Doctrine oj Riht g ::
LIe mI nI sLer, und wIo ure uIwuys reudy Lo pIuy InLo LIe governmenL ' s
Iunds (InsLeud oI resIsLIng ILs encroucImenL s; besIdes, u pubI I c decI u- |zo|
ruLI on oI resIsLunce requI res ununI mI L y In u peopI e wII cI Ius been
pr epur ed In udvunce, und LIIs cunnoL be permI L L ed In LI me oI peuce).
Hence u so-cuIIed moder uL e consLI LuLI on, us u consLI LuLI on I or LIe
I nner rI gILs oI u sLuLe, Is un ubsurdI Ly. nsLeud oI beI ongI ng Lo RI gIL IL
Is onI y u prI ncI pI e oI prudence, noL so mucI Lo muke IL mor e dI I I I cuI L
I or u power I uI Lrunsgressor oI LIe peopI e' s rI gILs Lo exercI se uL wIII IIs
I nI I uence upon LIe gover nmenL us Lo dI sguI se IIs I nI I uence under LIe
IIIusIon oI un opposI L I on permI L L ed Lo LIe peopI e.
TIe r e I or e u peopI e cunnoL oI I e r uny resIsLunce Lo LIe IegIsIuLIve
Ieud oI u sLuLe LIuL wouI d be consIsLenL wILI rI gIL, sInce u rI gIL I uI
condI LI on Is possIbIe onI y by submI ssI on Lo ILs generuI IegIsIuLIve wIII.
TIe r e Is, L IereI ore, no rI gIL Lo sedition (seditio), sLIII Iess Lo rebellion
(rebellio), und IeusL oI uII Is L Iere u rI gIL uguInsL LIe Ieud oI u sLuLe us
un I ndI vI duuI person (LIe monurcI), to cttccl his person or even IIs IIIe
(:moncrchomcchismus sub specie trcnnicidii) on LIe preL exL LIuL Ie Ius
ubused IIs uuLIorI Ly (trcnnis). Any uLLempL wIuL soever uL LIIs Is hih
trecson (proditio eminens), und wIoever commI L s sucI L reuson musL be
punI sIed by noL II ng Iess LIun deuL I I or uL L empL I ng to destro his jcther-
lcnd (pcrricidc). TI e reuson u peopI e Ius u duLy Lo puL up wILI even
wIuL Is IeI d Lo be un unbeurubI e ubuse oI supr eme uuLIorI Ly Is LIuL ILs
resIsLunce Lo LIe II gIesL IegIsIuLIon cun never be r egur ded us oL Ier
LIun conL rury Lo Iuw, und I ndeed us uboI I sII ng LIe enLI re I eguI consLI-
LuLI on. or u peopI e Lo be uuL IorI zed Lo resIsL, L Iere wouI d Iuve Lo be
u pubI I c Iuw permI L L I ng IL Lo resIsL, LIuL Is, LIe II gIesL IegIsIuLIon wouI d
Iuve Lo conLuI n u provI sI on LIuL IL Is noL LIe II gIesL und LIuL mukes LIe
peopI e, us subjecL, by one und LIe sume j udgme nL sovereI gn over II m
Lo wIom IL Is subjecL. TII s Is seI I-conLrudI cLory, und LIe conLrudI cLI on
Is evI denL us soon us one usks wIo Is Lo be LIe j udg e In LIIs dI spuLe
beL ween peopI e und sovereI gn (Ior, consI dered In Lerms oI rIgILs,
LIese ure uIwuys Lwo dIsLIncL moruI persons). or IL Is LIen uppur enL
LIuL LIe peopI e wunLs Lo be LIe j udg e In ILs own suIL.
The dethronement oI a monar ch can still be t hought oI as iI he had toluntcril laid
aside the crown and abdicated his authority, giving it back to the people, or as iI,
without any attack on the highest person, he had relinquished his authority and
been reduced to the rank oI a private person. Because oI this the people who
ext or t ed this I r om hi m has at least t he pret ext oI a riht oj necessit (ccsus necessitctis)
in Iavor oI its crime. But it never has the least right to punish him, the head oI state,
because oI his previous administration, since everything he did, in his capacity as
head oI state, must be regarded as having been done in external conIormity with
rights, and he himselI, as the source oI the law, can do no wrong. OI all the
atrocities involved in overthrowing a state by rebellion, the csscssinction oI the
monarch is not itselI the worst, Ior we can still think oI the people as doing it Irom
Iear that iI he remained alive he could marshal his Iorces and inIlict on them the
punishment they deserve, so that their killing him would not be an enactment oI
punitive justice but merely a dictate oI selI-preservation It is the Iormal execution oI
a monarch that strikes horror in a soul Iilled with the Idea oI men's rights, a horror
that one Ieels repeatedly as soon as and as oIten as one thinks oI such scenes as the
Iate oI Charles I or Louis XVI But how are we to explain this Ieeling, which is not
aesthetic Ieeling (sympathy, an eIIect oI imagination by which we put ourselves in
the place oI the suIIerer) but moral Ieeling resulting Irom the complete overturning
oI all concepts oI Right' It is regarded as a crime that remains Iorever and can never
be expiated (crimen immortcle, inexpicbile), and it seems to be like what theologians
call the sin that cannot be Iorgiven either in this world or the next. The explanation
oI this phenomenon in the human mind seems to arise Irom the Iollowing reIlec-
tions upon itselI, which throw light on the principles oI political rights themselves
Any transgression oI the law can and must be explained only as arising Irom a
maxim oI the criminal (to make such a crime his rule), Ior iI we were to derive it
Irom a sensible impulse, he would not be committing it as a jree being and it could
not be imputed to him But how it is possible Ior the subject to Iorm such a maxim
contrary to the clear prohibition oI lawgiving reason absolutely cannot be ex-
plained, since only what happens in accordance with the mechanism oI nature is
capable oI being explained Now the criminal can commit his misdeed either on a
maxim he has taken as an objective rule (as holding universally) or only as an
exception to the rule (exempting himselI Irom it occasionally) In the lctter case he
onl detictes Irom the law (though intentionally), he can at the same time detest his
transgression and, without Iormally renouncing obedience to the law, only want to
evade it In the jirst case, however, he rejects the authority oI the law itselI, whose
validity he still cannot deny beIore his own reason, and makes it his rule to act
contrary to the law His maxim is thereIore opposed to the law not by way oI dejcult
onl y (nectite) b u t by rejectin it (contrcne) or , as we p u t it, hi s ma x i m is dicmetriccll
opposed to the law, as contradictory to it (hostile to it, so to speak) As Iar as we can
see, it is impossible Ior a man to commit a crime oI this kind, a Iormally evil (wholly
pointless) crime, and yet it is not to be ignored in a system oI morals (although it is
only the Idea oI the most extreme evil)
The reason Ior horror at the thought oI the Iormal execution oI a monarch b his
people is thereIore this that while his murder is regarded as only an exception to the
rule that the people makes its maxim, his execution must be regarded as a complete
oterturnin oI the principles oI the relation between a sovereign and his people (in
which the people, which owes its existence only to the sovereign's legislation, makes
itselI his master), so that violence is elevated above the most sacred rights brazenly
and in accordance with principle Like a chasm that irretrievably swallows every-
thing, the execution oI a monarch seems to be a crime Irom which the people
cannot be absolved, Ior it is as iI the state commits suicide There is, accordingly,
reason Ior assuming that the agreement to execute the monarch actually originates
not Irom what is supposed to be a rightIul principle but Irom Iear oI the state's
vengeance upon the people iI it revives at some Iuture time, and that these Iormal-
ities are undertaken only to give that deed the appearance oI punishment, and so
oI a rihtjul procedure (such as murder would not be) But this disguising oI the deed
miscarries, such a presumption on the people's part is still worse than murder, since
it involves a principle that would have to make it impossible to generate again a state
that has been overthrown
The Doctrine oj Riht g 1
A cIunge In u (deIecLIve) consLILuLIon, wIIcI muy cerLuInIy be neces- |z1|
sury uL LImes, cun L IereI ore be currIed ouL onIy L IrougI rejorm by LIe |zz|
sovereIgn ILseII, buL noL by LIe peopI e, und LIereI ore noL by retolution,
und wIen sucI u cIunge Lukes pIuce LIIs reI orm cun uI I ecL onIy LIe
executite cuthorit, noL LIe IegIsIuLIve. n wIuL Is cuIIed u IImILed consLI-
LuLIon, LIe consLILuLIon conLuIns u provIsIon LIuL LIe peopI e cun IeguIIy
resist LIe execuLIve uuLIorILy und ILs represenLuLIve (LIe mInIsLer) by
meuns oI ILs represenLuLIves (In purIIumenL). NeverLIeIess, no ucLIve
resIsLunce (by LIe peopI e combI nI ng uL wIII Lo coerce LIe governmenL
Lo Luke u cerLuIn course oI ucLIon, und so ILseII perI ormI ng un ucL oI
execuLIve uuLIorILy) Is permILLed, buL onIy nectite resIsLunce, LIuL Is,
u rejuscl oI LIe peopI e (In purIIumenL) Lo uccede Lo every demund LIe
governmenL puLs IorLI us necessury I or udmInIsLerIng LIe sLuLe. n-
deed, II LIese demunds were uIwuys compI I ed wILI, LIIs wouI d be u
sure sIgn LIuL LIe peopI e Is corrupL, LIuL ILs represenLuLIves cun be
bougIL, LIuL LIe Ieud oI LIe governmenL Is ruI I ng despoLIcuIIy
L IrougI IIs mInIsLer, und LIuL LIe mInIsLer IImseII Is beLruyI ng LIe
peopI e.
Moreover, once u revoI uLIon Ius succeeded und u new consLILuLIon
Ius been esLubIIsIed, LIe Iuck oI IegILImucy wILI wIIcI IL begun und |z|
Ius been I mpI emenLed cunnoL reIeuse LIe subjecLs I rom LIe obIIguLIon
Lo compI y wILI LIe new order oI LIIngs us good cILIzens, und LIey
cunnoL reI use IonesL obedIence Lo LIe uuLIorILy LIuL now Ius LIe
power. A deL Ironed monurcI (wIo survIves LIe upIeuvuI) cunnoL be
IeId Lo uccounL, sLIII Iess be punI sIed, Ior wIuL Ie prevIousIy currIed
ouL, provI ded Ie reLurns Lo LIe EsLuLe [Stcnd] oI u cILIzen und preI ers
peuce I or IImseII und LIe sLuLe Lo LIe rIsk oI runnI ng uwuy In order Lo
enguge In LIe udvenLure oI LryIng, us u cIuImunL |or preLender|, Lo geL
IIs LIrone buck, wIeLIer by coverLIy IncILIng u counLerrevoI uLI on or by
LIe ussIsLunce oI oLIer powers. BuL II Ie preI ers LIe IuLLer course, IIs
rIgIL Lo do so cunnoL be cIuI I enged sInce LIe InsurrecLIon LIuL dIspos-
sessed IIm wus unjusL. BuL do oLIer powers Iuve LIe rI gIL Lo bund
LogeLIer In un uIIIunce on beIuI I oI LIIs deposed monurcI, mereIy so
us noL Lo IeL LIuL crIme perpeLruLed by LIe peopI e go unuvenged und
persIsL us u scunduI I or uII sLuLes? Ar e LIey LIereI ore uuLIorI zed und
cuIIed upon Lo resLore by I orce LIe oId consLILuLIon In uny oLIer sLuLe
wIere LIe presenLIy exIsLIng consLILuLIon Ius come ubouL b retolution?
TIese quesLIons beI ong Lo LIe RIgIL oI NuLIons.
!"
Cun LIe Ieud oI sLuLe be regurded us LIe supreme proprI eLor
61
(oI LIe
Iund) or musL Ie be regurded onIy us LIe one wIo Ius supreme com-
mund over LIe peopI e by Iuw? SInce LIe Iund Is LIe uILImuLe condILIon
LIuL uIone mukes IL possIbIe Lo Iuve exLernuI LIIngs us one' s own, und
LIe IIrsL rIgIL LIuL cun be ucquIred Is Lo possessIon und use oI sucI
LIIngs, uII sucI rIgILs musL be derI ved I rom LIe sovereIgn us lord oj the
lcnd, or beLLer, us LIe supreme proprI eLor oI IL (dominus territorii). TIe
peopI e, LIe muI LILude oI subjecLs, uIso beI ong Lo II m (LIey ure IIs
peopIe). BuL LIey beI ong Lo IIm noL us II Ie owned LIem (by u rI gIL Lo
LIIngs); LIey InsLeud beI ong Lo IIm us LIeIr supreme communder
[iDberbejehlshcber| (by u rIgIL uguInsL persons). TII s supreme proprI -
eLorsIIp Is, Iowever, onIy un deu oI LIe cIvII unI on LIuL serves Lo
represenL In uccordunce wILI concepLs oI RIgIL LIe necessury unI on oI
LIe prIvuLe properLy oI everyone wILIIn LIe peopI e under u generuI
pubIIc possessor, so LIuL deLermI nuLI on oI LIe purLIcuIur properLy oI
|zq| eucI Is In uccordunce wILI LIe necessury I ormuI prIncIpIe oI ditision
(dIvIsIon oI Iund), InsLeud oI wILI prIncIpIes oI crection (wIIcI
proceeds empIrIcuIIy I rom LIe purLs Lo LIe wIoIe). n uccordunce wILI
concepLs oI RIgIL, LIe supreme proprI eLor cunnoL Iuve uny Iund uL uII
us IIs prIvuLe properLy (Ior oLIerwIse Ie wouI d muke IImseII u prIvuLe
person). AI I Iund beIongs onIy Lo LIe peopI e (und I ndeed Lo LIe peopI e
Luken dIsLrIbuLIveIy, noL coIIecLIveIy), excepL In LIe cuse oI u nomudI c
peopI e under u Ieud oI sLuLe |nomcdisch-beherrschtes |, wILI wIom LIere
Is no prIvuLe ownersII p oI Iund. TIe supreme communder [Dberbe-
jehlshcber] cun L IereI ore Iuve no domcins, LIuL Is, no esLuLes I or IIs
prIvuLe use (Ior muInLuInIng IIs courL). or II Ie dId, IL wouI d LIen be
up Lo IIs own dIscreLIon Iow Iur LIey sIouId be exL ended, so LIuL LIe
sLuLe wouI d run LIe rIsk oI seeIng uII ownersII p oI Iund In LIe Iunds
oI LIe governmenL und uII subjecLs us serjs (elbce cdscripti), possessors
onIy oI wIuL Is LIe properLy oI unoLIer, und L IereI ore deprI ved oI uII
I reedom (serti). One cun suy oI LIe I ord oI LIe Iund LIuL he possesses
nothin (oI IIs own) excepL IImseII; I or II Ie Iud someLII ng oI IIs own
uIongsIde oLIers In LIe sLuLe, u dIspuLe couId urIse beLween LIem und
LIere wouI d be no j udge Lo seLLIe IL. BuL one cun uIso suy LIuL he possesses
eterthin, sInce Ie Ius LIe rI gIL oI commund over LIe peopI e, Lo
wIom uII exLernuI LIIngs beI ong (ditisim) (LIe rIgIL Lo ussIgn Lo eucI
wIuL Is IIs).
rom LIIs IL IoIIows LIuL LIere cun uIso be no corporuLI on, EsLuLe, or
order In LIe sLuLe LIuL, us owner oI Iund, cun puss IL on In uccordunce
wILI cerLuIn sLuLuLes Lo succeedIng generuLIons I or LIeIr excIusIve use
(In perpeLuILy). TIe sLuLe cun repeuI sucI sLuLuLes uL uny LIme, pro-
vIded IL compensuLes LIose wIo ure IeIL. A lnihtl order (wIeLIer u
corporuLI on or mereIy u runk oI IndIvIduuI persons wIo enj oy specIuI
Ionors) or u clericcl order, cuIIed LIe cIurcI, cun never ucquIre I rom
LIose prIvIIeges wILI wIIcI LIey ure I uvored ownersII p In Iund Lo puss
on Lo LIeIr successors; LIey cun ucquIre onIy use oI IL up Lo LIe presenL.
TIe esLuLes oI u knIgILIy order cun be revoked wILIouL scrupIe
(LIougI under LIe condILIon menLI oned ubove) II pubIIc opI nI on Ius
ceused Lo I uvor militcr honors us u meuns I or suI eguurdI ng LIe sLuLe
uguInsL I ndI I I erence In deI endI ng IL. TIe IoI dIngs oI LIe cIurcI cun
be sImIIurIy revoked II pubIIc opI nI on Ius ceused Lo wunL musses Ior
souIs, pruyers, und u muI LILude oI cIerIcs uppoI nLed I or LIIs us LIe
meuns I or suvIng LIe peopI e I rom eLernuI IIre. TIose uI I ecLed by sucI
reI orms cunnoL compI uI n oI LIeIr properLy beI ng Luken I rom LIem, |z|
sInce LIe reuson I or LIeIr possessIon IILIerLo Iuy onIy In LIe people's
opinion und uIso Iud Lo IoId us I ong us LIuL IusLed. BuL us soon us LIIs
opI nI on Iupses, und even Iupses onIy In LIe j udgmenL oI LIose wIo by
LIeIr merIL Iuve LIe sLrongesL cIuIm Lo guI de j udgmenL , LIe supposed
properLy Ius Lo ceuse, us II by un uppeuI oI LIe peopI e Lo LIe sLuLe (c
ree mcle injormcto cd reem melius injormcndum).
On LIIs orIgInuIIy ucquIred ownersII p oI Iund resLs, uguIn, LIe rIgIL
oI LIe supreme communder |Dberbejehlshcber|, us supreme proprI eLor
(Iord oI LIe Iund), Lo tcx prIvuLe owners oI Iund, LIuL Is, Lo requI re
puymenL oI Luxes on Iund, excIse Luxes, und I mporL duLIes, or Lo
requI re LIe perI ormunce oI servIces (sucI us provI dI ng Lroops Ior
mIIILury servIce). TII s musL, Iowever, be done In sucI u wuy LIuL LIe
peopI e Luxes ILseII, sInce LIe onIy wuy oI proceedI ng In uccordunce
wILI prIncIpIes oI RIgIL In LIIs muLLer Is Ior Luxes Lo be IevIed by LIose
depuLI zed by LIe peopI e, even In cuse oI I orced Iouns (devIuLIng I rom
prevIousIy exIsLIng Iuw), wIIcI IL Is permIssIbIe Lo exucL by LIe rIgIL oI
mujesLy In cuse LIe sLuLe Is In dunger oI dIssoIuLIon.
On LIIs supreme proprI eLorsII p uIso resLs LIe rIgIL Lo udmInIsLer
LIe sLuLe's economy, IInunces, und poIIce. PoIIce provI de I or pubIIc
securit, contenience, und decenc, I or LIe governmenL' s busIness oI
guI dI ng LIe peopI e by Iuws Is mude eusIer wIen LIe I eeI I ng I or decency
(sensus decori), us neguLIve LusLe, Is noL deudened by wIuL oI I ends LIe
moruI sense, sucI us beggI ng, uprour on LIe sLreeLs, sLencIes, und
pubIIc prosLILuLIon (tenus tolitcc).
A LIIrd rI gIL uIso beIongs Lo LIe sLuLe Ior ILs preservuLIon, LIuL oI
inspection (ius inspectionis), so LIuL no ussocIuLIon (oI poIILIcuI or reII-
gIous IunuLIcs) LIuL couI d uI I ecL LIe public weII-beIng oI socIeLy [pub-
licum) remuIns conceuIed. nsLeud, no ussocIuLIon cun reI use Lo dIs-
cIose ILs consLILuLIon wIen LIe poIIce demund IL. BuL LIe poIIce ure noL
uuLIorI zed Lo seurcI unyone' s prIvuLe resIdence excepL In u cuse oI
necessILy, und In every purLIcuIur cuse LIey musL be wurrunLed Lo do so
by u II gIer uuLIorILy.
C.
To LIe supreme communder |Dberbejehlshcber| LIere beI ongs indirectl,
LIuL Is, InsoIur us Ie Ius Luken over LIe duLy oI LIe peopI e, LIe rI gIL Lo
|z6| Impose Luxes on LIe peopI e I or ILs own preservuLIon, sucI us Luxes
Lo supporL orgunIzuLIons provI dI ng I or LIe poor, joundlin homes, und
church orcnizctions, usuuIIy cuIIed cIurILubIe or pIous InsLILuLIons.
TIe generuI wIII oI LIe peopI e Ius unILed ILseII InLo u socIeLy LIuL
Is Lo muInLuIn ILseII perpeLuuI I y; und I or LIIs end IL Ius submILLed ILseII
Lo LIe InLernuI uuLIorILy oI LIe sLuLe In order Lo muInLuIn LIose mem-
bers oI LIe socIeLy wIo ure unubIe Lo muInLuIn LIemseIves. or reusons
oI sLuLe LIe governmenL Is LIereI ore uuLIorI zed Lo consLruIn LIe
weuILIy Lo provI de LIe meuns oI susLenunce Lo LIose wIo ure unubI e Lo
provI de I or even LIeIr mosL necessury nuLuruI needs. TIe weuILIy
Iuve ucquIred un obIIguLIon Lo LIe commonweuI LI, sInce LIey owe
LIeIr exIsLence Lo un ucL oI submILLIng Lo ILs proLecLIon und cure, wII cI
LIey need In order Lo IIve; on LIIs obIIguLIon LIe sLuLe now buses ILs
rI gIL Lo conLrIbuLe wIuL Is LIeIrs Lo muInLuInIng LIeIr IeIIow cILIzens.
TII s cun be done eILIer by I mposI ng u Lux on LIe properL y or com-
merce oI cILIzens, or by esLubIIsIIng I unds und usI ng LIe InLeresL I rom
LIem, noL I or LIe needs oI LIe sLuLe (Ior IL Is rIcI), buL I or LIe needs oI
LIe peopIe. (SInce we ure speukI ng Iere onIy oI LIe rI gIL oI LIe sLuLe
uguInsL LIe peopI e) IL wIII do LIIs by wuy oI coercIon, by pubIIc Luxu-
LIon, noL mereI y by toluntcr conLrIbuLIons, some oI wIIcI ure mude
I or guIn (sucI us IoLLerIes, wIIcI produce more poor peopI e und more
dunger Lo pubIIc properLy LIun LIere wouI d oLIerwIse be, und wIIcI
sIouId LIereI ore noL be permILLed). TIe quesLIon urIses wIeL Ier LIe
cure oI LIe poor sIouId be provI ded Ior by current contributions -
coIIecLed noL by beggI ng, wIIcI Is cIoseIy ukIn Lo robbery, buL by IeguI
IevIes - so LIuL eucI generuLI on supporLs ILs own poor, or InsLeud by
cssets gruduuIIy uccumuI uLed und by pious InsLILuLIons generuII y (sucI
us wIdows' Iomes, IospILuIs, und LIe IIke). OnI y LIe IIrsL urrungemenL ,
wIIcI no one wIo Ius Lo IIve cun wILIdruw I rom, cun be consI dered In
keepI ng wILI LIe RIgIL oI u sLuLe; I or even II currenL conLrIbuLIons
Increuse wILI LIe number oI LIe poor, LIIs urrungemenL does noL
muke poverLy u meuns oI ucquIsILIon I or LIe Iuzy (us Is Lo be I eured oI
reIIgIous InsLILuLIons) und so does noL become un unjust burdenI ng
oI LIe peopI e by governmenL.
As I or muInLuInIng LIose cIII dren ubundoned becuuse oI poverLy
or sIume, or I ndeed murdered becuuse oI LIIs, LIe sLuLe Ius u rI gIL
Lo cIurge LIe peopI e wILI LIe duLy oI noL knowI ngI y IeLLIng LIem
dIe, even LIougI LIey ure un unweI come uddILIon Lo LIe resources oI
The Doctrine oj Riht " 1;
LIe sLuLe. WIeL Ier LIIs sIouId be done by LuxI ng eIderIy unmurrI ed
peopI e oI boLI sexes generuIIy (by wIIcI meun ueclth unmurrI ed |z;|
peopIe), sInce LIey ure In purL Lo bI ume Ior LIere beI ng ubundoned
cIII dren, In order Lo esLubIIsI I oundI I ng Iomes, or wIeLIer IL cun be
done rIgILIy In unoLIer wuy (IL wouI d be Iurd Lo I I nd unoLIer meuns
Ior prevenLI ng LIIs) Is u probI em wIIcI Ius noL yeL been soIved In sucI
u wuy LIuL LIe soIuLIon oI I ends uguInsL neILIer rIgILs nor moruIILy.
As I or churches, LIey musL be cureIuIIy dIsLInguIsIed I r om reIIgIon,
wIIcI Is un I nner dIsposILIon IyIng wIoIIy, beyond LIe cIvII power' s
spIere oI I nII uence. (As InsLILuLIons Ior pubIIc ditine uorship on LIe
purL oI LIe peopI e, Lo wIose opInIon or convIcLIon LIey owe LIeIr
orIgIn) cIurcIes become u Lrue need oI u sLuLe, LIe need I or u peopI e
Lo regurd LIemseIves us subjecLs oI u supreme intisible power Lo wIIcI
LIey musL puy Iomuge und wIIcI cun oI Len come InLo very unequuI
conIIIcL wILI LIe cIvII power. So u sLuLe does Iuve u rI gIL wILI regurd
Lo cIurcIes. L does noL Iuve LIe rIgIL Lo IegIsIuLe LIe InLernuI consLI-
LuLIons oI cIurcIes or Lo orgunI ze LIem In uccordunce wILI ILs own
vIews, In wuys IL deems udvunLugeous Lo ILseII, LIuL Is, Lo prescrIbe Lo
LIe peopI e or commund beIIeIs und Iorms oI dIvIne worsII p (ritus) (Ior
LIIs musL be I eIL enLIreIy Lo LIe LeucIers und dIrecLors LIe peopI e ILseII
Ius cIosen). A sLuLe Ius onIy u nectite rIgIL Lo prevenL pubIIc LeucIers
I rom exercIsIng un I nII uence on LIe tisible poIILIcuI commonweuI LI
LIuL mI gIL be prejudIcIuI Lo pubIIc peuce. Ls rIgIL Is LIereI ore LIuL oI
poIIcIng, oI noL IeLLIng u dIspuLe urIsIng wILIIn u cIurcI or umong
dI I I erenL cIurcIes endunger cIvII Iurmony. or LIe supreme uuLIor-
ILy Lo suy LIuL u cIurcI sIouId Iuve u cerLuIn beIIeI, or Lo suy wIIcI IL
sIouId Iuve or LIuL IL musL muInLuIn IL unuILerubIy und muy noL
reI orm ILseII, ure I nLerIerences by IL LIuL ure benecth its dinit, I or In
doI ng LIIs, us In meddI I ng In LIe quurreIs oI LIe scIooIs, IL puLs ILseII
on u IeveI oI equuIILy wILI ILs subjecLs (LIe monurcI mukes IImseII u
prIesL), und LIey cun sLruIgILwuy LeII IIm LIuL Ie undersLunds noLII ng
ubouL IL. TIe supreme uuLIorILy especIuIIy Ius no rIgIL Lo proIIbIL
InLernuI reI orm oI cIurcIes, Ior wIuL LIe wIoIe peopI e cunnoL decI de
upon I or ILseII LIe IegIsIuLor uIso cunnoL decIde Ior LIe peopI e. BuL no
peopI e cun decI de never Lo muke I urL Ier progress In ILs InsIgIL (en-
IIgILenmenL) regurdI ng beIIeIs, und so never Lo reI orm ILs cIurcIes,
sInce LIIs wouI d be opposed Lo LIe IumunILy In LIeIr own persons und
so Lo LIe IIgIesL RIgIL oI LIe peopI e. So no supreme uuLIorILy cun |z8|
decIde on LIIs I or LIe peopIe. BuL us I or LIe expenses oI muInLuInIng
cIurcIes: or LIe very sume reuson LIese cunnoL be cIurged Lo LIe
sLuLe buL musL ruLIer be cIurged Lo LIe purL oI LIe peopI e wIo proIess
one or unoLIer beIIeI, LIuL Is, onIy Lo LIe congreguLI on.
!"
TIe rIgILs oI LIe supreme communder [obersten ejehlshcbers] oI u sLuLe
uIso IncIude 1) LIe dIsLrIbuLIon oI ojjices, wIIcI ure suIurIed udmInIs-
LruLIve posILIons; z) LIe dIsLrIbuLIon oI dinities, wII cI ure emI nenL
EsLuLes wILIouL puy, bused on Ionor uIone, LIuL Is, u dIvIsIon oI runk
InLo LIe II gIer (desLIned Lo commund) und LIe I ower (wIIcI, L IougI
I ree und bound onIy by pubIIc Iuw, Is sLIII desLIned Lo obey LIe I ormer);
und ) besIdes LIese (reIuLIveIy beneIIcenL) rIgILs, LIe riht to punish
us weII.
WILI regurd Lo cIvII oIIIces, LIe quesLIon urIses wIeL Ier LIe sover-
eIgn, once IuvI ng gIven someone un oI I I ce, Ius u rI gIL Lo Luke IL uwuy
us Ie pIeuses (II LIe oIIIcIuI Ius noL commILLed u crIme). suy, no. or
LIe Ieud oI sLuLe cun never muke u decIsIon ubouL u cIvII oIII cI uI wII cI
LIe unILed wIII oI LIe peopI e wouI d noL muke. Now LIe peopI e (wIIcI
Ius Lo beur LIe cosLs I ncurred I rom uppoI nLI ng un oIIIcIuI) undoubL-
edIy wunLs II m Lo be compeLenL Ior LIe posILIon Ie Is ussIgned Lo; und
LIIs Ie cun be onIy uILer Ie Ius spenL suIIIcIenLIy I ong LIme In prepuru-
LIon und LruInIng, LIme Ie couI d Iuve spenL In LruInIng I or unoLIer
posILIon LIuL wouI d Iuve supporLed IIm. I LIe Ieud oI sLuLe Iud LIIs
rIgIL, oIII ces wouI d be IIIIed us u ruIe by peopI e wIo Iud noL ucquI red
LIe skIII requIsILe I or LIem und LIe muLure j udgmenL ucIIeved by
prucLIce, und LIIs wouI d be conLrury Lo LIe InLenLIon oI LIe sLuLe, wIIcI
uIso requIres LIuL everyone be ubIe Lo rIse I rom I ower Lo II gIer oI I I ces
(wIIcI wouI d oLIerwIse IuII InLo LIe Iunds oI sIeer I ncompeLence).
Hence cIvII oIIIcIuIs musL be ubIe Lo counL on I I IeI ong supporL.
Among dinities, noL j usL LIose uLLucIed Lo un oI I I ce buL uIso LIuL
wIIcI mukes ILs possessors members oI u II gIer EsLuLe even wILIouL
uny specIuI servIces on LIeIr purL, Is LIuL oI LIe nobilit, wII cI Is dIsLIncL
|zq| I rom LIe cIvII EsLuLe oI LIe peopI e und Is LrunsmILLed Lo muIe descen-
dunLs und by LIem Lo u wI Ie born us u commoner, L IougI II u womun
born InLo LIe nobIIILy murrIes u commoner sIe does noL puss LIIs runk
on Lo Ier Iusbund buL IerseII reverLs Lo LIe mere cIvII runk (oI LIe
peopIe). Now LIe quesLIon Is wIeLIer LIe sovereIgn Is enLILIed Lo esLub-
IIsI u nobIIILy, InsoIur us IL Is un EsLuLe InLermedIuLe beLween IImseI I
und LIe resL oI LIe cILIzens LIuL ccn be inherited. WIuL LIIs quesLIon
comes down Lo Is noL wIeLIer IL wouI d be prudenL I or LIe sovereIgn Lo
do LIIs, wILI u vIew Lo IIs own or LIe peopIe' s udvunLuge, buL onIy
wIeLIer IL wouI d be In uccord wILI LIe rIgILs oI LIe peopI e I or IL Lo
Iuve un EsLuLe oI persons ubove IL wIo, wIIIe LIemseIves subjecLs, ure
sLIII born ruIers |ejehlshcber| (or uL IeusL prIvIIeged) wILI respecL Lo LIe
peopI e. TIe unswer Lo LIIs quesLIon comes I rom LIe sume prIncIpIe us
LIe repIy Lo LIe precedI ng one: "WIuL u peopI e (LIe enLIre muss oI
The Doctrine oj Riht " 1q
subjecLs) cunnoL decIde wILI regurd Lo ILseII und ILs IeIIows, LIe sover-
eIgn cun uIso noL decI de wILI regurd Lo IL." Now u hereditcr nobIIILy Is
u runk LIuL precedes merIL und uIso provIdes no busIs Lo Iope Ior
merIL, und Is LIus u LIougIL-enLILy wILIouL uny reuIILy. or II un unces-
Lor Iud merIL Ie couI d sLIII noL bequeuLI IL Lo IIs descendunLs: TIey
musL ucquIre IL I or LIemseIves, sInce nuLure does noL urrunge LIIngs In
sucI u wuy LIuL LuIenL und wIII, wIIcI muke merILorIous servIce Lo LIe
sLuLe possIbIe, ure uIso hereditcr. SInce we cunnoL udmIL LIuL uny mun
wouI d LIrow uwuy IIs I reedom, IL Is ImpossIbIe Ior LIe generuI wIII oI
LIe peopI e Lo ussenL Lo sucI u groundI ess preroguLIve, und L IereI ore
I or LIe sovereIgn Lo vuIIduLe IL. TIe unomuIy oI subjecLs wIo wunL Lo
be more LIun cILIzens oI LIe sLuLe, numeIy born oIIIcIuIs (u born proIes-
sor, perIups) muy Iuve crepL InLo LIe mucIInery oI governmenL I rom
oI der LImes (IeuduIIsm, wIIcI wus orgunI zed uImosL enLIreIy I or wur).
TIe onIy wuy LIe sLuLe cun LIen gruduuIIy correcL LIIs mIsLuke IL Ius
mude, oI conI errI ng IeredILury prIvIIeges conLrury Lo rIgIL, Is by IeL-
LIng LIem Iupse und noL IIIIIng vucuncIes In LIese posILIons. So IL Ius u
provIsIonuI rIgIL Lo IeL LIese LILIed posILIons oI dIgnILy conLI nue unLII
even In pubIIc opI nI on LIe dIvIsIon InLo sovereIgn, nobIIILy, und com-
moners Ius been repIuced by LIe onIy nuLuruI dIvIsIon InLo sovereIgn
und peopIe.
CerLuInIy no mun In u sLuLe cun be wILIouL uny dIgnILy, sInce Ie uL
IeusL Ius LIe dIgnILy oI u cILIzen. TIe excepLI on Is someone wIo Ius L|
IosL IL by IIs own crime, becuuse oI wIIcI, L IougI Ie Is kepL uIIve, Ie Is
mude u mere LooI oI unoLIer' s cIoIce (eILIer oI LIe sLuLe or oI unoLIer
cILIzen). WIoever Is unoLIer' s LooI (wIIcI Ie cun become onIy by
j udgmenL und RIgIL) Is u bondsmcn
z
(sertus in sensu stricto) und Is LIe
propert (dominium) oI unoLIer, wIo Is uccordIngI y noL mereIy IIs mcs-
ter (herus) buL uIso IIs ouner (dominus) und cun LIereI ore uIIenuLe II m
us u LIIng, use II m us Ie pIeuses (onIy noL I or sIumeI uI purposes) und
dispose oj his pouers, LIougI noL oI IIs IIIe und members. No one cun
bInd IImseII Lo LIIs kInd oI dependence, by wIIcI Ie ceuses Lo be u
person, by u conLrucL, sInce IL Is onIy us u person LIuL Ie cun muke
u conLrucL. Now IL mI gIL seem LIuL u mun couI d puL IImseII under
obIIguLIon Lo unoLIer person, by u conLrucL Lo IeL und IIre (locctio con-
ductio), Lo perI orm servIces (In reLurn Ior wuges, bourd, or proLecLIon)
LIuL ure permIssIbIe In Lerms oI LIeIr quuIILy buL indetermincte In Lerms
oI LIeIr quunLILy, und LIuL Ie LIereby becomes j usL u subjecL (subiectus),
noL u bondsmun (sertus). BuL LIIs Is onIy u decepLIve uppeurunce. or
II LIe musLer Is uuLIorI zed Lo use LIe powers oI IIs subjecL us Ie
pIeuses, Ie cun uIso exIuusL LIem unLII IIs subjecL dIes or Is drI ven Lo
despuIr (us wILI LIe Negroes on LIe Sugur sIunds); IIs subjecL wIII
m IucL Iuve gIven IImseII uwuy, us properLy, Lo IIs musLer, wIIcI Is
ImpossIbIe. Someone cun LIereI ore IIre IImseII ouL onIy I or work LIuL
Is deLermI ned us Lo ILs kInd und ILs umounL, eILIer us u duy I uborer or
us u subjecL IIvIng on IIs musLer's properLy. n LIe IuLLer cuse Ie cun
muke u conLrucL, Ior u LIme or IndeIInILeIy, Lo per I or m servIces by
workI ng on IIs musLer' s Iund In excIunge I or LIe use oI IL InsLeud oI
receIvIng wuges us u duy Iuborer, or Lo puy renL (u Lux) specIIIed by u
Ieuse In reLurn I or IIs own use oI IL, wILIouL LIereby mukI ng IImseI I
u serj (elbce cdscriptus), by wIIcI Ie wouI d IorIeI L IIs personuIILy. Even
II Ie Ius become u personcl subjecL by IIs crIme, IIs subjecLIon cunnoL
be inherited, becuuse Ie Ius I ncurred IL onIy by IIs own guIIL. Nor cun
u bondsmun' s oI I sprI ng be cIuImed us u bondsmun becuuse Ie Ius
gIven rIse Lo LIe expense oI beI ng educuLed; I or purenLs Iuve un
ubsoIuLe nuLuruI duLy Lo educuLe LIeIr cIII dren und, In cuse LIe purenLs
ure In bonduge, LIeIr musLers Luke over LIIs duLy uI ong wILI possessIon
oI LIeIr subjecLs.
!"
$% &'( )*+'& &, -.%*/' 0%1 &, 230%& 45(6(%78
TIe riht to punish Is LIe rIgIL u ruI er Ius uguInsL u subjecL Lo InIIIcL
puIn upon IIm becuuse oI IIs IuvI ng commILLed u crIme. TIe Ieud oI
u sLuLe cun L IereI ore noL be punI sIed; one cun onIy wI LIdruw I rom IIs
domI nI on. A LrunsgressIon oI pubIIc Iuw LIuL mukes someone wIo
commILs IL unII L Lo be u cILIzen Is cuIIed u crime sImpIy (crimen) buL Is
uIso cuIIed u pubIIc crIme (crimen publicum) ;
6
so LIe IIrsL (prIvuLe crIme)
Is brougIL beI ore u cIvII courL, LIe IuLLer beI ore u crImInuI courL. Em-
bezzlement, LIuL Is, mIsupproprIuLIon oI money or goods enLrusLed I or
commerce, und I ruud In buyI ng und seIIIng, wIen commI LLed In sucI
u wuy LIuL LIe oLIer couId deLecL IL, ure prIvuLe crImes. On LIe oLIer
Iund, counLerIeI LI ng money or bIIIs oI excIunge, LIeIL und robbery,
und LIe IIke ure pubIIc crImes, becuuse LIey endunger LIe common-
weuILI und noL j usL un IndIvIduuI person. TIey cun be dI vI ded InLo
crImes urIsIng I r om u mecn cIurucLer (indolis cbiectce) und crImes urIs-
I ng I rom u tiolent cIurucLer (indolis tiolentce).
Punishment b c court (poenc jorensis) - LIIs Is dIsLIncL I rom ncturcl
punishment (poenc ncturclis), In wIIcI vIce punIsIes ILseII und wIIcI LIe
IegIsIuLor does noL Luke InLo uccounL - cun never be InIIIcLed mereI y us
u meuns Lo promoLe some oLIer good I or LIe crImInuI IImseI I or I or
cIvII socIeLy. L musL uIwuys be InIIIcLed upon IIm onIy beccuse he hcs
committed c crime. or u mun cun never be LreuLed mereI y us u meuns
Lo LIe purposes oI unoLIer or be puL umong LIe objecLs oI rIgILs Lo
|
1
|
The Doctrine oj Riht " 1q1
LIIngs: HIs InnuLe personuIILy proLecLs IIm I rom LIIs, even L IougI Ie
cun be condemned Lo Iose IIs cIvII personuIILy. He musL prevIousIy
Iuve been I ound punishcble beI ore uny LIougIL cun be gIven Lo druw-
I ng I rom IIs punI sImenL someLII ng oI use I or IImseII or IIs IeIIow
cILIzens. TIe prIncIpIe oI punI sImenL
6q
Is u cuLegorIcuI ImperuLIve,
und woe Lo II m wIo cruwIs L IrougI LIe wIndIngs oI euduemonI sm In
order Lo dIscover someLII ng LIuL reIeuses LIe crImInuI I rom punIsI-
menL or even reduces ILs umounL by LIe udvunLuge IL promIses, In
uccordunce wILI LIe PIurIsuIcuI suyIng, "L Is beLLer I or one mun Lo dIe |z|
LIun I or un enLIre peopI e Lo perIsI." or II jusLIce goes, LIere Is no
I onger uny vuIue In men' s IIvIng on LIe eurLI. WIuL, LIereI ore, sIouId
one LIInk oI LIe proposuI Lo preserve LIe IIIe oI u crImInuI senLenced
Lo deuLI II Ie ugrees Lo IeL dungerous experI menLs be mude on II m
und Is Iucky enougI Lo survIve LIem, so LIuL In LIIs wuy pIysIcIuns
Ieurn someLII ng new oI beneII L Lo LIe commonweuI LI? A courL wouI d
rejecL wILI conLempL sucI u proposuI I r om u medIcuI coIIege, I or
jusLIce ceuses Lo be jusLIce II IL cun be bougIL I or uny prIce wIuLsoever.
BuL wIuL kInd und wIuL umounL oI punI sImenL Is IL LIuL pubIIc
jusLIce mukes ILs prIncIpIe und meusure? None oLIer LIun LIe prIn-
cIpIe oI equuIILy (In LIe posILIon oI LIe needIe on LIe scuIe oI jusLIce),
Lo IncIIne no more Lo one sIde LIun Lo LIe oLIer. AccordI ngI y, wIuL-
ever undeserved evII you InIIIcL upon unoLIer wILIIn LIe peopI e, LIuL
you InIIIcL upon yourseII. I you InsuIL IIm, you InsuIL yourseI I; II you
sLeuI I rom IIm, you sLeuI I rom yourseI I; II you sLrIke IIm, you sLrIke
yourseII; II you kIII IIm, you kIII yourseII. BuL onIy LIe lcu oj retribution
(ius tclionis) - IL beI ng undersLood, oI course, LIuL LIIs Is uppIIed by u
courL (noL by your prIvuLe j udgmenL ) - cun specIIy deIInILeIy LIe
quuIILy und LIe quunLILy oI punI sImenL; uII oLIer prIncIpIes ure IIucLu-
uLIng und unsuILed I or u senLence oI pure und sLrIcL jusLIce becuuse
exLruneous consIderuLIons ure mI xed InLo LIem. Now IL wouI d I ndeed
seem LIuL dI I I erences In socIuI runk wouI d noL uIIow LIe prIncIpIe oI
reLrIbuLIon, oI IIke Ior IIke; buL even wIen LIIs Is noL possIbIe In Lerms
oI LIe IeLLer, LIe prIncIpIe cun uIwuys remuI n vuIId In Lerms oI ILs eI I ecL
II uccounL Is Luken oI LIe sensIbIIILIes oI LIe upper cIusses. A IIne, I or
exumpI e, I mposed Ior u verbuI Injury Ius no reIuLIon Lo LIe oI I ense,
Ior someone weuILIy mI gIL I ndeed uIIow IImseII Lo I nduI ge In u verbuI
Injury on some occusIon; yeL LIe ouLruge Ie Ius done Lo someone' s
Iove oI Ionor cun sLIII be quILe sImIIur Lo LIe IurL done Lo IIs prI de II
Ie Is consLruIned by j udgmenL und RIgIL noL onIy Lo upoI ogI ze pubIIcIy
Lo LIe one Ie Ius InsuILed buL uIso Lo kIss IIs Iund, Ior InsLunce, even
LIougI Ie Is oI u Iower cIuss. SImIIurIy, someone oI II gI sLundIng
gIven Lo vIoIence couId be condemned noL onIy Lo upoI ogI ze I or sLrIk-
Ing un InnocenL cILIzen socIuIIy I nIerI or Lo IImseII buL uIso Lo undergo
||
u
soIILury conI I nemenL InvoIvIng IurdsII p; In uddILIon Lo LIe dIscom-
IorL Ie undergoes, LIe oI I ender' s vunILy wouI d be puI nIuI I y uI I ecL ed,
so LIuL L IrougI IIs sIume IIke wouI d be IILLIngIy repuI d wILI IIke. BuL
wIuL does IL meun Lo suy, "I you sLeuI I rom someone, you sLeuI I rom
yourseI I "? WIoever sLeuIs mukes LIe properLy oI everyone eIse Inse-
cure und L IereI ore deprIves IImseI I (by LIe prIncIpIe oI reLrIbuLIon)
oI securILy In uny possIbIe properLy. He Ius noLII ng und cun uIso
ucquIre noLII ng; buL Ie sLIII wunLs Lo IIve, und LIIs Is now possIbIe onIy
II oLIers provI de I or IIm. BuL sInce LIe sLuLe wIII noL provI de I or II m
I ree oI cIurge, Ie musL IeL IL Iuve IIs powers I or uny kI nd oI work IL
pIeuses (In convIcL or prIson Iubor) und Is reduced Lo LIe sLuLus oI u
sIuve I or u cerLuIn LIme, or permunenLI y II LIe sLuLe sees IIL. I, Iow-
ever, Ie Ius commI LLed murder Ie musL die. Here LIere Is no subsLI-
LuLe LIuL wIII suLIsIy jusLIce. TIer e Is no similcrit beLween IIIe, Iowever
wreLcIed IL muy be, und deuLI, Ience no IIkeness beLween LIe crIme
und LIe reLrIbuLIon unIess deuLI Is judIcIuIIy currIed ouL upon LIe
wrongdoer, uI LIougI IL musL sLIII be I reed I rom uny mIsLreuLmenL LIuL
couI d muke LIe IumunI Ly In LIe person suI I erI ng IL InLo someLII ng
ubomInubIe. Even II u cIvII socIeLy were Lo be dIssoIved by LIe consenL
oI uII ILs members (e.g., II u peopI e InIubILIng un IsIund decI ded Lo
sepuruLe und dIsperse L IrougIouL LIe worId), LIe IusL murderer
remuI nI ng In prIson wouI d IIrsL Iuve Lo be execuLed, so LIuL eucI Ius
done Lo II m wIuL IIs deeds deserve und bIood guIIL does noL cIIng Lo
LIe peopI e I or noL IuvI ng InsIsLed upon LIIs punI sImenL; I or oLIer-
wIse LIe peopI e cun be regurded us coIIuboruLors In LIIs pubIIc vIoIu-
LIon oI jusLIce.
TII s IILLIng oI punI sImenL Lo LIe crIme, wIIcI cun occur onIy by u
j udge I mposI ng LIe deuLI senLence In uccordunce wILI LIe sLrIcL Iuw oI
reLrIbuLIon, Is sIown by LIe IucL LIuL onIy by LIIs Is u senLence oI deuLI
pronounced on every crImInuI In proporLI on Lo IIs inner uicledness
(even wIen LIe crIme Is noL murder buL unoLIer crI me uguInsL LIe
sLuLe LIuL cun be puId I or onIy by deuLI). Suppose LIuL some (sucI us
BuI merI no
6
und oLIers) wIo Look purL In LIe recenL ScoLLIsI rebeIIIon
beIIeved LIuL by LIeIr uprIsIng LIey were onIy perI ormI ng u duLy LIey
owed LIe House oI SLuurL, wIIIe oLIers on LIe conLrury were ouL I or
LIeIr prIvuLe InLeresLs; und suppose LIuL LIe j udgmenL pronounced by
LIe IIgIesL courL Iud been LIuL eucI Is I ree Lo muke LIe cIoIce be-
Lween deuLI und convIcL Iubor. suy LIuL In LIIs cuse LIe mun oI Ionor
|q| wouI d cIoose deuLI, und LIe scoundreI convIcL Iubor. TII s comes
uI ong wILI LIe nuLure oI LIe Iumun mI nd; Ior LIe mun oI Ionor
Is ucquuInLed wILI someLII ng LIuL Ie vuIues even more IIgIIy LIun
IIIe, numeIy honor, wIIIe LIe scoundreI consIders IL beLLer Lo IIve In
sIume LIun noL Lo IIve uL uII (cnimcm prcejerre pudori, uvenuI |SuLIres
, 8, 8|). SInce LIe mun oI Ionor Is undenI ubI y Iess deservI ng oI
punI sImenL LIun LIe oLIer, boLI wouI d be punI sIed quILe propor-
LIonuLeIy II uII uIIke were senLenced Lo deuLI; LIe mun oI Ionor wouI d
be punI sIed mIIdIy In Lerms oI IIs sensIbIIILIes und LIe scoundreI
severeIy In Lerms oI IIs. On LIe oLIer Iund, II boLI were senLenced Lo
convIcL Iubor LIe mun oI Ionor wouI d be punI sIed Loo severeIy und
LIe oLIer Loo mIIdIy I or IIs vIIe ucLIon. And so Iere Loo, wIen senLence
Is pronounced on u number oI crImInuIs unILed In u pIoL, LIe besL
equuIIzer beI ore pubIIc jusLIce Is decth. Moreover, one Ius never Ieurd
oI unyone wIo wus senLenced Lo deuLI I or murder compI uI nI ng LIuL
Ie wus deuIL wILI Loo severeIy und LIereI ore wronged; everyone
wouI d I uugI In IIs Iuce II Ie suId LIIs. I IIs compI uInL were j usLI II ed
IL wouI d Iuve Lo be ussumed LIuL even L IougI no wrong Is done Lo
LIe crImInuI In uccordunce wILI LIe Iuw, LIe IegIsIuLIve uuLIorILy oI LIe
sLuLe Is sLIII noL uuLIorI zed Lo InIIIcL LIIs kInd oI punI sImenL und LIuL,
II IL does so, IL wouI d be In conLrudIcLIon wILI ILseII.
AccordI ngI y, every murderer - unyone wIo commILs murder,
orders IL, or Is un uccompIIce In IL - musL suI I er deuLI; LIIs Is wIuL
jusLIce, us LIe deu oI j udI cI uI uuLIorILy, wIIIs In uccordunce wILI unI-
versuI Iuws LIuL ure grounded u prIorI. I, Iowever, LIe number oI
uccompIIces (correi) Lo sucI u deed Is so greuL LIuL LIe sLuLe, In order Lo
Iuve no sucI crImInuIs In IL, couI d soon II nd ILseII wILIouL subjecLs;
und II LIe sLuLe sLIII does noL wunL Lo dIssoIve, LIuL Is, Lo puss over InLo
LIe sLuLe oI nuLure, wIIcI Is I ur worse becuuse LIere Is no exLernuI
jusLIce uL uII In IL (und II IL especIuIIy does noL wunL Lo duII LIe peopIe' s
IeeI I ng by LIe specLucIe oI u sIuugILerIouse), LIen LIe sovereI gn musL
uIso Iuve IL In IIs power, In LIIs cuse oI necessILy (ccsus necessitctis), Lo
ussume LIe roIe oI j udge (Lo represenL IIm) und pronounce u j udg-
menL LIuL decrees I or LIe crImInuIs u senLence oLIer LIun cupILuI pun-
IsImenL, sucI us deporLuLIon, wIIcI sLIII preserves LIe popuI uLI on.
66
TII s cunnoL be done In uccordunce wILI pubIIc Iuw, buL IL cun be done
by un execuLIve decree, LIuL Is, by un ucL oI LIe rI gIL oI mujesLy wII cI,
us cI emency, cun uIwuys be exercIsed onIy In IndIvIduuI cuses.
n opposILIon Lo LIIs LIe MurcIese BeccurIu,
6;
moved by overIy com-
pussIonuLe IeeIIngs oI un uI I ecLed IumunI Ly (compcssibilitcs), Ius puL ||
I orwurd IIs usserLIon LIuL uny cupILuI punI sImenL Is wrongI uI becuuse
IL couId noL be conLuIned In LIe orIgInuI cIvII conLrucL; I or II IL were,
everyone In u peopI e wouI d Iuve Lo Iuve consenLed Lo Iose IIs IIIe In
cuse Ie murdered someone eIse (In LIe peopIe), wIereus IL Is Impos-
sIbIe Ior unyone Lo consenL Lo LIIs becuuse no one cun dIspose oI IIs
own IIIe. TII s Is uII sopIIsLry und jurIsLIc LrIckery.
No one suI I ers punI sImenL becuuse Ie Ius wIIIed it buL becuuse Ie
Ius wIIIed u punishcble cction, Ior IL Is no punI sImenL II wIuL Is done Lo
someone Is wIuL Ie wIIIs, und IL Is ImpossIbIe to uill Lo be punI sIed.
SuyIng LIuL wIII Lo be punI sIed II murder someone Is suyIng noLI-
I ng more LIun LIuL subjecL myseII LogeLIer wILI everyone eIse Lo LIe
Iuws, wII cI wIII nuLuruIIy uIso be penuI Iuws II LIere ure uny crImInuIs
umong LIe peopI e. As u coIegIsIuLor In dIcLuLIng LIe pencl lcu, cunnoL
possIbIy be LIe sume person wIo, us u subjecL, Is punI sIed In uccor-
dunce wILI LIe Iuw; Ior us one wIo Is punI sIed, numeI y us u crImInuI,
cunnoL possIbIy Iuve u voIce In IegIsIuLIon (LIe IegIsIuLor Is IoIy).
ConsequenLI y, wIen druw up u penuI Iuw uguInsL myseI I us u crImI-
nuI, IL Is pure reuson In me (homo noumenon), IegIsIuLIng wILI regurd Lo
rIgILs, wII cI subjecLs me, us someone cupubIe oI crIme und so us
unoLIer person (homophcenomenon), Lo LIe penuI Iuw, LogeLIer wILI uII
oLIers In u cIvII unI on. n oLIer words, IL Is noL LIe peopI e (eucI
IndIvIduuI In IL) LIuL dIcLuLes cupILuI punI sImenL buL ruLIer LIe courL
(pubIIc jusLIce), und so unoLIer LIun LIe crImInuI; und LIe socIuI con-
LrucL conLuIns no promIse Lo IeL oneseI I be punI sIed und so Lo dIspose
oI oneseII und one' s IIIe. or II LIe uuLIorIzuLIon Lo punI sI Iud Lo be
bused on LIe oI I ender' s promise, on IIs uillin Lo IeL IImseII be pun-
IsIed, IL wouI d uIso Iuve Lo be IeIL Lo IIm Lo IInd IImseI I punIsIubI e
und LIe crImInuI wouI d be IIs own j udge. TIe cII eI poI nL oI error
(IrpcoTOv I]Ieu8os) In LIIs sopIIsLry consIsLs In ILs conI usI ng LIe crImInuI' s
own j udgmenL (wIIcI musL necessurIIy be uscrIbed Lo IIs recson) LIuL
Ie Ius Lo I orI eI L IIs IIIe wILI u resoIve on LIe purL oI IIs uill Lo Luke IIs
own IIIe, und so In represenLI ng us unILed In one und LIe sume person
LIe j udgmenL upon u rIgIL [Rechtsbeurteilun] und LIe reuIIzuLIon oI
LIuL rIgIL [Rechtstollziehun].
TIer e ure, Iowever, Lwo crImes deservI ng oI deuLI, wILI regurd Lo
|6| wIIcI IL sLIII remuI ns doubL I uI wIeLIer leislction Is uIso uuLIorI zed
Lo Impose LIe deuLI penuILy. TIe IeeI I ng oI Ionor Ieuds Lo boLI, In one
cuse LIe honor oj one's sex, In LIe oLIer militcr honor, und I ndeed Lrue
Ionor, wIIcI Is I ncumbenL us duLy on eucI oI LIese Lwo cIusses oI
peopI e. TIe one crIme Is u moLIer' s murder oj her child (injcnticidium
mcterncle), LIe oLIer Is murderin c jellou soldier (commilitonicidium) In u
duel. egIsIuLIon cunnoL remove LIe dIsgruce oI un IIIegILImuLe bIrLI
uny more LIun IL cun wIpe uwuy LIe sLuIn oI suspIcIon oI cowurdI ce
I rom u subordInuLe oI I I cer wIo IuIIs Lo respond Lo u IumI I I uLI ng uI-
I ronL wILI u I orce oI IIs own rIsIng ubove Ieur oI deuLI. So IL seems
LIuL In LIese Lwo cuses peopI e IInd LIemseIves In LIe sLuLe oI nuLure,
und LIuL LIese ucLs oI lillin (homocidium), wIIcI wouI d LIen noL even
Iuve Lo be cuIIed murder (homocidium dolosum), ure cerLuInIy punIsI-
ubIe buL cunnoL be punI sIed wILI deuLI by LIe supreme power. A cIIId
LIuL comes InLo LIe worI d upurL I rom murrI uge Is born ouLsIde LIe Iuw
(Ior LIe Iuw Is murrIuge) und L IereI ore ouLsIde LIe proLecLIon oI LIe
Iuw. L Ius, us IL were, sLoIen InLo LIe commonweuI LI (IIke conLrubund
mercIundIse), so LIuL LIe commonweuI LI cun I gnore ILs exIsLence
(sInce IL rIgILIy [billi] sIouId noL Iuve come Lo exIsL In LIIs wuy), und
cun LIereI ore uIso I gnore ILs unnIIIIuLIon; und no decree cun remove
LIe moLIer' s sIume wIen IL becomes known LIuL sIe guve bIrLI wILI-
ouL beI ng murrI ed. So Loo, wIen u j unI or oI I I cer Is InsuILed Ie sees
IImseII consLruIned by LIe pubIIc opI nI on oI LIe oLIer members oI IIs
EsLuLe Lo obLuIn suLIsIucLIon I or IImseII und, us In LIe sLuLe oI nuLure,
punishment oI LIe oI I ender noL by Iuw, LukIng IIm beI ore u courL, buL
by u duel, In wII cI Ie exposes IImseII Lo deuLI In order Lo prove IIs
mIIILury couruge, upon wIIcI LIe Ionor oI IIs EsLuLe essenLIuIIy resLs.
Even II LIe dueI sIouI d InvoIve lillin IIs opponenL, LIe kIIIIng LIuL
occurs In LIIs I I gIL wIIcI Lukes pIuce In pubIIc und wILI LIe consenL oI
boLI purLIes, L IougI reIucLunLIy, cunnoL sLrIcLIy be cuIIed murder ihomo-
cidium dolosum). WIuL, now, Is Lo be IuId down us rIgIL In boLI cuses
(comIng under crImInuI jusLIce)? Here penuI jusLIce II nds ILseII very
mucI In u quundury. EILIer IL musL decIure by Iuw LIuL LIe concepL oI
Ionor (wIIcI Is Iere no IIIusIon) counLs Ior noLII ng und so punIsI
wILI deuLI, or eIse IL musL remove I rom LIe crIme LIe cupILuI punIsI-
menL upproprI uLe Lo IL, und so be eILIer crueI or I nduI genL. TIe knoL
cun be undone In LIe IoI I owI ng wuy: TIe cuLegorIcuI ImperuLIve oI
penuI jusLIce remuIns (unI uwIuI kIIIIng oI unoLIer musL be punI sIed |;|
by deuLI); buL LIe IegIsIuLIon ILseII (und consequenLIy uIso LIe cIvII
consLILuLIon), us I ong us IL remuIns burburous und undeveI oped, Is
responsIbIe I or LIe dIscrepuncy beLween LIe IncenLIves oI Ionor In LIe
peopI e (subjecLIveIy) und LIe meusures LIuL ure (objecLIveIy) suILubIe
Ior ILs purpose. So LIe pubIIc jusLIce urIsIng I rom LIe sLuLe becomes un
injustice I rom LIe perspecLIve oI LIe jusLIce urIsIng I rom LIe peopI e.
OI uII LIe rIgILs oI u sovereIgn, LIe riht to rcnt clemenc Lo u crImInuI
(ius crcticndi), eILIer by IessenIng or enLIreIy remILLIng punI sImenL,
Is LIe sIIpperIesL one I or IIm Lo exercIse; I or IL musL be exercIsed In
sucI u wuy us Lo sIow LIe spI endor oI IIs mujesLy uI LIougI Ie Is
LIereby doI ng InjusLIce In LIe IIgIesL degree. WILI regurd Lo crImes oI
subjects uguInsL one unoLIer IL Is ubsoIuLeIy noL Ior IIm Lo exercIse IL;
Ior Iere IuIIure Lo punIsI (impunitcs criminis) Is LIe greuLesL wrong
uguInsL IIs subjecLs. He cun muke use oI IL, LIereIore, onIy In cuse oI
u wrong done to himselj (crimen lcesce mciestctis). BuL Ie cunnoL muke
use oI IL even LIen II IIs IuIIure Lo punIsI couId endunger LIe peopIe' s
securILy. TII s rI gIL Is LIe onIy one LIuL deserves Lo be cuIIed LIe rIgIL
I mujesLy.
!" $%& '&()$*+" ,*$% '&-)./ $+ '*-%$0 +1 ) 2*$*3&"
$+ 4*0 5)$*6& 7)"/ )"/ $+ 8+.&*-" 2+9"$.*&0
o.
A countr (territorium) wIose InIubILunLs ure cILIzens oI IL sImpIy by ILs
consLILuLIon, wILIouL LIeIr IuvI ng Lo perI orm uny specIuI ucL Lo esLub-
IIsI LIe rIgIL (und so ure cILIzens by bIrLI), Is cuIIed LIeIr nctite lcnd. A
counLry oI wIIcI LIey ure noL cILIzens upurL I rom LIIs condILIon Is
cuIIed u jorein countr. I u I oreI gn counLry I orms purL oI u I urger
reuIm IL Is cuIIed u protince (In LIe sense In wIIcI LIe Romuns used LIIs
word), wIIcI musL respecL LIe Iund oI LIe sLuLe LIuL ruIes IL us LIe
mother countr (reio dominc), I or u provI nce Is noL un InLegruI purL oI
LIe reuIm (imperii), u pIuce oI residence Ior IeIIow-cILIzens, buL onIy u
possessIon oI IL, u secondcr house
68
I or LIem.
|8| 1) A subject (regurded uIso us u cILIzen) Ius LIe rIgIL Lo emI gruLe, I or
LIe sLuLe couI d noL IoId IIm buck us ILs properLy. BuL Ie cun Luke
ouL oI IL wILI IIm onIy IIs movubI e beI ongIngs, noL IIs IIxed
beIongIngs, us Ie wouI d be doI ng II Ie were uuLIorI zed Lo seII LIe
Iund Ie prevIousIy possessed und Luke wILI IIm LIe money Ie goL
I or IL.
z) TIe lord oj the lcnd Ius LIe rIgIL Lo encouruge immirction und
seLLIIng by IoreI gners (coIonIsLs), even L IougI IIs nuLIve subjecLs
mIgIL Iook uskunce uL LIIs, provI ded LIuL LIeIr prIvuLe ownersII p
oI Iund Is noL curLuIIed by IL.
) He uIso Ius LIe rIgIL Lo bcnish u subjecL Lo u provI nce ouLsIde LIe
counLry, wIere Ie wIII noL enjoy uny oI LIe rIgILs oI u cILIzen, LIuL
Is, Lo deport IIm, II Ie Ius commI LLed u crIme LIuL mukes IL IurmI uI
Lo LIe sLuLe I or IIs IeIIow cILIzens Lo ussocIuLe wILI IIm.
q) He uIso Ius LIe rIgIL Lo exile IIm uILogeLIer (ius exilii), Lo send IIm
ouL InLo LIe wIde worI d, LIuL Is, enLIreIy ouLsIde IIs counLry (In OI d
Germun, LIIs Is cuIIed Elend [miser]). SInce LIe Iord oI LIe Iund
LIen wILIdruws uII proLecLIon I rom IIm, LIIs umounLs Lo mukI ng
IIm un ouLIuw wILIIn IIs boundurIes.
:;<=
TIe LIree uuLIorILIes In u sLuLe, wIIcI urIse I rom LIe concepL oI u com-
monueclth us sucI (res publicc lctius dictc), ure onIy LIe LIree reIuLIons oI
LIe unILed wIII oI LIe peopI e, wIIcI Is derI ved u prIorI I rom reuson.
TIey ure u pure deu oI u Ieud oI sLuLe, wIIcI Ius objecLIve prucLIcuI
reuIILy. BuL LIIs Ieud oI sLuLe (LIe sovereIgn) Is onIy u thouht-entit
(Lo represenL LIe enLIre peopIe) us I ong us LIere Is no pIysIcuI person
Lo represenL LIe supreme uuLIorILy In LIe sLuLe und Lo muke LIIs deu
The Doctrine oj Riht g 1q;
eI I ecL I ve on LIe peopI e' s wIII. Now LIe reI uLI on oI LIIs pIysI cuI person
Lo LIe peopI e' s wIII cun be L IougIL oI In L Iree dI I I er enL wuys: eI LIer
LIuL one In LIe sLuLe Ius c ommund over uII; or LIuL setercl, equuI umong
LIemseI ves, ure unI Led In c ommund over uII LIe oLIers; or LIuL cll
L ogeL Ier Iuve c ommund over eucI und so over LIemseI ves us weII. n
oL Ier words, LIe jorm oj c stcte Is eI L Ier cutocrctic, cristocrctic, or demo-
crctic. ( TIe expressI on moncrchiccl, In pI uce oI cutocrctic, Is noL suILubIe
I or LIe concepL I nL ended Iere; I or u moncrch Is one wIo Ius LIe hihest |q|
uuLIorI Ly, wIereus un cutocrct, wIo rules b himselj, Ius cll LIe uuL Ior-
ILy. T I e uuLocruL Is LIe sovereI gn, wIereus LIe monur cI mereI y repre-
senLs LIe sovereI gn. ) L Is eusy Lo see LIuL LIe uuLocruLI c I or m oI sLuLe
Is LIe simplest, numeI y LIe reI uLI on oI one (LIe kI ng) Lo LIe peopI e, so
LIuL onI y one Is IegIsIuLor. T I e urIsLocruLIc I or m oI sLuLe Is uI reudy
composed oI Lwo reI uLIons: LIe reI uLI on oI LIe nobIIILy (us IegIsIuLor) Lo
one unoL Ier, Lo consLI LuLe LIe sovereI gn, und L Ien LIe reI uLI on oI LIIs
sovereI gn Lo LIe peopI e. BuL LIe democruL I c I or m oI sLuLe Is LIe mosL
composI Le oI uII, sInce IL I nvoI ves LIe I oI I owI ng reIuLIons: IrsL, IL unI Les
LIe wIII oI uII Lo I or m u peopI e; L Ien IL unILes LIe wIII oI LIe cILIzens Lo
I or m u commonweuI L I; L Ien IL seLs LIIs soterein, wII cI Is ILseII LIe
unI L ed wIII oI LIe cILIzens, over LIe commonweuI L I. L Is Lrue LIuL,
wI LI regurd Lo LIe udmI nI sLruLI on oI RI gIL wI LII n u sLuLe, LIe sImpIesL
I or m Is uIso LIe besL. WI L I regurd Lo RI gIL ILseII, Iowever, LIIs I or m oI
sLuLe Is LIe mosL dunger ous I or u peopI e, In vIew oI Iow conducI ve IL
Is Lo despoLI sm. L Is I ndeed LIe mosL reusonubI e muxI m Lo sI mpI I Iy LIe
mecIunI sm oI unI I yI ng u nuLI on by coercI ve Iuws, LIuL Is, wIen uII
LIe member s oI LIe nuLI on ure pussIve und obey one wIo Is over L Iem;
buL In LIuL cuse none wIo ure subjecLs ure uIso citizens oj the stcte. As I or
LIe consoI uLI on wI LI wII cI LIe peopI e Is supposed Lo be conL enL - LIuL
monurcIy (sLrIcLIy speukI ng Iere, uuLocrucy) Is LIe besL consLI LuLI on
uhen the moncrch is ood (I.e., wIen Ie noL onI y I nLends wIuL Is good buL
uIso Ius I nsI gIL I nLo IL) - LIIs Is one oI LIose wIse remurks LIuL ure
LuuLoI ogous. L suys noL II ng mor e L Iun LIuL LIe besL consLI LuLI on Is LIe
one by wII cI LIe udmI nI sLruLor oI LIe sLuLe Is mude InLo LIe besL ruI er,
LIuL Is, LIuL LIe besL consLI LuLI on Is LIuL wII cI Is besL.
z-
L Is jutile Lo I nquI re InLo LIe historiccl ucrrcnt [Geschichtsurlunde| oI LIe
mecIunI sm oI governmenL , LIuL Is, one cunnoL reucI buck Lo LIe LI me
uL wII cI cIvII socIeLy begun (Ior suvuges druw up no record oI LIeI r
*I shall not mention the adulterations oI these Iorms that arise Irom invasion by
powerIul unaut hori zed people (olicrch and ochlocrcc), or t he so-called mixed
constitutions, since this would take us too Iar aIield.
submIssIon Lo Iuw; besIdes, we cun uIreudy guLIer I rom LIe nuLure oI
uncIvIIIzed men LIuL LIey were orIgInuIIy subjecLed Lo IL by Iorce). BuL
|qo| IL Is punishcble Lo underLuke LIIs InquIry wILI u vIew Lo possIbIy cIung-
I ng by Iorce LIe consLILuLIon LIuL now exIsLs. or LIIs LrunsIormuLI on
wouI d Iuve Lo Luke pIuce by LIe peopI e ucLIng us u mob, noL by IegIsIu-
LIon; buL InsurrecLIon In u consLILuLIon LIuL uIreudy exIsLs overLIrows
uII cIvII rI gILIuI reIuLIons und LIereI ore uII RIgIL; LIuL Is, IL Is noL
cIunge In LIe cIvII consLILuLIon buL dIssoIuLIon oI IL. TI e LrunsILIon Lo
u beLLer consLILuLIon Is noL LIen u meLumorpIosI s buL u puIIngenesIs,
wIIcI requIres u new socIuI conLrucL on wIIcI LIe prevI ous one (now
unnuIIed) Ius no eIIecL. BuL IL musL sLIII be possIbIe, II LIe exIsLIng
consLILuLIon cunnoL weII be reconcIIed wILI LIe deu oI LIe orIgInuI
conLrucL, I or LIe sovereIgn Lo cIunge IL, so us Lo uIIow Lo conLI nue In
exIsLence LIuL I or m wIIcI Is essenLIuIIy requI red I or u peopI e Lo consLI-
LuLe u sLuLe. Now LIIs cIunge cunnoL consIsL In u sLuLe's reorgunI zI ng
ILseII I rom one oI LIe LIree I orms InLo unoLIer, us, I or exumpI e, urIs-
LocruLs ugreeI ng Lo submIL Lo uuLocrucy or decI dI ng Lo merge InLo u
democrucy, or LIe reverse, us II IL resLed on LIe sovereIgn' s I ree cIoIce
[Wchl] und dIscreLIon wIIcI kInd oI consLILuLIon IL wouI d subjecL LIe
peopI e Lo. or even II LIe sovereIgn decI ded Lo LrunsI orm ILseII InLo u
democrucy, IL couI d sLIII do LIe peopI e u wrong, sInce LIe peopI e ILseII
couI d ubIor sucI u consLILuLIon und II nd one oI LIe oLIer I orms more
Lo ILs udvunLuge.
TIe dI I I erenL I orms oI sLuLes ure onIy LIe letter (litterc) oI LIe orIgI-
nuI IegIsIuLIon In LIe cIvII sLuLe, und LIey muy LIereI ore remuI n us I ong
us LIey ure Luken, by oId und Iong-sLundIng cusLom (und so onIy sub-
jecLIveIy), Lo beI ong necessurIIy Lo LIe mucII nery oI LIe constitution.
BuL LIe spirit oI LIe orIgInuI conLrucL (cnimc pccti oriincrii) InvoIves un
obIIguLIon on LIe purL oI LIe consLILuLIng uuLIorILy Lo muke LIe lind oj
oternment suILed Lo LIe deu oI LIe orIgInuI conLrucL. AccordI ngI y,
even II LIIs cunnoL be done uII uL once, IL Is under obIIguLIon Lo cIunge
LIe kInd oI governmenL gruduuI Iy und conLInuuIIy so LIuL IL Iurmo-
nIzes in its ejject wILI LIe onIy consLILuLIon LIuL uccords wILI rIgIL, LIuL
oI u pure repubIIc, In sucI u wuy LIuL LIe oId (empIrIcuI) sLuLuLory
Iorms, wIIcI served mereIy Lo brI ng ubouL LIe submission oI LIe peo-
pIe, ure repI uced by LIe orIgInuI (ruLIonuI) I orm, LIe onIy I orm LIuL
mukes jreedom LIe prIncIpIe und I ndeed LIe condILIon I or uny exercIse
oI coercion, us Is requI red by u rIgILIuI consLILuLIon oI u sLuLe In LIe
sLrIcL sense oI LIe word. OnI y IL wIII IInuIIy Ieud Lo wIuL Is IILeruIIy u
|q1| sLuLe. TII s Is LIe onIy consLILuLIon oI u sLuLe LIuL IusLs, LIe consLILuLIon
In wIIcI lcu ILseII ruIes und depends on no purLIcuIur person. L Is LIe
IInuI end oI uII pubIIc RIgIL, LIe onIy condILIon In wII cI eucI cun be
ussIgned conclusitel wIuL Is IIs; on LIe oLIer Iund, so I ong us LIose
The Doctrine oj Riht " 1qq
oLIer I orms oI sLuLe ure supposed Lo represenL IILeruIIy j usL so muny
dI I I erenL moruI persons InvesLed wILI supreme uuLIorILy, no ubso-
IuLeIy rI gILIuI condILIon oI cIvII socIeLy cun be ucknowI edged, buL onIy
protisioncl RI gIL wILIIn IL.
Any Lrue repubI Ic Is und cun onIy be u sstem representin LIe peopI e,
In order Lo proLecL ILs rIgILs In ILs nume, by uII LIe cILIzens unILed und
ucLIng L IrougI LIeIr deIeguLes (depuLIes). BuL us soon us u person wIo
Is Ieud oI sLuLe (wIeLIer IL be u kIng, nobIIILy, or LIe wIoI e oI LIe
popuI uLIon, LIe democruLI c unIon) uIso IeLs ILseII be represenLed, LIen
LIe unILed peopI e does noL mereIy represent LIe sovereIgn: L is LIe
sovereIgn ILseII. or In IL (LIe peopIe) Is orIgInuIIy I ound LIe supreme
uuLIorILy I r om wII cI uII rIgILs oI IndIvIduuIs us mere subjecLs (und
In uny evenL us oIIIcIuIs oI LIe sLuLe) musL be derI ved; und u repub-
IIc, once esLubIIsIed, no I onger Ius Lo IeL LIe reIns oI governmenL ouL
oI ILs Iunds und gIve LIem over uguIn Lo LIose wIo prevIousIy IeId
LIem und couI d uguIn nuIIIIy uII new InsLILuLIons by LIeIr ubsoIuLe
cIoIce.
A powerI uI ruI er In our LIme
6q
LIereI ore mude u very serIous
error In j udgmenL wIen, Lo exLrIcuLe IImseII I rom LIe embur-
russmenL oI I urge sLuLe debLs, Ie I eIL IL Lo LIe peopI e Lo Luke LIIs
burden on ILseII und dIsLrIbuLe IL us IL suw IIL; I or LIen LIe IegIsIu-
LIve uuLIorILy nuLuruIIy cume InLo LIe peopIe' s Iunds, noL onIy
wILI regurd Lo LIe LuxuLIon oI subjecLs buL uIso wILI regurd Lo LIe
governmenL, numeI y Lo prevenL IL I rom I ncurrI ng new debLs by
exLruvugunce or wur. TIe consequence wus LIuL LIe monurcI' s
sovereIgnLy |Herrschereuclt] wIoIIy dI suppeured (IL wus noL
mereIy suspended) und pussed Lo LIe peopI e, Lo wIose IegIsIuLIve
wIII LIe beI ongI ngs oI every subjecL becume subjecLed. Nor cun IL
be suId LIuL In LIIs cuse one musL ussume u LucIL buL sLIII conLruc-
LuuI promI se oI LIe NuLIonuI AssembI y noL Lo muke ILseII LIe sov- |qz|
ereI gn buL onIy Lo udmInIsLer LIIs busIness oI LIe sovereIgn und,
IuvI ng uLLended Lo IL, reLurn LIe reIns oI governmenL InLo LIe
monurcI' s Iunds; I or sucI u conLrucL Is In ILseII nuII und voId.
TIe rIgIL oI supreme IegIsIuLIon In u commonweuI LI Is noL un
uIIenubIe rI gIL buL LIe mosL personuI oI uII rIgILs. WIoever Ius
IL cun conLroI LIe peopI e onIy L IrougI LIe coIIecLIve wIII oI LIe
peopI e; Ie cunnoL conLroI LIe coIIecLIve wIII ILseII, wIIcI Is LIe uI-
LImuLe busIs oI uny pubIIc conLrucL. A conLrucL LIuL wouI d I mpose
obIIguLIon on LIe peopI e Lo gIve buck ILs uuLIorILy wouI d noL be
I ncumbenL upon LIe peopI e us LIe IegIsIuLIve power, yeL wouI d
sLIII be bI ndI ng upon IL; und LIIs Is u conLrudIcLIon, In uccordunce
wILI LIe suyIng "No mun cun serve Lwo musLers."
#$%$&
S E C T ON
TIe RIgIL oI NuLIons
!"#$
As nuLIves oI u counL ry, LIose wIo consLI LuLe u nuLI on cun be I ooked
upon unuI ogousI y Lo descendunLs oI LIe sume cncestors (coneniti) even
L IougI LIey ure noL. YeL In un InLeIIecLuuI sense und I r om LIe perspec-
LIve oI rI gILs, sInce LIey ure born oI LIe sume moL Ier (LIe repubI I c)
LIey consLI LuLe us IL were one I umI I y (ens, nctio), wIose member s
(cILIzens oI LIe sLuLe) ure oI equuI I y II gI bIrLI und do noL mI x wILI
LIose wIo muy IIve neur L Iem In u sLuLe oI nuLure, wIom LIey r egur d
us I nI erI or; LIe IuLLer (suvuges), Iowever, I or LIeIr own purL consI der
LIemseI ves superI or becuuse oI LIe IuwIess I r eedom LIey Iuve cIosen,
even L IougI LIey do noL consLILuLe sLuLes buL onI y LrIbes. T I e RI gIL oI
stctes In reI uLI on Lo one unoL Ier (wII cI In Ger mun Is cuI I ed, noL quI Le
correcLI y, LIe Riht oj Nctions, buL sIouI d InsLeud be cuI I ed LIe RI gIL oI
SLuLes, ins publicum cititctum) Is wIuL we Iuve Lo consI der under LIe
LILIe LIe RI gIL oI NuLI ons. Her e u sLuLe, us u moruI person, Is consI d-
er ed us I I vI ng In reI uLIon Lo unoL Ier sLuLe In LIe condI L I on oI nuLuruI
I r eedom und L Ier eI or e In u condI L I on oI consLunL wur. T I e rI gILs oI
sLuLes consIsL, L IereI ore, purLIy oI LIeI r rI gIL to o to wur, purLI y oI LIeIr
rI gIL in wur, und purLIy oI LIeI r rI gIL Lo consLruI n eucI oL Ier Lo I euve
LIIs condI LI on oI wur und so I or m u consLI LuLI on LIuL wIII esLubIIsI
IusLIng peuce, LIuL Is, ILs rI gIL cjter wur. n LIIs pr obI em LIe onI y
dI I I er ence beL ween LIe sLuLe oI nuL ure oI I ndI vI duuI men und oI
IumII Ies (In reI uLI on Lo one unoL Ier) und LIuL oI nuLI ons Is LIuL In LIe
RI gIL oI NuLI ons we Iuve Lo Luke InLo consI deruLI on noL onI y LIe
|qq| reI uLI on oI one sLuLe L owurd unoL Ier us u wIoI e, buL uIso LIe reI uLI on oI
I ndI vI duuI persons oI one sLuLe L owurd LIe I ndI vI duuI s oI unoL Ier, us
weII us L owurd unoL Ier sLuLe us u wIoI e. BuL LIIs dI I I er ence I r om LIe
rI gILs oI I ndI vI duuI s In u sLuLe oI nuL ure mukes IL necessury Lo consI der
onI y sucI I euL ures us cun be reudI I y I nI erred I r om LIe concepL oI u
sLuLe oI nuL ure.
1o
The Doctrine oj Riht " ::
!"%$
TIe eIemenLs oI LIe RI gIL oI NuLIons ure LIese: 1) SLuLes, consI dered
In exLernuI reIuLIon Lo one unoLIer, ure (IIke IuwIess suvuges) by nuLure
In u nonrI gILI uI condILIon. z) TII s nonrI gILI uI condILIon Is u condition
oI wur (oI LIe rI gIL oI LIe sLronger), even II IL Is noL u condILIon oI
ucLuuI wur und ucLuuI uLLucks beI ng consLunLIy mude (IosLIIILIes). AI-
LIougI no sLuLe Is wronged by unoLIer In LIIs condILIon (InsoIur us
neILIer wunLs unyLII ng beLLer), LIIs condILIon Is In ILseII sLIII wrong In
LIe IIgIesL degree, und sLuLes neI gIborI ng upon one unoLIer ure
under obIIguLIon Lo Ieuve IL. ) A I eugue oI nuLIons In uccordunce wILI
LIe deu oI un orIgInuI socIuI conLrucL Is necessury, noL In order Lo
meddI e In one unoLIer' s InLernuI dIssensIons buL Lo proLecL uguInsL
uLLucks I rom wILIouL. q) TII s uIIIunce musL, Iowever, InvoIve no sover-
eIgn uuLIorILy (us In u cIvII consLILuLIon), buL onIy un cssociction (Ieder-
uLIon); IL musL be un uIIIunce LIuL cun be renounced uL uny LIme und so
musL be renewed I rom LIme Lo LIme. TII s Is u rIgIL in subsidium oI un-
oLIer und orIgInuI rIgIL, Lo uvoId geLLIng InvoIved In u sLuLe oI ucLuuI
wur umong LIe oLIer members (joedus Amphictonum).
;

!""$
As regurds LIe orIgInuI rI gIL LIuL I ree sLuLes In u sLuLe oI nuLure Iuve
Lo go Lo wur wILI one unoLIer (In order, perIups, Lo esLubIIsI u condI-
LIon more cIoseIy upproucII ng u rI gILIuI condILIon), LIe IIrsL quesLIon
LIuL urIses Is: WIuL rI gIL Ius u sLuLe ccinst its oun subjects Lo use LIem
Ior wur uguInsL oLIer sLuLes, Lo expend LIeIr goods und even LIeIr IIves
In IL, or Lo puL LIem uL rIsk, In sucI u wuy LIuL wIeLIer LIey sIuII go Lo
wur does noL depend on LIeIr own j udgmenL buL LIey muy be senL InLo
IL by LIe supreme commund oI LIe sovereIgn?
L mI gIL seem LIuL LIIs rIgIL cun be eusIIy proved, numeI y I r om LIe
rIgIL Lo do wIuL one wunLs wILI wIuL beI ongs Lo one (one's properLy). "#$%&
Anyone Ius un InconLesLubIe properLy In unyLII ng LIe subsLunce oI
wIIcI Ie Ius IImseI I mcde. WIuL IoIIows, LIen, Is LIe deducLI on, us u
mere jurIsL wouI d druw IL up.
TIer e ure vurIous ncturcl products In u counLry LIuL musL sLIII be
consIdered crtijccts (crtejcctc) oI LIe sLuLe us I ur us LIe cbundcnce oI
nuLuruI producLs oI u cerLuIn kInd Is concerned, sInce LIe counLry
wouI d noL Iuve yIeIded LIem In sucI ubundunce Iud LIere noL been
u sLuLe und un orderI y, powerI uI governmenL, buL LIe InIubILunLs
Iud been In u sLuLe oI nuLure. WIeL Ier I rom Iuck oI I ood or I rom
LIe presence oI preduLory unImuIs In LIe counLry wIere IIve, Iens
(LIe mosL useI uI kInd oI IowI), sIeep, swIne, cuLLIe, und so IorLI wouI d
eILIer noL exIsL uL uII or uL besL wouI d be scurce unIess LIere were u
governmenL In LIIs counLry, wIIcI secures LIe InIubILunLs In wIuL
LIey ucquIre und possess. TII s IoIds Lrue oI LIe Iumun popuI uLI on us
weII, wIIcI cun onIy be smuII, us IL Is In LIe AmerI cun wIIderness, even
II we uLLrIbuLe Lo LIese peopI e LIe greuLesL IndusLry (wIIcI LIey do noL
Iuve). TIe InIubILunLs wouI d be very scurce sInce LIey couI d noL Luke
LIeIr uLLendunLs und spreud ouL on u Iund LIuL Is uIwuys In dunger oI
beIng IuId wusLe by men or by wIId und preduLory beusLs. TIer e wouI d
LIereI ore noL be udequuLe susLenunce I or sucI u greuL ubundunce oI
men us now IIve In u counLry. Now j usL us we suy LIuL sInce vegeLubIes
(e.g., poLuLoes) und domesLIc unImuIs ure, us regurds LIeIr ubundunce,
u product oI mun, wIIcI Ie cun use, weur ouL or desLroy (kIII), IL seems
we cun uIso suy LIuL sInce mosL oI IIs subjecLs ure IIs own producL, LIe
supreme uuLIorILy In u sLuLe, LIe sovereIgn, Ius LIe rI gIL Lo Ieud LIem
InLo wur us Ie wouI d Luke LIem on u IunL, und InLo buLLIes us on u
pIeusure LrIp.
AI L IougI sucI un urgumenL I or LIIs rI gIL (wIIcI muy weII be
presenL obscureIy In LIe monurcI' s mInd) IoIds wILI regurd Lo unI-
muIs, wIIcI cun be u mun' s propert, IL sImpIy cunnoL be uppI I ed Lo men,
especIuIIy us cILIzens oI u sLuLe. or LIey musL uIwuys be regurded us
coIegIsIuLIng members oI u sLuLe (noL mereIy us meuns, buL uIso us ends
|q6| In LIemseIves), und musL L IereI ore gIve LIeIr I ree ussenL, L IrougI
LIeIr represenLuLIves, noL onIy Lo wugI ng wur In generuI buL uIso Lo
eucI purLIcuIur decIuruLIon oI wur. OnI y under LIIs IImILIng condILIon
cun u sLuLe dIrecL LIem Lo serve In u wuy IuII oI dunger Lo LIem.
We sIuII L IereI ore Iuve Lo derI ve LIIs rIgIL I rom LIe dut oI LIe sov-
ereI gn Lo LIe peopI e (noL LIe reverse); und I or LIIs Lo be LIe cuse LIe
peopI e wIII Iuve Lo be regurded us IuvI ng gIven ILs voLe Lo go Lo wur.
n LIIs cupucILy IL Is, uI LIougI pussIve (IeLLIng ILseII be dIsposed oI ),
uIso ucLIve und represenLs LIe sovereIgn ILseII.
'%()
n LIe sLuLe oI nuLure umong sLuLes, LIe riht to o to ucr (Lo enguge In
IosLIIILIes) Is LIe wuy In wIIcI u sLuLe Is permILLed Lo prosecuLe ILs rIgIL
uguInsL unoLIer sLuLe, numeIy by ILs own jorce, wIen IL beIIeves IL Ius
been wronged by LIe oLIer sLuLe; I or LIIs cunnoL be done In LIe sLuLe
oI nuLure by u IuwsuIL (LIe onIy meuns by wIIcI dIspuLes ure seLLIed In
u rI gILIuI condILIon). n uddILIon Lo ucLIve vIoIuLIons |oI ILs rIgILs| (IIrsL
uggressIon, wII cI Is noL LIe sume us IIrsL IosLIIILy) IL muy be threctened.
TII s IncIudes unoLIer sLuLe's beI ng LIe IIrsL Lo underL uke prepcrctions,
upon wIIcI Is bused LIe rIgIL oI pretention (ius prcetentionis), or even
j usL LIe menccin I ncreuse In unoL Ier sLuLe's pouer (by ILs ucquI sI LI on oI
LerrI Lory) (potentic tremendc). TII s Is u wr ong Lo LIe Iesser power mereI y
by LIe condition oI LIe superior pouer, beI or e uny deed on ILs purL, und
In LIe sLuLe oI nuL ure un uLLuck by LIe Iesser power Is I ndeed IegILI-
muL e.
; 1
AccordI ngI y, LIIs Is uIso LIe busIs oI LIe rI gIL Lo u buI unce oI
power umong uII sLuLes LIuL ure conLIguous und couId ucL on one unoLIer.
As I or cctite tiolctions LIuL gI ve u riht to o to ucr, LIese I ncI ude ccts
oj retcliction (retorsio), u sLuLe's L ukI ng IL upon ILseII Lo obLuI n suLIsIucLIon
I or un oI I ens e commI L L ed uguInsL ILs peopI e by LIe peopI e oI unoL Ier
sLuLe, InsLeud oI seekI ng compensuL I on (by peuceI uI meL Iods) I r om LIe
oL Ier sLuLe. n Lerms oI IormuI I LI es, LIIs resembI es sLurLI ng u wur wILI-
ouL IIrsL r enouncI ng peuce (wI LIouL u declcrction oj ucr)-, I or II one
wunLs Lo I I nd u rI gIL In u condI LI on oI wur, someL II ng unuI ogous Lo u
conLrucL musL be ussumed, numeI y, ccceptcnce oI LIe decI uruLI on oI LIe
oL Ier purLy LIuL boL I wunL Lo seek LIeI r rI gIL In LIIs wuy.
!"#$ |347|
TI e greuLesL dI I I I cuI L y In LIe RI gIL oI NuLI ons Ius Lo do precI seI y wILI
RI gIL dur I ng u wur; IL Is dI I I I cuI L even Lo I or m u concepL oI LIIs or Lo
LII nk oI Iuw In LIIs IuwIess sLuLe wI L IouL conL rudI cL I ng oneseI I (inter
crmc silent lees).
c
RI gIL dur I ng u wur wouI d, LIen, Iuve Lo be LIe
wugI ng oI wur In uccordunce wILI prI ncI pI es LIuL uIwuys I euve open LIe
possIbIIILy oI I euvI ng LIe sLuLe oI nuL ure umong sLuLes (In exL ernuI
reI uLIon Lo one unoL Ier) und enL erI ng u rI gIL I uI condI LI on.
No wur oI I ndependenL sLuLes uguInsL eucI oL Ier cun be u punitite
ucr (bellum punititum). or punI sImenL occurs onI y In LIe reI uLI on oI
u superI or (impercntis) Lo LIose subjecL Lo II m (subditum), und sLuLes do
noL sLund In LIuL reI uLI on Lo eucI oL Ier. Nor, uguI n, cun uny wur be
eI LIer u ucr oj exterminction (bellum internecinum) or oI subjuction (bel-
lum subiuctorium), wII cI wouI d be LIe moruI unnI II I uLI on oI u sLuLe
(LIe peopI e oI wII cI wouI d eI LIer become mer ged In one muss wILI
LIuL oI LIe conquer or or r educed Lo servI Lude). T I e reuson L Iere
cunnoL be u wur oI subj uguLI on Is noL LIuL LIIs exL reme meusure u sLuLe
mI gIL use Lo ucII eve u condI LI on oI peuce wouI d In ILseII conLrudI cL LIe
rI gIL oI u sLuLe; IL Is ruLIer LIuL LIe deu oI LIe RI gIL oI NuLI ons
InvoIves onI y LIe concepL oI un unL ugonI sm In uccordunce wILI prIncI-
pIes oI ouL er I r eedom by wII cI eucI cun preserve wIuL beI ongs Lo IL,
buL noL u wuy oI ucquI rI ng, by wII cI one sLuLe's I ncreuse oI power
couI d L IreuL en oLIers.
""In time oI war the laws are silent." Cicero, Pro Milone, 4, 10.
A sLuLe uguInsL wIIcI wur Is beI ng wuged Is permI LLed Lo use uny
meuns oI deI ense excepL LIose LIuL wouI d muke ILs subjecLs unI I L Lo be
cILIzens; I or IL wouI d LIen uIso muke ILseII unII L Lo quuI I Iy, In uccor-
dunce wILI LIe RI gIL oI NuLIons, us u person In LIe reIuLIon oI sLuLes (us
one wIo wouI d enjoy LIe sume rIgILs us oLIers). Meuns oI deI ense LIuL
ure noL permI LLed IncIude usI ng ILs own subjecLs us spIes; usI ng LIem
or even IoreI gners us ussussIns or poIsoners (umong wIom so-cuIIed
snIpers, wIo IIe In wuIL Lo umbusI IndIvIduuIs, mI gIL weII be cIussed);
or usIng LIem mereI y Ior spreudI ng IuIse reporLs - In u word, usI ng
sucI underIunded meuns us wouI d desLroy LIe LrusL requIsILe Lo esLub-
IIsIIng u IusLIng peuce In LIe I uLure.
n wur IL Is permIssIbIe Lo exucL suppIIes und conLrIbuLIons I rom u
|q8| deI euLed enemy, buL noL Lo pI under LIe peopI e, LIuL Is, noL Lo I orce
IndIvIduuI persons Lo gIve up LIeIr beIongIngs (Ior LIuL wouI d be
robbery, sInce IL wus noL LIe conquered peopI e LIuL wuged LIe wur;
ruLIer, LIe sLuLe under wIose ruIe LIey IIved wuged LIe wur throuh
the people). nsLeud, receIpLs sIouId be Issued I or everyLII ng requIsI-
LIoned, so LIuL In LIe peuce LIuL IoIIows LIe burden I mposed on LIe
counLry or provI nce cun be dI vI ded proporLI onuLeI y.
!"#$
TIe rI gIL oI u sLuLe cjter c ucr, LIuL Is, uL LIe LIme oI LIe peuce LreuLy
und wILI u vIew Lo ILs consequences, consIsLs In LIIs: TIe vIcLor Iuys
down LIe condILIons on wII cI IL wIII come Lo un ugreemenL wILI LIe
vunquI sIed und IoId neotictions I or concI udI ng peuce. TIe vIcLor
does noL do LIIs I rom uny rIgIL Ie preLends Lo Iuve becuuse oI LIe
wrong IIs opponenL Is supposed Lo Iuve done IIm; InsLeud, Ie IeLs LIIs
quesLIon drop und reIIes on IIs own Iorce. TIe vIcLor cun LIereI ore
noL propose compensuLI on I or LIe cosLs oI LIe wur, sInce Ie wouI d
LIen Iuve Lo udmIL LIuL IIs opponenL Iud I ougIL un unj usL wur. WIII e
Ie muy weII LIInk oI LIIs urgumenL Ie sLIII cunnoL use IL, sInce Ie
wouI d LIen be suyIng LIuL Ie Iud been wugI ng u punILIve wur und so,
I or IIs own purL, commI LLI ng un oI I ense uguInsL LIe vunquI sIed.
RIgILs uI Ler u wur uIso IncIude u rIgIL Lo un excIunge oI prIsoners
(wILIouL runsom), wILIouL regurd I or LIeIr beI ng equuI In number.
A deI euLed sLuLe or ILs subjecLs do noL Iose LIeIr cIvII I reedom
L IrougI LIe conquesL oI LIeIr counLry, so LIuL LIe sLuLe wouI d be
degruded Lo u coIony und ILs subjecLs Lo bonduge; I or II LIey dId LIe
wur wouI d Iuve been u punitite ucr, wIIcI Is seII-conLrudIcLory. A
colon or provI nce Is u peopI e LIuL I ndeed Ius ILs own consLILuLIon,
ILs own IegIsIuLIon, und ILs own Iund, on wIIcI LIose wIo beI ong Lo
unoLIer sLuLe ure onIy IoreI gners even LIougI LIIs oLIer sLuLe Ius
supreme executite uuLIorILy over LIe coIony or provInce. TIe sLuLe
IuvI ng LIuL execuLI ve uuLIorILy Is cuIIed LIe mother stcte, und LIe
duugIL er sLuLe, L IougI ruI ed by IL, sLIII governs ILseII (by ILs own
purIIumenL, possIbIy wILI u vIceroy presI dI ng over IL) (cititcs hbridc).
TII s wus LIe reIuLIon ALIens Iud wILI respecL Lo vurIous IsIunds und
LIuL GreuL BrILuIn now Ius wILI regurd Lo reIund.
SLIII Iess cun bondce und ILs IegILImucy be derI ved I rom u peopIe' s
beI ng overcome In wur, sInce I or LIIs one wouI d Iuve Lo udmIL LIuL u
wur couI d be punILIve. eusL oI uII cun IeredILury bonduge be derI ved |qq|
I rom IL; IeredI Lury bonduge us sucI Is ubsurd sInce guIIL I rom some-
one' s crIme cunnoL be InIerILed.
TIe concepL oI u peuce LreuLy uIreudy conLuIns LIe provIsIon LIuL un
cmnest goes uI ong wILI IL.
!"#$
TIe rIgIL Lo peuce Is 1) LIe rIgIL Lo be uL peuce wIen LIere Is u wur In
LIe vIcInILy, or LIe rIgIL Lo neutrclit, z) LIe rIgIL Lo be ussured oI LIe
conLInuunce oI u peuce LIuL Ius been concI uded, LIuL Is, LIe rIgIL Lo u
ucrcntee, ) LIe rIgIL Lo un cllicnce (conIederuLIon) oI severuI sLuLes
Ior LIeIr common dejense uguInsL uny exLernuI or InLernuI uLLucks, buL
noL u I eugue I or uLLuckIng oLIers und uddI ng Lo LIeIr own LerrILory.
!&'$
TIer e ure no IImILs Lo LIe rIgILs oI u sLuLe uguInsL un unjust enem (no
IImILs wILI respecL Lo quunLILy or degree, LIougI LIere ure IImILs wILI
respecL Lo quuIILy); LIuL Is Lo suy, un I nj ured sLuLe muy noL use cn
meuns uhcteter buL muy use LIose meuns LIuL ure uIIowubIe Lo uny
degree LIuL IL Is ubIe Lo, In order Lo muInLuIn wIuL beIongs Lo IL. BuL
wIuL Is un unjust enem In Lerms oI LIe concepLs oI LIe RIgIL oI NuLIons,
In wIIcI - us Is LIe cuse In u sLuLe oI nuLure generuIIy - eucI sLuLe Is
j udge In ILs own cuse? L Is un enemy wIose pubIIcIy expressed wIII
(wIeLIer by word or deed) reveuIs u muxI m by wIIcI, II IL were mude
u unIversuI ruIe, uny condILIon oI peuce umong nuLIons wouI d be
ImpossIbIe und, InsLeud, u sLuLe oI nuLure wouI d be perpeLuuLed. VIo-
IuLIon oI pubIIc conLrucLs Is un expressIon oI LIIs sorL. SInce LIIs cun
be ussumed Lo be u muLLer oI concern Lo uII nuLIons wIose I reedom
Is LIreuLened by IL, LIey ure cuIIed upon Lo unILe uguInsL sucI mIs-
conducL In order Lo deprI ve LIe sLuLe oI ILs power Lo do IL. BuL LIey
ure noL cuIIed upon to ditide its territor cmon themseltes und Lo muke
LIe sLuLe, us IL were, dI suppeur I rom LIe eurLI, sInce LIuL wouI d be
u n
InjusLIce uguInsL ILs peopI e, wIIcI cunnoL Iose ILs orIgInuI rIgIL Lo
unILe ILseII InLo u commonweuI LI, L IougI IL cun be mude Lo udopL u
new consLILuLIon LIuL by ILs nuLure wIII be unIuvorubI e Lo LIe IncIInu-
|| Ion I or wur.
L Is redundcnt, Iowever, Lo speuk oI un unj usL enemy In u sLuLe oI
nuLure; I or u sLuLe oI nuLure Is ILseII u condILIon oI InjusLIce. A j usL
enemy wouI d be one LIuL wouI d be doI ng wrong by resIsLIng; buL
LIen Ie wouI d uIso noL be my enemy.
SInce u sLuLe oI nuLure umong nuLIons, IIke u sLuLe oI nuLure umong
IndIvIduuI men, Is u condILIon LIuL one ougIL Lo Ieuve In order Lo enLer
u I uwIuI condILIon, beI ore LIIs Iuppens uny rIgILs oI nuLIons, und
unyLII ng exLernuI LIuL Is mIne or yours LIuL sLuLes cun ucquIre or reLuIn
by wur, ure mereI y protisioncl. OnI y In u unIversuI cssociction oj stctes
(unuIogous Lo LIuL by wIIcI u peopI e becomes u sLuLe) cun rIgILs come
Lo IoI d conclusitel und u Lrue condition oj pecce come ubouL. BuL II sucI
u sLuLe mude up oI nuLIons were Lo exLend Loo Iur over vusL regIons,
governI ng IL und so Loo proLecLIng eucI oI ILs members wouI d IInuIIy
Iuve Lo become ImpossIbIe, wIIIe severuI sucI corporuLI ons wouI d
uguIn brI ng on u sLuLe oI wur. So perpetucl pecce, LIe uILImuLe gouI oI LIe
wIoI e RIgIL oI NuLIons, Is I ndeed un unucIIevubI e deu. SLIII, LIe
poIILIcuI prIncIpIes dIrecLed Lowurd perpeLuuI peuce, oI enLerI ng InLo
sucI uIIIunces oI sLuLes, wIIcI serve Ior conLInuuI cpproximction Lo IL,
ure noL unucIIevubIe. nsLeud, sInce conLInuuI upproxI muLI on Lo IL Is u
Lusk bused on duLy und LIereI ore on LIe RIgIL oI men und oI sLuLes,
LIIs cun cerLuInIy be ucIIeved.
SucI un cssociction oI severuI stctes Lo preserve peuce cun be cuIIed u
permcnent conress oj stctes, wIIcI eucI neI gIborI ng sLuLe Is uL IIberLy Lo
j oI n. SomeLII ng oI LIIs kInd Look pIuce (uL IeusL us regurds LIe IormuI -
ILIes oI LIe RI gIL oI NuLIons Ior LIe suke oI keepI ng LIe peuce) In LIe
IIrsL IuII oI LIe presenL cenLury, In LIe ussembIy oI LIe SLuLes GeneruI
uL LIe Hugue. TIe mInIsLers oI mosL oI LIe courLs oI Europe und even
oI LIe smuIIesL repubIIcs I odged wILI IL LIeIr compIuInLs ubouL uLLucks
beI ng mude on one oI LIem by unoLIer. n LIIs wuy LIey LIougIL oI LIe
wIoI e oI Europe us u sIngIe conI ederuLed sLuLe LIuL LIey uccepLed us
urbILer, so Lo speuk, In LIeIr pubIIc dIspuLes. BuL IuLer, InsLeud oI LIIs,
LIe RIgIL oI NuLIons survIved onIy In books; IL dI suppeured I rom
cubIneLs or eIse, uILer Iorce Iud uIreudy been used, wus reI eguLed In
LIe I orm oI u deducLI on Lo LIe obscurILy oI urcIIves.
| By
u
conress Is Iere undersLood onIy u voIunLury couIILIon oI dI I I er-
enL sLuLes LIuL cun be dissolted uL uny LIme, noL u I ederuLI on (IIke LIuL oI
LIe AmerI cun sLuLes) wIIcI Is bused on u consLILuLIon und cun LIere-
I ore noL be dIssoIved. OnI y by sucI u congress cun LIe deu oI u pubIIc
RIgIL oI NuLIons be reuIIzed, one Lo be esLubIIsIed Ior decI dI ng LIeIr
dIspuLes In u cIvII wuy, us II by u IuwsuIL, ruLIer LIun In u burburIc wuy
(LIe wuy oI suvuges), numeIy by wur.
!"#$%
S E C T ON
;z
CosmopoIILun RIgIL
!"#$
TII s ruLI onuI deu oI u peccejul, even I I noL I rI endI y, L Ior ougIgoI ng
communI L y oI uII nuLIons on LIe eurL I LIuL cun come I nLo reI uLI ons
uI I ecL I ng one unoL Ier Is noL u pII I unL IropI c (eLIIcuI) prI ncI pI e buL u
prI ncI pI e hctin to do uith rihts. NuL ur e Ius encI osed L Iem uII L ogeL Ier
wI LII n deL ermI nuL e IImILs (by LIe spIerI cuI sIupe oI LIe pI uce LIey IIve
In, u lobus terrcqueus). And sInce possessIon oI LIe I und, on wII cI un
I nIubI LunL oI LIe eurLI cun IIve, cun be L IougIL onI y us possessIon oI
u purL oI u deL ermI nuL e wIoI e, und so us possessIon oI LIuL Lo wII cI
eucI oI L Iem orI gI nuI I y Ius u rI gIL, IL IoI I ows LIuL uII nuLI ons sLund
oriincll In u communI L y oI I und, L IougI noL oI rihtjul communI L y oI
possessIon (communio) und so oI use oI IL, or oI properL y In IL; I nsLeud
LIey sLund In u communI L y oI possIbIe pIysIcuI intercction (commer-
cium), LIuL Is, In u L Ior ougIgoI ng reI uLI on o I eucI Lo uII LIe oL Iers oI
ojjerin to ence in commerce wI LI uny oL Ier,
;
und eucI Ius u rI gIL Lo
muke LIIs uL L empL wI LIouL LIe oL Ier beI ng uuL IorI zed Lo beIuve
L owurd IL us un enemy becuuse IL Ius mude LIIs uLLempL. TII s rI gIL,
sInce IL Ius Lo do wILI LIe possIbIe unI on oI uII nuLI ons wILI u vIew Lo
cerLuI n unI versuI Iuws I or LIeI r possIbIe commerce, cun be cuI I ed cosmo-
politcn Riht (ius cosmopoliticum).
AI L IougI LIe seus mI gIL seem Lo remove nuLI ons I r om uny commu-
nILy wILI one unoL Ier, LIey ure LIe urrungemenL s oI nuL ure mosL
I uvorI ng LIeI r commer ce by meuns oI nuvI guLI on; und LIe mor e cocst-
lines LIese nuLI ons Iuve In LIe vIcInILy oI one unoL Ier (us In LIe Med-
|| I Lerruneun), LIe mor e IIveIy LIeIr commer ce cun be. However , vIsILIng
LIese cousLs, und sLIII more seLLI Ing LIere Lo connecL L Iem wILI LIe
moL Ier counL ry, provI de LIe occusI on I or evIIs und ucLs oI vI oI ence In
one pI uce on our gI obe Lo be IeI L uII over IL. YeL LIIs possIbIe ubuse
cunnoL unnuI LIe rI gIL oI cILIzens oI LIe worI d to tr to esLubIIsI com-
munI Ly wI LI uII und, Lo LIIs end, Lo tisit uII regI ons oI LIe eurLI. TII s Is
'#(
The Doctrine oj Riht ) 1q
noL, Iowever, u rIgIL Lo mcle c settlement on LIe Iund oI unoLIer nuLIon
(ius incolctus); I or LIIs, u specIIIc conLrucL Is requI red.
TIe quesLIon urIses, Iowever: n newIy dIscovered Iunds, muy u
nuLIon underLuke Lo settle (cccolctus) und Luke possessIon In LIe neIgI-
borIood oI u peopI e LIuL Ius uIreudy seLLIed In LIe regI on, even wILI-
ouL ILs consenL?
I LIe seLLIemenL Is mude so Iur I rom wIere LIuL peopI e resIdes LIuL
LIere Is no encroucImenL on unyone' s use oI IIs Iund, LIe rIgIL Lo
seLLIe Is noL open Lo doubL. BuL II LIese peopIes ure sIepIerds or
IunLers (IIke LIe HoLLenLoLs, LIe TungusI , or mosL oI LIe AmerI cun
ndIun nuLIons) wIo depend I or LIeIr susLenunce on greuL open
regIons, LIIs seLLIemenL muy noL Luke pIuce by I orce buL onIy by con-
LrucL, und I ndeed by u conLrucL LIuL does noL Luke udvunLuge oI LIe
I gnorunce oI LIose InIubILunLs wILI respecL Lo cedI ng LIeIr Iunds. TII s
Is Lrue despILe LIe IucL LIuL suIII cI enL specIous reusons Lo j usLI Iy LIe use
oI Iorce ure uvuIIubIe: LIuL IL Is Lo LIe worId' s udvunLuge, purLIy becuuse
LIese crude peopI es wIII become cIvIIIzed (LIIs Is IIke LIe preLexL by
wIIcI even BscII ng
; q
LrIes Lo excuse LIe bI oody I nLroducLI on oI
CIrIsLIunILy InLo Germuny), und purLIy becuuse one' s own counLry wIII
be cIeuned oI corrupL men, und LIey or LIeIr descendunLs wIII, IL Is
Ioped, become beLLer In unoLIer purL oI LIe worI d (sucI us New
HoIIund). BuL uII LIese supposedIy good InLenLIons cunnoL wusI uwuy
LIe sLuIn oI InjusLIce In LIe meuns used I or LIem. Someone muy repIy
LIuL sucI scrupIes ubouL usIng Iorce In LIe begI nnI ng, In order Lo
esLubIIsI u I uwIuI condILIon, mI gIL weII meun LIuL LIe wIoI e eurLI
wouId sLIII be In u IuwIess condILIon; buL LIIs consIderuLIon cun no
more unnuI LIuL condILIon oI RIgIL |Rechtsbedinun] LIun cun LIe
preLexL oI revoIuLIonurIes wILIIn u sLuLe, LIuL wIen consLILuLIons ure
bud IL Is up Lo LIe peopI e Lo resIupe LIem by I orce und Lo be unjusL
once und I or uII so LIuL uI Lerwurd LIey cun esLubIIsI j usLI ce uII LIe more
secureIy und muke IL II ourI sI.
!"#*'
ConcIusIon
I someone cunnoL prove LIuL u LII ng Is, Ie cun Lry Lo prove LIuL IL Is
noL. I (us oI L en Iuppens) Ie cunnoL succeed In eILIer, Ie cun sLIII usk
wIeLIer Ie Ius uny interest In ussumI ng one or LIe oLIer (us u IypoLI-
esIs), eILIer I r om u LIeoreLIcuI or I r om u prucLIcuI poInL oI vIew. An
ussumpLIon Is udopLed I rom u LIeoreLIcuI poInL oI vIew In order mereI y
Lo expI uI n u cerLuIn pIenomenon (sucI us, I or usLronomers, LIe reLro-
grude moLI on und sLuLIonury sLuLe oI LIe pIuneLs). An ussumpLIon Is
udopLed I rom u prucLIcuI poInL oI vIew In order Lo ucIIeve u cerLuIn
end, wIIcI muy be eILIer u prcmctic (mereIy LecInIcuI end [Kunst-
zuecl]) or u morcl end, LIuL Is, un end sucI LIuL LIe muxI m oI udopLI ng
IL Is ILseII u duLy. Now IL Is evIdenL LIuL wIuL wouI d be mude our duLy
In LIIs cuse Is noL LIe cssumption (suppositio) LIuL LIIs end cun be reuI-
Ized, wIIcI wouI d be u j udgmenL ubouL IL LIuL Is mereI y LIeoreLIcuI
und, moreover, probIemuLIc; I or LIere cun be no obIIguLIon Lo do LIIs
(Lo beIIeve someLIIng). WIuL Is I ncumbenL on us us u duLy Is ruLIer Lo
ucL In conIormI Ly wILI LIe deu oI LIuL end, even II LIere Is noL LIe
sIIgILesL LIeoreLIcuI IIkeIIIood LIuL IL cun be reuIIzed, us I ong us ILs
ImpossIbIIILy cunnoL be demonsLruLed eILIer.
Now, moruIIy prucLIcuI reuson pronounces In us ILs IrresIsLIbIe teto:
There is to be no ucr, neILIer wur beLween you und me In LIe sLuLe oI
nuLure nor wur beLween us us sLuLes, wIIcI, uI LIougI LIey ure InLer-
nuIIy In u I uwI uI condILIon, ure sLIII exLernuIIy (In reIuLIon Lo one un-
oLIer) In u IuwIess condILIon; I or wur Is noL LIe wuy In wII cI everyone
sIouI d seek IIs rIgILs. So LIe quesLIon Is no I onger wIeL Ier perpeLuuI
peuce Is someLII ng reuI or u IIcLIon, und wIeLIer we ure noL deceI vI ng
ourseIves In our LIeoreLIcuI j udgmenL wIen we ussume LIuL IL Is reuI.
nsLeud, we musL ucL us II IL Is someLII ng reuI, L IougI perIups IL Is noL;
we musL work Lowurd esLubIIsIIng perpeLuuI peuce und LIe kInd oI
consLILuLIon LIuL seems Lo us mosL conducI ve Lo IL (perIups u repub-
IIcunIsm oI uII sLuLes, LogeLIer und sepuruLeIy) In order Lo brI ng ubouL
perpeLuuI peuce und puL un end Lo LIe IeI nous wugI ng oI wur,
Lo wIIcI us LIeIr cIIeI uIm uII sLuLes wILIouL excepLI on Iuve IILIerLo
16o
The Doctrine oj Riht ) 161
dIrecLed LIeIr InLernuI urrungemenLs. And even II LIe compI eLe reuI-
IzuLIon oI LIIs objecLIve uIwuys remuIns u pIous wIsI, sLIII we ure cer- ||
LuInIy noL deceI vI ng ourseIves In udopLI ng LIe muxI m oI workI ng
IncessunLIy Lowurd IL. or LIIs Is our duLy, und Lo udmIL LIuL LIe moruI
Iuw wILIIn us Is ILseII decepLIve wouI d cuII I orLI In us LIe wIsI, wIIcI
urouses our ubIorrence, ruLIer Lo be rId oI uII reuson und Lo regurd
ourseIves us LIrown by one' s prIncIpIes InLo LIe sume mecIunI sm oI
nuLure us uII LIe oLIer specIes oI unImuIs.
L cun be suId LIuL esLubIIsIIng unIversuI und IusLIng peuce consLI-
LuLes noL mereI y u purL oI LIe docLrIne oI RIgIL buL ruLIer LIe enLIre
IInuI end oI LIe docLrI ne oI RIgIL wILIIn LIe IImILs oI reuson uIone; I or
LIe condILIon oI peuce Is LIe onIy condILIon In wIIcI wIuL Is mIne und
wIuL Is yours ure secured under lcus I or u muILILude oI men IIvIng In
proxImILy Lo one unoLIer, und LIereI ore under u consLILuLIon. BuL LIe
ruIe I or LIIs consLILuLIon, us u norm I or oLIers, cunnoL be derI ved I rom
LIe experI ence oI LIose wIo Iuve IILIerLo I ound IL mosL Lo LIeIr
udvunLuge; IL musL, ruLIer, be derI ved u prIorI by reuson I r om LIe IdeuI
oI u rI gILIuI ussocIuLIon oI men under pubIIc Iuws us sucI. or uII ex-
umpIes (wIIcI onIy IIIusLruLe buL cunnoL prove unyLIIng) ure LreucIer-
ous, so LIuL LIey cerLuInIy requIre u meLupIysIcs. Even LIose wIo
rIdIcuIe meLupIysIcs udmIL ILs necessILy, LIougI cureIessIy, wIen LIey
suy, I or exumpI e, us LIey oI Len do, "LIe besL consLILuLIon Is LIuL In
wIIcI power beI ongs noL Lo men buL Lo LIe Iuws." or wIuL cun be
more meLupIysIcuIIy subIImuLed LIun LIIs very deu, wIIcI even
uccordI ng Lo LIeIr own usserLIon Ius LIe mosL conI I rmed objecLIve
reuIILy, us cun uIso be eusIIy sIown In ucLuuIIy occurrI ng cuses? TIe
uLLempL Lo reuIIze LIIs deu sIouId noL be mude by wuy oI revoIuLIon,
by u Ieup, LIuL Is, by vIoIenL overLIrow oI un uIreudy exIsLIng deIecLIve
consLILuLIon (Ior LIere wouI d LIen be un I nLervenI ng momenL In wIIcI
uny rI gILI uI condILIon wouI d be unnIIIIuLed). BuL II IL Is uLLempLed und
currIed ouL by gruduuI reI orm In uccordunce wILI IIrm prIncIpIes, IL
cun Ieud Lo conLInuuI upproxI muLI on Lo LIe IIgIesL poIILIcuI good,
perpeLuuI peuce.
!"#$%
A P P E ND X
ExpIunuLory Remurks on
The Metcphsiccl Iirst Principles
oj the Doctrine oj Riht
Luke LIe occusI on I or LIese remurks cII eI I y I r om LIe revI ew oI LIIs
book In LIe Gottinen 1ourncl (No. z8, 18 eb. 1;q;).
;
n LIIs revI ew
LIe book wus exumI ned wI LI I nsI gIL und rI gor, buL uIso wI LI upprecI u-
LIon und "LIe Iope LIuL LIose IIrsL prI ncI pI es wIII be u I usLIng guI n I or
LIe scI ence. " sIuII use LIIs revI ew us u guI de I or my crILIcIsm us weII
us I or some eI uboruLI on oI LIIs sysLem.
My usLuLe crILIc Lukes excepL I on Lo u deI I nI L I on uL LIe very begI nnI ng oI
LIe Introduction Lo LIe Doctrine oj Riht. WIuL Is meunL by LIe cupucILy
I or desI re? L Is, LIe LexL suys, LIe cupucILy Lo be by meuns oI one' s
represenLuLI ons LIe cuuse oI LIe objecLs oI LIese represenLuLI ons. To
LIIs exposI LI on Ie objecLs "LIuL IL comes Lo noL II ng us soon us one
ubsLrucLs I r om LIe externcl condI LI ons oI LIe resuIL oI desI re. BuL LIe
cupucILy I or desI re Is someL II ng even I or un IdeuIIsL, even L IougI LIe
exL ernuI worI d Is noL II ng I or II m. " I repl: BuL ure L Iere noL uIso
InLense buL sLIII conscIousIy IuLI I e I ongI ngs (e.g., WouI d Lo God LIuL
mun were sLIII uIIve!), wII cI ure detoid oj cn deed buL noL detoid oj cn
result, sInce LIey sLIII work powerI uI I y wI LII n LIe subjecL II mseI I (muke
II m III), L IougI noL on exL ernuI LIIngs? A desI re, us u stritin (nisus) Lo
be u ccuse by meuns oI one' s represenLuLI ons, Is sLIII uIwuys cuusuIILy, uL
IeusL wI LII n LIe subjecL, even wIen Ie sees LIe I nudequucy oI IIs
represenLuLI ons I or LIe eI I ecL Ie envI suges. TI e mI sundersL undI ng r ,
Iere umounL s Lo LIIs: LIuL sInce conscI ousness oI one' s cupucILy in
enercl Is (In LIe cuse menL I oned) uIso conscI ousness oI one' s inccpccit
wI LI respecL Lo LIe exL ernuI worI d, LIe deI I nI L I on Is noL uppI I cubI e Lo un
IdeuIIsL. SInce, Iowever, uII LIuL Is In quesLI on Iere Is LIe reI uLI on oI u
cuuse (u represenLuLI on) Lo un eI I ecL (u I eeI I ng) In generuI , LIe cuusuIILy
oI u represenL uL I on (wIeL Ier LIe cuusuIILy Is exL ernuI or I nLernuI ) wILI
r egur d Lo ILs obj ecL musL unuvoI dubI y be L IougIL In LIe concepL oI LIe
cupucILy I or desI re.
16
16q The Metcphsics oj Morcls
!"#$%&' )*+,&*&-$". /"* & 0+%+.-'1 )*","2+3
4".%+,- "/ & 0$#5-
I pIII osopIers versed In RI gIL wunL Lo rIse or venLure uII LIe wuy Lo
meLupIysIcuI IIrsL prIncIpIes oI LIe docLrIne oI RI gIL (wILIouL wII cI
uII LIeIr j urI dI cuI scIence
;
wouI d be mereIy sLuLuLory), LIey cunnoL be
I ndI I I erenL Lo ussurunce oI LIe compIeLeness oI LIeIr ditision oI con-
cepLs oI rIgILs, sInce oLIerwIse LIuL scIence wouId noL be u rctioncl
sstem buL mereI y un uggreguLe IusLIIy coIIecLed. or LIe suke oI LIe
I orm oI LIe sysLem, LIe Topic oj prIncIpIes musL be compI eLe, LIuL Is,
LIe plcce I or u concepL (locus communis) musL be IndIcuLed, LIe pIuce
LIuL Is I eIL open I or LIIs concepL by LIe synLIeLIc I or m oI LIe dIvIsIon.
AI L erwurd one muy uIso sIow LIuL one or unoLIer concepL LIuL mI gIL
be puL In LIIs pIuce wouI d be seII-conLrudIcLory und IuIIs I rom LIIs
pIuce.
Up Lo now jurIsLs Iuve udmILLed Lwo common pIuces: LIuL oI u rIgIL
Lo thins und LIuL oI u rIgIL uguInsL persons. By LIe mere I or m oI j oI nI ng
LIese Lwo concepLs LogeLIer InLo one, Lwo more pIuces ure opened up
I or concepLs, us members oI un u prIorI dIvIsIon: LIuL oI u rI gIL Lo u
LIIng ukIn Lo u rIgIL uguInsL u person und LIuL oI u rIgIL Lo u person
ukIn Lo u rIgIL Lo u LIIng. L Is L IereI ore nuLuruI Lo usk wIeLIer we Iuve
Lo udd some sucI new concepL und wIeLIer we musL come ucross IL In
LIe compI eLe LubIe oI dIvIsIon, even II IL Is onIy probIemuLIc. TIer e cun
be no doubL LIuL LIIs Is LIe cuse. or u mereI y IogIcuI dIvIsIon (wIIcI
ubsLrucLs I rom LIe conLenL oI knowI edge, I rom LIe objecL) Is uIwuys u
dichotom - I or exumpI e, uny rIgIL Is eILIer u rIgIL Lo u LII ng or noL u
rI gIL Lo u LIIng. BuL LIe dIvIsIon In quesLIon Iere, numeI y LIe meLu-
pIysIcuI dIvIsIon, mI gIL uIso be u I ourI oI d dIvIsIon; I or besIdes LIe Lwo
sImpIe members oI LIe dIvIsIon, Lwo I urL Ier reIuLIons mI gIL Iuve Lo be
udded, numeI y LIose oI LIe condILIons IImILIng u rIgIL, under wIIcI
one rIgIL enLers InLo combInuLIon wILI LIe oLIer. TII s possIbIIILy
requIres I urL Ier InvesLIguLIon. TIe concepL oI u riht to c thin clin to
c riht ccinst c person drops ouL wILIouL I urL Ier udo, sInce no rIgIL oI
u thin uguInsL u person Is conceIvubIe. Now LIe quesLIon Is wIeLIer LIe
reverse oI LIIs reIuLIon Is j usL us InconceIvubIe or wIeL Ier LIIs concepL,
numeIy LIuL oI u riht to c person clin to c riht to c thin, Is u concepL LIuL
noL onIy conLuIns no seII-conLrudIcLIon buL uIso beIongs necessurIIy (us
gIven u prIorI In reuson) Lo LIe concepL oI wIuL Is exLernuIIy mI ne or
yours, LIuL oI noL trectin persons In u sImIIur wuy Lo thins In uII
respecLs, buL sLIII oI possessin LIem us LIIngs und deuI I ng wILI LIem us
LIIngs In muny reIuLIons.
67
892-$/$%&-$". "/ -5+ 4".%+,- "/ & 0$#5- -" & )+*2". :;$.
-" & 0$#5- -" & <5$.#
PuL brI eI I y und weII, LIe deI I nI LI on oI u rI gIL Lo u person ukI n Lo u rI gIL
Lo u L II ng Is LIIs: "L Is LIe rI gIL oI u Iumun beI ng Lo Iuve u person oL Ier
L Iun II mseI I us his oun. " Luke cure Lo suy "u person "; I or wII I e IL Is
L rue LIuL someone cun Iuve us IIs own unoL Ier humcn bein wIo by IIs
crime Ius I orI eI L ed IIs personuI I Ly (become u bondsmun), LIIs rI gIL Lo
u L II ng Is noL wIuL Is In quesLI on Iere.
We musL now exumI ne wIeL Ier LIIs concepL, LIIs "new pIenome-
non In LIe j urI sLI c sky, " Is u Stellc mircbilis (u pIenomenon never seen |q|
beI ore, gr owI ng I nLo u sLur oI LIe IIrsL mugnI L ude buL gruduuI I y dIsup-
peurI ng uguI n, per Iups Lo reL urn uL some LIme) or mereI y u shootin stcr.
!"
=>&?,'+2
To Iuve someL II ng exL ernuI us one' s own meuns Lo possess IL rI gIL-
I uI I y; buL possessI ng someL II ng Is LIe condI LI on oI ILs beI ng possIbIe Lo
use IL. I LIIs condI LI on Is L IougIL us mereI y pIysIcuI, possessIon Is
cuI I ed holdin. TIuL um I egILImuLeI y IoI dI ng someL II ng Is noL oI ILseII
suI I I cI enL I or suyI ng LIuL LIe obj ecL Is mI ne or I or mukI ng IL mI ne. BuL
II um uuL IorI zed, I or wIuL ever reuson, Lo InsIsL upon IoI dI ng un
obj ecL LIuL Ius escuped I r om my conLroI or been L orn I r om IL, LIIs
concepL oI u rI gIL Is u sin (us un eI I ecL Is u sIgn oI ILs cuuse) LIuL
consI der myseI I uuL IorI zed Lo LreuL LIIs obj ecL und Lo use IL us uhct is
mine, und consI der myseI I us uIso In InLeIIIgIbIe possessIon oI IL.
WIuL Is one' s own Iere does noL, I ndeed, meun wIuL Is one' s own In
LIe sense oI properL y In LIe person oI unoL Ier (Ior u Iumu n beI ng
cunnoL Iuve pr oper L y In II mseI I, mucI Iess In unoL Ier person), buL
meuns wIuL Is one' s own In LIe sense oI usuI rucL (ius utendijruendi), Lo
muke dI recL use oI u person cs oj c L II ng, us u meuns Lo my end, buL sLIII
wI L IouL I nI rI ngI ng upon IIs personuI I Ly.
*I do not say here "to have a person as mine" (using the adjective), but "to have a
person as uhct is mine, <@'meum," (using the substantive). For I can say "this is m
jcther," and that signiIies only my physical relation (oI connection) to him in a
general way, e.g., I hcte a Iather; but I cannot say "I have him as uhct is mine."
However, iI I say "my wiIe" this signiIies a special, namely a rightIul, relation oI the
possessor to an object as a thin (even though the object is also a person). Possession
(phsiccl possession), however, is the condition oI being able to mcnce (mcnipulctio)
something as a thing, even iI this must, in another respect, be treated at the same
time as a person.
180 The Metcphsics oj Morcls
BuL LIIs end, us LIe condI LI on under wII cI sucI use Is I egI LI muLe,
musL be moruI I y necessury. A mun cunnoL desI re u womun In or der Lo
enjo Ier us u LII ng, LIuL Is, In or der Lo Luke I mmedI uL e suLIsIucLIon In
mereI y unI muI I nL ercourse wILI Ier, nor cun u womun gI ve IerseI I Lo
II m I or LIIs wI L IouL boLI r enouncI ng LIeI r personuI I LI es (In curnuI or
besLIuI coIubI LuLI on), LIuL Is, LIIs cun be done onI y under LIe condI L I on
oI mcrrice. SI nce murrI uge Is u recI procuI gI vI ng oI one' s very person
InLo LIe possessIon oI LIe oL Ier, IL musL jirst be concI uded, so LIuL
neI LIer Is deIumunI zed L Ir ougI LIe bodI I y use LIuL one mukes oI LIe
oL Ier.
Apur L I r om LIIs condI LI on curnuI enj oymenL Is ccnnibclistic In prI n-
cIpIe (even II noL uIwuys In ILs eI I ecL). WIeL Ier someL II ng Is consumed
by mouL I und LeeLI, or wIeL Ier LIe womun Is consumed by pr egnuncy
und LIe perIups IuLuI deI I very resuI LI ng I r om IL, or LIe mun by exIuus-
|6o| LIon oI IIs sexuuI cupucILy I r om LIe womun' s I r equenL demunds upon
IL, LIe dI I I er ence Is mereI y In LIe munner oI enj oymenL . n LIIs sorL oI
use by eucI oI LIe sexuuI orguns oI LIe oLIer, eucI Is ucLuuIIy u con-
sumcble L II ng (res junibilis) wILI respecL Lo LIe oL Ier, so LIuL II one
were Lo muke oneseI I sucI u L II ng by contrcct, LIe conLrucL wouI d be
conL rury Lo Iuw (pcctum turpe).
SImIIurIy, u mun und u womun cunnoL begeL u cII I d us LIeI r j oI nL
uorl (res crtijiciclis) und wI LIouL boLI o I L Iem I ncurrI ng un obI I guLI on
L owurd LIe cIIId und L owurd eucI oL Ier Lo muI nLuI n IL. TII s Is, uguI n,
ucquIsILIon oI u Iumun beI ng cs oj u LII ng, buL onI y I ormuI I y so (us
beII Ls u rI gIL Lo u person LIuL Is onI y ukI n Lo u rI gIL Lo u LII ng). PurenLs
Iuve u rI gIL uguInsL every possessor (ius in re) oI LIeI r cII I d wIo Ius
been r emoved I r om LIeI r conLroI . SI nce LIey uIso Iuve u rI gIL Lo con-
sLruIn IL Lo curry ouL und compI y wI LI uny oI LIeI r dI recLI ons LIuL ure
noL conLrury Lo u possIbIe I uwI uI I r eedom (ius cd rem), LIey uIso Iuve
u rI gIL uguInsL u person uguInsL LIe cII I d.
InuIIy, wIen LIeI r duL y Lo provI de I or LIeI r cII I dren comes Lo un
end us LIey reucI muLurI Ly, purenLs sLIII Iuve u rI gIL Lo use L Iem us
member s oI LIe IouseIoI d subjecL Lo LIeI r dI recLI on, I or muI nL uI nI ng
LIe IouseIoI d, unLI I LIey Ieuve. TII s Is u duL y oI purenLs L owurd L Iem
wII cI IoI I ows I r om LIe nuLuruI IImILuLIon oI LIe purenLs' rI gIL. Up
unLII LIIs LI me cII I dren ure I ndeed member s oI LIe IouseIoI d und
beI ong Lo LIe jcmil, buL I r om now on LIey beI ong Lo LIe sertice oI LIe
IumI I y (jcmulctus), so LIuL LIe Ieud oI LIe Iouse cunnoL udd L Iem Lo
wIuL Is IIs (us IIs domesLIcs) excepL by conLrucL. n LIe sume wuy, LIe
Ieud oI u Iouse cun uIso muke LIe servIce oI LIose outside the jcmil IIs
*I n wri t t en Ger man Aeltern means Seniores and Eltern means Pcrentes. Al t hough t he
two words cannot be distinguished in speech, they are very diIIerent in meaning.
The Doctrine oj Riht g 16;
own In Lerms oI u rIgIL Lo LIem ukIn Lo u rIgIL Lo u LII ng und ucquIre
LIem us domesLIcs (jcmulctus domesticus) by u conLrucL. SucI u conLrucL
Is noL j usL u conLrucL Lo let cnd hire (locctio conductio operce), buL u gIvIng
up oI LIeIr persons InLo LIe possessIon oI LIe Ieud oI LIe Iouse, u Ieuse
(locctio conductio personce). WIuL dIsLInguIsIes sucI u conLrucL I rom
IeLLIng und II rI ng Is LIuL LIe servunL ugrees to do uhcteter is permissible
I or LIe weI Iure oI LIe IouseIoI d, InsLeud oI beI ng commIssIoned I or u |61|
specIIIcuIIy deLermI ned j ob, wIereus someone wIo Is II red I or u spe-
cIIIc j ob (un urLIsun or duy Iuborer) does noL gIve IImseII up us purL oI
LIe oLIer' s beI ongI ngs und so Is noL u member oI LIe IouseIoI d. SInce
Ie Is noL In LIe rI gILIuI possessIon oI unoLIer wIo puLs IIm under
obIIguLIon Lo perI orm cerLuIn servIces, even II Ie IIves In LIe oLIer' s
Iouse (inquilinus) LIe Ieud oI LIe Iouse cunnoL tcle possession oI II m us
u LIIng (tic jccti)-, Ie musL InsLeud InsIsL upon LIe Iuborer' s doI ng wIuL
Ie promI sed In Lerms oI u rIgIL uguInsL u person, us someLII ng Ie cun
commund by rI gILI uI proceedI ngs (tic iuris). So mucI I or LIe cIurIIIcu-
LIon und deI ense oI u sLrunge Lype oI rIgIL wIIcI Ius recenLIy been
udded Lo LIe docLrIne oI nuLuruI Iuw, uI LIougI IL Ius uIwuys been Luc-
ILIy In use.
!"
!" $%"&'()"* + ,)*-. .% + /-)"*
0).- + ,)*-. 1*+)"(. + 234(%"
Iuve uIso been censured I or IeLerodoxy In nuLuruI prIvuLe RIgIL I or
LIe proposILIon LIuL scle brecls c lecse. (The Doctrine oj Riht, 1, p. 1zq
|Ak. p. zqo|).
L does seem uL IIrsL gIunce Lo conIIIcL wILI uII rIgILs urIsIng I r om u
conLrucL LIuL someone couI d gIve noLIce Lo someone IeusIng IIs Iouse
beI ore LIe perI od oI resIdence ugreed upon Is up und, so IL seems,
breuk IIs promI se Lo LIe Iessee, provI ded Ie grunLs II m LIe LIme I or
vucuLIng IL LIuL Is cusLomury by LIe cIvII Iuws wIere LIey IIve. BuL II IL
cun be proved LIuL LIe Iessee knew or musL Iuve known, wIen Ie
conLrucLed Lo Ieuse IL, LIuL LIe promIse mude Lo IIm by LIe lessor, LIe
owner, nuLuruIIy (wILIouL ILs needI ng Lo be sLuLed expressIy In LIe con-
LrucL) und L IereI ore LucILIy IncI uded LIe condILIon, cs lon cs the ouner
does not sell the house durin this time (or does noL Iuve Lo Lurn IL over Lo
IIs credILors II Ie sIouId become bunkrupL), LIen LIe Iessor Ius noL
broken IIs promIse, wIIcI wus uIreudy u condILIonuI one In Lerms oI
reuson, und LIe Iessee's rIgIL wus noL encroucIed upon II Ie wus gI ven
noLIce beI ore LIe Ieuse expI red.
or LIe rI gIL u Iessee Ius by u conLrucL Lo Ieuse Is u rI gIL ccinst c [z]
person, Lo someLII ng u cerLuIn person Ius Lo perI orm I or unoLIer (ius
cd rem), IL Is noL u rI gIL uguInsL eter possessor oI u L II ng (ius in re), noL
u rI gIL Lo u thin.
A Iessee couI d, I ndeed, secure II mseI I In IIs contrcct to lecse und
pr ocur e u rI gIL Lo u LII ng us regurds LIe Iouse; Ie couI d, numeI y, Iuve
LIIs rI gIL onI y Lo LIe Iessor' s Iouse reistered (enLered In LIe I und
regIsLry), us uLLucIed Lo LIe I und. TI e n Ie couI d noL be L ur ned ouL oI
IIs Ieuse, beI or e LIe LIme seLLIed upon Iud expI red, by LIe owner' s
gI vI ng noLI ce or even by IIs deuL I (IIs nuLuruI deuL I or uIso IIs cIvII
deuL I, bunkrupL cy). I Ie does noL do LIIs, perIups becuuse Ie wunL ed
Lo be I r ee Lo concI ude u Ieuse on beLLer Lerms eI sewIere or becuuse LIe
owner dI d noL wunL Lo encumber IIs Iouse wILI sucI un onus, IL muy
be concI uded LIuL, us regurds LIe LI me I or gI vI ng noLIce, eucI oI LIe
purLIes wus uwure LIuL Ie Iud mude u conLrucL subj ecL Lo LIe LucIL
condI LI on LIuL IL couI d be dI ssoI ved I I LIIs becume convenI enL (excepL
I or LIe perI od oI gruce I or vucuLI ng, us deL ermI ned by cIvII Iuw).
CerL uI n rI gIL I uI consequences oI u bcre conLrucL Lo Ieuse gI ve I ur L Ier
conI I rmuL I on oI one' s uuLIorI zuLI on Lo breuk u Ieuse by suIe; I or II u
Iessor dIes, no obI I guLI on Lo conL I nue LIe Ieuse Is uscrI bed Lo IIs IeI r,
sInce LIIs Is un obI I guLI on onI y on LIe purL oI u cerLuI n person und
ceuses wILI IIs deuL I (L IougI LIe I eguI LI me I or gI vI ng noLI ce musL sLIII
be L uken InLo uccounL In LIIs cuse). NeI L Ier cun LIe rI gIL oI u Iessee, us
sucI, puss Lo IIs IeI r wI LIouL u sepuruLe conLrucL; nor, us I ong us boL I
purLIes ure uIIve, Is u Iessee uuL IorI zed Lo subI eL Lo unyone wI L IouL un
expIIcIL ugreemenL .
#"
5'4.-34 6)(7'(()%" %& .-3 $%"738. %& .-3 ,)*-. .% 2'")(-
T I e mere deu oI u cIvII consLI LuLI on umong men currI es wILI IL LIe
concepL oI punI LI ve j usLI ce beI ongI ng Lo LIe supr eme uuLIorI Ly. T I e
onI y quesLI on Is wIeL Ier IL Is u muLLer oI I ndI I I erence Lo LIe I egIsI uLor
wIuL kI nds oI punI sImenL ure udopL ed, us I ong us LIey ure eI I ecL I ve
meusures I or erudI cuLI ng crI me (wII cI vIoIuLes LIe securILy u sLuLe
gIves eucI In IIs possessIon oI wIuL Is IIs), or wIeL Ier LIe I egIsI uLor
musL uIso Luke I nLo uccounL respecL I or LIe IumunI L y In LIe person
|6| oI LIe wr ongdoer (I.e., respecL I or LIe specIes) sI mpI y on gr ounds oI
RI gIL. suId LIuL LIe ius tclionis Is by ILs I or m uIwuys LIe prI ncI pI e I or
LIe rIgIL Lo punI sI sInce IL uI one Is LIe prI ncI pI e deL er mI nI ng LIIs deu
u prI orI (noL derI ved I r om experI ence oI wII cI meusures wouI d be
mosL eI I ecL I ve I or erudI cuLI ng crI me). BuL wIuL Is Lo be done In LIe
*In every punishment there is something that (rightly) oIIends the accused's Ieeling
oI honor, since it involves coercion that is unilateral only, so that his dignity as a
The Doctrine oj Riht g 16q
cuse oI crI mes LIuL cunnoL Ie punI sIed by u reL urn I or L Iem becuuse
LIIs wouI d be eI LIer I mpossI bI e or ILseII u punI sIubI e crI me uguInsL
humcnit us sucI, I or exumpI e, rupe us weII us pederusL y or besLIuIILy?
T I e punI sImenL I or rupe und pederusL y Is cusLruLIon (IIke LIuL oI u
wII L e or bI uck eunucI In u SerugI I o), LIuL I or besLIuIILy, per munenL
expuI sI on I r om cIvII socIeLy, sInce LIe crI mI nuI Ius mude II mseI I
unwor L Iy oI Iumun socIeLy. Per quod quis peccct, per idem punitur et
idem." T I e crI mes menL I oned ure cuI I ed unnuL uruI becuuse LIey ure
perpeL ruL ed uguI nsL IumunI L y ILseII. To InIIIcL uhcteter punI sImenL s
one chooses I or LIese crI mes wouI d be IILeruIIy conLrury Lo LIe concepL
oj punitite justice. or LIe onI y LI me u crI mI nuI cunnoL compI uI n LIuL u
wr ong Is done Lo II m Is wIen Ie brI ngs IIs evII deed buck upon
II mseI I , und wIuL Is done Lo II m In uccordunce wILI penuI Iuw Is wIuL
Ie Ius perpeL ruL ed on oLIers, II noL In Lerms oI ILs I eLLer uL IeusL In
Lerms oI ILs spIrIL.
9:
!" + ,)*-. &4%; 24%<%"*3= 2%((3(()%"
" A rI gIL bused on proloned possession (usuccpio) sIouI d, uccord-
I ng Lo pp. 11 I I . |Ak. zq1 II. |, be esLubI IsIed by nuLuruI RI gIL. |6q|
or unIess one udmI Ls LIuL un idecl ccquisition, us IL Is Ier e cuI I ed,
Is esLubI IsIed by possessIon In good IuI LI, no ucquIsILIon uL uII
wouI d be concI usI veI y secured. (YeL KunL II mseI I udmI Ls onI y
provI sI onuI ucquIsILIon In LIe sLuLe oI nuLure, und becuuse oI LIIs
InsIsLs on LIe j urI sLIc necessILy oI u cIvII consLILuLIon. usserL LIuL
um LIe possessor oI someL II ng in ood jcith, Iowever, onI y uguInsL
someone wIo cunnoL prove LIuL Ie wus possessor oI LIe sume
L II ng in ood jcith beI or e me und Ius noL ceused by IIs wIII Lo be
ILs possessor. )"
TII s Is noL LIe quesLI on Iere. TI e quesLI on Is wIeL Ier cun uIso cssert
LIuL um LIe owner even II someone sIouI d come I or wur d cI uI mI ng Lo
citizen is suspended, at least in this particular case; Ior he is subjected to an external
duty to which he, Ior his own part, may oIIer no resistance. A man oI nobility or
wealth who has to pay a Iine Ieels the loss oI his money less than the humiliation oI
having to submit to the will oI an inIerior. Punitite justice (iustitic punituc) must be
distinguished Irom punitite prudence, since the argument Ior the Iormer is morcl, in
terms oI being punishcble (quic peccctum est) while that Ior the latter is merel prc-
mctic (ne peccetur) and based on experience oI what is most eIIective in eradicating
crime; and punitive justice has an entirely diIIerent plcce in the Topic oI concepts
oI Right, locus iusti, its place is not that oI the conducibilis, oI what is usejul Ior a cer-
tain purpose, nor that oI the mere honesti, which must be sought in ethics.
"One who commits a sin is punished through it and in the same way."
1;o The Metcphsics oj Morcls
be LIe ecrlier Lrue owner oI LIe LIIng, buL wIere IL wus cbsolutel
ImpossIbIe Lo Ieurn oI IIs exIsLence us ILs possessor und oI IIs beI ng In
possessIon us ILs owner. TII s occurs II LIe cIuImunL Ius noL (wIeLIer by
IIs own IuuIL or noL) gIven uny pubIIcIy vuIId sIgn oI IIs unI nLerrupLed
possessIon, I or exumpI e, by recordI ng IL In LIe regIsLry or by voLI ng us
undI spuLed owner In cIvII ussembIIes.
or LIe quesLIon Iere Is, wIo ougIL Lo prove IIs IegILImuLe ucquIsI-
LIon? TII s obIIguLIon (onusprobcndi) cunnoL be I mposed on LIe posses-
sor, sInce Ie Ius been In possessIon oI IL us Iur buck us IIs conI I rmed
IIsLory reucIes. n uccordunce wILI prIncIpIes oI RIgIL, LIe one wIo
cIuIms Lo be LIe eurIIer owner oI LIe LIIng Is cuL compIeLeI y ouL oI LIe
serIes oI successIve possessors by LIe InLervuI durI ng wII cI Ie Ius
gIven no cIvIIIy vuIId sIgn oI IIs ownersIIp. TII s IuI I ure Lo per I orm
uny pubIIc possessory ucL mukes II m u cIuImunL wILIouL u LILIe.
(AguInsL IIs cIuIm IL cun be suId Iere, us In LIeoI ogy, consertctio est
continuc crectio ,)
c
Even II u cIuImunL wIo Iud noL prevIousIy uppeured
sIouId IuLer come I orwurd suppIIed wILI documenLs Ie I ound, LIere
wouI d be room I or doubL, In IIs cuse uguIn, wIeLIer u sLIII eurIIer
cIuImunL couId uppeur uL some I uL ure LIme und buse IIs cIuIm on
eurIIer possessIon. InuIIy ucquIrIng someLII ng by proloned possession
oI IL (ccquirere per usuccptionem) does noL depend uL uII on LIe lenth oj
time one Ius possessed IL. or IL Is ubsurd Lo suppose LIuL u wrong
becomes u rIgIL becuuse IL Ius conLI nued Ior u I ong LIme. ur I r om u
|6| rI gIL In u LIIng beI ng bused on use oI IL, use oI IL (Iowever Iong) pre-
supposes u rI gIL In IL. TIer eI or e proloned possession (usuccpio), re-
gurded us ucquIsILIon oI u LIIng by I ong use oI IL, Is u seII-conLrudIcLory
concepL. SuperunnuuLI on oI cIuIms us u meuns oI conservI ng possessIon
(consertctio possessionis per prcecriptionem) Is no Iess seII-conLrudIcLory,
uI LIougI IL Is u dIsLIncL concepL us Iur us LIe urgumenL I or upproprI u-
LIon Is concerned.
;;
TIuL Is Lo suy, u neguLIve busIs, LIuL Is, LIe enLIre
non-use oI one' s rIgIL, noL even LIuL wIIcI Is necessury Lo sIow oneseI I
us possessor, Is Luken Lo be un cbcndonment oI LIIs rI gIL (derelictio),
|wIIcI supposed ubundonmenL wouI d be| u rI gILIuI ucL, LIuL Is, LIe use
oI one' s rIgIL uguInsL unoLIer, so us Lo ucquIre LIe objecL oI LIe eurIIer
possessor by excI udI ng IL (per prcescriptionem) I rom IIs cIuIm; und LIIs
InvoIves u conLrudIcLIon.
LIereI ore ucquIre wILIouL gI vI ng prooI und wILIouL uny ucL esLub-
IIsIIng my rIgIL. Iuve no need I or prooI; InsLeud ucquIre by prIn-
cIpIe (lee). WIuL IoIIows? Public ImmunILy I rom cIuIms, LIuL Is, securit
in m possession by Iuw, sInce do noL need Lo produce prooI , und Luke
my sLund on my unI nLerrupLed possessIon. BuL LIuL uny ccquisition In
" "ConservuL I on Is conL I nuous creuL I on. "
The Doctrine oj Riht " :;:
u sLuLe oI nuLure Is onIy provIsIonuI Ius no beurI ng on LIe quesLIon oI
LIe securILy oI possession oI wIuL Is ucquIred, wII cI musL precede
ucquIsILIon.
!"
!" $"%&'()*"+&
As I or LIe rI gIL oI InIerILunce, LIIs LIme LIe ucuLeness oI LIe revI ewer
Ius IuIIed Lo IInd II m LIe nerve oI LIe prooI oI my usserLIon. dI d noL
suy (p. 1 |Ak. zqq|) LIuL every mun necessurIIy uccepLs uny thin
ojjered II m wII cI Ie cun onIy guIn und noL Iose by uccepLIng (Ior LIere
ure I ndeed no sucI LIIngs). suId, ruLIer, LIuL everyone uIwuys In IucL
uccepLs, unuvoIdubIy und LucILIy buL sLIII vuIIdIy, LIe riht to cccept the
ojjer uL LIe sume momenL, numeIy wIen LIe nuLure oI LIe muLLer
InvoIves LIe ubsoIuLe ImpossIbIIILy oI LIe oI I er beI ng reLrucLed, LIe
momenL oI LIe LesLuLor's deuLI; I or LIen LIe promI sor cunnoL wILI-
druw IL und LIe promIsee, wILIouL needI ng Lo do uny ucL Lo esLubIIsI
LIe rIgIL, Is uL LIe sume momenL LIe uccepLor, noL oI LIe Iegucy |66|
promI sed buL oI LIe rIgIL Lo uccepL or reI use IL. WIen LIe wIII Is
opened Ie sees LIuL Ie Iud uIreudy uL LIuL momenL, beI ore uccepLIng
LIe Iegucy, become rIcIer LIun Ie wus beI ore, sInce Ie Iud ucquIred
LIe excIusIve cuthorizction to cccept und LIIs Is uIreudy un enrI cII ng
cIrcumsLunce. AI L IougI u cIvII condILIon Is presupposed In order I or
someone wIo no I onger exIsLs Lo muke somethin belon to cnother, LIIs
LrunsIer oI possessIon by one wIo Is deud does noL uILer LIe possIbIIILy
oI ucquIrIng In uccordunce wILI unIversuI prIncIpIes oI nuLuruI RIgIL,
even L IougI u cIvII consLILuLIon Is LIe necessury busIs I or uppI yI ng
LIese prIncIpIes Lo LIe cuse uL Iund. TIuL Is Lo suy, someLII ng I eIL
uncondILIonuIIy Lo my Iree cIoIce [Wchl] Lo uccepL or reI use Is cuIIed
u res iccens. I LIe owner oI someLII ng oI I ers IL Lo me gruLuILousIy
(promIses LIuL IL wIII be mIne), I or exumpI e, wIen Ie oI I ers me u pIece
oI I urnI Lure oI LIe Iouse um ubouL Lo move I rom, Iuve LIe excIu-
sIve rIgIL Lo uccepL IIs oI I er (ius in re iccente) so I ong us Ie does noL
wILIdruw IL (und II Ie dIes In LIe meunLI me LIIs Is ImpossIbIe), LIuL Is,
uIone cun uccepL IL or reI use IL us pIeuse; und do noL geL LIIs
excIusIve rI gIL Lo muke LIe cIoIce L IrougI uny specIuI rI gILI uI ucL oI
decI urI ng LIuL wIII Lo Iuve LIIs rIgIL. ucquIre IL wILIouL uny sucI ucL
(lee). So cun I ndeed decIure LIuL wIII not to hcte the thin (becuuse
uccepLIng IL mI gIL InvoIve me In unpIeusunLness wILI oLIers), buL
cunnoL wIII Lo Iuve LIe excIusIve cIoIce oI uhether it is to belon to me or
not, I or Iuve LIIs rIgIL (Lo uccepL or reIuse) ImmedIuLeIy I rom LIe
oI I er, wILIouL my decI urI ng my uccepLunce oI IL, sInce II couI d reI use
even Lo Iuve LIIs cIoIce wouI d be cIoosI ng noL Lo cIoose, wIIcI Is u
1;z The Metcphsics oj Morcls
conLrudIcLIon. Now LIIs rIgIL Lo cIoose pusses Lo me uL LIe momenL oI
LIe LesLuLor's deuLI, und by IIs LesLumenL (institutio hceredis) ucquIre,
noL yeL IIs beI ongI ngs und goods, buL neverLIeIess merel rihtjul
(InLeIIIgIbIe) possessIon oI IIs beI ongI ngs or u purL oI LIem, wII cI
cun now reI use Lo uccepL Lo LIe udvunLuge oI oLIers. ConsequenLI y LIIs
possessIon Is noL I nLerrupLed I or u momenL ; successIon pusses InsLeud
In u conLI nuous serIes I rom LIe dyI ng mun Lo IIs uppoI nLed IeIrs by
LIeIr uccepLunce. TIe proposILIon testcmentc sunt iuris ncturce Is LIus
esLubIIsIed beyond uny doubL.
!"
!" )%& ,(-%) ./ * 0)*)& 1()% ,&-*'2 ). 3&'4&)5*6
7.5"2*)(."8 /.' $)8 059:&+)8
A joundction (scnctio testcmentcric benejicii perpetui) Is un InsLILuLIon LIuL
Ius been voIunLurIIy esLubIIsIed, und conI I rmed by u sLuLe, I or LIe
beneII L oI cerLuIn members oI IL wIo succeed one unoLIer unLII LIey
Iuve uII dIed ouL. L Is cuIIed perpetucl II LIe sLuLuLe I or muI nLuI nI ng IL
Is bound up wILI LIe consLILuLIon oI LIe sLuLe ILseII (Ior u sLuLe musL be
regurded us perpeLuuI). TIose wIo ure Lo beneII L I rom u I ounduL I on
ure eILIer LIe people generuIIy, or u purL oI LIem unI Led by cerLuIn
specIuI prIncIpIes, or u cerLuIn Estcte, or c jcmil und ILs descendunLs
conLI nuI ng In perpeLuILy. An exumpI e oI LIe IIrsL kInd Is u hospitcl, oI
LIe second, u church, oI LIe LIIrd, un order (spIrILuuI or secuIur); und
oI LIe I ourLI, un esLuLe LIuL Is entciled.
L Is suId LIuL sucI corporuLIons und LIeIr riht oI successIon cunnoL
be unnuI I ed, sInce IL becume by u bequest LIe properLy oI LIe IeIrs up-
poInLed, so LIuL unnuI I I ng sucI u consLILuLIon (corpus msticum) wouI d
umounL Lo deprI vI ng someone oI IIs beIongIngs.
A.
TIose InsLILuLIons I or LIe beneII L oI LIe poor, InvuIIds, und LIe sIck
LIuL Iuve been seL up uL LIe expense oI LIe sLuLe (IounduLI ons und
IospILuIs) cun cerLuInIy noL be done uwuy wILI. BuL II LIe InLenLIon oI
LIe LesLuLor's wIII ruLIer LIun ILs IeLLer Is Lo Iuve prIorILy, cIrcumsLunces
cun urIse In LIme LIuL muke IL udvIsubIe Lo nuIIIIy sucI u I ounduL I on uL
IeusL In Lerms oI ILs I orm. So IL Ius been I ound LIuL LIe poor und LIe
sIck (excepL I or puLIenLs In menLuI IospILuIs) ure cured I or beLLer und
more economIcuIIy wIen LIey ure IeI ped wILI cerLuIn sums oI money
(proporLI oned Lo LIe needs oI LIe LIme), wILI wII cI LIey cun bourd
wIere LIey wunL, wILI reIuLIves or ucquuInLunces, LIun wIen - us In LIe
IospILuI uL GreenwI cI - LIey ure provI ded wILI spI endId InsLILuLIons,
|6;|
servIced by expensI ve personneI, wIIcI severeIy IImIL LIeIr I reedom.
L cunnoL be suId LIen LIuL LIe sLuLe Is deprI vI ng LIe peopI e, wII cI Is
enLILIed Lo LIe beneIILs oI LIIs IounduLI on, oI wIuL Is LIeIrs; LIe sLuLe
Is InsLeud promoL I ng LIIs by cIoosI ng wIser meuns I or preservI ng IL.
|68|
TIe cIergy LIuL does noL propuguLe ILseII curnuIIy (LIe CuLIoIIc cIergy)
possesses, wILI LIe I uvor oI LIe sLuLe, esLuLes und LIe subjecLs uLLucIed
Lo LIem. TIese beI ong Lo u spIrILuuI sLuLe (cuIIed u cIurcI), Lo wIIcI
LIe IuILy, I or LIe suIvuLIon oI LIeIr souIs, Iuve gIven LIemseIves by LIeIr
bequesLs us ILs properLy.
;
And so LIe cIergy, us u specIuI EsLuLe, Ius
possessIons LIuL cun be bequeuLIed by Iuw I rom one generuLI on Lo LIe
nexL und LIuL ure udequuLeIy documenL ed by pupuI buIIs. BuL muy one
ussume LIuL LIIs reIuLIon Lo LIe IuILy cun be dIrecLIy Luken I r om LIe
cIergy by LIe ubsoIuLe power oI LIe secuIur sLuLe? WouI d LIIs noL
umounL Lo deprI vI ng someone by Iorce oI wIuL Is IIs, us LIe unbeIIev-
ers oI LIe rencI repubIIc ure uLLempLI ng Lo do?
TIe quesLIon Iere Is wIeLIer LIe cIurcI cun beI ong Lo LIe sLuLe or
LIe sLuLe beI ong Lo LIe cIurcI; I or Lwo supreme uuLIorILIes cunnoL
wILIouL conLrudIcLIon be subordInuLe one Lo LIe oLIer. L Is evIdenL
LIuL onIy LIe jirst constitution (politico-hiercrchicc) couI d subsIsL by ILseII,
sInce every cIvII consLILuLIon Is oI this worId becuuse IL Is un eurLIIy
uuLIorILy (oI men) LIuL, uI ong wILI ILs resuILs, cun be conI I rmed In ex-
perIence. Even II we concede Lo beIIevers, wIose lindom Is In Ieuven
und LIe other uorld, u consLILuLIon reIuLIng Lo LIuL worI d (hiercrchico-
politicc), LIey musL submIL Lo LIe suI I erI ngs oI LIIs eru under LIe
II gIer uuLIorILy oI men oI LIIs worId. Hence onIy LIe IIrsL consLILu-
LIon Is Lo be I ound.
ReIIgIon (In uppeurunce), us beIIeI In LIe dogmus oI u cIurcI und In
LIe power oI prIesLs, wIo ure LIe urIsLocruLs oI sucI u consLILuLIon
L IougI IL cun uIso be monurcIIcuI (pupuI), cun neILIer be I mposed
upon u peopI e nor Luken uwuy I r om LIem by uny cIvII uuLIorILy; nor
cun u cILIzen be excI uded I rom LIe servIce oI LIe sLuLe und LIe udvun-
Luges LIIs brIngs II m becuuse IIs reIIgIon Is dI I I erenL I r om LIuL oI LIe
courL (us GreuL BrILuIn Ius done wILI LIe rIsI nuLIon).
n order Lo purLuke oI LIe gruce u cIurcI promIses Lo sIow beIIevers
even uI Ler LIeIr deuLI, cerLuIn devouL und beIIevIng souIs esLubIIsI
IounduLI ons In perpeLuILy, by wIIcI cerLuIn esLuLes oI LIeIrs ure Lo
become LIe properLy oI u cIurcI uILer LIeIr deuLI; und LIe sLuLe muy
pI edge ILseII Lo IeuILy Lo u cIurcI regurdI ng LIIs or LIuL IounduLI on, |qI
or I ndeed uII oI LIem,
;q
so LIuL LIese peopI e muy Iuve LIe pruy-
ers, InduI gences, und penunces by wIIcI LIe servunLs oI LIe cIurcI
1;q The Metcphsics oj Morcls
uppoI nLed I or LIIs (cIergy) promI se LIuL LIey wIII Iure weII In LIe oLIer
worI d. BuL sucI u IounduLI on, supposedIy InsLILuLed In perpeLuI Ly, Is
noL uL uII esLubIIsIed In perpeLuILy; LIe sLuLe cun cusL oI I LIIs burden u
cIurcI Ius IuId upon IL wIen IL wunLs Lo. or u cIurcI ILseII Is un
InsLILuLIon buIIL mereI y upon beIIeI, so LIuL wIen LIe IIIusIon urIsIng
I rom LIIs opI nI on dIsuppeurs L IrougI popuI ur enI I gILenmenL, LIe
I eurI uI uuLIorILy oI LIe cIergy bused on IL uIso IuIIs uwuy und LIe sLuLe,
wILI IuI I rIgIL, Lukes conLroI oI LIe properLy LIe cIurcI Ius urroguLed
Lo ILseII, numeIy LIe Iund besLowed on IL L IrougI bequesLs. However,
LIe I euduI LenunLs oI LIe InsLILuLIon LIuL IILIerLo exIsLed Iuve LIe
rI gIL Lo demund compensuLI on us I ong us LIey IIve.
Even perpeLuuI IounduLI ons Ior LIe poor, und educuLI onuI InsLILu-
LIons, cunnoL be I ounded In perpeLuI Ly und be u perpeLuuI encum-
brunce on LIe Iund becuuse LIey Iuve u cerLuIn cIurucLer specIIIed by
LIe I ounder In uccordunce wILI IIs Ideus; InsLeud LIe sLuLe musL be
I ree Lo udupL LIem Lo LIe needs oI LIe LIme. No one need be surprIsed
LIuL IL becomes more und more dI III cuI L I or LIIs Ideu Lo be currIed ouL
In uII ILs deLuIIs (e.g., LIuL poor sLudenLs musL suppI emenL by sIngIng
I or uIms un I nudequuLe educuLIonuI I und beneIIcenLIy esLubIIsIed); I or
II LIe one wIo seLs up LIe I ounduLI on Is somewIuL umbILIous us weII us
good-nuLured, Ie does noL wunL someone eIse Lo uILer IL In uccordunce
wILI IIs concepLs; Ie wunLs Lo be ImmorLuI Ized In IL. TIuL , Iowever,
does noL cIunge LIe nuLure oI LIe muLLer ILseII und LIe rIgIL, I ndeed
LIe duLy, oI u sLuLe Lo uILer uny I ounduLI on II IL Is opposed Lo LIe
preservuLIon oI LIe sLuLe und ILs progress Lo LIe beLLer. SucI u I oundu-
LIon, LIereIore, cun never be regurded us esLubIIsIed In perpeLuI Ly.
C.
TIe nobIIILy oI u counLry LIuL Is noL under un urIsLocruLIc buL u mon-
urcIIcuI consLILuLIon Is un InsLILuLIon LIuL muy be permI LLed I or u cer-
LuIn perI od oI LIme und muy even be necessury by cIrcumsLunces. BuL
IL cunnoL be usserLed LIuL LIIs EsLuLe cun be esLubIIsIed In perpeLuI Ly,
und LIuL LIe Ieud oI u sLuLe sIouId noL be uuLIorI zed Lo unnuI LIIs
|;| preemI nence oI EsLuLe enLIreIy, or LIuL II Ie does LIIs Ie Ius deprI ved
IIs (nobIe) subjecLs oI wIuL wus theirs, oI wIuL beI onged Lo LIem by
InIerILunce. A nobIIILy Is u Lemporury IruLernILy uuLIorI zed by LIe
sLuLe, wIIcI musL go uI ong wILI LIe cIrcumsLunces oI LIe LIme und noL
I nIrI nge upon LIe unIversuI RI gIL oI men, wIIcI Ius been suspended
I or so I ong. or LIe runk oI nobI emun In u sLuLe Is noL onIy dependenL
upon LIe consLILuLIon ILseII; IL Is onIy un uccIdenL oI LIe consLILuLIon,
wIIcI cun exIsL onIy by I nIerence In u sLuLe (u nobI emun us sucI Is
conceIvubIe onIy In u sLuLe, noL In LIe sLuLe oI nuLure). AccordI ngI y,
wIen u sLuLe uILers ILs consLILuLIon, someone wIo LIereby Ioses IIs LILIe
und precedence cunnoL suy LIuL Ie Is beI ng deprI ved oI wIuL Is IIs,
sInce Ie couI d cuII IL IIs onIy under LIe condILIon LIuL LIIs I orm oI sLuLe
conLI nued; buL u sLuLe Ius LIe rIgIL Lo uILer ILs I orm (e.g., Lo reI orm
ILseII InLo u repubIIc). Orders und LIe prIvIIege oI beurI ng cerLuIn sIgns
oI LIem, LIereI ore, gIve no perpetucl rI gIL oI possessIon.
D.
InuIIy, us regurds LIe joundction oj entciled estctes, In wII cI someone
possessed oI goods urrunges IIs InIerILunce so LIuL LIe nexL oI kIn In
LIe serIes oI successIve IeIrs sIouId uIwuys be Iord oI LIe esLuLe (by
unuIogy wILI u sLuLe IuvI ng u IeredILury monurcIy, wIere LIe lord oj
the lcnd Is deLermI ned In LIIs wuy): noL onIy cun sucI u I ounduLI on be
unnuI I ed uL uny LIme wILI LIe consenL oI uII muIe reIuLIves und need
noL IusL In perpeLuILy - us II LIe rI gIL oI InIerILunce were uLLucIed Lo
LIe Iund - und IL cunnoL be suId LIuL IeLLIng un enLuIImenL LermInuLe
vIoIuLes LIe I ounduLI on und LIe wIII oI LIe orIgInuI Iord wIo esLub-
IIsIed IL, ILs I ounder; buL u sLuLe uIso Ius u rIgIL und I ndeed u duLy In
LIIs muLLer: us reusons I or reI ormI ng ILseII gruduuIIy become uppur-
enL, noL Lo IeL sucI u IederuLI ve sysLem oI ILs subjecLs, us II LIey were
vIceroys (unuIogous Lo dynusLIes und suLrupIes), revIve wIen IL Ius
once become exLIncL.
Conclusion
InuIIy, LIe revIewer Ius mude LIe IoI I owI ng remurk ubouL LIe Ideus
presenLed under LIe IeudI ng oI PubIIc RIgIL, wILI regurd Lo wIIcI, us
Ie suys, spuce does noL permI L IIm Lo express IImseII:
"So Iur us we know, no pII I osopIer Ius yeL udmILLed LIuL mosL | ;
1
|
purudoxI cuI oI uII purudoxIcuI proposILIons: LIe proposILIon LIuL
LIe mere Idec oI sovereIgnLy sIouId consLruIn me Lo obey us my
Iord wIoever Ius seL IImseII up us my Iord, wILIouL my uskIng
wIo Ius gI ven IIm LIe rIgIL Lo commund me. s LIere Lo be no
dI I I erence beLween suyIng LIuL one ougIL Lo recognIze sover-
eIgnLy und supreme uuLIorILy und suyIng LIuL one ougIL Lo IoI d
u prIorI us IIs Iord LIIs or LIuL person, wIose exIsLence Is noL even
gIven u prIorI?"
Now, grunLI ng LIe pcrcdox Iere, uL IeusL Iope LIuL, once LIe muLLer
Is consIdered more cIoseIy, cunnoL be convIcLed oI heterodox. Iope,
ruLIer, LIuL my usLuLe und cureI uI revIewer, wIo crILIcIzes wILI moder-
uLIon (und wIo, despILe LIe oI I ense Ie Lukes, "regurds LIese meLupIys-
1;6 The Metcphsics oj Morcls
IcuI IIrsL prIncIpIes oI u docLrIne oI RIgIL on LIe wIoI e us u guIn I or LIe
scIence") wIII noL regreL IuvI ng Luken LIem under IIs proLecLIon
uguInsL LIe obsLInuLe und superIIcIuI condemnuLI on oI oLIers, uL IeusL
us un uLLempL noL unworLIy oI u second exumInuLIon.
TIuL one wIo IInds IImseII In possessIon oI supreme execuLI ve und
IegIsIuLIve uuLIorILy over u peopI e musL be obeyed; LIuL obedI ence Lo
II m Is so rIgILIuI I y uncondILIonuI LIuL even Lo intesticte pubIIcIy LIe
LILIe by wIIcI Ie ucquIred IIs uuLIorILy, und so Lo cusL doubL upon
IL wILI u vIew Lo resIsLIng II m sIouI d LIIs LILIe be I ound deIIcIenL, Is
uIreudy punIsIubIe; LIuL LIere Is u cuLegorIcuI ImperuLIve, Dbe the
cuthorit uho hcs pouer oter ou (In wIuLever does noL conII IcL wILI I nner
moruIILy) - LIIs Is LIe oIIensI ve proposILIon cuIIed In quesLIon. BuL
wIuL seems Lo sIock LIe revIewer' s reuson Is noL onIy LIIs prIncIpIe,
wIIcI mukes un ucLuuI deed [Icltum j'
o
(LukIng conLroI) LIe condILIon
und LIe busIs I or u rIgIL, buL uIso LIuL LIe mere Idec oI sovereIgnLy over
u peopI e consLruIns me, us beI ongI ng Lo LIuL peopI e, Lo obey wILI-
ouL prevIousIy InvesLIguLIng LIe rI gIL LIuL Is cIuImed (The Doctrine oj
Riht qq).
Every ucLuuI deed (IucL) Is un objecL In cppecrcnce (Lo LIe senses). On
LIe oLIer Iund, wIuL cun be represenLed onIy by pure reuson und
musL be counLed umong Idecs, Lo wIIcI no objecL gI ven In experI ence
cun be udequuLe - und u perIecLIy rihtjul constitution umong men Is oI
LIIs sorL - Is LIe LIIng In ILseII.
I LIen u peopI e unILed by Iuws under un uuLIorILy exIsLs, IL Is gI ven
us un objecL oI experI ence In conIormI Ly wILI LIe deu oI LIe unILy oI
|;z| u peopI e cs such under u powerI uI supreme wIII, L IougI IL Is I ndeed
gIven onIy In uppeurunce, LIuL Is, u rI gILIuI consLILuLIon In LIe generuI
sense oI LIe Lerm exIsLs. And even LIougI LIIs consLILuLIon muy be
uIII I cLed wILI greuL deIecLs und gross IuuILs und be In need evenLuuIIy
oI I mporLunL I mprovemenLs, IL Is sLIII ubsoIuLeIy unpermI LLed und pun-
IsIubIe Lo resIsL IL. or II LIe peopI e sIouId IoI d LIuL IL Is j usLI II ed In
opposI ng Iorce Lo LIIs consLILuLIon, Iowever IuuILy, und Lo LIe supreme
uuLIorILy, IL wouI d LIInk LIuL IL Iud LIe rIgIL Lo puL I orce In pIuce oI
LIe supreme IegIsIuLIon LIuL prescrIbes uII rIgILs, wII cI wouI d resuIL In
u supreme wIII LIuL desLroys ILseII.
TIe Idec oI u cIvII consLILuLIon us sucI, wIIcI Is uIso un ubsoIuLe
commund LIuL prucLIcuI reuson, j udgI ng uccordI ng Lo concepLs oI
RIgIL, gIves Lo every peopI e, Is sccred und IrresIsLIbIe. And even II LIe
orgunIzuLIon oI u sLuLe sIouId be IuuILy by ILseII, no subordI nuLe
uuLIorILy In IL muy ucLIveIy resIsL ILs IegIsIuLIve supreme uuLIorILy; LIe
deIecLs uLLucIed Lo IL musL InsLeud be gruduuII y removed by reI orms
LIe sLuLe ILseII currIes ouL. or oLIerwIse, II u subjecL ucLs on LIe con-
Lrury muxI m (oI proceedI ng by unsuncLIoned cIoIce), u good consLILu-
The Doctrine oj Riht g 1;;
LIon cun come InLo beI ng onIy by bIInd cIunce. TIe commund "Obey
LIe uuLIorILy LIuL Ius power over you" does noL InquIre Iow IL cume
Lo Iuve LIIs power (In order perIups Lo undermI ne IL); I or LIe uuLIor-
ILy wIIcI uIreudy exIsLs, under wIIcI you IIve, Is uIreudy In posses-
sIon oI IegIsIuLIve uuLIorILy, und L IougI you cun I ndeed reuson pub-
IIcIy ubouL ILs IegIsIuLIon, you cunnoL seL yourseI I up us un opposI ng
IegIsIuLor.
UncondI LI onuI submIssIon oI LIe peopIe' s wIII (wIIcI In ILseII Is
noL unILed und Is LIereIore wILIouL Iuw) Lo u soterein wIII (unILIng uII
by meuns oI one Iuw) Is c. jcct LIuL cun begI n onIy by |someone' s| seIz-
I ng supreme power |Geuclt] und so IIrsL esLubIIsIIng pubIIc RIgIL.
To permI L uny resIsLunce Lo LIIs ubsoIuLe power |Mcchttolllommen-
heit| (resIsLunce LIuL wouI d IImIL LIuL supreme power) wouI d be seII-
conLrudIcLory; I or LIen LIIs supreme power (wIIcI muy be resIsLed),
wouI d noL be LIe I uwIuI supreme power wIIcI IIrsL deLermI nes wIuL
Is Lo be pubIIcIy rIgIL or noL. TII s prIncIpIe Is uIreudy presenL u prIorI
In LIe Idec oI u cIvII consLILuLIon us sucI, LIuL Is, In u concepL oI
prucLIcuI reuson; und uI LIougI no exumpI e In experI ence Is cdequcte Lo
be puL under LIIs concepL, sLIII none musL conLrudIcL IL us u norm.
!"#"$
!"#$%&'()*$+ -).(# /.)0*)%+"(
12 #&" 31*#.)0" 12 4).#5"
!"#$%
PreIuce
A philosoph oI uny subjecL (u sysLem oI ruLIonuI knowI edge I rom con-
cepLs) requIres u sysLem oI pure rctioncl concepLs I ndependenL oI uny
condILIons oI InLuILIon, LIuL Is, u metcphsics. TIe onIy quesLIon Is
wIeLIer every prccticcl pIIIosopIy, us u docLrIne oI duLIes, und so Loo
LIe doctrine oj tirtue (eLIIcs), uIso needs metcphsiccl jirst principles, so
LIuL IL cun be seL IorLI us u genuI ne scIence (sysLemuLIcuIIy) und noL
mereIy us un uggreguLe oI precepLs sougIL ouL one by one (I rugmen-
LurIIy). No one wIII doubL LIuL LIe pure docLrIne oI RI gIL needs meLu-
pIysIcuI IIrsL prIncIpIes; I or IL Ius Lo do onIy wILI LIe jormcl condition
oI u cupucILy I or cIoIce LIuL Is Lo be IImILed In exLernuI reIuLIons In
uccordunce wILI Iuws oI I reedom, wILIouL regurd I or uny end (LIe
muLLer oI cIoIce). Here LIe docLrIne oI duLIes Is, uccordIngI y, u mere
scientijic doctrine (doctrinc scientice).
BuL In LIIs pII I osopIy (LIe docLrIne oI vIrLue) IL seems dIrecLIy
conLrury Lo LIe deu oI IL Lo go uII LIe wuy buck Lo metcphsiccl jirst |;6|
principles, so us Lo muke LIe concepL oI duLy, L IougI purI I I ed oI uny-
LIIng empIrIcuI (uny IeeIIng), LIe IncenLIve. or wIuL sorL oI concepL
cun be mude oI LIe I orce und IercuI eun sLrengLI needed Lo subdue
LIe vI ce-breedI ng IncIInuLIons II vIrLue Is Lo borrow ILs weupons I rom
LIe ursenuI oI meLupIysIcs, u specuIuLIve subjecL LIuL Iew know Iow Lo
Someone tersed in prccticcl philosoph Is noL L Iereby u prccticcl philosopher. A prucLI cuI
pII I osopIer Is one wIo mukes the jincl end oj recson LIe prI ncI pI e oj his cctions und
j oI ns wI LI LIIs sucI knowI edge us Is necessury I or IL. SI nce LIIs knowI edge uI ms uL
ucLI on IL need noL be spun ouL I nLo LIe InesL L Ireuds oI meLupIysI cs, unI ess IL Ius
Lo do wI LI u duL y oI RI gIL. n LIuL cuse uhct is mine und uhct is ours musL be
deL er mI ned on LIe scuIes oI j usL I ce exucLI y, In uccordunce wI LI LIe prI ncI pI e LIuL
ucLI on und reucL I on ure equuI , und so wI LI u precI sI on unuI ogous Lo LIuL oI muL Ie-
muLI cs; buL LIIs Is noL necessury wIen IL Ius Lo do wI LI u mer e duL y oI vI rLue. or
wIuL counL s In LIe IuLLer cuse Is noL mereI y knowI ng uhct IL Is one' s duL y Lo do
(becuuse oI LIe ends uII men Iuve by LIeI r nuL ure LIIs Is eusIIy sLuLed); IL Is prI murI I y
LIe I nner prI ncI pI e oI LIe wIII, numeI y LIuL conscI ousness oI LIIs duL y be uIso LIe
incentite Lo ucLIons. TII s Is wIuL Is requI red In or der Lo suy, oI someone wIo j oI ns
wI LI IIs knowI edge LIIs prI ncI pI e oI wI sdom, LIuL Ie Is u prccticcl philosopher
181
18z The Metcphsics oj Morcls
IundIe? Hence uII docLrIne oI vIrLue, In IecLure IuIIs, I r om puIpILs, or
In popuI ur books, uIso becomes rIdIcuIous II IL Is decked ouL In scrups
oI meLupIysIcs. BuL IL Is noL useIess, mucI Iess rIdIcuIous, Lo InvesLI-
guLe In meLupIysIcs LIe IIrsL grounds oI LIe docLrI ne oI vIrLue; I or
someone, us u pII I osopIer, Ius Lo go Lo LIe IIrsL grounds oI LIIs con-
cepL oI duLy, sInce oLIerwIse neI LIer cerLILude nor purILy cun be
expecLed unywIere In LIe docLrIne oI vIrLue. n LIuL cuse u popuI ur
LeucIer cun I ndeed be conLenL Lo reIy on u cerLuIn jeelin LIuL, becuuse
oI LIe resuILs expecLed I rom IL, Is cuIIed morcl, InsoIur us Ie InsIsLs LIuL
LIe IoI I owI ng Iesson be Luken Lo IeurL, us LIe LoucIsLone I or decI dI ng
wIeLIer or noL someLII ng Is u duLy oI vIrLue: "How couI d u muxI m
sucI us yours IurmonI ze wILI ILseII II everyone, In every cuse, mude IL
u unIversuI Iuw?" BuL II IL were mere I eeI I ng LIuL mude IL our duLy even
Lo use LIIs proposILIon us LIe LoucIsLone, LIIs duLy wouI d noL be
dIcLuLed by reuson buL wouI d be Luken Lo be u duLy onIy InsLIncLIveIy,
und Ience bIIndIy.
BuL In IucL no moruI prIncIpIe Is bused, us peopI e someLImes sup-
pose, on uny jeelin wIuLsoever. Any sucI prIncIpIe Is reuIIy un ob-
scureIy LIougIL metcphsics LIuL Is I nIerenL In every mun becuuse oI IIs
ruLIonuI predIsposILIon, us u LeucIer wIII reudIIy grunL II Ie experI -
menLs In quesLIonIng IIs pupII somcticcll ubouL LIe I mperuLI ve oI duLy
und ILs uppIIcuLIon Lo moruI uppruIsuI oI IIs ucLIons. TIe wuy LIe
LeucIer presents LIIs (IIs LecInIque) sIouId noL uIwuys be meLupIysIcuI
nor IIs Lerms scIoIusLIc, unIess Ie wunLs Lo LruIn IIs pupI I us u pIIIoso-
pIer. BuL IIs thouht musL go uII LIe wuy buck Lo LIe eIemenLs oI meLu-
pIysIcs, wILIouL wIIcI no cerLILude or purILy cun be expecLed In LIe
docLrIne oI vIrLue, nor I ndeed uny movI ng Iorce.
I one depurLs I rom LIIs prIncIpIe und begIns wILI sensIbIy depen-
denL or pure uesLIeLIc or even moruI jeelin (wILI wIuL Is subjecLIveIy
ruLIer LIun objecLIveIy prucLIcuI); II, LIuL Is, one begIns wILI LIe muLLer
|;;| LIe wIII, LIe end, InsLeud oI wILI LIe I orm oI LIe wIII, LIe lcu, In
order Lo deLermI ne duLIes on LIIs busIs, LIen LIere wIII I ndeed be no
metcphsiccl jirst principles oI LIe docLrIne oI vIrLue, sInce IeeI I ng, wIuL-
ever muy urouse IL, uIwuys beIongs Lo LIe order oj ncture. BuL LIen LIe
docLrIne oI vIrLue, beI ng corrupLed uL ILs source, Is corrupL ed uIIke In
scIooIs, IecLure IuIIs und so IorLI. or LIe kInd oI IncenLIve by wIIcI,
us meuns, one Is Ied Lo u good purpose (LIuL oI IuI II I I I ng every duLy) Is
noL u muLLer oI I ndI I I erence. Hence, no muLLer Iow metcphsics muy
dIsgusL LIe supposed LeucIers oI wI sdom wIo dIscourse on duLy us
orccles or men oI enius, LIose sume peopI e wIo oppose meLupIysIcs
sLIII Iuve un IndIspensubIe duLy Lo go buck Lo ILs prIncIpIes even In LIe
docLrIne oI vIrLue und, beI ore LIey LeucI, Lo become pupIIs In LIe
cIussroom oI meLupIysIcs.
AI L er IL Ius been mude so cIeur LIuL LIe prIncIpIe oI duLy Is derI ved
I rom pure reuson, one cunnoL IeI p wonderI ng Iow LIIs prIncIpIe
couI d be reduced uguIn Lo u doctrine oj hcppiness, L IougI In sucI u wuy
LIuL u cerLuIn morcl IuppIness noL bused on empIrIcuI cuuses - u seII-
conLrudIcLory ubsurdILy
81
- Ius been LIougIL up us LIe end. L Iup-
pens In LIIs wuy. WIen u LIougILI uI mun Ius overcome IncenLIves Lo
vIce und Is uwure oI IuvI ng done IIs oI L en bILLer duLy, Ie IInds IImseI I
In u sLuLe LIuL couI d weII be cuIIed IuppIness, u sLuLe oI conLenLmenL
und peuce oI souI In wIIcI vIrLue Is ILs own rewurd. Now u eudue-
monIsL suys: TII s deI IgIL, LIIs IuppI ness Is reuIIy IIs moLIve I or ucLIng
vIrLuousIy. TIe concepL oI duLy does noL deLermI ne IIs wIII directl, Ie
Is moved Lo do IIs duLy onIy b mecns oj LIe IuppIness Ie unLIcIpuLes.
BuL sInce Ie cun expecL LIIs rewurd oI vIrLue onIy I rom conscIousness
oI IuvI ng done IIs duLy, IL Is cIeur LIuL LIe IuLLer musL Iuve come IIrsL,
LIuL Is, Ie musL I I nd IImseII under obIIguLIon Lo do IIs duLy beI ore Ie
LIInks LIuL IuppI ness wIII resuIL I rom IIs observunce oI duLy und
wILIouL LII nkI ng oI LIIs. A euduemonIsL' s etiolo InvoIves II m In u
circle, LIuL Is Lo suy, Ie cun Iope Lo be hcpp (or InwurdIy bIessed) onIy
II Ie Is conscIous oI IuvI ng IuIIIIIed IIs duLy, buL Ie cun be moved Lo
IuIIIII IIs duLy onIy II Ie Ioresees LIuL Ie wIII be mude Iuppy by IL. BuL
LIere Is uIso u contrcdiction In LIIs reusonIng. or on LIe one Iund Ie |;8|
ougIL Lo IuIIII I IIs duLy wILIouL IIrsL uskIng wIuL eI I ecL LIIs wIII Iuve
on IIs IuppIness, und so on morcl grounds; buL on LIe oLIer Iund Ie
cun recognI ze LIuL someLII ng Is IIs duLy onIy by wIeLIer Ie cun counL
on guI nI ng IuppIness by doI ng IL, und so In uccordunce wILI u sensibl
dependent prIncIpIe, wIIcI Is LIe dIrecL opposILe oI LIe moruI prIncIpIe.
n unoLIer pIuce (LIe erliner Monctsschrijt)
8z
1 Iuve, LIInk, reduced
LIe dIsLIncLIon beLween sensibl dependent plecsure und morcl plecsure Lo
ILs sImpIesL Lerms. PIeusure LIuL musL precede one' s observunce oI LIe
Iuw In order I or one Lo ucL In conIormI Ly wILI LIe Iuw Is sensIbIy
dependenL und one' s conducL IoIIows LIe order oj ncture, buL pIeusure
LIuL musL be preceded by LIe Iuw In order Lo be IeIL Is In LIe morcl order.
I LIIs dIsLIncLIon Is noL observed, II euduemonI sm (LIe prIncIpIe oI
IuppIness) Is seL up us LIe busIc prIncIpIe InsLeud oI eleutheronom (LIe
prIncIpIe oI LIe I reedom oI InLernuI IuwgIvIng), LIe resuIL Is LIe euthc-
ncsic (eusy deuLI) oI uII moruIs.
TIe cuuse oI LIese errors Is us IoIIows. PeopI e wIo ure uccusLomed
mereI y Lo expI unuLIons by nuLuruI scIences [phsioloische Erllcrunen ]
wIII noL geL InLo LIeIr Ieuds LIe cuLegorIcuI I mperuLI ve I r om wIIcI
LIese Iuws proceed dIcLuLorIuIIy, even L IougI LIey IeeI LIemseIves
compeI I ed IrresIsLubIy by IL. BeI ng unubI e Lo explcin wIuL IIes enLIreIy
beyond LIuL spIere (jreedom oI cIoIce), Iowever exuILIng Is LIIs very
preroguLI ve oI mun, IIs cupucILy I or sucI un Idec, LIey ure sLIrred by
18q Metcphsics oj Morcls
LIe proud cIuIms oI specuIuLIve reuson, wIIcI mukes ILs power so
sLrongIy IeIL In oLIer IIeIds, Lo bund LogeLIer In u generuI ccll to crms,
us IL were, Lo deI end LIe omnI poLence oI LIeoreLIcuI reuson. And so
now, und perIups Ior u wIIIe I onger, LIey ussuII LIe moruI concepL oI
I reedom und, wIerever possIbIe, muke IL suspecL; buL In LIe end LIey
musL gIve wuy.
!"#$%
nLroducLIon
Lo LIe DocLrIne oI VIrLue
n uncIenL LImes "eLIIcs" sIgnIIIed LIe doctrine oj morcls (philosophic
morclis) In generuI, wIIcI wus uIso cuIIed LIe doctrine oj duties. uLer on
IL seemed beLLer Lo reserve LIe nume "eLIIcs" I or one purL oI moruI
pIII osopIy, numeIy I or LIe docLrIne oI LIose duLIes LIuL do noL come
under exLernuI Iuws (IL wus LIougIL upproprI uLe Lo cuII LIIs, In Ger-
mun, LIe doctrine oj tirtue). AccordI ngI y, LIe sysLem oI LIe docLrIne oI
duLIes In generuI Is now dIvIded InLo LIe sysLem oI LIe doctrine oj Riht
(ius), wIIcI deuIs wILI duLIes LIuL cun be gIven by exLernuI Iuws, und
LIe sysLem oI LIe doctrine oj tirtue (Ethicc), wII cI LreuLs oI duLIes LIuL
cunnoL be so gIven; und LIIs dIvIsIon muy sLund.
!"
$%&'(&&%)* )+ ,-. /)*'.0, )+ 1 $)',2%*. )+ 3%2,(.
TIe very concept oj dut Is uIreudy LIe concepL oI u necessitction (con-
sLruInL) oI I ree cIoIce L IrougI LIe Iuw. TII s consLruInL muy be un
externcl constrcint or u selj-constrcint. TIe moruI imperctite mukes LIIs
consLruInL known L IrougI LIe cuLegorIcuI nuLure oI ILs pronounce-
menL (LIe uncondI LI onuI ougIL). SucI consLruInL, LIereI ore, does noL
uppIy Lo ruLIonuI beIngs us sucI (LIere couI d uIso be hol ones) buL
ruLIer Lo men, ruLIonuI ncturcl beIngs, wIo ure unIoI y enougI LIuL
pIeusure cun I nduce LIem Lo breuk LIe moruI Iuw, even L IougI LIey
recognIze ILs uuLIorILy; und even wIen LIey do obey LIe Iuw, LIey do
IL reluctcntl (In LIe Iuce oI opposILIon I r om LIeIr IncIInuLIons), und IL Is
In LIIs LIuL sucI constrcint properI y consIsLs. BuL sInce mun Is sLIII u
YeL II mun I ooks uL II mseI I obj ecLI veI y ( under LIe uspecL oI humcnit In IIs own
person), us IIs pur e prucLI cuI reuson deL er mI nes II m Lo do, Ie IInds LIuL cs c morcl
bein Ie Is uIso IoI y enougI Lo breuk LIe I nner Iuw reluctcntl, I or L Iere Is no mun
so depr uved us noL Lo I eeI un opposI LI on Lo br eukI ng IL und un ubIor r ence oI II mseI I
In LIe I uce oI wII cI Ie Ius Lo consLruI n II mseI I |Lo breuk LIe Iuw|. Now IL Is
I mpossI bI e Lo expI uI n LIe pIenomenon LIuL uL LIIs pur L I ng oI LIe wuys ( wIere LIe
beuuL I I uI I ubI e pI uces HercuI es beL ween vI rL ue und sensuuI pI eusure) mun sIows
18
zoo The Metcphsics oj Morcls
|8o| jree (moruI) beI ng, wIen LIe concepL oI duLy concerns LIe InLernuI
deLermI nuLI on oI IIs wIII (LIe IncenLIve) LIe consLruInL LIuL LIe concepL
oI duLy conLuIns cun be onIy selj-constrcint (LIougI LIe represenLuLI on
oI LIe Iuw uIone); I or onIy so cun LIuL necessitction (even II IL Is exLernuI)
be unILed wILI LIe I reedom oI IIs cupucILy I or cIoIce. Hence In LIIs
cuse LIe concepL oI duLy wIII be un eLIIcuI one.
mpuIses oI nuLure, uccordIngIy, InvoIve obstccles wILIIn mun' s mI nd
Lo IIs IuI II I I menL oI duLy und (someLImes powerI uI ) Iorces opposI ng IL,
wIIcI Ie musL j udge LIuL Ie Is cupubIe oI resIsLIng und conquerI ng by
reuson noL uL some LIme In LIe I uL ure buL uL once (LIe momenL Ie
LIInks oI duLy): He musL j udge LIuL Ie ccn do wIuL LIe Iuw LeIIs IIm
uncondILIonuIIy LIuL Ie ouht Lo do.
Now LIe cupucILy und consI dered resoIve Lo wILIsLund u sLrong buL
unjusL opponenL Is jortitude (jortitudo) und, wILI respecL Lo wIuL op-
poses LIe moruI dIsposILIon uithin us, 4%2,(. (tirtus, jortitudo morclis).
So LIe purL oI LIe generuI docLrIne oI duLIes LIuL brIngs I nner, ruLIer
LIun ouLer, I reedom under Iuws Is u doctrine oj tirtue.
TIe docLrI ne oI RIgIL deuIL onIy wILI the jormcl condILIon oI ouLer
I reedom (LIe consIsLency oI ouLer I reedom wILI ILseII II ILs muxI m
were mude unIversuI Iuw), LIuL Is, wILI 5%6-," BuL eLIIcs goes beyond
LIIs und provIdes u mctter (un objecL oI I ree cIoIce), un .*7 oI pure
reuson LIuL IL presenLs us un end wIIcI Is uIso objecLIveIy^ necessury,
LIuL Is, un end wIIcI, us Iur us men ure concerned, IL Is u duLy Lo Iuve.
or sInce men' s sensIbIe IncIInuLIons LempL LIem Lo ends (LIe muLLer oI
|81| cIoIce) LIuL cun be conLrury Lo duLy, IuwgIvIng reuson cun In Lurn
cIeck LIeIr I nI I uence onIy by u moruI end seL up uguInsL LIe ends oI
IncIInuLIon, un end LIuL musL LIereI ore be gIven u prIorI, I ndepen-
denLIy oI IncIInuLIons.
An end Is un objecL oI LIe cIoIce (oI u ruLIonuI beIng), L IrougI LIe
represenLuLIon oI wIIcI cIoIce Is deLermI ned Lo un ucLIon Lo brI ng LIIs
objecL ubouL. Now cun I ndeed be consLruIned by oLIers Lo perI orm
cctions LIuL ure dIrecLed us meuns Lo un end, buL cun never be con-
sLruIned by oLIers to hcte cn end, onIy myseII cun mcle someLII ng my
end. BuL II um under obIIguLIon Lo muke my end someLII ng LIuL IIes
In concepLs oI prucLIcuI reuson, und so Lo Iuve, besIdes LIe I ormuI
deLermI nI ng ground oI cIoIce (sucI us RIgIL conLuIns), u muLerIuI one
us weII, un end LIuL couId be seL uguInsL LIe end urIsIng I rom sensIbIe
ImpuIses, LIIs wouI d be LIe concepL oI un end thct is in itselj c dut. BuL
mor e propensI L y Lo IIsLen Lo IIs I ncI I nuLI ons LIun Lo LIe Iuw. or we cun expI uI n wIuL
Iuppens onI y by derI vI ng IL I r om u cuuse In uccordunce wI LI Iuws oI nuL ure, und In
so doI ng we wouI d noL be L II nkI ng oI cIoI ce us I ree. BuL IL Is LIIs seI I-consLruI nL In
opposI L e dI recLI ons und ILs unuvoI dubI I I L y LIuL mukes known LIe I nexpI I cubI e prop-
erLy oI jreedom ILseII.
LIe docLrIne oI LIIs end wouI d noL beI ong Lo LIe docLrI ne oI RIgIL buL
ruLIer Lo eLIIcs, sInce selj-constrcint In uccordunce wILI (moruI) Iuws
beIongs Lo LIe concepL oI eLIIcs uIone.
or LIIs reuson eLIIcs cun uIso be deI I ned us LIe sysLem oI LIe ends
oI pure prucLIcuI reuson. Ends und |coercIve| duLIes dIsLInguIsI LIe
Lwo dIvIsIons oI LIe docLrIne oI moruIs In generuI. TIuL eLIIcs conLuIns
duLIes LIuL one cunnoL be consLruIned by oLIers (LIrougI nuLuruI
meuns [phsisch])
Lo IuIIIII IoIIows mereIy I rom ILs beI ng u docLrI ne oI

ends, sInce coercion Lo ends (Lo Iuve LIem) Is seII-conLrudIcLory.
TIuL eLIIcs Is u doctrine oj tirtue (doctrinc ojjiciorum tirtutis) IoIIows,
Iowever, I rom LIe ubove exposILIon oI vIrLue wIen IL Is connecLed
wILI LIe kInd oI obIIguLIon wIose dIsLIncLIve I euLure wus j usL poI nLed
ouL. TIuL Is Lo suy, deLermI nuLI on Lo un end Is LIe onIy deLermI nuLI on
oI cIoIce LIe very concepL oI wIIcI excI udes LIe possIbIIILy oI con-
sLruInL throuh ncturcl mecns by LIe choice oI unoLIer. AnoL Ier cun
I ndeed coerce me to do someLII ng LIuL Is noL my end (buL onIy u meuns
Lo unoLIer' s end), buL noL Lo mcle this m end, und yeL cun Iuve no end
wILIouL mukI ng IL un end I or myseII. To Iuve un end LIuL Iuve noL
myseII mude un end Is seII-conLrudIcLory, un ucL oI I reedom LIuL Is yeL
noL Iree. BuL IL Is no conLrudIcLIon Lo seL un end I or myseI I LIuL Is uIso
u duLy, sInce consLruIn myseII Lo IL und LIIs Is uI LogeLIer consIsLenL
wILI I reedom. BuL Iow Is sucI un end possIbIe? TIuL Is LIe quesLIon |8z|
now. or LIuL LIe concepL oI u LII ng Is possIbIe (noL seII-conLrudIcLory)
Is noL yeL suIII cI enL I or ussumIng LIe possIbIIILy oI LIe LII ng ILseII (LIe
objecLIve reuIILy oI LIe concepL).
!!"
$%&'(&&%)* )+ ,-. /)*'.0, )+ 1* 8*7 9-1, !& :;&) 1 $(,<
One cun LIInk oI LIe reIuLIon oI end Lo duLy In Lwo wuys: One cun
begI n wILI LIe end und seek ouL LIe mcxim oI ucLIons In conIormI Ly
wILI duLy or, on LIe oLIer Iund, one cun begI n wILI LIe muxI m oI
ucLIons In conIormI Ly wILI duLy und seek ouL LIe end LIuL Is uIso u duLy.
TIe doctrine oj Riht Lukes LIe IIrsL wuy. WIuL end unyone wunLs Lo
seL I or IIs ucLIon Is I eIL Lo IIs Iree cIoIce. TIe muxI m oI IIs ucLIon,
TI e Iess u mun cun be consL ruI ned by nuL uruI meuns und LIe mor e Ie cun be con-
sLruI ned moruI I y ( L Ir ougI LIe mer e represenL uL I on oI duLy), so muc I LIe mor e I r ee
Ie Is. Suppose, I or exumpI e, u mun so IIrm oI pur pos e und sL rong oI souI LIuL Ie
cunnoL be dI ssuuded I r om u pI eusure Ie I nLends Lo Iuve, no muL L er Iow oL Iers muy
reuson wI LI II m ubouL LIe Iur m Ie wIII do II mseI I by IL. I sucI u mun gI ves up IIs
pI un I mmedI uL eI y, L IougI reI ucLunLI y, uL LIe L IougIL LIuL by cur r yI ng IL ouL Ie
wouI d omI L one oI IIs duLI es us un oI I I cI uI or negI ecL u sIck I uL Ier, Ie proves IIs
I r e e dom In L Ie II gIesL degr ee by beI ng unubI e Lo resIsL LIe cuII oI duL y.
!"" The Metcphsics oj Morcls
Iowever, Is deLermI ned u prIorI, numeIy, LIuL LIe I r eedom oI LIe
ugenL couI d coexIsL wILI LIe I reedom oI every oLIer In uccordunce
wILI u unIversuI Iuw.
BuL ethics Lukes LIe opposILe wuy. L cunnoL begI n wILI LIe ends LIuL
u mun muy seL I or IImseII und In uccordunce wILI LIem prescrIbe LIe
muxI ms Ie Is Lo udopL, LIuL Is, IIs duLy; I or LIuL wouI d be Lo udopL
muxI ms on empIrIcuI grounds, und sucI grounds yIeId no concepL oI
duLy, sInce LIIs concepL (LIe cuLegorIcuI ougIL) Ius ILs rooL In pure
reuson uIone. ConsequenLI y, II muxI ms were Lo be udopL ed on LIe busIs
oI LIose ends (uII oI wII cI ure seII-seekIng), one couI d noL reuIIy speuk
oI LIe concepL oI duLy. Hence In eLIIcs LIe concept oj dut wIII Ieud Lo
ends und wIII Iuve Lo esLubIIsI mcxims wILI respecL Lo ends we ouht
Lo seL ourseIves, groundI ng LIem In uccordunce wILI moruI prIncIpIes.
|8| SeLLIng usIde LIe quesLIon oI wIuL sorL oI end Is In ILseII u duLy und
Iow sucI un end Is possIbIe, we Iuve Iere onIy Lo sIow LIuL u duLy oI
LIIs kInd Is cuIIed u dut oj tirtue und wIy IL Is cuIIed by LIIs nume.
To every duLy LIere corresponds c rI gIL In LIe sense oI un cuthorizc-
tion Lo do someLII ng (jccultcs morclis enerctim), buL IL Is noL LIe cuse
LIuL Lo every duLy LIere correspond rihts oI unoLIer Lo coerce some-
one (jccultcs iuridicc). nsLeud, sucI duLIes ure cuIIed, specIIIcuIIy, duties
oj Riht. SImIIurIy, Lo every eLIIcuI obliction LIere corresponds LIe
concepL oI vIrLue, buL noL uII eLIIcuI duLIes ure LIereby duLIes oI vIrLue.
TIose duLIes LIuL Iuve Lo do noL so much uith u cerLuIn end (mctter,
objecL oI cIoIce) us mereIy wILI uhct is jormcl In LIe moruI deLermI nu-
LIon oI LIe wIII (e.g., LIuL un ucLIon In conIormI Ly wILI duLy musL uIso
be done jrom dut) ure noL duLIes oI vIrLue. OnI y cn end thct is clso c dut
cun be cuIIed u 7(,< )+ 4%2,(." or LIIs reuson LIere ure severuI duLIes
oI vIrLue (und uIso vurIous vIrLues), wIereus I or LIe IIrsL kInd oI duLy
onIy one (vIrLuous dIsposILIon) Is LIougIL, wII cI Iowever IoIds I or uII
ucLIons.
WIuL essenLIuIIy dIsLInguIsIes u duLy oI vIrLue I rom u duLy oI RIgIL
Is LIuL exLernuI consLruInL Lo LIe IuLLer kInd oI duLy Is moruIIy possIbIe,
wIereus LIe I ormer Is bused onIy on Iree seII-consLruInL. or IInILe
hol beI ngs (wIo couI d never be LempLed Lo vIoIuLe duLy) LIere wouI d
be no docLrIne oI vIrLue buL onIy u docLrIne oI moruIs, sInce LIe IuL-
Ler Is uuLonomy oI prucLIcuI reuson wIereus LIe I ormer Is uIso cutocrcc
oI prucLIcuI reuson, LIuL Is, IL InvoIves conscIousness oI LIe ccpccit
Lo musLer one' s IncIInuLIons wIen LIey rebeI uguInsL LIe Iuw, u cupuc-
ILy wIIcI, L IougI noL dIrecLIy perceIved, Is yeL rIgILIy I nI erred I rom
LIe moruI cuLegorIcuI ImperuLIve. TIus Iumun moruIILy In ILs IIgI-
esL sLuge cun sLIII be noLII ng more LIun vIrLue, even II IL be enLIreIy
pure (quILe I ree I rom LIe I nII uence oI uny IncenLIve oLIer LIun LIuL
oI duLy). n ILs IIgIesL sLuge IL Is un IdeuI (Lo wII cI one musL con-
LInuuIIy upproxI muL e) , wII cI Is commonI y personI I I ed poeLI cuI I y by
LIe sce.
BuL vI rLue Is noL Lo be deI I ned [zu erllcren] und vuI ued mereI y us
un cptitude und (us LIe prIze-essuy oI CocII us, LIe courL -cIupI uI n,
8q
puLs IL) u I ong-sL undI ng hcbit oI moruI I y good ucLIons ucquI red by
prucLIce. or unI ess LIIs upL I L ude resuILs I r om consI dered, IIrm, und
conLI nuuI I y purI I I ed prI ncI pI es, L Ien, IIke uny oL Ier mecIunI sm oI |8q|
LecInIcuIIy prucLIcuI reuson, IL Is neI L Ier ur med I or uII sILuuLIons nor
udequuL eI y secured uguI nsL LIe cIunges LIuL new LempLuLI ons couI d
brI ng ubouL.
Remcrl
VI r L ue ( = +c) Is opposed Lo nectite lccl oj tirtue (moruI weuk-
ness = o) us ILs loiccl opposite (contrcdictorie oppositum), buL IL Is
opposed Lo vIce ( = -c) us ILs recl opposite (contrcrie s. recliter
oppositum)', und IL Is noL onI y unnecessury buL even I mpr oper Lo
usk wIeL Ier greuL crimes mI gIL noL requI re mor e sL rengL I oI souI
LIun do greuL tirtues. or by sLrengL I oI souI we meun sL rengL I oI
resoI uLI on In u mun us u beI ng endowed wILI I r eedom, Ience IIs
sLrengLI I nsoI ur us Ie Is In conL roI oI II mseI I (In IIs senses) und
so In LIe sLuLe oI heclth pr oper Lo u mun. BuL greuL crI mes ure
puroxysms, LIe sIgIL oI wII cI mukes u mun wIose souI Is IeuI LIy
sIudder. T I e quesLI on wouI d L Ier eI or e come Lo someL II ng IIke
LIIs: WIeL Ier u mun In u IIL oI mudness couI d Iuve mor e pIysI cuI
sLrengLI LIun wIen Ie Is sune. TII s one cun udmI L wI LIouL
uLLrI buLI ng mor e sLrengLI oI souI Lo II m, II by souI Is meunL LIe
vILuI prI ncI pI e oI mun In LIe I r ee use oI IIs powers; I or, sInce LIe
busIs oI greuL crI mes Is mereI y LIe I orce oI I ncI I nuLI ons LIuL
ueclen reuson, wII cI proves no sL rengL I oI souI, LIe ubove ques-
LIon wouI d be L unL umounL Lo wIeL Ier u mun couI d sIow mor e
sLrengLI dur I ng un uLLuck oI sIckness L Iun wIen Ie Is IeuI LIy.
TII s cun be sLruI gILwuy denI ed, sInce IeuI LI consIsLs In LIe buI-
unce oI uII mun' s bodI I y I orces, wII I e Iuck oI IeuI L I Is u weuken-
I ng In LIe sysLem oI LIese I orces; und IL Is onI y by r eI er ence Lo LIIs
sysLem LIuL ubsoI uLe IeuI LI cun be uppruI sed.
!!!"
=* ,-. >1&%& +)2 9-%*?%*6 )+ 1* 8*7 9-1, !& :;&) 1 $(,<
An .*7 Is un object oI I ree cIoI ce, LIe represenL uL I on oI wII cI deLer-
mI nes IL Lo un ucLIon (by wII cI LIe obj ecL Is br ougIL ubouL). Every
ucLIon, L Ier eI or e, Ius ILs end; und sInce no one cun Iuve un end wILI- |8|
zoq The Metcphsics oj Morcls
ouL himselj mukI ng LIe objecL oI IIs cIoIce InLo un end, Lo Iuve uny end
oI ucLIon wIuLsoever Is un ucL oI jreedom on LIe purL oI LIe ucLIng
subjecL, noL un eI I ecL oI ncture. BuL becuuse LIIs ucL LIuL deLermI nes un
end Is u prucLIcuI prIncIpIe LIuL prescrIbes LIe end ILseII (und so pre-
scrIbes uncondILIonuIIy), noL LIe meuns (Ience noL condILIonuIIy), IL
Is u cuLegorIcuI ImperuLIve oI pure prucLIcuI reuson, und L IereI ore un
ImperuLIve wII cI connecLs u concept oj dut wILI LIuL oI un end In
generuI.
Now LIere musL be sucI un end und u cuLegorIcuI I mperuLI ve corre-
spondI ng Lo IL. or sInce LIere ure I ree ucLIons LIere musL uIso be ends
Lo wII cI, us LIeIr objecLs, LIese ucLIons ure dIrecLed. BuL umong LIese
ends LIere musL be some LIuL ure uIso (I.e., by LIeIr concepL) duLIes.
or were LIere no sucI ends, LIen uII ends wouI d IoI d I or prucLIcuI
reuson onIy us meuns Lo oLIer ends; und sInce LIere cun be no ucLIon
wILIouL un end, u ccteoriccl ImperuLIve wouI d be ImpossIbIe. TII s
wouI d do uwuy wILI uny docLrIne oI moruIs.
So IL Is noL u quesLIon Iere oI ends mun does cdopt In keepI ng wILI LIe
sensIbIe ImpuIses oI IIs nuLure, buL oI objecLs oI I ree cIoIce under ILs
Iuws, wIIcI mun ouht to mcle IIs ends. TIe sLudy oI LIe I ormer Lype
oI ends cun be cuIIed LIe LecInIcuI (subjecLIve) docLrI ne oI ends; IL Is
reuIIy LIe prugmuLIc docLrIne oI ends, conLuInIng LIe ruIes oI pru-
dence In LIe cIoIce oI one' s ends. TIe sLudy oI LIe IuLLer Lype oI ends,
Iowever, musL be cuIIed LIe moruI (objecLIve) docLrI ne oI ends. BuL
LIIs dIsLIncLIon Is superI I uous Iere, sInce LIe docLrI ne oI moruIs Is
uIreudy cIeurIy dIsLInguIsIed In ILs concepL I r om LIe docLrI ne oI nuLure
(In LIIs cuse, unLIropoI ogy) by LIe IucL LIuL unLIropoI ogy Is bused on
empIrIcuI prIncIpIes, wIereus LIe moruI docLrIne oI ends, wII cI LreuLs
oI duLIes, Is bused on prIncIpIes gIven u prIorI In pure prucLIcuI reuson.
!3"
@-1, :2. ,-. 8*7& 9-1, :2. :;&) $(,%.&A
TIey ure one's oun perjection und the hcppiness oj others.
PerIecLIon und IuppIness cunnoL be I nLercIunged Iere, so LIuL one's
oun hcppiness und the perjection oj others wouI d be mude ends LIuL wouI d
be In LIemseIves duLIes oI LIe sume person.
|86| or his oun hcppiness Is un end LIuL every mun Ius (by vIrLue oI
LIe ImpuIses oI IIs nuLure), buL LIIs end cun never wILIouL seII-
conLrudIcLIon be regurded us u duLy. WIuL everyone uI reudy wunLs
unuvoIdubI y, oI IIs own uccord, does noL come under LIe concepL oI
dut, wIIcI Is constrcint Lo un end udopLed reIucLunLIy. Hence IL Is
seII-conLrudIcLory Lo suy LIuL Ie Is under obliction Lo promoL e IIs own
IuppIness wILI uII IIs powers.
The Doctrine oj Riht g :p:
So Loo, IL Is u conLrudIcLIon I or me Lo muke unoLIer' s perjection my
end und consIder myseI I under obIIguLIon Lo promoLe LIIs. or LIe
perjection oI unoLIer mun, us u person, consIsLs j usL In LIIs: LIuL Ie
himselj Is ubIe Lo seL IIs end In uccordunce wILI IIs own concepLs oI
duLy; und IL Is seII-conLrudIcLory Lo requI re LIuL do (muke IL my duLy
Lo do) someLII ng LIuL onIy LIe oLIer IImseII cun do.
3"
/;12%+%'1,%)* )+ 9-.&. 9B) /)*'.0,&
A.
Dne's Dun Perjection
TIe word perjection Is open Lo u good deuI oI mIsInLerpreLuLIon. Per-
IecLIon Is someLImes undersLood us u concepL beI ongI ng Lo Lrunscen-
denLuI pII I osopIy, LIe concepL oI LIe totclit oI LIe munI IoI d wIIcI,
Luken LogeLIer, consLILuLes u LIIng. TIe n uguIn, us u concepL beI ong-
I ng Lo teleolo, IL Is Luken Lo meun LIe Iurmony oI u LIIng' s properLIes
wILI un end. PerIecLI on In LIe IIrsL sense couI d be cuIIed qucntitctite
(muLerIuI) perIecLI on, und In LIe second, quclitctite (IormuI) perIec-
LIon. TIe quunLILuLIve perIecLI on oI u LIIng cun be onIy one (Ior LIe
LoLuIILy oI wIuL beIongs Lo u LII ng Is one). BuL one LII ng cun Iuve
severuI quuIILuLIve perIecLIons, und IL Is reuIIy quuIILuLIve perIecLI on
LIuL Is under dIscussIon Iere.
WIen IL Is suId LIuL IL Is In ILseII u duLy I or u mun Lo muke IIs end LIe
perIecLI on beI ongI ng Lo mun us sucI (properIy speukIng, Lo Iumun-
ILy), LIIs perIecLI on musL be puL In wIuL cun resuIL I rom IIs deeds, noL
In mere ijts I or wIIcI Ie musL be I ndebLed Lo nuLure; I or oLIerwIse IL
wouI d noL be u duLy. TII s duLy cun LIereI ore consIsL onIy In cultitctin |8;|
one' s ccpccities (or nuLuruI predIsposILIons), LIe IIgIesL oI wII cI Is
understcndin, LIe cupucILy I or concepLs und so Loo Ior LIose concepLs
LIuL Iuve Lo do wILI duLy. AL LIe sume LIme LIIs duLy IncIudes LIe
cuILIvuLIon oI one' s uill (moruI cusL oI mInd), so us Lo suLIsIy uII LIe re-
quI remenLs oI duLy. 1) Mun Ius u duLy Lo ruIse IImseII I r om LIe crude
sLuLe oI IIs nuLure, I rom IIs unImuIILy (quocd cctum), more und more
Lowurd IumunI Ly, by wII cI Ie uIone Is cupubIe oI seLLIng IImseI I ends;
Ie Ius u duLy Lo dImInIsI IIs I gnorunce by InsLrucLIon und Lo correcL
IIs errors. And IL Is noL mereI y LIuL LecInIcuIIy prucLIcuI reuson counsels
II m Lo do LIIs us u meuns Lo IIs I urL Ier purposes (oI urL); moruIIy
prucLIcuI reuson commcnds IL ubsoIuLeIy und mukes LIIs end IIs duLy, so
LIuL Ie muy be worLIy oI LIe IumunI Ly LIuL dweIIs wILIIn IIm. z) Mun
Ius u duLy Lo curry LIe cuILIvuLIon oI IIs uill up Lo LIe puresL vIrLuous
dIsposILIon, In wIIcI LIe lcu becomes uIso LIe IncenLIve Lo IIs ucLIons
1qz The Metcphsics oj Morcls
LIuL conI orm wILI duLy und Ie obeys LIe Iuw I rom duLy. TII s dIsposI-
LIon Is I nner moruIIy prucLIcuI perIecLI on. SInce IL Is u I eeI I ng oI LIe
eI I ecL LIuL LIe I uwgIvIng wIII wILIIn mun exercIses on IIs cupucILy Lo ucL
In uccordunce wILI IIs wIII, IL Is cuIIed morcl jeelin, u specIuI sense
(sensns morclis), us IL were. L Is Lrue LIuL moruI sense Is oI L en mIsused
In u vIsIonury wuy, us II (IIke SocruLes' duI mon) IL couI d precede reuson
or even dIspense wILI reuson' s j udgmenL . YeL IL Is u moruI perIecLI on,
by wIIcI one mukes one' s objecL every purLIcuIur end LIuL Is uIso
u duLy.
.
The Hcppiness oj Dthers
SInce IL Is unuvoI dubIe I or Iumun nuLure Lo wIsI I or und seek IuppI-
ness, LIuL Is, suLIsIucLIon wILI one' s sLuLe, so I ong us one Is ussured oI ILs
IusLIng, LIIs Is noL un end LIuL Is uIso u duLy. Some peopI e, Iowever,
muke u dIsLIncLIon beLween moruI IuppIness (wIIcI consIsLs In suLIs-
IucLIon wILI one' s person und one' s own moruI conducL, und so wILI
wIuL one does) und nuLuruI IuppIness (wIIcI consIsLs In suLIsIucLIon
wILI wIuL nuLure besLows, und so wILI wIuL one enjos us u gI IL I rom
wILIouL). AI L IougI reIruI n Iere I rom censurI ng u mIsuse oI LIe
|88| word IuppIness (LIuL uIreudy InvoIves u conLrudIcLIon), IL musL be
noLed LIuL LIe I ormer kInd oI IeeI I ng beIongs onIy under LIe preced-
I ng IeudI ng, numeI y perIecLIon. or u mun wIo Is suId Lo IeeI Iuppy
In LIe mere conscIousness oI IIs recLILude uIreudy possesses LIe per-
IecLIon LIuL wus expIuIned LIere us LIuL end wIIcI Is uIso u duLy.
WIen IL comes Lo my promoLI ng IuppIness us un end LIuL Is uIso u
duLy, LIIs musL L IereI ore be LIe IuppIness oI other men, uhose (permIL-
Led) end I thus muke m oun end cs uell. L Is Ior LIem Lo decI de wIuL
LIey counL us beI ongI ng Lo LIeIr IuppIness; buL IL Is open Lo me Lo
reI use LIem muny LIIngs LIuL the LIInk wIII muke LIem Iuppy buL LIuL
do noL, us I ong us LIey Iuve no rIgIL Lo demund LIem I rom me us
wIuL Is LIeIrs. BuL LIme und uguIn un uIIeged obliction Lo uLLend Lo my
oun (nuLuruI) IuppIness Is seL up In compeLILIon wILI LIIs end, und
my nuLuruI und mereI y subjecLIve end Is LIus mude u duLy (un objecLIve
end). SInce LIIs Is oI Len used us u specIous objecLIon Lo LIe dIvIsIon oI
duLIes mude ubove (In V), IL needs Lo be seL rIgIL.
AdversI Ly, puIn, und wunL ure greuL LempLuLIons Lo vIoIuLe one' s
duLy. L mI gIL L IereI ore seem LIuL prosperILy, sLrengLI, IeuILI, und
weII-beIng In generuI , wIIcI cIeck LIe I nII uence oI LIese, couI d uIso be
consI dered ends LIuL ure duLIes, so LIuL one Ius u duLy Lo promoLe one's
oun IuppIness und noL j usL LIe IuppIness oI oLIers. BuL LIen LIe end
Is noL LIe subjecL's IuppIness buL IIs moruIILy, und IuppI ness Is mereIy
u meuns I or removI ng obsLucIes Lo IIs moruIILy - u permitted meuns,
sInce no one eIse Ius u rIgIL Lo requIre oI me LIuL sucrIIIce my ends
II LIese ure noL ImmoruI. To seek prosperILy Ior ILs own suke Is noL
dIrecLIy u duLy, buL IndIrecLIy IL cun weII be u duLy, LIuL oI wurdI ng oI I
poverLy InsoIur us LIIs Is u greuL LempLuLIon Lo vIce. BuL LIen IL Is noL
my IuppIness buL LIe preservuLIon oI my moruI InLegrILy LIuL Is my
end und uIso my duLy.
!"#
%&'()* +,-* .,& /(0- 123* 4,5 Actions (Ius +,-* 6'2&78
9:& ;<=> 4,5 Mcxims ,4 ?)&(,<*
TIe concepL oI duLy sLunds In ImmedIuLe reIuLIon Lo u lcu (even II |8g|
ubsLrucL I rom uII ends, us LIe muLLer oI LIe Iuw). TIe IormuI prIncIpIe
oI duLy, In LIe cuLegorIcuI ImperuLIve "So ucL LIuL LIe muxI m oI your
ucLIon couId become u unIversuI lcu," uIreudy IndIcuLes LIIs. ELIIcs
udds onIy LIuL LIIs prIncIpIe Is Lo be LIougIL us LIe Iuw oI our own wIII
und noL oI wIII In generuI, wIIcI couId uIso be LIe wIII oI oLIers; In
LIe IuLLer cuse LIe Iuw wouId provIde u duLy oI RIgIL, wIIcI IIes ouL-
sIde LIe spIere oI eLIIcs. MuxIms ure Iere regurded us subjecLIve
prIncIpIes wIIcI mereIy quclij Ior u gIvIng oI unIversuI Iuw, und LIe
requIremenL LIuL LIey so quuIIIy Is onIy u neguLIve prIncIpIe (noL Lo
come InLo conIIIcL wILI u Iuw us sucI). How cun LIere be, beyond LIIs
prIncIpIe, u Iuw Ior LIe muxIms oI ucLIons?
OnIy LIe concepL oI un end LIuL Is uIso u duLy, u concepL LIuL beIongs
excIusIveIy Lo eLIIcs, esLubIIsIes u Iuw Ior LIe muxIms oI ucLIons by
subordInuLIng LIe subjecLIve end (LIuL everyone Ius) Lo LIe objecLIve
end (LIuL everyone ougIL Lo muke IIs end). TIe ImperuLIve "You
ougIL Lo muke LIIs or LIuL (e.g., LIe IuppIness oI oLIers) your end" Ius
Lo do wILI LIe muLLer oI cIoIce (un objecL). Now no Iree ucLIon Is pos-
sIbIe unIess LIe ugenL uIso InLends un end (wIIcI Is LIe muLLer oI
cIoIce). Hence, II LIere Is un end LIuL Is uIso u duLy, LIe onIy condILIon
LIuL muxIms oI ucLIons, us meuns Lo ends, musL conLuIn Is LIuL oI
quuIIIyIng Ior u possIbIe gIvIng oI unIversuI Iuw. On LIe oLIer Iund,
LIe end LIuL Is uIso u duLy cun muke IL u Iuw Lo Iuve sucI u muxIm,
uILIougI Ior LIe muxIm ILseII LIe mere possIbIIILy oI ugreeI ng wILI u
gIvIng oI unIversuI Iuw Is uIreudy suIIIcIenL.
or muxIms oI ucLIons cun be |udopLed| ct uill, und ure subjecL onIy
Lo LIe IImILIng condILIon oI beIng IIL Ior u gIvIng oI unIversuI Iuw,
wIIcI Is LIe IormuI prIncIpIe oI ucLIons. A lcu, Iowever, Lukes uwuy
wIuL Is wIIIIuI I rom ucLIons, und LIIs dIsLInguIsIes IL I rom uny recom-
mendction (wIere uII LIuL one requIres Is Lo know LIe mosL suILubIe
meuns Lo un end).
:p( The Metcphsics oj Morcls
@ABCD !""#
%&'()2= +:&(-* ?5- ,4 E(F- ;9=(G2&(,<8 E'-5-2*
+:&(-* ,4 H(G'& ?5- ,4 .255,3 ;9=(G2&(,<
TII s proposILIon IoIIows I rom LIe precedI ng one; I or II LIe Iuw cun
prescrIbe onIy LIe muxI m oI ucLIons, noL ucLIons LIemseIves, LIIs Is
u sIgn LIuL IL Ieuves u IuLILude (lctitudo) Ior I ree cIoIce In IoI I owI ng
(compI yIng wILI) LIe Iuw, LIuL Is, LIuL LIe Iuw cunnoL specIIy precIseIy
In wIuL wuy one Is Lo ucL und Iow mucI one Is Lo do by LIe ucLIon I or
un end LIuL Is uIso u duLy. BuL u wI de duLy Is noL Lo be Luken us per-
mIssIon Lo muke excepLIons Lo LIe muxI m oI ucLIons, buL onIy us
permIssIon Lo IImIL one muxI m oI duLy by unoLIer (e.g., Iove oI one' s
neI gIbor In generuI by Iove oI one' s purenLs), by wIIcI In IucL LIe IIeId
Ior LIe prucLIce oI vIrLue Is wI dened. TIe wI der LIe duLy, LIereI ore,
LIe more I mperI ecL Is u mun' s obIIguLIon Lo ucLIon; us Ie, neverLIeIess,
brIngs cIoser Lo ncrrou duLy (duLIes oI RIgIL) LIe muxI m oI compI yI ng
wILI wIde duLy (In IIs dIsposILIon), so mucI LIe more perI ecL Is IIs
vIrLuous ucLIon.
mperI ecL duLIes ure, uccordIngIy, onIy duties oj tirtue. uI II I I menL oI
LIem Is merit (meritum = +u) ; buL IuIIure Lo IuIIIII LIem
8
Is noL In ILseII
culpcbilit (demeritum = -c) buL ruLIer mere dejicienc in morcl uorth
( =o) , unIess LIe subjecL sIouId muke IL IIs prIncIpIe noL Lo compI y
wILI sucI duLIes. L Is onIy LIe sLrengLI oI one' s resoIuLIon, In LIe IIrsL
cuse, LIuL Is properI y cuIIed tirtue (tirtus), one' s weukness, In LIe sec-
ond cuse, Is noL so mucI tice (titium) us ruLIer mere ucnt oj tirtue,
Iuck oI moruI sLrengLI (dejectus morclis). (As LIe word Tuend |vIrLue|
comes I rom tcuen |Lo be IIL Ior|, so Untuend |Iuck oI vIrLue| comes
I rom zu nichts tcuen |noL Lo be IIL Ior unyLIIng|.) Every ucLIon conLrury
Lo duLy Is cuIIed u trcnsression (peccctum). L Is wIen un InLenLIonuI
LrunsgressIon Ius become u prIncIpIe LIuL IL Is properI y cuIIed u tice
(titium).
AI L IougI LIere Is noLII ng merILorIous In LIe conI ormI Ly oI one' s
ucLIons wILI RI gIL (In beI ng un IonesL mun), LIe conIormI Ly wILI RIgIL
oI one' s muxI ms oI sucI ucLIons, us duLIes, LIuL Is, 5-*I-)& I or RIgIL, Is
meritorious. or u mun LIereby mcles LIe RIgIL oI IumunI Ly, or uIso LIe
, 1 RI gIL oI men, IIs end und In so doI ng wIdens IIs concepL oI duLy
beyond LIe concepL oI wIuL Is due (ojjicium debiti), sInce unoLIer cun
I ndeed by IIs rI gIL requIre oI me ucLIons In uccordunce wILI LIe Iuw,
buL noL LIuL LIe Iuw be uIso my IncenLIve Lo sucI ucLIons. TIe sume
IoIds Lrue oI LIe unIversuI eLIIcuI commund, "ucL In conIormI Ly wILI
duLy jrom duLy. " To esLubIIsI und quI cken LIIs dIsposILIon In oneseII Is,
us In LIe prevI ous cuse, meritorious, sInce IL goes beyond LIe Iuw oI duLy
I or ucLIons und mukes LIe Iuw ILseII uIso LIe IncenLIve.
BuL I or LIIs very reuson LIese duLIes, Loo, musL be counLed us duLIes
oI wI de obIIguLIon. WILI respecL Lo LIem (und, I ndeed, In order Lo
brI ng wIde obIIguLIon us cIose us possIbIe Lo LIe concepL oI nurrow
obIIguLIon), LIere Is u subjecLIve prIncIpIe oI eLIIcuI reucrd, LIuL Is, u
suscepLIbIIILy Lo beI ng rewurded In uccordunce wILI Iuws oI vIrLue: LIe
rewurd, numeIy, oI u moruI pIeusure LIuL goes beyond mere conLenL-
menL wILI oneseI I (wIIcI cun be mereIy neguLIve) und LIuL Is ceIe-
bruLed In LIe suyIng LIuL, L IrougI conscIousness oI LIIs pIeusure,
vIrLue Is ILs own rewurd.
I LIIs merIL Is u mun' s merIL In reIuLIon Lo oLIer men I or promoL I ng
wIuL uII men recognI ze us LIeIr nuLuruI end (Ior mukI ng LIeIr IuppI -
ness IIs own), IL couI d be cuIIed sueet merit, I or conscIousness oI IL
produces u moruI enj oymenL In wII cI men ure IncIIned by sympuLIy
to retel. BuL bitter merit, wIIcI comes I rom promoL I ng LIe Lrue weII-
beI ng oI oLIers even wIen LIey IuII Lo recognIze IL us sucI (wIen LIey
ure unupprecI uLI ve und ungruLeIuI ), usuuIIy yIeIds no sucI reLurn. AI I
LIuL IL produces Is contentment wILI oneseII, uI LIougI In LIIs cuse LIe
merIL wouI d be greuLer sLIII.
!"""#
%JI,*(&(,< ,4 +:&(-* ,4 !(5&:- 2* E(F- +:&(-*
:.
Dne's Dun Perjection cs cn End Thct Is Also c Dut
u) Ncturcl perIecLI on Is LIe cultitction oI uny ccpccities wIuLever I or
I urL IerI ng ends seL IorLI by reuson. TIuL LIIs Is u duLy und so In ILseII
un end, und LIuL LIe cuILIvuLIon oI our cupucILIes, even wILIouL regurd
I or LIe udvunLuge IL uI I ords us, Is bused on un uncondILIonuI (moruI)
ImperuLIve ruLIer LIun u condILIonuI (prugmuLIc) one, cun be sIown In |qz|
LIIs wuy. TIe cupucILy Lo seL oneseII un end - uny end wIuLsoever - Is
wIuL cIurucLerIzes IumunI Ly (us dIsLInguIsIed I rom unImuIILy). Hence
LIere Is uIso bound up wILI LIe end oI IumunILy In our own person LIe
ruLIonuI wIII, und so LIe duLy, Lo muke ourseIves worLIy oI IumunI Ly
by cuILure In generuI , by procurI ng or promoL I ng LIe ccpccit Lo reuIIze
uII sorLs oI possIbIe ends, so Iur us LIIs Is Lo be I ound In mun IImseII.
n oLIer words, mun Ius u duLy Lo cuILIvuLe LIe crude predIsposILIons
oI IIs nuLure, by wII cI LIe unImuI Is IIrsL ruIsed InLo mun. L Is LIere-
I ore u duLy In ILseII.
BuL LIIs duLy Is u mereIy eLIIcuI one, LIuL Is, u duLy oI wIde obIIgu-
LIon. No ruLIonuI prIncIpIe prescrIbes specIIIcuIIy hou I ur one sIouId
go In cuILIvuLIng one' s cupucILIes (In enI urgI ng or correcLI ng one' s cu-
pucILy I or undersLundI ng, I.e., In ucquI rI ng knowI edge or skIII [Kunst-
1q6 The Metcphsics oj Morcls
jchileit]). TIe n Loo, LIe dI I I erenL sILuuLIons In wII cI men muy IInd
LIemseIves muke wIuL u mun cIooses us LIe occupuLI on I or wII cI Ie
sIouId cuILIvuLe IIs LuIenLs very opLIonuI. WILI regurd Lo nuLuruI per-
IecLIon, uccordIngIy, LIere Is no Iuw oI reuson I or ucLIons buL onIy u Iuw
I or LIe muxI ms oI ucLIons, wIIcI runs us IoIIows: "CuILIvuLe your
powers oI mI nd und body so LIuL LIey ure IIL Lo reuIIze uny ends you
mI gIL encounLer, " Iowever uncerLuIn you ure wII cI oI L Iem couI d
someLIme become yours.
b) TIe cultitction oj morclit In us. Mun' s greuLesL moruI perI ecLI on Is
Lo do IIs duLy jrom dut (Ior LIe Iuw Lo be noL onIy LIe ruI e buL uIso
LIe IncenLIve oI IIs ucLIons). AL IIrsL sIgIL LIIs Iooks IIke u ncrrou
obIIguLIon, und LIe prIncIpIe oI duLy seems Lo prescrIbe wILI LIe pre-
cIsIon und sLrIcLness oI u Iuw noL onIy LIe leclit buL uIso LIe morclit
oI every ucLIon, LIuL Is, LIe dIsposILIon. BuL In IucL LIe Iuw, Iere uguIn,
prescrIbes onIy LIe mcxim oj the cction, LIuL oI seekIng LIe busIs oI
obIIguLIon soIeIy In LIe Iuw und noL In sensIbIe ImpuIse (udvunLuge or
dIsudvunLuge), und Ience noL LIe cction itselj. or u mun cunnoL
see InLo LIe depLIs oI IIs own IeurL so us Lo be quILe cerLuIn, In even
u sinle ucLIon, oI LIe purILy oI IIs moruI InLenLIon und LIe sIncerILy
oI IIs dIsposILIon, even wIen Ie Ius no doubL ubouL LIe IeguIILy oI
LIe ucLIon. Very oI L en Ie mIsLukes IIs own weukness, wII cI coun-
seIs IIm uguInsL LIe venLure oI u mI sdeed, I or vIrLue (wIIcI Is
LIe concepL oI sLrengLI); und Iow muny peopI e wIo Iuve IIved I ong
|q| und guIILIess IIves muy noL be mereI y jortuncte In IuvI ng escuped so
muny LempLuLIons? n LIe cuse oI uny deed IL remuIns II dden I r om LIe
ugenL IImseII Iow mucI pure moruI conLenL LIere Ius been In IIs
dIsposILIon.
Hence LIIs duLy Loo - LIe duLy oI ussessIng LIe worLI oI one' s ucLIons
noL by LIeIr IeguIILy uIone buL uIso by LIeIr moruIILy (one's dIsposI-
LIon) - Is oI onIy uide obIIguLIon. TIe Iuw does noL prescrIbe LIIs I nner
ucLIon In LIe Iumun mI nd buL onIy LIe muxI m oI LIe ucLIon, Lo sLrIve
wILI uII one' s mI gIL LIuL LIe LIougIL oI duLy I or ILs own suke Is LIe
suIII cI enL IncenLIve oI every ucLIon conI ormI ng Lo duLy.
z.
The Hcppiness oj Dthers cs cn End Thct Is Also c Dut
u) Ncturcl ueljcre. enetolence cun be unIImILed, sInce noLII ng need be
done wILI IL. BuL IL Is more dI III cuI L Lo do ood,
86
especIuIIy II IL Is Lo
be done noL I rom uIIecLI on (Iove) I or oLIers buL I rom duLy, uL LIe cosL
oI I orgoI ng LIe suLIsIucLIon oI concupIscence und oI ucLIve I nj ury Lo IL
In muny cuses. TIe reuson LIuL IL Is u duLy Lo be beneII cenL Is LIIs: SInce
The Doctrine oj Riht g 1q;
our seII-Iove cunnoL be sepuruLed I r om our need Lo be Ioved (IeI ped
In cuse oI need) by oLIers us weII, we LIereI ore muke ourseIves un end
I or oLIers; und LIe onIy wuy LIIs muxI m cun be bI ndI ng Is L IrougI ILs
quuIIIIcuLIon us u unIversuI Iuw, Ience L IrougI our wIII Lo muke oLIers
our ends us weII. TIe IuppIness oI oLIers Is LIereI ore un end LIuL Is
uIso u duLy.
BuL ougIL Lo sucrIIIce u purL oI my weI Iure Lo oLIers wILIouL Iope
oI reLurn becuuse LIIs Is u duLy, und IL Is ImpossIbIe Lo ussIgn specIIIc
IImILs Lo LIe exLenL oI LIIs sucrIIIce. How Iur IL sIouI d exLend depends,
In Iurge purL, on wIuL eucI person' s Lrue needs ure In vIew oI IIs
sensIbIIILIes, und IL musL be I eIL Lo eucI Lo decIde LIIs I or IImseII. or
u muxI m oI promoL I ng oLIers' IuppIness uL LIe sucrIIIce oI one' s own
IuppIness, one' s Lrue needs, wouI d conIIIcL wILI ILseII II IL were mude
u unIversuI Iuw. Hence LIIs duLy Is onIy u uide one; LIe duLy Ius In IL u
IuLILude I or doI ng more or Iess, und no specIIIc IImILs cun be ussIgned
Lo wIuL sIouI d be done. TIe Iuw IoIds onIy I or muxI ms, noL I or spe-
cIIIc ucLIons.
b) TIe IuppI ness oI oLIers uIso IncIudes LIeIr morcl uell-bein (sclubri- |qq|
tcs morclis), und we Iuve u duLy, buL onIy u neguLIve one, Lo promoLe
LIIs. AI L IougI LIe pcin u mun IeeIs I rom LIe pungs oI conscIence Ius
u moruI source, IL Is sLIII u nuLuruI eI I ecL, IIke grI eI, Ieur, or uny oLIer
sLuLe oI suI I erI ng. To see Lo IL LIuL unoLIer does noL deservedI y suI I er
LIIs I nner reproucI Is noL m duLy buL his cjjcir, buL IL Is my duLy Lo
reI ruI n I rom doI ng unyLII ng LIuL, consI derI ng LIe nuLure oI men,
couI d LempL II m Lo do someLII ng I or wIIcI IIs conscIence couI d
uI Lerwurd puIn IIm, Lo reIruI n I rom wIuL Is cuIIed gIvIng scunduI. BuL
LIIs concern I or oLIers' moruI conLenLmenL does noL udmI L oI specIIIc
IImILs beI ng ussIgned Lo IL, so LIuL LIe obIIguLIon resLIng on IL Is onIy u
wIde one.
!"#
%&'( !) ' *+(, -. /01(+23
Virtue Is LIe sLrengLI oI mun' s muxI ms In IuI II I I I ng IIs duLy. SLrengLI
oI uny kInd cun be recognI zed onIy by LIe obsLucIes IL cun overcome,
und In LIe cuse oI vIrLue LIese obsLucIes ure nuLuruI IncIInuLIons, wII cI
cun come InLo conIIIcL wILI mun' s moruI resoIuLIon; und sInce IL Is mun
himselj wIo puLs LIese obsLucIes In LIe wuy oI IIs muxI ms, vIrLue Is noL
mereIy u seII-consLruInL (Ior LIen one nuLuruI IncIInuLIon couI d sLrIve
Lo overcome unoLIer), buL uIso u seII-consLruInL In uccordunce wILI u
prIncIpIe oI I nner I reedom, und so L IrougI LIe mere represenLuLIon
oI one' s duLy In uccordunce wILI ILs I ormuI Iuw.
1q8 The Metcphsics oj Morcls
AI I duLIes InvoIve u concepL oI constrcint L IrougI u Iuw. Ethiccl duLIes
InvoIve u consLruInL I or wIIcI onIy InLernuI I uwgI vI ng Is possIbIe,
wIereus duLIes oI RIgIL InvoIve u consLruInL I or wIIcI exLernuI IuwgIv-
I ng Is uIso possIbIe. BoLI, LIereI ore, InvoIve consLruInL, wIeLIer IL be
seII-consLruInL or consLruInL by unoLIer. SInce LIe moruI cupucILy Lo
consLruIn oneseI I cun be cuIIed vIrLue, ucLIon sprI ngI ng I r om sucI u
dIsposILIon (respecL Ior Iuw) cun be cuIIed vIrLuous (eLIIcuI) ucLIon,
even L IougI LIe Iuw Iuys down u duLy oI RIgIL; Ior IL Is LIe doctrine oj
tirtue LIuL communds us Lo IoId LIe RIgIL oI men sucred.
BuL wIuL IL Is vIrLuous Lo do Is noL necessurIIy u dut oj tirtue sLrIcLIy
speukIng. WIuL IL Is vIrLuous Lo do muy concern onIy uhct is jormcl In
|q| muxIms, wIereus u duLy oI vIrLue Ius Lo do wILI LIeIr muLLer, LIuL Is,
wILI un end LIuL Is LIougIL us uIso u duLy. BuL sInce eLIIcuI obIIguLIon
Lo ends, oI wIIcI LIere cun be severuI, Is onIy uide obIIguLIon - becuuse
IL InvoIves u Iuw onIy Ior LIe mcxims oI ucLIons, und un end Is LIe muLLer
(objecL) oI cIoIce - LIere ure muny dI I I erenL duLIes, correspondI ng Lo
LIe dI I I erenL ends prescrIbed by LIe Iuw, wIIcI ure cuIIed duties oj
tirtue (ojjicic honestctis) j usL becuuse LIey ure subjecL onIy Lo I ree seII-
consLruInL, noL consLruInL by oLIer men, und becuuse LIey deLermI ne
un end LIuL Is uIso u duLy.
Ike unyLII ng jormcl, vIrLue us LIe wIII's conIormI Ly wILI every duLy,
bused on u IIrm dIsposILIon, Is mereIy one und LIe sume. BuL wILI
respecL Lo LIe end oI ucLIons LIuL Is uIso u duLy, LIuL Is, wIuL one ouht
Lo muke one' s end (wIuL Is muLerIuI), LIere cun be severuI vIrLues; und
sInce obIIguLIon Lo LIe muxI m oI sucI un end Is cuIIed u duLy oI vIrLue,
LIere ure muny duLIes oI vIrLue.
TIe supreme prIncIpIe oI LIe docLrI ne oI vIrLue Is: AcL In uccordunce
wILI u muxI m oI ends LIuL IL cun be u unIversuI Iuw I or everyone Lo Iuve.
n uccordunce wILI LIIs prIncIpIe mun Is un end Ior II mseI I us weII us
I or oLIers, und IL Is noL enougI LIuL Ie Is noL uuLIorI zed Lo use eILIer
IImseI I or oLIers mereI y us meuns (sInce Ie couI d LIen sLIII be I ndI I I er-
enL Lo LIem); IL Is In ILseII IIs duLy Lo muke mun In generuI IIs end.
TII s busIc prIncIpIe oI LIe docLrI ne oI vIrLue, us u cuLegorIcuI I mper-
uLIve, cunnoL be proved, buL IL cun be gIven u deducLI on I rom pure
prucLIcuI reuson. WIuL, In LIe reIuLIon oI mun Lo II mseI I und oLIers,
ccn be un end is un end I or pure prucLIcuI reuson; I or pure prucLIcuI
reuson Is u cupucILy I or ends generuI I y, und Ior IL Lo be I ndI I I erenL Lo
ends, LIuL Is, Lo Luke no InLeresL In LIem, wouI d LIereI ore be u conLru-
dIcLIon, sInce LIen IL wouI d noL deLermI ne muxI ms I or ucLIons eILIer
(becuuse every muxI m oI ucLIon conLuIns un end) und so wouI d noL be
prucLIcuI reuson. BuL pure reuson cun prescrIbe no ends u prIorI wILI-
ouL seLLIng LIem IorLI us uIso duLIes, und sucI duLIes ure LIen cuIIed
duLIes oI vIrLue.
The Doctrine oj Riht g 1qq
x
- |q
6
|
!"# %&'(#)# *(+,-+'.# /0 1"# 2/-1(+,# /0 3+4"1 567 8,6.91+-:
!"61 /0 1"# 2/-1(+,# /0 ;+(1&# <7 %9,1"#1+-
L Is cIeur In uccordunce wILI LIe prIncIpIe oI conLrudIcLIon LIuL, II
exLernuI consLruInL cIecks LIe II nderI ng oI ouLer I reedom In uccor-
dunce wILI unIversuI Iuws (und Is LIus u II nderI ng oI LIe II ndrunces
Lo I reedom), IL cun coexIsL wILI ends In generuI. need noL go beyond
LIe concepL oI I reedom Lo see LIIs; LIe end LIuL eucI Ius muy be
wIuLever Ie wIIIs. TIe supreme principle oj Riht Is L IereI ore un unu-
IyLIc proposILIon.
8;
BuL LIe prIncIpIe oI LIe docLrIne oI vIrLue goes beyond LIe concepL
oI ouLer I reedom und connecLs wILI IL, In uccordunce wILI unIversuI
Iuws, un end LIuL IL mukes u dut. TII s prIncIpIe Is L IereI ore synLIeLIc.
Ls possIbIIILy Is conLuIned In LIe deducLI on (X).
WIen, InsLeud oI consLruInL I rom wILIouL, inner I reedom comes InLo
pIuy, LIe cupucILy I or seII-consLruInL noL by meuns oI oLIer IncIInuLIons
buL by pure prucLIcuI reuson (wIIcI scorns sucI InLermedIurIes), LIe
concepL oI duLy Is exL ended beyond ouLer I reedom, wII cI Is IImILed
onIy by LIe I ormuI provIsIon oI ILs compuLIbIIILy wILI LIe I reedom oI
uII. TII s exLensIon beyond LIe concepL oI u duLy oI RI gIL Lukes pIuce
L IrougI ends beI ng IuId down, I rom wIIcI RIgIL ubsLrucLs uILogeLIer.
n LIe moruI ImperuLIve und LIe presupposI LI on oI I reedom LIuL Is
necessury I or IL ure I ound LIe lcu, LIe ccpccit (Lo IuIIII I LIe Iuw), und
LIe uill deLermI nI ng LIe muxI m; LIese ure uII LIe eIemenLs LIuL muke
up LIe concepL oI u duLy oI RIgIL. BuL In LIe I mperuLI ve LIuL pre-
scrIbes u dut oj tirtue LIere Is udded noL onIy LIe concepL oI seII-
consLruInL buL LIuL oI un end, noL un end LIuL we Iuve buL one LIuL we
ougIL Lo Iuve, one LIuL pure prucLIcuI reuson LIereI ore Ius wILIIn
ILseII. TIe IIgIesL, uncondILIonuI end oI pure prucLIcuI reuson (wIIcI
Is sLIII u duLy) consIsLs In LIIs: LIuL vIrLue be ILs own end und, despILe LIe
beneIILs IL conIers on men, uIso ILs own rewurd. VI rLue so sIInes us un
IdeuI LIuL IL seems, by Iumun sLundurds, Lo ecIIpse holiness ILseII, wIIcI
Is never LempLed Lo breuk LIe Iuw. NeverLIeIess, LIIs Is un IIIusIon |q;|
urIsIng I rom LIe IucL LIuL, IuvI ng no wuy Lo meusure LIe degree oI u
sLrengLI excepL by LIe mugnI Lude oI LIe obsLucIes IL couI d overcome
(In us, LIese ure IncIInuLIons), we ure Ied Lo mIsLuke LIe subjectite
condILIons by wIIcI we ussess LIe mugnI Lude I or LIe objectite condI-
LIons oI LIe mugnI Lude ILseII. YeL In compurI son wILI humcn ends, uII oI
wII cI Iuve LIeIr obsLucIes Lo be conLended wILI, IL Is Lrue LIuL LIe
Mun wI LI uII IIs IuuI Ls
s beLLer L Iun u IosL oI ungeI s wI L IouL wIII. HuI I er
88
zoo The Metcphsics oj Morcls
|q8|
worL I oI vI rLue ILseII, us ILs own end, I ur exceeds LIe worL I oI uny
useI uI ness und uny empI rI cuI ends und udvunL uges LIuL vI rLue muy sLIII
br I ng In ILs wuke.
L Is uIso correcL Lo suy LIuL mun Is under obI I guLI on to |ucquIre| tirtue
(us moruI sLrengLI). or wII I e LIe cupucILy (jccultcs) Lo over come uII
opposI ng sensIbIe I mpuI ses cun und musL be sImpIy presupposed In mun
on uccounL oI IIs I r eedom, yeL LIIs cupucILy us strenth (robur) Is some-
L II ng Ie musL ucquI re; und LIe wuy Lo ucquI re IL Is Lo enIunce LIe
moruI incentite (LIe L IougIL oI LIe Iuw), boL I by conL empI uL I ng LIe
dI gnI Ly oI LIe pur e ruLI onuI Iuw In us (contemplctione) und by prccticin
vI rLue (exercitio).
=<>
n uccordunce wI LI LIe prI ncI pI es seL I orL I ubove, LIe scIemu oI duLI es
oI vI rLue cun be dI ugr ummed In LIe I oI I owI ng wuy:
WIuL Is MuLerIuI In DuLIes oI VIrLue
!" $"
M oun end, wIIcI Is uIso The end oj others, LIe
my duLy promoLIon oI wIIcI Is
uIso my duLy
(My own perjection) (TIe hcppiness oI oLIers)
- q-
TIe lcu, wIIcI Is uIso TIe end, wIIcI Is uIso
LIe IncenLIve LIe IncenLIve
On wIIcI LIe morclit - On wIIcI LIe leclit
oI every Iree deLermInuLIon oI LIe wIII Is bused
WIuL Is ormuI In DuLIes oI VIrLue
|qq| =<<>
?/,-#'17 /0 5"61 <7 *(#7&''/7#@ /, 1"# *6(1 /0 A##.+,4
B8#71"#1+7-"# ;/(C#4(+00#D C9 1"# E+,@F7 3#-#'1+G+19
1/ ?/,-#'17 /0 2&19 67 %&-"
TIe r e ure cerLuI n moruI endowmenL s sucI LIuL unyone I uckI ng L Iem
couI d Iuve no duL y Lo ucquI re L Iem. TIe y ure morcl jeelin, conscience,
lote oI one' s neI gIbor, und respect
8q
I or oneseI I (selj-esteem). TIe r e Is
no obI I guLI on Lo Iuve LIese becuuse LIey IIe uL LIe busIs oI moruI I Ly,
The Doctrine oj Riht g zo1
us subjectite condILIons oI recepLIveness Lo LIe concepL oI duLy, noL us
objecLIve condILIons oI moruIILy. AI I oI LIem ure nuLuruI predIsposI-
LIons oI LIe mI nd (prcedispositio) I or beI ng uI I ecLed by concepLs oI duLy,
unLecedenL predIsposILIons on LIe sIde oI jeelin [csthetisch]. To Iuve
LIese predIsposILIons cunnoL be consI dered u duLy; ruLIer, every mun
Ius LIem, und IL Is by vIrLue oI LIem LIuL Ie cun be puL under obIIgu-
LIon. ConscIousness oI LIem Is noL oI empIrIcuI orIgIn; IL cun, InsLeud,
onIy IoIIow I rom conscIousness oI u moruI Iuw, us LIe eI I ecL LIIs Ius on
LIe mInd.
c.
Morcl Ieelin
TII s Is LIe suscepLIbIIILy Lo IeeI pIeusure or dIspIeusure mereI y I rom
beI ng uwure LIuL our ucLIons ure consIsLenL wILI or conLrury Lo LIe Iuw
oI duLy. Every deLermI nuLI on oI cIoIce proceeds jrom LIe represenLu-
LIon oI u possIbIe ucLIon to LIe deed L IrougI LIe I eeI I ng oI pIeusure or
dIspIeusure, LukIng un InLeresL In LIe ucLIon or ILs eIIecL. TIe sLuLe oI
jeelin [csthetische Zustcnd] Iere (LIe wuy In wIIcI I nner sense Is uI-
IecLed) Is eILIer sensibl dependent or morcl. TIe I ormer Is LIuL IeeI I ng
wIIcI precedes LIe represenLuLIon oI LIe Iuw; LIe IuLLer, LIuL wII cI
cun onIy IoIIow upon IL.
SInce uny conscIousness oI obIIguLIon depends upon moruI IeeI I ng
Lo muke us uwure oI LIe consLruInL presenL In LIe L IougIL oI duLy,
LIere cun be no duLy Lo Iuve moruI IeeI I ng or Lo ucquIre IL; InsLeud
every mun (us u moruI beIng) Ius IL In IIm orIgInuIIy. ObI I guLI on wILI
regurd Lo moruI IeeI I ng cun be onIy Lo cultitcte IL und Lo sLrengLIen
IL L IrougI wonder uL ILs InscruLubIe source. TII s comes ubouL by ILs |qoo|
beI ng sIown Iow IL Is seL upurL I rom uny sensIbIy dependenL sLImu-
Ius und Is I nduced mosL InLenseIy In ILs purILy by u mereIy ruLIonuI
represenLuLIon.
L Is I nupproprI uLe Lo cuII LIIs IeeI I ng u moruI sense, I or by LIe word
"sense" Is usuuIIy undersLood u LIeoreLIcuI cupucILy I or percepLI on
dIrecLed Lowurd un objecL, wIereus moruI IeeI I ng (IIke pIeusure und
dIspIeusure In generuI) Is someLII ng mereI y subjecLIve, wIIcI yIeIds no
knowI edge. No mun Is enLIreIy wILIouL moruI IeeI I ng, Ior were Ie
compIeLeIy IuckIng In suscepLIbIIILy Lo IL Ie wouI d be moruIIy deud; und
II (Lo speuk In medIcuI Lerms) LIe moruI vILuI Iorce couI d no I onger
excILe LIIs IeeI Ing, LIen IumunILy wouI d dIssoIve (by cIemIcuI Iuws, us
IL were) InLo mere unImuIILy und be mI xed IrreLrIevubIy wILI LIe muss
oI oLIer nuLuruI beIngs. BuL we no more Iuve u specIuI sense I or wIuL
Is (moruIIy) good und evII LIun I or truth, uI LIougI peopI e oI L en speuk
zoz The Metcphsics oj Morcls
In LIIs IusIIon. We Iuve, ruLIer, u susceptibilit on LIe purL oI I ree
cIoIce Lo be moved by pure prucLIcuI reuson (und ILs Iuw), und LIIs Is
wIuL we cuII moruI IeeIIng.
Conscience
So Loo, conscIence Is noL someLII ng LIuL cun be ucquIred, und we Iuve
no duLy Lo provI de ourseIves wILI one; ruLIer, every mun, us u moruI
beI ng, hcs u conscIence wILIIn II m orIgInuIIy. To be under obIIguLIon
Lo Iuve u conscIence wouI d be LunLumounL Lo IuvI ng u duLy Lo recog-
nIze duLIes. or conscIence Is prucLIcuI reuson IoI dI ng mun' s duLy
beI ore IIm I or IIs ucquILLuI or condemnuLI on In every cuse LIuL comes
under u Iuw. TIus IL Is noL dIrecLed Lo un objecL buL mereI y Lo LIe
subjecL (Lo uI I ecL moruI IeeI I ng by ILs ucL), und so IL Is noL someLII ng
I ncumbenL upon one, u duLy, buL ruLIer un unuvoIdubI e IucL. So wIen
IL Is suId LIuL u cerLuIn mun hcs no conscIence, wIuL Is meunL Is LIuL Ie
puys no Ieed Lo ILs verdIcL. or II Ie reuIIy Iud no conscIence, Ie couI d
|qo1| noL even conceIve oI LIe duLy Lo Iuve one, sInce Ie wouI d neI LIer
I mpuLe unyLII ng Lo IImseII us conI ormI ng wILI duLy nor reproucI
IImseI I wILI unyLII ng us conLrury Lo duLy.
sIuII Iere puss over LIe vurIous dIvIsIons oI conscIence und noLe
onIy LIuL, us IoIIows I rom wIuL Ius been suId, un errin conscIence Is un
ubsurdILy. or wIIIe cun I ndeed be mIsLuken uL LImes In my objecLIve
j udgmenL us Lo wIeLIer someLII ng Is u duLy or noL, cunnoL be mIs-
Luken In my subjecLIve j udgmenL us Lo wIeLIer Iuve submILLed IL Lo
my prucLIcuI reuson (Iere In ILs roIe us j udge) I or sucI uj udgmenL ; I or
II couI d be mIsLuken In LIuL, wouI d Iuve mude no prucLIcuI j udg-
menL uL uII, und In LIuL cuse LIere wouI d be neILIer LruLI nor error.
Unconscientiousness Is noL Iuck oI conscIence buL ruLIer LIe propensILy
Lo puy no Ieed Lo ILs j udgmenL . BuL II someone Is uwure LIuL Ie Ius
ucLed In uccordunce wILI IIs conscIence, LIen us Iur us guIIL or Inno-
cence Is concerned noLII ng more cun be requI red oI IIm. L Is Incum-
benL upon II m onIy Lo enIIgILen IIs understcndin In LIe muLLer oI
wIuL Is or Is noL duLy; buL wIen IL comes, or Ius come, Lo u deed,
conscIence speuks InvoIunLurIIy und unuvoIdubIy. TIer eI or e, Lo ucL In
uccordunce wILI conscIence cunnoL ILseII be u duLy; Ior II IL were, LIere
wouI d Iuve Lo be yeL u second conscIence In order I or one Lo become
uwure oI LIe ucL oI LIe IIrsL.
TIe duLy Iere Is onIy Lo cuILIvuLe one' s conscIence, Lo sIurpen one' s
uLLenLIveness Lo LIe voIce oI LIe Inner j udge und Lo use every meuns Lo
obLuIn u IeurI ng I or IL (Ience LIe duLy Is onIy IndIrecL).
The Doctrine oj Riht g zo
c.
Lote oj Mcn
Lote Is u muLLer oI jeelin, noL oI wIIIIng, und cunnoL Iove becuuse
uill Lo, sLIII Iess becuuse ouht Lo ( cunnoL be consLruIned Lo Iove); so
u dut to lote Is un ubsurdILy. BuL benetolence (cmor benetolentice), us
conducL, cun be subjecL Lo u Iuw oI duLy. However, unseIIIsI benevo-
Ience Lowurd men Is oI Len (LIougI very InupproprIuLeIy) uIso cuIIed
lote, peopI e even speuk oI Iove LIuL Is uIso u duLy I or us wIen IL Is noL
u quesLIon oI unoLIer' s IuppIness buL oI LIe compI eLe und I ree surren-
der oI uII one' s ends Lo LIe ends oI unoLIer (even u supernuLuruI)
beIng. BuL every duLy Is necessitction, u consLruInL, even II LIIs Is Lo be
seII-consLruInL In uccordunce wILI u Iuw. WIuL Is done I rom consLruInL,
Iowever, Is noL done I rom Iove.
To do ood Lo oLIer men InsoIur us we cun Is u duLy, wIeLIer one |qoz|
Ioves LIem or noL; und even II one Iud Lo remurk sudIy LIuL our
specIes, on cIoser ucquuInLunce, Is noL purLIcuIurIy IovubIe, LIuL wouI d
noL deLrucL I r om LIe Iorce oI LIIs duLy. BuL hctred oj mcn Is uIwuys
hctejul, even wIen IL Lukes LIe I or m mereIy oI compIeLeIy uvoI dI ng
men (sepuruLIsL mIsunLIropy), wILIouL ucLIve IosLIIILy Lowurd LIem.
or benevoI ence uIwuys remuIns u duLy, even Lowurd u mIsunLIropIsL,
wIom one cunnoL I ndeed Iove buL Lo wIom one cun sLIII do good.
BuL Lo IuLe vIce In men Is neILIer u duLy nor conLrury Lo duLy; IL Is,
ruLIer, u mere IeeI I ng oI uversIon Lo vIce, u IeeI I ng neILIer uI I ecLed by
LIe wIII nor uI I ecL I ng IL. enejicence Is u duLy. I someone prucLIces IL
oI Len und succeeds In reuIIzIng IIs beneII cenL InLenLIon, Ie evenLuuIIy
comes ucLuuIIy Lo Iove LIe person Ie Ius IeI ped. So LIe suyIng "you
ougIL Lo lote your neI gIbor us yourseI I " does noL meun LIuL you ougIL
ImmedIuLeIy (IIrsL) Lo Iove IIm und (uILerwurds) by meuns oI LIIs Iove
do good Lo II m. L meuns, ruLIer, do ood Lo your IeIIow mun, und your
beneI I cence wIII produce Iove oI mun In you (us un upLI Lude oI LIe
IncIInuLIon Lo beneI I cence In generuI).
Hence onIy LIe Iove LIuL Is deliht |In unoLIer' s perIecLI on| (cmor
complccentice) Is dIrecL. BuL Lo Iuve u duLy Lo LIIs (wIIcI Is u pIeus-
ure j oI ned ImmedIuLeI y Lo LIe represenLuLI on oI un objecL' s exIsLence),
LIuL Is, Lo Iuve Lo be consLruIned Lo Luke pIeusure In someLII ng, Is u
conLrudIcLIon.
d.
Respect
RespecL (reterentic) Is, uguIn, someLII ng mereIy subjecLIve, u I eeI I ng oI
u specIuI kInd, noL u j udgmenL ubouL un objecL LIuL IL wouI d be u duLy
zo( The Metcphsics oj Morcls
Lo brI ng ubouL or promoLe. or sucI u duLy, regurded us u duLy, couI d
be presenLed Lo us onIy L IrougI LIe respect we Iuve I or IL. A duLy
Lo Iuve respecL wouI d LIus umounL Lo beI ng puL under obIIguLIon Lo
|Iuve| duLIes. AccordI ngI y IL Is noL correcL Lo suy LIuL u mun Ius u dut
oj selj-esteem, IL musL ruLIer be suId LIuL LIe Iuw wILIIn II m unuvoI dubI y
|qo| Iorces I rom II m respect Ior IIs own beIng, und LIIs IeeI I ng (wIIcI Is oI
u specIuI kInd) Is LIe busIs oI cerLuIn duLIes, LIuL Is, oI cerLuIn ucLIons
LIuL ure consIsLenL wILI IIs duLy Lo IImseII. L cunnoL be suId LIuL u
mun hcs u duLy oI respecL Lowurd IImseII, I or Ie musL Iuve respecL I or
LIe Iuw wILIIn IImseII In order even Lo LIInk oI uny duLy wIuLsoever.
!"""#
%&'&()* +(,'-,.*&/ 01 23& 4&2).35/,-/ 01 40()*/
,' 6)'7*,'8 ) +9(& :0-2(,'& 01 ;,(29&
Iirst. or uny one duLy onIy one ground oI obIIguLIon cun be I ound;
und II someone produces Lwo or more prooI s I or u duLy, LIIs Is u sure
sIgn eILIer LIuL Ie Ius noL yeL I ound u vuIId prooI or LIuL Ie Ius
mIsLuken Lwo or more dI I I erenL duLIes Ior one.
or uny moruI prooI , us pIIIosopIIc, cun be druwn onIy by meuns oI
ruLIonuI knowI edge jrom concepts und noL, us In muLIemuLIcs, by LIe con-
sLrucLIon oI concepLs. MuLIemuLIcuI concepLs uIIow u number oI prooI s
I or one und LIe sume proposILIon becuuse In u prIorI intuition LIere cun
be severuI wuys oI deLermI nI ng LIe properLIes oI un objecL, uII oI wIIcI
Ieud buck Lo LIe sume ground. I, I or exumpI e, someone wunLs Lo druw
u prooI I or LIe duLy oI LruLIIuI ness IIrsL I rom LIe hcrm u IIe does Lo
oLIer men und LIen uIso I rom LIe uorthlessness oI u IIur und IIs vIoIu-
LIon oI respecL I or IImseII, wIuL Ie Ius proved In LIe IIrsL cuse Is u
duLy oI benevoI ence, noL oI LruLIIuI ness, und so u duLy oLIer LIun LIe
one I or wIIcI prooI wus requI red. BuL IL Is u IIgIIy unpII I osopII c
expedI enL Lo resorL Lo u number oI prooI s I or one und LIe sume prop-
osILIon, consoI Ing oneseI I LIuL LIe muILILude oI reusons mukes up I or
LIe Inudequucy oI uny one oI LIem Luken by ILseII; I or LIIs IndIcuLes
LrIckery und InsIncerILy. WIen dI I I erenL InsuIIIcIenL reusons cre juxtc-
posed, one does noL compensuLe I or LIe deIIcIency oI LIe oLIers I or cer-
LuInLy or even I or probubIIILy. ProoIs musL proceed by gr ound und con-
|qoq| sequenL In c sinle series Lo u suIII cI enL ground; onIy In LIIs wuy cun LIey
be demonsLruLIve. YeL LIe Iormer meLIod Is LIe usuuI devIce oI rIeLorIc.
Second. TIe dIsLIncLIon beLween vIrLue und vIce ccn never be sougIL In
LIe deree Lo wII cI one IoIIows cerLuIn muxIms; IL musL ruLIer be
sougIL onIy In LIe specIIIc quclit oI LIe muxI ms (LIeIr reIuLIon Lo LIe
The Doctrine oj Riht g zo
Iuw). n oL Ier words, LIe weI I -known prI ncI pI e (ArIsLoLIe' s) LIuL IocuLes
vI rLue In LIe mecn beL ween Lwo vIces Is IuI se. eL good munugemenL ,
I or I nsLunce, consIsL In LIe mecn beL ween L wo vIces, prodI guI I Ly und
uvurI ce: As u vI rLue, IL cunnoL be represenL ed us urI sI ng eI LIer I r om
u gruduuI dI mI nuL I on oI prodI guI I Ly (by suvIng) or I r om un I ncreuse
oI spendI ng on LIe mIser' s purL - us II LIese Lwo vIces, movI ng In
opposI L e dI recLI ons, meL In good munugemenL . nsLeud, eucI oI L Iem
Ius ILs dIsLIncLIve muxI m, wII cI necessurII y conLrudI cLs LIe muxI m oI
LIe oL Ier.
or LIe sume reuson, no vIce wIuL ever cun be deI I ned [erllcrt]
In Lerms oI oin jurther In curryI ng ouL cerLuI n uI ms LIun L Iere Is
uny pur pose In doI ng (e.g., Prodiclitcs est excessus in consumendis
opibus)
c
or oI noL goI ng us I ur us Is needed In curryI ng L Iem ouL
(e.g., Atcritic est dejectus, etc.).
h
SI nce LIIs does noL specI I y LIe de-
ree, uI L IougI IL mukes LIe conI ormI L y or nonconI or mI L y oI conducL
wI LI duL y depend enLIreI y on IL, LIIs cunnoL serve us u deI I nI L I on
[Erllcrun],
Third. ELIIcuI duLI es musL noL be deL ermI ned In uccordunce wILI LIe
cupucI Ly Lo I uI I I I I LIe Iuw LIuL Is uscrI bed Lo mun; on LIe conL rury,
mun' s moruI cupucI Ly musL be esLI muLed by LIe Iuw, wII cI communds
cuLegorI cuI I y, und so In uccordunce wI LI our ruLI onuI knowI edge oI
wIuL men ougIL Lo be In keepI ng wILI LIe deu oI IumunI L y, noL In
*The Iormulas commonly used in the language oI classical ethics: |1| medio tutissimus
ibis, |2| omne nimium tertitur in titium, |3| est modus in rebus, et c. ; |4| medium tenuere
becti, |5| inscni scpiens nomen hcbect, etc., contain a superIicial wisdom that really has
no determinate principles. For who will speciIy Ior me this mean between the two
extremes? What distinguishes ctcrice (as a vice) Irom thriIt (as a virtue) is not that
avarice carries thriIt too jcr but that avarice has an entirel dijjerent principle
(maxim), that oI putting the end oI economizing not in enjoment oI one's means but
merely in possession oI them, while denying oneselI any enjoyment Irom them. In
the same way, the vice oj prodiclit is not to be sought in an excessive enjoyment oI
one's means but in the bad maxim which makes the use oI one's means the sole end,
without regard Ior preserving them.
|1| "you will travel most saIely in the middle oI the road" (Ovid, Metcmorphoses
II, 137); |2| "too much oI anything becomes vice"; |3| "there is a certain measure
in our aIIairs and Iinally Iixed limits, beyond which or short oI which there is no
place Ior right" (Horace, Sctires I, 1, 105-6) |quotation supplemented in view oI
Kant's note to Ak. 433|; |4| "happy are those who keep to the mean"; |5| "it is a
Ioolish wisdom, equivalent to wickedness, that seeks to be virtuous beyond the
proper measure" (Horace, Epistles I, 6, 15) |quotation supplemented in view oI Ak.
409 and 433n|.
" "Prodigality is excess in consuming one's means."
4
"Avarice is deIiciency," etc.
zzo The Metcphsics oj Morcls
|qo| uccordunce wI LI LIe empI rI cuI knowI edge we "#$% oI &%' #( )"%* #+%,
TIe s e L Iree muxI ms I or scIenLIIIc L reuL menL oI # docL rI ne -. $/+)0% #+%
opposed Lo LIe I oI I owI ng uncI enL dIcLu:
1) TIe r e Is onI y one vI rLue und one vIce.
z) VI rL ue Is LIe observunce oI LIe mI ddI e wuy beL ween oppos I ng
vIces."
) VI rL ue (IIke prudence) musL be I eurned I r om experI ence.
Dn Virtue in Genercl
VI r L ue sI gnI II es u moruI sL rengLI oI LIe wIII. BuL LIIs does noL exIuusL
LIe concepL; I or sucI sLrengLI couI d uIso beI ong Lo u hol (superIu-
mun) beI ng, In wIom no II nder I ng I mpuI ses wouI d I mpede LIe Iuw oI
ILs wIII und wIo wouI d LIus gI udI y do everyL II ng In conI ormI L y wI LI
LIe Iuw. VI rL ue Is, L IereI ore, LIe moruI sL rengL I oI u mcn's wIII In
I uI I I I I I ng IIs dut, u moruI constrcint L Ir ougI IIs own I uwgI vI ng reuson,
I nsoI ur us LIIs consLILuLes ILseII un uuLIorI Ly executin LIe I uw.
qo
VI r L ue
ILseII, or possessIon oI IL, Is noL u duL y (Ior L Ien one wouI d Iuve Lo be
puL under obI I guLI on Lo |Iuve| duLIes); ruLIer, IL c ommunds und
uccompunI es ILs c ommund wILI u moruI consLruI nL (u consLruI nL pos-
sIbIe In uccordunce wILI Iuws oI I nner I reedom) . BuL becuuse LIIs
consLruI nL Is Lo be IrresIsLIbIe, sL rengL I Is requI red, In u degr ee we cun
ussess onI y by LIe mugnI L ude oI LIe obsLucIes LIuL mun II mseI I I ur-
nIsIes L Ir ougI IIs IncIInuLIons. T I e vIces, LIe brood oI dI sposI LI ons
opposI ng LIe Iuw, ure LIe monsLers Ie Ius Lo IIgIL. Accor dI ngI y LIIs
moruI sLrengLI, us cource (jortitudo morclis), uIso consLI LuLes LIe greuL-
esL und LIe onI y L rue Ionor LIuL mun cun wI n In wur und Is, mor eover,
cuI I ed uisdom In LIe sLrIcL sense, numeI y prucLIcuI wI sdom, sInce IL
mukes LIe jincl end oI mun' s exI sLence on eurLI ILs own end. OnI y In ILs
possessIon Is u mun "I ree, " "IeuI LIy, " "rI cI, " "u kI ng, " und so I orL I,
und cun s uI I er no Ioss by cIunce or IuLe, sInce Ie Is In possessIon oI
II mseI I und LIe vI rLuous mun cunnoL Iose IIs vI rLue.
Any II gI pruIse I or LIe IdeuI oI IumunI L y In ILs moruI perI ecL I on cun
Iose noL II ng In prucLIcuI reuIILy I r om exumpI es Lo LIe conL rury, dr uwn
I r om wIuL men now ure, Iuve become, or wIII presumubI y become In
|qo6| LIe I uL ure; und cnthropolo, wII cI Issues I r om mereI y empI rI cuI
knowI edge, cun do no dumuge Lo cnthroponom, wII cI Is IuId down by
u reuson gI vI ng Iuws uncondI LI onuI I y. And wII I e vI rLue (In reI uLI on Lo
"The Iirst edition has Meinunen, "views," which seems to be a simple mistake Ior
Lcstern, "vices."
The Doctrine oj Riht g zo;
men, noL Lo LIe Iuw) cun be suId Iere und LIere Lo be merILorIous und
Lo deserve Lo be rewurded, yeL In ILseII, sInce IL Is ILs own end IL musL
uIso be regurded us ILs own rewurd.
ConsIdered In ILs compIeLe perIecLIon, vIrLue Is LIereIore rep-
resenLed noL us II mun possesses vIrLue buL ruLIer us II vIrLue possesses
mun; I or In LIe I ormer cuse IL wouId Iook us II mun sLIII Iud u cIoIce
(Ior wIIcI Ie wouId need yeL unoLIer vIrLue In order Lo cIoose vIr-
Lue In preIerence Lo uny oLIer goods oI I ered IIm). To LIInk oI severuI
vIrLues (us one unuvoIdubIy does) Is noLIIng oLIer LIun Lo LIInk oI
LIe vurIous moruI objecLs Lo wIIcI LIe wIII Is Ied by LIe one prIncIpIe
oI vIrLue, und so Loo wILI regurd Lo LIe conLrury vIces. TIe expres-
sIon LIuL personIIIes boLI Is un uesLIeLIc devIce LIuL sLIII poInLs Lo
u moruI sense. So un uesLIeLIc oI moruIs, wIIIe noL Indeed purL oI
LIe meLupIysIcs oI moruIs, Is sLIII u subjecLIve presenLuLIon oI IL In
wIIcI LIe IeeIIngs LIuL uccompuny LIe consLruInIng power oI LIe
moruI Iuw (e.g., dIsgusL, Iorror, eLc., wIIcI muke moruI uversIon sen-
sIbIe) muke ILs eIIIcucy IeIL, In order Lo geL LIe beLLer oI merel sensIbIe
IncILemenLs.
123,
4' )"% 5+/'6/78% )"#) 9/()/':0/("%( )"% 9-6)+/'% -. 3/+)0%
.+-& )"% 9-6)+/'% -. ;/:")
TII s dIsLIncLIon, on wIIcI LIe muIn dIvIsIon oI LIe doctrine oj morcls
us u wIoIe uIso resLs, Is bused on LIIs: LIuL LIe concepL oI .+%%<-&=
wIIcI Is common Lo boLI, mukes IL necessury Lo dIvIde duLIes InLo
duLIes oI outer jreedom und duLIes oI inner jreedom, onIy LIe IuLLer oI
wIIcI ure eLIIcuI. Hence Inner I reedom musL IIrsL be LreuLed In u
preIImInury remurk (discursus prcelimincris), us LIe condILIon oI uII
duties oj tirtue, (jusL us conscIence wus LreuLed eurIIer, us LIe condILIon |qo;|
oI uII duLIes us sucI).
Remcrl
Dn the Doctrine oj Virtue in Accordcnce uith
the Principle oj Inner Ireedom
An cptitude (hcbitus) Is u IucIIILy In ucLIng und u subjecLIve perIec-
LIon oI choice. BuL noL every such jccilit Is c jree upLILude (hcbitus
libertctis); Ior II IL Is u hcbit (cssuetudo), LIuL Is, u unIIormILy In
ucLIon LIuL Ius become u necessit LIrougI IrequenL repeLILIon, IL
Is noL one LIuL proceeds Irom I reedom, und LIereIore noL u moruI
zzz The Metcphsics oj Morcls
upLILude. Hence vIrLue cunnoL be dejined us un upLI Lude I or I ree
ucLIons In conIormI Ly wILI Iuw unIess LIere Is udded "Lo deLer-
mIne oneseI I Lo ucL LIrougI LIe LIougIL oI LIe Iuw," und LIen
LIIs upLILude Is noL u properLy oI cIoIce buL oI LIe uill, wII cI Is
u cupucILy I or desIre LIuL, In udopLI ng u ruIe, uIso gIves IL us u
unIversuI Iuw. OnI y sucI un upLILude cun be counLed us vIrLue.
BuL Lwo LIIngs ure requI red I or I nner I reedom: beI ng one' s own
mcster In u gI ven cuse (cnimus sui compos), LIuL Is, subduI ng one' s
uIIecLs, und rulin oneseI I (imperium in semetipsum), LIuL Is, otern-
in one' s pussIons. n LIese Lwo sLuLes one' s chcrccter (indoles) Is
nobIe (erectc); In LIe opposILe cuse IL Is meun (indoles cbiectc,
sertc).
13,
3/+)0% ;%>0/+%(= /' )"% ?/+() 58#6%=
@-$%+'/': 4'%(%8.
Ajjects und pcssions
q1
ure essenLIuIIy dI I I erenL I rom eucI oLIer. AI I ecL s
beI ong Lo jeelin InsoIur us, precedI ng reIIecLIon, IL mukes LIIs Impos-
sIbIe or more dIIIIcuI L. Hence un uI I ecL Is cuIIed precipitcte or rcsh
|qo8| (cnimus prceceps), und reuson suys, L IrougI LIe concepL oI vIrLue, LIuL
one sIouId et hold oj oneseII. YeL LIIs weukness In LIe use oI one' s
undersLundI ng coupI ed wILI LIe sLrengLI oI one' s emoLI ons Is onIy u
lccl oj tirtue und, us IL were, someLII ng cIIIdIsI und weuk, wII cI cun
I ndeed coexIsL wILI LIe besL wIII. L even Ius one good LII ng ubouL IL:
LIuL LIIs LempesL quIckIy subsIdes. AccordI ngI y u propensILy Lo un
uI I ecL (e.g., cner) does noL enLer InLo kInsIIp wILI vIce so reudIIy us
does u pussIon. A pcssion Is u sensIbIe desire LIuL Ius become u IusLIng
IncIInuLIon (e.g., hctred, us opposed Lo unger). TIe cuIm wILI wIIcI one
gIves oneseII up Lo IL permILs reII ecLI on und uIIows LIe mI nd Lo I orm
prIncIpIes upon IL und so, II IncIInuLIon IIgILs upon someLII ng con-
Lrury Lo LIe Iuw, Lo brood upon IL, Lo geL IL rooLed deepI y, und so Lo Luke
up wIuL Is evII (us someLIIng premedILuLed) InLo ILs muxI m. And LIe
evII Is LIen properl evII,
qz
LIuL Is, u Lrue tice.
SInce vIrLue Is bused on Inner I reedom, IL conLuIns u posILIve com-
mund Lo u mun, numeIy Lo brI ng uII IIs cupucILIes und IncIInuLIons
under IIs (reuson's) conLroI und so Lo ruIe over IImseII, wIIcI goes
beyond I orbI ddI ng IIm Lo IeL IImseII be governed by IIs IeeI I ngs und
IncIInuLIons (LIe duLy oI cpcth), Ior unIess reuson IoIds LIe reIns oI
governmenL In ILs own Iunds, mun' s IeeIIngs und IncIInuLIons pIuy LIe
musLer over IIm.
The Doctrine oj Riht g zop
132,
3/+)0% A%6%((#+/8* 5+%(077-(%( Apcth
B;%:#+<%< #( C)+%':)"D
TIe word "upuLIy" Ius IuIIen InLo dIsrepuLe, us II IL meunL Iuck oI
IeeIIng und so subjecLIve I ndI IIerence wILI respecL Lo objecLs oI cIoIce;
IL Is Luken Ior weukness. TII s mIsundersLundIng cun be prevenLed
by gIvIng LIe nume "morcl cpcth" Lo LIuL ubsence oI uIIecLs wIIcI
Is Lo be dIsLInguIsIed Irom IndIIIerence, becuuse In cuses oI moruI
upuLIy IeeIIngs urIsIng Irom sensIbIe ImpressIons Iose LIeIr InII uence
on moruI IeeIIng onIy becuuse respecL Ior LIe Iuw Is more powerI uI
LIun uII sucI IeeIIngs LogeLIer. OnIy LIe uppurenL sLrengLI oI some-
one IeverIsI IeLs u IIveIy sympuLIy even Ior uhct is ood rIse InLo un |qoq|
uIIecL, or ruLIer degeneruLe InLo IL. An uIIecL oI LIIs kInd Is cuIIed
enthusicsm, und LIe moderction LIuL Is usuuIIy recommended even Ior
LIe prucLIce oI vIrLue Is Lo be InLerpreLed us reIerrI ng Lo IL (inscni
scpiens nomen hcbect cequus iniqui - ultrc qucm sctis est tirtutem si petct
ipscm. Horct.)\ Ior oLIerwIse IL Is ubsurd Lo suppose LIuL one couId
be too uise, too tirtuous. An uIIecL uIwuys beIongs Lo sensIbIIILy, no
muLLer by wIuL kInd oI objecL IL Is uroused. TIe Lrue sLrengLI oI vIrLue
Is u trcnquil mind wILI u consIdered und IIrm resoIuLIon Lo puL LIe Iuw
oI vIrLue InLo prucLIce. TIuL Is LIe sLuLe oI heclth In LIe moruI IIIe,
wIereus un uIIecL, even one uroused by LIe LIougIL oI uhct is ood, Is
u momenLury, spurkIIng pIenomenon LIuL Ieuves one exIuusLed. BuL
LIuL mun cun be cuIIed IunLusLIcuIIy vIrLuous wIo uIIows nothin to be
morcll indijjerent (cdicphorc) und sLrews uII IIs sLeps wILI duLIes, us
wILI mun-Lrups; IL Is noL IndIIIerenL Lo IIm wIeLIer euL meuL or IIsI,
drInk beer or wIne, supposIng LIuL boLI ugree wILI me. unLusLIc
vIrLue Is u concern wILI peLLy deLuIIs |Milroloie | wIIcI, were IL udmIL-
Led InLo LIe docLrIne oI vIrLue, wouId Lurn LIe governmenL oI vIrLue
InLo Lyrunny.
Remcrl
VI rLue Is uIwuys in proress und yeL uIwuys sLurLs jrom the beinnin.
L Is uIwuys In progress becuuse, consIdered objectitel, IL Is un
IdeuI und unuLLuInubIe, wIIIe yeL consLunL upproxImuLIon Lo IL Is
u duLy. TIuL IL uIwuys sLurLs I rom LIe begInnIng Ius u subjectite
busIs In Iumun nuLure, wIIcI Is uIIecLed by IncIInuLIons becuuse
oI wIIcI vIrLue cun never seLLIe down In peuce und quIeL wILI
ILs muxIms udopLed once und Ior uII buL, II IL Is noL rIsIng, Is
unuvoIdubIy sInkIng. or moruI muxIms, unIIke LecInIcuI ones,
zzq The Metcphsics oj Morcls
cunnoL be bused on IubI L (sInce LIIs beI ongs Lo LIe nuL uruI consLILu-
LIon oI LIe wIII's deLermI nuLI on); on LIe conLrury, II LIe prucLI ce oI
vI rLue were Lo become u IubIL LIe subj ecL wouI d s uI I er Ioss Lo LIuL
jreedom In udopL I ng IIs muxI ms wII cI dI sLI nguI sIes un ucLI on done
I r om duLy.
|q1o| 1322,
E-'6%7)( 5+%8/&/'#+* )- )"% 9/$/(/-'
-. )"% 9-6)+/'% -. 3/+)0%
TII s prI ncI pI e oI dIvIsIon musL, ./+()= In Lerms oI wIuL Is jormcl, con-
LuIn uII LIe condI LI ons LIuL serve Lo dI sLI nguI sI u purL oI LIe docL rI ne oI
moruI s In generuI I r om LIe docLrI ne oI RI gIL und Lo do so In L erms oI
ILs specIIIc I or m. L does LIIs by I uyI ng IL down 1) LIuL duLI es oI vI rLue
ure duLI es I or wII cI L Iere Is no exL ernuI I uwgI vI ng; z) LIuL sInce u Iuw
musL yeL IIe uL LIe busIs oI every duL y, LIIs Iuw In eLIIcs cun be u Iuw oI
duL y gI ven, noL I or ucLIons, buL onI y I or LIe muxI ms oI ucLIons; ) LIuL
(us IoI I ows In L urn I r om LIIs) eLIIcuI duL y musL be L IougIL us uide, noL
us nurrow, duLy.
T I e prI ncI pI e oI dIvIsIon musL, (%6-'<= In Lerms oI wIuL Is mctericl,
presenL LIe docL rI ne oI vI rLue noL mereI y us u docL rI ne oI duLI es gener-
uIIy buL uIso us u doctrine oj ends, so LIuL mun Is under obI I guLI on Lo
regurd II mseI I, us weII us every oL Ier mun, us IIs end. TIe s e ure
usuuI I y cuI I ed duLI es oI seII-Iove und oI I ove I or one' s neI gIbor; buL
L Ien LIese words ure used I nupproprI uL eI y, sInce L Iere cun be no
dI recL duL y Lo I ove, buL InsLeud Lo do LIuL [zu Hcndlunen] by wII cI
mun mukes II mseI I und oLIers IIs end.
F"/+<= wILI r egur d Lo LIe dIsLIncLIon beL ween LIe muL L er und LIe
I or m In LIe prI ncI pI e oI duL y (beLween conI ormI L y wI LI ends und
conI ormI L y wILI Iuw)," IL sIouI d be noL ed LIuL noL every obliction oj
tirtue (oblictio ethicc) Is u duLy oI vI rLue (ojjicium ethicum s. tirtutis)',
In oL Ier words, respecL I or Iuw us sucI does noL yeL esLubIIsI un end
us u duL y, und onI y sucI un end Is u duL y oI vI rLue. Hence L Iere Is onI y
one obI I guLI on oI vI rLue, wIereus L Iere ure mcn duLI es oI vI rLue;
I or LIere ure I ndeed muny objecLs LIuL IL Is uIso our duL y Lo Iuve us
ends, buL L Iere Is onI y one vI rLuous dIsposILIon, LIe subj ecLI ve deLer-
mI nI ng gr ound Lo IuI II I I one' s duL y, wII cI exL ends Lo duLI es oI RI gIL
us weII , uI L IougI LIey cunnoL, becuuse oI LIIs, be cuI I ed duLI es oI
vI rLue. Hence uII LIe ditisions oI eLIIcs wIII Iuve Lo do onI y wILI duLI es
" The text reads (der Gesetzmcssileit ton der Zueclmcssileit); it would seem how-
ever that "conIormity with ends" is "the matter" and "conIormity with law" the
"Iorm."
The Doctrine oj Riht g z::
oI vIrLue. VI ewed In Lerms oI ILs I ormuI prIncIpIe, eLIIcs Is LIe scIence
oI Iow one Is under obIIguLIon wILIouL regurd I or uny possIbIe exLer-
nuI IuwgIvIng.
Remcrl [(::]
BuL, IL wIII be usked, wIy do I nLroduce u dIvIsIon oI eLIIcs InLo
u Doctrine oj Elements und u Doctrine oj Method, wIen no sucI
dIvIsIon wus needed In LIe docLrIne oI RIgIL? TIe reuson Is LIuL
LIe docLrIne oI RIgIL Ius Lo do onIy wILI nurrow duLIes, wIereus
eLIIcs Ius Lo do wILI wIde duLIes. Hence LIe docLrIne oI RIgIL,
wII cI by ILs nuLure musL deLermI ne duLIes sLrIcLIy (precIseIy), Ius
no more need oI generuI dIrecLIons (u meLIod) us Lo Iow Lo
proceed In j udgI ng LIun does pure muLIemuLIcs; InsLeud, IL cerLI-
IIes ILs meLIod by wIuL IL does. BuL eLIIcs, becuuse oI LIe IuLILude
IL uIIows In ILs I mperI ecL duLIes, InevILubIy Ieuds Lo quesLIons LIuL
cuII upon j udgmenL Lo decIde Iow u muxI m Is Lo be uppI I ed In
purLIcuIur cuses, und I ndeed In sucI u wuy LIuL j udgmenL pro-
vIdes unoLIer (subordInuLe) muxI m (und one cun uIwuys usk I or
yeL unoLIer prIncIpIe Ior uppI yI ng LIIs muxI m Lo cuses LIuL muy
urIse). So eLIIcs IuIIs InLo u cusuIsLry, wIIcI Ius no pIuce In LIe
docLrIne oI RIgIL.
Ccsuistr Is, uccordIngIy, neILIer u science nor u purL oI u scI-
ence; I or In LIuL cuse IL wouI d be dogmuLIcs, und cusuIsLry Is noL
so mucI u docLrI ne ubouL Iow to jind someLII ng us ruLIer u
prucLIce In Iow to seel LruLI. So IL Is uoten into ethics In u jrcmen-
tcr wuy, noL |presenLed| sysLemuLIcuIIy (us dogmuLIcs wouI d Iuve
Lo be), und Is udded Lo eLIIcs onIy by wuy oI scIoIIu Lo LIe sysLem.
On LIe oLIer Iund, LIe Doctrine oj Method oI moruIIy prucLIcuI
reuson, wIIcI deuIs noL so mucI wILI j udgmenL us wILI reuson
und ILs exercise In boLI LIe theor und LIe prcctice oI ILs duLIes,
beI ongs Lo eLIIcs In purLIcuIur. The jirst exercIse oI IL consIsLs In
questionin LIe pupI I ubouL wIuL Ie uIreudy knows oI concepLs oI
duLy, und muy be cuIIed LIe erotetic meLIod. I Ie knows LIIs
becuuse Ie Ius prevIousIy been LoId IL, so LIuL now IL Is druwn
mereIy I rom IIs memory, LIe meLIod Is cuIIed LIe cctechistic
meLIod proper; buL II IL Is ussumed LIuL LIe knowI edge Is uIreudy
presenL nuLuruIIy In LIe pupII' s reuson und needs onIy Lo be
deveI oped |entuiclelt| I rom IL, LIe meLIod Is cuIIed LIuL oI dic-
loue (SocruLIc meLIod).
CuLecIIzIng, us exercIse In LIeory, Ius cscetics I or ILs prucLIcuI
counLerpurL. AsceLIcs Is LIuL purL oI LIe docLrI ne oI meLIod In |q1z|
wII cI Is LuugIL noL onIy LIe concepL oI vIrLue buL uIso Iow Lo puL
z:z The Metcphsics oj Morcls
InLo prucLI ce und cuILIvuLe LIe ccpccit jor us weII us LIe wIII Lo vI rLue.
n uccordunce wI LI LIese prI ncI pI es we sIuII seL I orL I LIe sysLem In Lwo
purLs: LIe doctrine oI LIe elements oj ethics und LIe doctrine oI LIe methods
oj ethics. EucI purL wIII Iuve ILs dIvIsIons. n LIe IIrsL purL, LIese wIII be
mude In uccordunce wILI LIe dI I I er enL subjects Lo wIom mun Is under
obI I guLI on; In LIe second purL, In uccordunce wILI LIe dI I I er enL ends
LIuL reuson puLs men under obI I guLI on Lo Iuve, und wI LI LIeI r recep-
LIvILy Lo LIese ends.
!"###$
TI e dIvIsIon LIuL prucLIcuI reuson Iuys ouL Lo esLubIIsI u sysLem oI ILs
concepLs In un ethics (LIe urcII LecLonI c dIvIsIon) cun be mude In uccor-
dunce wILI prI ncI pI es oI Lwo kInds, Luken eI LIer sIngI y or L ogeL Ier.
One seLs I orL I in terms oj its mctter LIe subjectite reI uLI on beL ween u
beI ng LIuL Is under obI I guLI on und LIe beI ng LIuL puLs II m under
obI I guLI on; LIe oL Ier seLs I orL I In u sysLem in terms oj its jorm LIe
objectite reI uLI on oI eLIIcuI Iuws Lo duLI es generuI I y. The jirst dI vI sI on Is
LIuL oI LIe beins In reI uLI on Lo wIom eLIIcuI obI I guLI on cun be L IougIL ;
LIe second wouI d be LIe dIvIsIon oI LIe concepts oI pur e eLIIcuIIy prucLI-
cuI reuson LIuL Iuve Lo do wILI LIe duLIes oI LIose beI ngs. TIe s e
concepLs ure, uccordI ngI y, requI red I or eLIIcs onI y I nsoI ur us IL Is Lo be
u science, und so ure requI red I or LIe meL IodI c ur r ungemenL oI uII LIe
proposI LI ons I ound on LIe busIs oI LIe IIrsL dIvIsIon.
|q1| IrsL DIvIsIon oI ELIIcs
n Accordunce wILI LIe DIsLIncLIon oI SubjecLs und TIeI r uws.
L conLuIns:
The Doctrine oj Virtue z:
Second DIvIsIon oI ELIIcs
n Accordunce wILI PrIncIpIes oI u SysLem oI Pure PrucLIcuI Reuson.
Becuuse LIe IuLLer dIvIsIon Ius Lo do wILI LIe I or m oI LIe scIence, IL
musL precede LIe IIrsL, us LIe ground- pI un oI LIe wIoI e.
|q1;| D O C T R N E O T H E E E M E N T S O E T H C S
P A R T "
O N D U T E S T O O N E S E A S S U C H
nLroducLIon
#$% &'( )*+,(-. */ 0 12.3 .* 4+(5(6/ )*+.07+5
80. 97:5. ;60+,(< 0 )*+.:0=7,.7*+
I LIe thct imposes obliction Is L uken In LIe sume sense us LIe thct is
put under obliction, u duL y Lo oneseI I Is u seI I-conLrudI cLory concepL. or
LIe concepL oI duL y conLuI ns LIe concepL oI beI ng pussIveIy consL ruI ned
( um bound). BuL II LIe duL y Is u duL y Lo myseI I , LII nk oI myseI I us
bindin und so us ucLIveIy consLruI nI ng (, LIe sume subj ecL, um I mpos-
I ng obIIguLIon). An d LIe proposI LI on LIuL usserLs u duL y Lo myseI I (
ouht Lo bI nd myseI I ) wouI d I nvoI ve beI ng bound Lo bI nd myseI I (u
pussIve obI I guLI on LIuL wus sLIII, In LIe sume sense oI LIe reI uLI on, uIso
un ucLIve obI I guLI on), und Ience u conLrudI cLI on. One cun uIso br I ng
LIIs conLrudI cLI on Lo IIgIL by poI nL I ng ouL LIuL LIe one I mposI ng obII-
guLI on (cuctor oblictionis) couI d uIwuys reI euse LIe one puL under obII-
guLI on (subiectum oblictionis) I r om LIe obI I guLI on (terminus oblictionis),
so LIuL (II boL I ure one und LIe sume subjecL) Ie wouI d noL be bound
uL uII Lo u duLy Ie Iuys upon II mseI I . TII s I nvoI ves u conLrudI cLI on.
#>% ?(@(:.'(6(55A B0+ C05 12.7(5 .* C7D5(6/
or suppose L Iere were no sucI duLI es: TIe n L Iere wouI d be no duLI es
wIuL soever, und so no exL ernuI duLI es eI LIer. or cun recognI ze LIuL
um under obI I guLI on Lo oLIers onI y I nsoI ur us uL LIe sume LI me puL
myseI I under obI I guLI on, sInce LIe Iuw by vI rLue oI wII cI regurd
|q18| myseI I us beI ng under obI I guLI on proceeds In every cuse I r om my own
prucLIcuI reuson; und In beI ng consLruI ned by my own reuson, um uIso
LIe one consL ruI nI ng myseI I .
*So when it is a question, Ior example, oI vindicating my honor or oI preserving my-
selI, I say "I owe it to myselI." Even in what concerns duties oI less importance -
those having to do only with what is meritorious rather than necessary in my
compliance with duty - I speak in the same way, Ior example "I owe it to myselI to
increase my Iitness Ior social intercourse and so Iorth (to cultivate myselI)."
z1q
The Doctrine oj Riht g z:
#E% F*62.7*+ .* &'75 G--0:(+. G+.7+*D3
WIen mun Is conscIous oI u duLy Lo IImseII, Ie vIews IImseII, us LIe
subjecL oI duLy, under Lwo uLLrIbuLes: IIrsL us u sensible bein, LIuL Is, us
mun (u member oI one oI LIe unImuI specIes), und second us un
intelliible bein (noL mereIy us u beI ng LIuL Ius reuson, sInce reuson In
ILs LIeoreLIcuI cupucILy couI d weII be un uLLrIbuLe oI u IIvIng corporeuI
beIng). TIe senses cunnoL uLLuIn LIIs IuLLer uspecL oI mun; IL cun be
recognI zed onIy In moruIIy prucLIcuI reIuLIons, wIere LIe I ncompre-
IensIbIe properLy oI jreedom Is reveuI ed by LIe I nII uence oI reuson on
LIe Inner IuwgIvIng wIII.
Now, mun us u ncturcl bein LIuL Ius reuson (homo phcenomenon) cun
be deLermI ned by IIs reuson, us u ccuse, Lo ucLIons In LIe sensIbIe worI d,
und so I ur LIe concepL oI obIIguLIon does noL come InLo consIderuLIon.
BuL LIe sume mun LIougIL In Lerms oI IIs personclit, LIuL Is, us u beI ng
endowed wILI inner jreedom (homo noumenon), Is regurded us u beI ng
LIuL cun be puL under obIIguLIon und, I ndeed, under obIIguLIon Lo IIm-
seII (Lo LIe IumunI Ly In IIs own person). So mun (Luken In LIese Lwo
dI I I erenL senses) cun ucknowI edge u duLy Lo IImseII wI LIouL IuIIIng
InLo conLrudIcLIon (becuuse LIe concepL oI mun Is noL LIougIL In one
und LIe sume sense).
#H% 4+ .'( I:7+,7-6( *+ J'7,' .'( 17@757*+
*/ 12.7(5 .* 4+(5(6/ "5 K05(=
TIe dIvIsIon cun be mude onIy wILI regurd Lo objecLs oI duLy, noL wILI
regurd Lo LIe subjecL LIuL puLs ILseII under obIIguLIon. TIe subjecL LIuL
Is bound, us weII us LIe subjecL LIuL bInds, Is uIwuys mcn onl, und
LIougI we muy, In u LIeoreLIcuI respecL, dIsLInguIsI souI und body
I rom eucI oLIer, us nuLuruI uLLrIbuLes oI mun, we muy noL LIInk oI
LIem us dI I I erenL subsLunces puLLI ng IIm under obIIguLIon, so us Lo
j usLI Iy u dIvIsIon oI duLIes Lo LIe bod und duLIes Lo LIe soul. NeILIer |q1q|
experI ence nor I nIerences oI reuson gIve us udequuLe grounds I or
decI dI ng wIeLIer mun Ius u souI (In LIe sense oI u subsLunce dweI I Ing
In IIm, dIsLIncL I rom LIe body und cupubIe oI LII nkI ng I ndependenLI y
oI IL, LIuL Is, u spIrILuuI subsLunce), or wIeLIer IIIe muy noL weII be,
InsLeud, u properLy oI muLLer. And even II LIe IIrsL uILernuLIve be Lrue,
IL Is sLIII InconceIvubIe LIuL mun sIouI d Iuve u duLy Lo u bod (us u
subjecL I mposI ng obIIguLIon), even Lo u Iumun body.
$< TIe onIy objectite dIvIsIon oI duLIes Lo oneseII wIII, uccordI ngI y, be
LIe dIvIsIon InLo wIuL Is /*:D06 und wIuL Is D0.(:706 In duLIes Lo one-
seII. TIe IIrsL oI LIese ure limitin (neguLIve) duLIes; LIe second, uiden-
z16 The Metcphsics oj Morcls
in (posILIve duLI es Lo oneseI I ). NeguLI ve duLI es jorbid mun Lo ucL con-
Lrury Lo LIe (+= oI IIs nuLure und so Iuve Lo do mereI y wILI IIs moruI
selj presertction, posILIve duLIes, wII cI commcnd II m Lo muke u cerLuI n
obj ecL oI cIoI ce IIs end, concern IIs perjectin oI II mseI I . BoL I oI L Iem
beI ong Lo vI rLue, eI LIer us duLIes oI omI ssI on (sustine et cbstine) or us
duLI es oI commI ssI on (tiribus concessis utere), buL boL I beI ong Lo IL
us duLI es oI vI rLue. TI e IIrsL beI ong Lo LIe moruI '(06.' (cd esse) oI mun
us obj ecL oI boL I IIs ouL er senses und IIs I nner sense, Lo LIe presertction
oI IIs nuLure In ILs perI ecLI on (us receptitit). TI e second beI ong Lo IIs
moruI prosperit (cd melius esse, opulentic morclis), wII cI consIsLs In pos-
sessIng u ccpccit suI I I cI enL I or uII IIs ends, I nsoI ur us LIIs cun be
ucquI red; LIey beI ong Lo IIs cultitction (ucLIve perI ecL I ng) oI II mseI I.
T I e IIrsL prI ncI pI e oI duLy Lo oneseI I IIes In LIe dI cL um "IIve In conI or-
mILy wILI nuL ure" (ncturce contenienter tite), LIuL Is, preserte yourseI I In
LIe perI ecL I on oI your nuLure; LIe second, In LIe suyI ng "mcle ourselj
more perject L Iun mere nuLure Ius mude you" (perjice te ut jinem, perjice
te ut medium)l
:
z) TIe r e wIII be u subjectite dIvIsIon oI mun' s duLI es Lo II mseI I , LIuL Is,
|qzo| one In Lerms oI wIeL Ier LIe subj ecL oI duLy (mun) vI ews II mseI I boLI
us un 0+7D06 (nuLuruI) und u moruI beI ng or *+63 05 0 D*:06 beI ng.
TIe r e ure I mpuI ses oI nuLure IuvI ng Lo do wILI mun' s 0+7D067.3%
TIr o ug I L Iem nuL ure uIms uL u) IIs seI I-preservuLI on, b) LIe preservu-
LIon oI LIe specIes, und c) LIe preservuLI on oI IIs cupucILy Lo enj oy IIIe,
L IougI sLIII on LIe unI muI IeveI onI y.
q
TIe vIces LIuL ure Iere opposed
Lo mun' s duL y Lo II mseI I ure murderin himselj, LIe unnuL uruI use oI IIs
sexucl inclinction, und sucI excessite consumption oj jood cnd drinl us
weukens IIs cupucI Ly I or mukI ng purposI ve use oI IIs powers.
BuL mun' s duL y Lo II mseI I us u moruI beI ng onl (wI LIouL LukI ng IIs
unImuIILy InLo consI deruLI on) consIsLs In wIuL Is jormcl In LIe consIs-
Lency oI LIe muxI ms oI IIs wIII wI LI LIe dinit oI IumunI L y In IIs
person. L consIsLs, L IereI ore, In u proII bI LI on uguI nsL deprI vI ng IIm-
seII oI LIe preroctite oI u moruI beI ng, LIuL oI ucLI ng In uccordunce
wILI prI ncI pI es, LIuL Is, I nner I r eedom, und so mukI ng II mseI I u
pI uyL II ng oI LIe mere IncIInuLIons und Ience u LII ng. T I e vIces con-
Lrury Lo LIIs duL y ure 637+LA 0@0:7,(A und /065( '2D767.3 (servIIILy).
TIes e udopL prI ncI pI es LIuL ure dIrecLI y conLrury Lo mun' s cIurucLer us
u moruI beI ng (In Lerms oI ILs very I orm), LIuL Is, Lo I nner I r eedom, LIe
""PerIect yourselI as an end, perIect yourselI as a means." On Kant's use oI Stoic
language see note g 1.
b
The second edition emends the preceding passage to read: "c) the preservation oI
the subject's capacity to use his powers purposeIully and to enjoy . . . "
The Doctrine oj Virtue z:;
InnuLe dIgnILy oI mun, wIIcI Is LunLumounL Lo suyIng LIuL LIey muke IL
one' s busIc prIncIpIe Lo Iuve no busIc prIncIpIe und Ience no cIurucLer,
LIuL Is, Lo LIrow oneseII uwuy und muke oneseII un objecL oI conLempL.
TIe vIrLue LIuL Is opposed Lo uII LIese vIces couI d be cuIIed lote oj honor
(honestcs internc, iustum sui cestimium), u cusL oI mI nd I ur removed I rom
cmbition (cmbitio) (wIIcI cun be quILe meun). BuL IL wIII uppeur promI -
nenLIy IuLer on, under LIIs nume.
|qz1| B O O K
P E R E C T D U T E S T O O N E S E
C H A P T E R
Mun's DuLy Lo HImseII
us un AnImuI BeIng
!"#
T I e jirst, L IougI noL LIe prI ncI puI , duL y oI mun Lo II mseI I us un unI-
muI beI ng Is to preserte himselj In IIs unI muI nuL ure.
T I e conL rury oI LIIs Is wI I I IuI phsiccl decth or kI I I I ng oneseI I
(cutochiric), wII cI cun be L IougIL us eI LIer LoLuI, suI cI de (suicidium), or
mereI y purLIuI, muLI I uLI ng oneseI I . MuLI I uLI ng oneseI I cun In L urn be
eI LIer mctericl, depritin oneseI I oI cerLuI n I nLegruI , orgunI c pcrts, LIuL
Is, muI mI ng oneseI I , or jormcl, depritin oneseI I (permunenL I y or Lem-
porurI I y) oI one' s ccpccit I or LIe nuLuruI (und so I ndI recLI y I or LIe
moruI ) use oI one' s powers.
SInce LIIs cIupL er deuI s onI y wI LI neguLI ve duLI es und so wILI duLI es
oI omI ssI on, LIe urLIcIes ubouL duLI es musL be dI recL ed uguI nsL LIe tices
opposed Lo duLI es Lo oneseI I.
!"##$ &'()*+, -.
/0 1)++)02 /0,3,+4
!"#
WI I I IuI I y lillin oneseI I cun be cuI I ed 56'7,')02 80,3,+4 9homocidium
dolosum) onI y II IL cun be proved LIuL IL Is In generuI u crI me commI L L ed
eI LIer uguInsL one' s own person or uIso, L Ir ougI one' s kI I I I ng oneseI I,
uguInsL unoL Ier (us wIen u pr egnunL womun Lukes Ier IIIe).
u) KI I I I ng oneseI I Is u crI me (murder). L cun uIso be r egur ded us u
vIoIuLIon oI one' s duL y Lo oL Ier Iumun beI ngs (LIe duL y oI spouses Lo
eucI oLIer, oI purenLs Lo LIeI r cII I dren, oI u subj ecL Lo IIs ruI er or
Lo IIs I eI I ow cILIzens, und IInuIIy even us u vIoIuLIon oI duL y Lo God, us
mun' s ubundonI ng LIe posL ussI gned II m In LIe worI d wI L IouL IuvI ng
been cuIIed uwuy I r om IL). BuL sInce wIuL Is In quesL I on Iere Is onI y u
vIoIuLIon oI duL y Lo oneseI I , LIe quesLI on Is wIeL Ier, II seL usIde uII
LIose reIuLIons, mun Is sLIII bound Lo preserve IIs I I Ie sI mpI y by vI rLue
z18
The Doctrine oj Riht g z:p
oI IIs quuIILy us u person und wIeLIer Ie musL ucknowI edge In LIIs u
duLy (und I ndeed u sLrIcL duLy) Lo IImseII.
L seems ubsurd Lo suy LIuL u mun couId wrong II mseI I
q
(tolenti non
jit iniuric). Hence LIe SLoIc LIougIL IL u preroguLI ve oI IIs (LIe suge's)
personuIILy Lo depurL I rom IIIe uL IIs dIscreLIon (us I rom u smoke-IIIIed
room) wILI peuce oI souI, Iree I rom LIe pressure oI presenL or unLIcI-
puLed IIIs, becuuse Ie couI d be oI no more use In IIIe. BuL LIere sIouI d
Iuve been In LIIs very couruge, LIIs sLrengLI oI souI noL Lo I eur deuLI
und Lo know oI someLII ng LIuL mun cun vuIue even more IIgIIy LIun
IIs IIIe, u sLIII sLronger moLIve I or II m noL Lo desLroy IImseII, u beI ng
wILI sucI powerI uI uuLIorILy over LIe sLrongesL sensIbIe IncenLIves,
und so noL Lo deprI ve IImseII oI IIIe.
Mun cunnoL renounce IIs personuIILy us I ong us Ie Is u subjecL oI
duLy, Ience us I ong us Ie IIves; und IL Is u conLrudIcLIon LIuL Ie sIouId
be uuLIorI zed Lo wILIdruw I rom uII obIIguLIon, LIuL Is, IreeIy Lo ucL us
II no uuLIorIzuLIon were needed I or LIIs ucLIon. To unnIIIIuLe LIe
subjecL oI moruIILy In one' s own person Is Lo rooL ouL LIe exIsLence oI |qz|
moruIILy ILseII I rom LIe worI d, us Iur us one cun, even L IougI moruIILy
Is un end In ILseII. ConsequenLI y, dIsposIng oI oneseI I us u mere meuns
Lo some dIscreLIonury end Is debusI ng IumunI Ly In one' s person (homo
noumenon), Lo wIIcI mun (homo phcenomenon) wus neverLIeIess en-
LrusLed Ior preservuLIon.
To deprI ve oneseII oI un InLegruI purL or orgun (Lo muIm oneseI I ) -
Ior exumpI e, Lo gIve uwuy or seII u LooLI Lo be LrunspIunLed InLo
unoLIer' s mouLI, or Lo Iuve oneseI I cusLruLed In order Lo geL un eusIer
IIveIIIood us u sInger, und so IorLI - ure wuys oI purLIuIIy murderI ng
oneseII. BuL Lo Iuve u deud or dIseused orgun umpuLuLed wIen IL
endungers one' s IIIe, or Lo Iuve someLII ng cuL oI I LIuL Is u purL buL noL
un orgun oI LIe body, I or exumpI e, one' s IuIr, cunnoL be counLed us u
crIme uguInsL one' s own person - uI LIougI cuLLIng one' s IuIr In order
Lo seII IL Is noL uILogeLIer I ree I rom bIume.
Ccsuisticcl Questions
s IL murderI ng oneseI I Lo IurI oneseI I Lo cerLuIn deuLI (IIke CurLIus)
In order Lo suve one' s counLry? Or Is deIIberuLe murLyrdom, sucrIIIc-
I ng oneseII I or LIe good oI uII munkI nd, uIso Lo be consI dered un ucL
oI IeroIsm?
s IL permI LLed Lo unLIcIpuLe by kIIIIng oneseII LIe unjusL deuLI sen-
Lence oI one' s ruIer - even II LIe ruI er permILs LIIs (us dI d Nero wILI
Senecu)?
zzo The Metcphsics oj Morcls
Cun u greuL kI ng wIo dIed recenLIy
qq
be cIurged wILI u crImInuI
InLenLIon I or curryI ng u IusL-ucLIng poIson wILI IIm, presumubI y so
LIuL II Ie were cupLured wIen Ie Ied IIs Lroops InLo buLLIe Ie couI d noL
be coerced Lo ugree Lo condILIons oI runsom IurmI uI Lo IIs sLuLe? or
one cun uscrIbe LIIs purpose Lo IIm wILIouL IuvI ng Lo presume LIuL
mere prIde Iuy beII nd IL.
A mun wIo Iud been bILLen by u mud dog uIreudy IeIL IydropIobI u
comI ng on. He expI uI ned, In u IeLLer Ie IeIL, LIuL, sInce us I ur us Ie knew
|qzq| LIe dIseuse wus IncurubIe, Ie wus LukIng IIs IIIe IesL Ie Iurm oLIers us weII
In IIs mudness (LIe onseL oI wIIcI Ie uIreudy IeIL). DId Ie do wrong?
Anyone wIo decIdes Lo be vuccInuLed uguInsL smuI I pox puLs IIs IIIe
In dunger, even L IougI Ie does IL in order to preserte his lije, und,
InsoIur us Ie IImseI I brIngs on LIe dIseuse LIuL endungers IIs IIIe, Ie
Is In u I ur more doubL I uI sILuuLIon, us I ur us LIe Iuw oI duLy Is con-
cerned, LIun Is LIe suIIor, wIo uL IeusL does noL urouse LIe sLorm Lo
wIIcI Ie enLrusLs IImseII. s smuI I pox InocuIuLIon, LIen, permI LLed?
!"#$%&' ))*
+, -'.$&$,/ +,'0'&. 12 340#
!"#
JusL us Iove oI IIIe Is desLIned by nuLure Lo preserve LIe person, so
sexuuI Iove Is desLIned by IL Lo preserve LIe specIes; In oLIer words,
eucI oI LIese Is u ncturcl end, by wII cI Is undersLood LIuL connecLI on
oI u cuuse wILI un eI I ecL In wIIcI, uI LIougI no undersL undI ng Is
uscrIbed Lo LIe cuuse, IL Is sLIII L IougIL by unuIogy wILI un InLeIIIgenL
cuuse, und so us II IL produced men on purpose. WIuL Is now In
quesLIon Is wIeLIer u person' s use oI IIs sexuuI cupucILy Is subjecL Lo u
IImILIng Iuw oI duLy wILI regurd Lo LIe person IImseII or wIeLIer Ie
Is uuLIorI zed Lo dIrecL LIe use oI IIs sexuuI uLLrIbuLes Lo mere unImuI
pIeusure, wILIouL IuvI ng In vIew LIe preservuLIon oI LIe specIes, und
wouI d noL LIereby be ucLIng conLrury Lo u duLy Lo IImseII. n LIe
docLrIne oI RIgIL IL wus sIown LIuL mun cunnoL muke use oI cnother
person Lo geL LIIs pIeusure upurL I rom u specIuI IImILuLIon by u conLrucL
esLubIIsIIng LIe rIgIL, by wIIcI Lwo persons puL eucI oLIer under
obIIguLIon. BuL LIe quesLIon Iere Is wIeLIer mun Is subjecL Lo u duLy Lo
IImseII wILI regurd Lo LIIs enj oymenL, vIoIuLIon oI wII cI Is u dejilin
(noL mereIy u debusIng) oI LIe IumunILy In IIs own person. TIe
ImpeLus Lo LIIs pI eusure Is cuIIed curnuI IusL (or uIso sImpIy IusL). TIe
vIce engendered L IrougI IL Is cuIIed Iewdness; LIe vIrLue wILI regurd
Lo LIIs sensuous ImpuIse Is cuIIed cIusLILy, wIIcI Is Lo be represenLed
|qz| Iere us u duLy oI mun Lo IImseII. usL Is cuIIed unncturcl II u mun Is
uroused Lo IL noL by u reuI objecL buL by IIs I mugI nI ng IL, so LIuL Ie
The Doctrine oj Riht g zz:
II mseI I creuLes one conL rupurposI veI y; I or In LIIs wuy I mugI nuL I on
brI ngs I orL I u desI re conL rury Lo nuLure' s end, und I ndeed Lo un end
even mor e I mporL unL LIun LIuL oI I ove oI IIIe ILseII, sInce IL uI ms uL LIe
preservuL I on oI LIe wIoI e specIes und noL onI y oI LIe I ndI vI duuI .
TIu L sucI un unnuL uruI use (und so mIsuse) oI one' s sexuuI uLLrI buLe
Is u vI oI uLI on oI duL y to oneselj, und I ndeed one conL rury Lo moruI I Ly In
ILs II gIesL degr ee, occurs Lo everyone I mmedI uLeI y, wI LI LIe L IougIL
oI IL, und sLIrs up un uversI on Lo LIIs L IougIL Lo sucI un exL enL LIuL IL
Is consI dered I ndecenL even Lo cuII LIIs vIce by ILs pr oper nume. TII s
does noL occur wILI regurd Lo mur der I ng oneseI I , wII cI one does noL
IesILuLe In LIe IeusL Lo Iuy beI or e LIe worI d' s eyes In uII ILs Ior r or (In u
species jccti).
c
n LIe cuse oI unnuL uruI vIce IL Is us II mun In generuI IeI L
usIumed oI beI ng cupubI e oI LreuLI ng IIs own person In sucI u wuy,
wII cI debuses II m beneuL I LIe beusLs, so LIuL wIen even LIe permI L-
Led bodI I y unI on oI LIe sexes In murrI uge (u unI on wII cI Is In ILseII
mereI y un unI muI unI on) Is Lo be menL I oned In poI I Le socIeLy, LIIs
occusI ons und requI res mucI deI Icucy Lo L Irow u veII over IL.
BuL IL Is noL so eusy Lo pr oduce u ruLI onuI pr ooI LIuL unnuL uruI , und
even mereI y unpurposI ve, use oI one' s sexuuI uLLrIbuLe Is I nudmI ssI bI e
us beI ng u vI oI uLI on oI duL y Lo oneseI I (und I ndeed, us I ur us ILs unnuL -
uruI use Is concerned, u vIoIuLIon In LIe II gIesL degree). T I e round oj
prooj is, I ndeed, LIuL by IL mun surrenders IIs personuI I Ly (L IrowI ng IL
uwuy), sInce Ie uses II mseI I mereI y us u meuns Lo suLIsIy un unI muI
I mpuI se. BuL LIIs does noL expI uI n LIe II gI degr ee oI vIoI uLIon oI LIe
IumunI L y In one' s own person by sucI u vIce In ILs unnuL uruI ness,
wII cI seems In Lerms oI ILs I or m (LIe dIsposILIon IL InvoIves) Lo exceed
even mur der I ng oneseI I. L consIsLs, LIen, In LIIs: TIu L u mun wIo
deI I unL I y cusLs oI I IIIe us u bur den Is uL IeusL noL mukI ng u I eebI e sur-
r ender Lo unI muI I mpuI se In L IrowI ng II mseI I uwuy; mur der I ng one-
seII requI res couruge, und In LIIs dI sposI LI on L Iere Is sLIII uIwuys r oom
I or respecL I or LIe IumunI L y In one' s own person. BuL unnuL uruI IusL,
wII cI Is compI eL e ubundonmenL oI oneseI I Lo unI muI IncI InuLIon,
mukes mun noL onI y un obj ecL oI enj oymenL buL, sLIII I ur L Ier , u L II ng
LIuL Is conL rury Lo nuLure, LIuL Is, u locthsome objecL, und so deprI ves
II m oI uII respecL I or II mseI I.
Ccsuisticcl Questions |qz6|
NuL ure' s end In LIe coIubI LuLI on oI LIe sexes Is procreuL I on, LIuL Is, LIe
preservuL I on oI LIe specIes. Hence one muy noL, uL IeusL, ucL conL rury
" Species jccti is the totality oI those Ieatures oI a deed that belong essentially to its
i mput abi l i t y. See A. G. Baumgar t en, Initicphilosophice prccticceprimce, Ak. XI X, 62.
zzz The Metcphsics oj Morcls
Lo LIuL end. BuL Is IL permILLed Lo enguge In LIIs prucLIce (even wILIIn
murrIuge) uithout tclin this end into considerction?
I, I or exumpI e, LIe wI Ie Is pregnunL or sLerIIe (becuuse oI uge or
sIckness), or II sIe IeeIs no desIre I or InLercourse, Is IL noL conLrury Lo
nuLure' s end, und so uIso conLrury Lo one' s duLy Lo oneseI I, I or one or
LIe oLIer oI LIem, Lo muke use oI LIeIr sexuuI uLLrIbuLes - j usL us In
unnuLuruI IusL? Or Is LIere, In LIIs cuse, u permIssIve Iuw oI moruIIy
prucLIcuI reuson, wII cI In LIe coIIIsIon oI ILs deL ermI nI ng grounds
mukes permI LLed someLII ng LIuL Is In ILseII noL permI LLed (InduIgenLIy,
us IL were), In order Lo prevenL u sLIII greuLer vIoIuLIon? AL wIuL poInL
cun LIe IImILuLIon oI u wI de obIIguLIon be uscrIbed Lo purism (u pedun-
Lry regurdI ng LIe IuI II I I menL oI duLy, us I ur us LIe wIdeness oI LIe
obIIguLIon Is concerned), und LIe unImuI IncIInuLIons be uIIowed u IuLI-
Lude, uL LIe rIsk oI IorsukI ng LIe Iuw oI reuson?
SexuuI IncIInuLIon Is uIso cuIIed "lote" (In LIe nurrowesL sense oI LIe
word) und Is, In IucL, LIe sLrongesL possIbIe sensIbIe pI eusure |Sinnen-
lust| In un objecL. L Is noL mereIy sensitite pIeusure [sinnliche Lust], us In
objecLs LIuL ure pIeusIng In mere reII ecLIon on LIem (LIe recepLIvILy I or
wIIcI Is cuIIed LusLe). L Is ruLIer pIeusure I rom LIe enjoment oI un-
oLIer person, wII cI LIereI ore beI ongs Lo LIe ccpccit jor desire und,
I ndeed, Lo ILs IIgIesL sLuge, pussIon. BuL IL cunnoL be cIussed wILI
eILIer LIe Iove LIuL Is mere deI IgIL or LIe Iove oI benevoI ence (Ior boLI
oI LIese, InsLeud, deLer one I rom curnuI enjoymenL). L Is u unI que kInd
oI pIeusure (sui eneris), und LIIs urdor Ius noLII ng In common wILI
moruI Iove properI y speukIng, L IougI IL cun enLer InLo cIose unI on
wILI IL under LIe IImILIng condILIons oI prucLIcuI reuson.
!"#$% '()*+,- .../
01 2)34-56*17 01-8-,5 96 :;+-88*<- =8- >5 ?>>@ >( A(*1B
!"#
Here LIe reuson I or consI derI ng LIIs kInd oI excess u vIce Is noL LIe
Iurm or bodIIy puIn (dIseuses) LIuL mun brIngs on IImseII by IL; I or
LIen LIe prIncIpIe by wIIcI IL Is Lo be counLerucLed wouI d be one oI
weII-beIng und comI orL (und so oI IuppIness), und sucI u prIncIpIe cun
esLubIIsI onIy u ruI e oI prudence, never u duLy - uL IeusL noL u dIrecL
duLy.
BruLIsI excess In LIe use oI I ood und drInk Is mIsuse oI LIe meuns
oI nourI sImenL wII cI resLrIcLs or exIuusLs our cupucILy Lo use LIem
InLeIIIgenLIy. Drunlenness und lutton ure LIe vIces LIuL come under
LIIs IeudI ng. A mun wIo Is drunk Is IIke u mere unImuI, noL Lo be
LreuLed us u Iumun beIng. WIen sL uI I ed wILI I ood Ie Is In u condI LI on
The Doctrine oj Riht g zz
In wII cI Ie Is I ncupucI LuLed, I or u LI me, I or ucLIons LIuL wouI d requI re
II m Lo use IIs powers wILI skIII und deI I beruLI on. L Is obvI ous LIuL
puL L I ng oneseI I In sucI u sLuLe vIoIuLes u duL y Lo oneseI I. T I e IIrsL oI
LIese debusemenL s, beI ow even LIe nuL ure oI un unI muI , Is usuuI Iy
br ougIL ubouL by I er menL ed drI nks, buL IL cun uIso resuI L I r om oL Ier
nurcoLIcs, sucI us opI um und oL Ier vegeL ubI e producLs. TIe y ure
seducLI ve becuuse, under LIeI r I nI I uence, peopI e dr eum I or u wII I e
LIuL LIey ure Iuppy und I r ee I r om cure, und even I mugI ne LIuL LIey
ure sLrong; buL dej ecLI on und weukness I oI I ow und, worsL oI uII, LIey
creuLe u need Lo use LIe nurcoLIcs uguI n und even Lo I ncreuse LIe
umounL . GI uL L ony Is even I ower L Iun LIuL unI muI enj oymenL oI LIe
senses, sInce IL onI y IuIIs LIe senses InLo u pussIve condI LI on und, unI I ke
drunkenness, does noL even urouse I mugI nuLI on Lo un cctite pIuy oI
represenLuLI ons; so IL upproucIes even mor e cIoseIy LIe enj oymenL
oI cuLLIe.
Ccsuisticcl Questions |qz8|
Cun one uL IeusL j usL I I y, II noL euI ogI ze, u use oI wI ne bor der I ng on
I nLoxI cuLI on, sInce IL enI I vens LIe compuny' s conversuLI on und In so
doI ng mukes L Iem speuk more I reeI y? Or cun IL even be grunL ed LIe
merI L oI pr omoL I ng wIuL Horuce pruIses In CuL o: Virtus eius inccluit
mero?" T I e use oI opI um und spIrILs I or enj oymenL Is cI oser Lo beI ng
u buse ucL L Iun LIe use oI wI ne, sInce LIey muke LIe user sIIenL, reL-
IcenL, und wI L Idruwn by LIe dr eumy eupIorI u LIey I nduce. TIe y ure
L Ier eI or e permI L L ed onI y us medI cI nes. BuL wIo cun deL ermI ne LIe
mecsure I or someone wIo Is quI Le reudy Lo puss InLo u condI L I on In
wII cI Ie no I onger Ius cI eur eyes I or mecsurin? MoIummedunI s m,
wII cI I orbI ds wI ne uI LogeLIer, LIus mude u very bud cIoI ce In permI L-
LI ng opI um Lo Luke ILs pIuce.
6
AI L IougI u bunqueL Is u I or muI InvILuLIon Lo excess In boL I I ood und
drI nk, L Iere Is sLIII someL II ng In IL LIuL uIms uL u moruI end, beyond
mere pIysI cuI weI I -beI ng: IL brI ngs u number oI peopI e L ogeL Ier I or
u I ong LIme Lo converse wI LI one unoL Ier. And yeL LIe very number
oI guesLs (II, us CIesL erI I eI d suys, IL exceeds LIe number oI LIe muses)
uIIows I or onI y u IILLIe conversuLI on (wILI LIose sILLIng nexL Lo one); und
so LIe ur r ungemenL Is uL vurI unce wI LI LIuL end, wII I e LIe bunqueL
""His virtue was enkindled by unmixed wine." Kant is quoting, Irom memory,
Horace, Ddes I I I , 21,11.
b
In the second edition, the sentence "The use oI opium . . . only as medicines"
Iollows the sentence "But who can determine . . . Ior measuring?"
zzq Metcphsics oj Morcls
remuI ns u LempLuLIon Lo someLII ng ImmoruI, numeI y I nLemperunce,
wIIcI Is u vIoIuLIon oI one' s duLy Lo oneseI I - noL Lo menLI on LIe
pIysIcuI Iurm oI overI nduI gence, wII cI couI d perIups be cured by u
docLor. How I ur does one' s moruI uuLIorIzuLIon Lo uccepL LIese InvILu-
LIons Lo I nLemperunce exLend?
C H A P T E R
Mun's DuLy Lo HImseII MereIy us
u MoruI BeIng
TII s duL y Is opposed Lo LIe vIces oI lin, ctcrice, und jclse humilit
(servIIILy).
!" $%&'(
)* +,-*.
!"#
T I e greuLesL vI oI uLI on oI mun' s duL y Lo II mseI I r egur ded mereI y us u
moruI beI ng (LIe IumunI L y In IIs own person) Is LIe conL rury oI LruLI-
I uI ness, lin (cliud linuc promptum, cliud pectore inclusum erere)." n
LIe docL rI ne oI RI gIL un I nLenLI onuI unL ruL I Is cuI I ed u IIe onI y II IL
vIoIuLes unoL Ier' s rI gIL; buL In eLIIcs, wIer e no uuL IorI zuL I on Is
derI ved I r om IurmI essness, IL Is cI eur oI ILseII LIuL no I nLenLI onuI
unL ruL I In LIe expressI on oI one' s L IougIL s cun reI use LIIs IursI
nume. or LIe dI sIonor (beI ng un obj ecL oI moruI conL empL ) LIuL
uccompunI es u IIe uIso uccompunI es u IIur IIke IIs sIudow. A IIe cun be
un exL ernuI IIe (mendccium externum) or uIso un I nLernuI IIe. By un
exL ernuI IIe u mun mukes II mseI I un obj ecL oI conL empL In LIe eyes oI
oLIers; by un I nLernuI IIe Ie does wIuL Is sLIII worse: He mukes II mseI I
conL empL I bI e In IIs own eyes und vIoIuLes LIe dI gnI Ly oI IumunI L y In
IIs own person. An d so, sInce LIe Iur m LIuL cun come Lo oL Ier men
I r om I yI ng Is noL wIuL dI sLI nguI sIes LIIs vIce (Ior II IL were, LIe vIce
wouI d consIsL onI y In vI oI uLI ng one' s duL y Lo oLIers), LIIs Iur m Is noL
L uken I nLo uccounL Iere. NeI L Ier Is LIe Iur m LIuL u IIur brI ngs on
II mseI I ; I or L Ien u IIe, us u mere er r or In pr udence, wouI d conII I cL
wI LI LIe prugmuL I c muxI m, noL LIe moruI muxI m, und IL couI d noL be
consI dered u vI oI uLI on oI duL y uL uII. By u IIe u mun LIrows uwuy und,
us IL were, unnI II I uLes IIs dI gnI Ly us u mun. A mun wIo does noL
II mseI I beI I eve wIuL Ie LeIIs unoL Ier (even II LIe oL Ier Is u mereI y I deuI
""To have one thing shut up in the heart and another ready on the tongue." Sallust,
The Wcr uith Cctiline X, 5.
225
zz6 The Metcphsics oj Morcls
person) Ius even Iess worLI LIun II Ie were u mere LII ng; I or u LIIng,
becuuse IL Is someLII ng reuI und gIven, Ius LIe properLy oI beI ng
servIceubIe so LIuL unoLIer cun puL IL Lo some use. BuL communI cuLI on
oI one' s LIougILs Lo someone L IrougI words LIuL yeL (InLenLIonuIIy)
conLuIn LIe conLrury oI wIuL LIe speuker LIInks on LIe subjecL Is un
end LIuL Is dIrecLIy opposed Lo LIe nuLuruI purposI veness oI LIe
speuker' s cupucILy Lo communI cuLe IIs LIougILs, und Is LIus u renuncI-
uLIon by LIe speuker oI IIs personuIILy, und sucI u speuker Is u mere
decepLIve uppeurunce oI u mun, noL u mun IImseII. Truthjulness In
one' s decIuruLIons Is uIso cuIIed honest und, II LIe decIuruLIons ure
promIses, sincerit, buL, more generuIIy, LruLIIuI ness Is cuIIed rectitude.
|qo| yI ng (In LIe eLIIcuI sense oI LIe word), InLenLIonuI unLruLI us sucI,
need noL be hcrmjul Lo oLIers In order Lo be repudI uLed; I or IL wouI d
LIen be u vIoIuLIon oI LIe rIgILs oI oLIers. L muy be done mereI y ouL
oI IrIvoIILy or even good nuLure; LIe speuker muy even InLend Lo
ucIIeve u reuIIy good end by IL. BuL IIs wuy oI pursuI ng LIIs end Is, by
ILs mere I orm, u crIme oI u mun uguInsL IIs own person und u worLI-
Iessness LIuL musL muke IIm conLempLIbIe In IIs own eyes.
L Is eusy Lo sIow LIuL mun Is ucLuuIIy guIILy oI muny -**/0 IIes, buL
IL seems more dI III cuI L Lo expI uI n Iow LIey ure possIbIe; I or u IIe
requIres u second person wIom one InLends Lo deceIve, wIereus Lo
deceIve oneseI I on purpose seems Lo conLuIn u conLrudIcLIon.
Mun us u moruI beI ng (homo noumenon) cunnoL use II mseI I us u nuL-
uruI beI ng (homophcenomenon) us u mere meuns (u speukI ng mucIIne),
us II IIs nuLuruI beI ng were noL bound Lo LIe Inner end (oI communI -
cuLIng LIougILs), buL Is bound Lo LIe condILIon oI usI ng IImseI I us u
nuLuruI beI ng In ugreemenL wILI LIe decIuruLIon (declcrctio) oI IIs
moruI beI ng und Is under obIIguLIon Lo IImseII Lo truthjulness. Some-
one LeIIs un I nner IIe, I or exumpI e, II Ie proIesses beIIeI In u I uL ure
j udge oI LIe worI d, uI LIougI Ie reuIIy IInds no sucI beI IeI wILIIn
IImseII buL persuudes IImseII LIuL IL couI d do no Iurm und mI gIL
even be useIuI Lo proIess In IIs LIougILs Lo one wIo scruLInIzes IeurLs
u beIIeI In sucI u j udge, In order Lo wIn HIs Iuvor In cuse He sIouId
exIsL. Someone uIso IIes II, IuvI ng no doubL ubouL LIe exIsLence oI LIIs
I uL ure j udge, Ie sLIII IIuLLers IImseII LIuL Ie InwurdIy reveres HIs Iuw,
L IougI LIe onIy IncenLIve Ie IeeIs Is I eur oI punI sImenL.
nsIncerILy Is mere Iuck oI conscientiousness, LIuL Is, oI purILy In one' s
proIessIons beI ore one' s inner j udge, wIo Is LIougIL oI us unoLIer
person wIen conscIenLIousness Is Luken quILe sLrIcLIy; LIen II someone,
I rom seII-Iove, Lukes u wIsI Ior LIe deed becuuse Ie Ius u reuIIy good
end In mI nd, IIs I nner IIe, uI LIougI IL Is I ndeed conLrury Lo mun' s duLy
Lo IImseII, geLs LIe nume oI u IruIILy, us wIen u Iover's wIsI Lo IInd onIy
good quuIILIes In IIs beIoved bIInds II m Lo Ier obvIous IuuILs. BuL sucI
InsIncerILy In IIs decIuruLIons, wIIcI mun perpeLruLes upon IImseII,
The Doctrine oj Riht g zz;
sLIII deserves LIe sLrongesL censure, sInce IL Is I rom sucI u roLLen spoL
(IuIsILy, wII cI seems Lo be rooLed In Iumun nuLure ILseII) LIuL LIe evII |q1|
oI unLruLIIuI ness spreuds InLo mun' s reIuLIons wILI oLIer men us weII,
once LIe IIgIesL prIncIpIe oI LruLIIuI ness Ius been vIoIuLed.
Remcrl
L Is noLeworLIy LIuL LIe BIbIe duLes LIe IIrsL crIme, L IrougI
wII cI evII enLered LIe worI d, noL I rom jrctricide (CuIn's) buL I rom
LIe IIrsL lie (Ior even nuLure rIses up uguInsL IruLrIcIde), und cuIIs
LIe uuLIor oI uII evII u IIur I rom LIe begI nnI ng und LIe IuLIer oI
IIes. However, reuson cun ussIgn no I urL Ier ground I or mun' s
propensILy Lo hpocris (esprit jourbe), uI LIougI LIIs propensILy
musL Iuve been presenL beI ore LIe IIe; I or un ucL oI I reedom
cunnoL (IIke u nuLuruI eIIecL) be deduced und expI uI ned In uccor-
dunce wILI LIe nuLuruI Iuw oI LIe connecLI on oI eIIecLs wILI LIeIr
cuuses, uII oI wIIcI ure uppeurunces.
Cun un unLruLI I rom mere poIILeness (e.g., LIe "your obedI enL ser-
vunL" uL LIe end oI u IeLLer) be consI dered u IIe? No one Is deceI ved by
IL. An uuLIor usks one oI IIs reuders, "How do you IIke my work?" One
couI d mereI y seem Lo gIve un unswer, by j okI ng ubouL LIe I mproprI eLy
oI sucI u quesLIon. BuL wIo Ius IIs wIL uIwuys reudy? TIe uuLIor wIII
Luke LIe sIIgILesL IesILuLIon In unswerI ng us un InsuIL. Muy one, LIen,
suy wIuL Is expecLed oI one?
I suy someLII ng unLrue In more serIous muLLers, IuvI ng Lo do wILI
wIuL Is mI ne or yours, musL unswer I or uII LIe consequences IL mI gIL
Iuve? or exumpI e, u IouseIoI der Ius ordered IIs servunL Lo suy "noL
uL Iome" II u cerLuIn mun usks I or IIm. TIe servunL does LIIs und, us
u resuIL, LIe musLer sIIps uwuy und commILs u serIous crIme, wIIcI
wouI d oLIerwIse Iuve been prevenLed by LIe guurd senL Lo urresL IIm.
WIo (In uccordunce wILI eLIIcuI prIncIpIes) Is guIILy In LIIs cuse?
SureIy LIe servunL, Loo, wIo vIoIuLed u duLy Lo IImseII by IIs IIe, LIe
resuILs oI wII cI IIs own conscIence ImpuLes Lo IIm.
!!" $%1&(
)* 2340-5/
678"
By uvurIce In LIIs conLexL do noL meun reed ctcrice (ucquIrIng LIe
meuns Lo good IIvIng In excess oI one' s Lrue needs), I or LIIs cun uIso be
zz8 The Metcphsics oj Morcls
vI ewed us u mere vI oI uLI on oI one' s duL y (oI beneI I cence) to others, nor,
uguIn, do meun miserl ctcrice, wII cI Is cuI I ed stininess or nI ggurdI I -
ness wIen IL Is sIumeI uI buL wII cI cun sLIII be mer e negI ecL oI one' s
duLIes oI Iove Lo oLIers. meun, ruLIer, resLrI cLI ng one's oun enj oymenL
oI LIe meuns Lo good I I vI ng so nurrowI y us Lo I euve one' s own L rue
needs unsuLIsIIed. L Is reuIIy LIIs kI nd oI uvurIce, wII cI Is conL rury Lo
duLy to oneselj, LIuL um r eI er r I ng Lo Iere.
o
n LIe censure oI LIIs vIce, one exumpI e cun sIow cI eurI y LIuL IL Is
I ncorrecL Lo deI I ne |Erllcrunen| uny vI rLue or vIce In L erms oI mer e
9/.0//: und uL LIe sume LI me prove LIe useIessness oI LIe Aristotelicn
prI ncI pI e LIuL vI rLue consIsLs In LIe mI ddI e wuy beL ween L wo vIces.
I regurd ood mcncement us LIe meun beL ween prodI guI I Ly und
uvurI ce und suppose LIIs meun Lo be one oI degree, L Ien one vIce
wouI d puss over InLo LIe (contrcrie) opposI Le vIce onI y L Ir ougI LIe
tirtue, und so vI rLue wouI d be sI mpI y u dI mI nI sIed, or ruL Ier u vunIsI-
I ng, vIce. TI e resuIL, In LIe presenL cuse, wouI d be LIuL LIe reuI duL y
oI vI rLue wouI d consIsL In mukI ng no use uL uII oI LIe meuns Lo good
IIvIng.
I u vIce Is Lo be dI sLI nguI sIed I r om u vI rLue, LIe dI I I er ence one musL
recognI ze und expI uI n Is noL u dI I I er ence In LIe deree oI prucLI cI ng
moruI muxI ms buL ruL Ier In LIe obj ecLI ve principle oI LIe muxI ms. T I e
mcxim oI reed uvurI ce (prodIguI ILy) Is Lo geL und muI nLuI n
q
uII LIe
meuns Lo good I I vI ng uith the intention oj |usIng L Iem I or| enjoment.
TI e muxI m oI miserl uvurIce, on LIe oL Ier Iund, Is Lo ucquI re us weII
us muI nLuIn uII LIe meuns Lo good IIvIng, buL uith no intention oj |usIng
L Iem I or| enjoment, (I.e., In sucI u wuy LIuL one' s end Is onI y posses-
sIon, noL enj oymenL ).
Hence LIe dIsLIncLIve murk oI LIe IuLLer vIce Is LIe prI ncI pI e oI pos-
|q| sessIng meuns I or uII sorLs oI ends, buL wILI LIe reservuLI on oI beI ng
unwI I I I ng Lo use L Iem I or oneseI I , und so deprI vI ng oneseI I oI LIe
comI orL s necessury Lo enj oy IIIe; und LIIs Is dIrecLIy conL rury Lo duL y Lo
oneseI I wILI regurd Lo LIe end. AccordI ngI y, prodI guI I Ly und mIserII-
*The proposition, one ought not to do too much or too little oI anything, says in
eIIect nothing, since it is a tautology. What does it mean "to do too much"? Answer:
to do more than is good. What does it mean "to do too little"? Answer: to do less
than is good. What does it mean to say "I ouht (to do or to reIrain Irom some-
" In place oI the passage "nor, again, do I mean . . . that I am reIerring to here" the
second edition has "I mean, rather, miserl ctcrice, which is called stinginess or
niggardliness when it is shameIul; and I am concerned with this kind oI avarice, not
as consisting in mere neglect oI one's duties oI love to others, but as a restricting oI
one's own use oI the means Ior living well so narrowly as to leave one's true needs
unsatisIied, and so as contrary to one's duty to oneselj." In Iact, only two kinds oI
avarice, prodigality and miserliness, are in question.
' The second edition omits "and maintain."
The Doctrine oj Virtue z(
ness ure noL dI sLI nguI sIed I r om eucI oL Ier by degree; LIey ure ruL Ier
dI sLI nguI sIed specIIIcuIIy, by LIeI r opposed muxI ms.
Seljishness (solipsismus) Is LIe busIs boL I oI LIe greed (InsuLIubIIILy In
ucquI rI ng weuI LI) LIuL uIms uL sumpL uous I I vI ng und oI nI ggurdI I ness
(puI nI uI unxI eLy ubouL wusLe); und IL muy seem LIuL boL I oI L Iem - |qq|
prodI guI I Ly us weII us mIserIIness - ure Lo be repudI uL ed mereI y be-
cuuse LIey end In poverL y, L IougI In LIe cuse oI prodI guI I Ly LIIs resuI L
Is unexpecL ed und In LIe cuse oI mIserIIness IL Is cIosen (wunLI ng Lo IIve
IIke u puuper). And so, sInce we ure Ier e speukI ng onI y oI duL y Lo
oneseI I , IL muy be usked wIeL Ier eI LIer prodI guI I Ly or mIserI Iness
sIouI d be cuI I ed u vIce uL uII, or wIeL Ier boL I ure noL mer e I mpru-
dence und so quI Le beyond LIe bounds oI one' s duLy Lo oneseI I . BuL
mIserIIness Is noL j usL mI sLuken LIrI I L buL ruL Ier sIuvIsI subj ecLI on oI
oneseI I Lo LIe goods LIuL conLrI buLe Lo IuppI ness, wII cI Is u vIoI uLIon
oI duL y Lo oneseI I sInce one ougIL Lo be LIeIr musLer. L Is opposed Lo
liberclit oI mI nd (liberclitcs morclis) generuI I y (noL Lo generosI Ly, libercl-
thing)"? Answer: that it is not good (that it is contrary to duty) to do more or less
than is good. II that is the wisdom in search oI which we should go back to the
ancients (Aristotle), as to those who were nearer the Iountainhead tirtus consistit
in medio, medium tenuere becti, est modus in rebus, sunt certi denique jines, quos citrcque
nequit consistere rectum then we have made a bad choice in turning to its oracle.
Between truthIulness and lying (which are contrcdictorie oppositis) there is no mean;
but there is indeed a mean between candor and reticence (which are contrcrie
oppositis), since one who declares his thoughts can say only what is true without
telling the uhole truth. Now it is quite natural to ask the teacher oI virtue to point out
this mean to me. But this he cannot do; Ior both duties oI virtue have a latitude in
their application (lctitudinem), and judgment can decide what is to be done only in
accordance with rules oI prudence (pragmatic rules), not in accordance with rules
oI morality (moral rules). In other words, what is to be done cannot be decided aIter
the manner oI ncrrou duty (ojjicium strictum), but aIter the manner oI uide duty
(ojjicium lctum). Hence, one who complies with the basic principles oI virtue can, it
is true, commit a jcult (peccctum) in putting these principles into practice, by doing
more or less than prudence prescribes. But insoIar as he adheres strictly to these
basic principles he cannot practice a tice (titium), and Horace's verse, inscni scpiens
nomen hcbect cequus iniqui, ultrc qucm sctis est tirtutem si petct ipscm, is ut t e r l y I al se, iI
taken literally. In Iact, scpiens here means only c. judicious man (prudens), who does
not think Iantastically oI virtue in its perIection. This is an ideal which requires one
to approximate to this end but not to attain it completely, since the latter require-
ment surpasses man's powers and introduces a lack oI sense (Iantasy) into the
principle oI virtue. For really to be too tirtuous - that is, to be too attached to one's
duty - would be almost equivalent to making a circle too round or a straight line too
straight. |For a translation oI these Latin quotations see the page oI this translation
corresponding to Ak. 404n.|
zo The Metcphsics oj Morcls
itcs sumptuosc, wII cI Is onIy un uppIIcuLIon oI LIIs Lo u specIuI cuse), LIuL
Is, IL Is opposed Lo LIe prIncIpIe oI I ndependence I r om everyLII ng
excepL LIe Iuw, und Is u wuy In wIIcI LIe subjecL deI ruuds IImseII. BuL
wIuL kInd oI u Iuw Is IL LIuL LIe InLernuI IuwgIver ILseII does noL know
Iow Lo uppIy? OugIL Lo economI ze on I ood or onIy In my expendI -
Lures on exLernuI LIIngs? n oId uge, or uIreudy In youLI? Or Is LIrI IL
In generuI u vIrLue?
!!!"
$% &'()*+*,-
.//"
n LIe sysLem oI nuLure, mun (homo phcenomenon, cnimcl rctioncle) Is u
beI ng oI sIIgIL I mporLunce und sIures wILI LIe resL oI LIe unImuIs, us
oI I sprI ng oI LIe eurLI, un ordI nury vuIue (pretium tulcre). AI L IougI
mun Ius, In IIs undersLundI ng, someLII ng more LIun LIey und cun seL
IImseII ends, even LIIs gIves IIm onIy un extrinsic vuIue I or IIs useIuI -
ness (pretium usus), LIuL Is Lo suy, IL gIves one mun u II gIer vuIue LIun
unoLIer, LIuL Is, u price us oI u commodI Ly In excIunge wILI LIese
unImuIs us LIIngs, LIougI Ie sLIII Ius u I ower vuIue LIun LIe unIversuI
medI um oI excIunge, money, LIe vuI ue oI wIIcI cun L IereI ore be
cuIIed preemI nenL (pretium eminens).
BuL mun regurded us u person, LIuL Is, us LIe subjecL oI u moruIIy
prucLIcuI reuson, Is exuILed ubove uny prIce; I or us u person (homo
1| noumenon) Ie Is noL Lo be vuIued mereIy us u meuns Lo LIe ends oI
oLIers or even Lo IIs own ends, buL us un end In IImseII, LIuL Is, Ie
possesses u dinit (un ubsoIuLe Inner worLI) by wIIcI Ie exucLs respect
Ior IImseII I rom uII oLIer ruLIonuI beIngs In LIe worI d. He cun meu-
sure IImseII wILI every oLIer beI ng oI LIIs kInd und vuIue IImseII on
u IooLI ng oI equuIILy wILI LIem.
HumunI Ly In IIs person Is LIe objecL oI LIe respecL wII cI Ie cun
demund I rom every oLIer mun, buL wIIcI Ie musL uIso noL IorIeI L.
Hence Ie cun und sIouId vuIue IImseII by u Iow us weII us by u II gI
sLundurd, dependI ng on wIeLIer Ie vIews IImseII us u sensIbIe beI ng
(In Lerms oI IIs unImuI nuLure) or us un InLeIIIgIbIe beI ng (In Lerms oI
IIs moruI predIsposILIon). SInce Ie musL regurd IImseI I noL onIy us u
person generuIIy buL uIso us u mcn, LIuL Is, us u person wIo Ius duLIes
IIs own reuson Iuys upon IIm, IIs InsIgnIIIcunce us u humcn cnimcl muy
noL I nIrI nge upon IIs conscIousness oI IIs dIgnILy us u rctioncl mcn,
und Ie sIouId noL dIsuvow LIe moruI seII-esLeem oI sucI u beIng, LIuL
Is, Ie sIouId pursue IIs end, wIIcI Is In ILseII u duLy, noL ubjecLIy,
noL In u sertile spirit (cnimo sertili) us II Ie were seekI ng u Iuvor, noL
dIsuvowIng IIs dIgnILy, buL uIwuys wILI conscIousness oI IIs subIIme
moruI predI sposI LI on (wIIcI Is uI reudy conLuI ned In LIe concepL oI vIr-
Lue). And LIIs selj-esteem Is u duL y oI mun Lo II mseI I.
T I e conscI ousness und I eeI I ng oI LIe I nsI gnI I I cunce oI one' s moruI
worL I in compcrison uith the +01 Is humilit (humilitcs morclis). A convI c-
LIon oI LIe greuLness oI one' s moruI worL I, buL onI y I r om I uI I ure Lo
compur e IL wI LI LIe Iuw, cun be cuI I ed morcl crrocnce (crrocntic
morclis). WuI vI ng uny cIuIm Lo moruI worL I In oneseI I , In LIe beI I eI LIuL
one wIII L Iereby ucquI re u bor r owed worL I, Is moruI I y IuI se sertilit
(humilitcs spuric).
234*+*,- in compcrin oneselj uith other men (und I ndeed wILI uny
IInILe beI ng, even u serupI) Is no duL y; ruLIer, L ryI ng Lo equuI or
surpuss oL Iers In LIIs respecL, beI I evI ng LIuL In LIIs wuy one wIII geL un
even greuL er I nner worL I, Is |u kI nd o I | cmbition (cmbitio), wII cI Is
dI recLI y conL rury Lo one' s duLy Lo oLIers. BuL beIILLIIng one' s own moruI
worL I mereI y us u meuns Lo ucquI rI ng LIe I uvor oI unoL Ier, wIoever IL |q6|
muy be (IypocrI sy und II uLLery [Heuchelei und Schmeichelei|) Is IuIse
(IyIng) IumI I I Ly, wII cI Is conL rury Lo one' s duL y Lo oneseI I sInce IL
degr udes one' s personuI I Ly.
Tr ue IumI I I Ly IoI I ows unuvoI dubI y I r om our sI ncere und exucL com-
purI son oI ourseI ves wILI LIe moruI Iuw (ILs IoI I ness und sLrIcLness).
BuL I r om our cupucILy I or I nLernuI I uwgI vI ng und I r om LIe (nuLuruI)
mun I eeI I ng II mseI I compeI I ed Lo revere LIe (moruI) mun wI LII n IIs
own person, uL LIe sume LIme L Iere comes excltction und LIe II gIesL
seI I-esLeem, LIe I eeI I ng oI IIs I nner worL I (tclor), In Lerms oI wII cI Ie
Is ubove uny prI ce (pretium) und possesses un I nuI I enubI e dI gnI Ly (dini-
tcs internc), wII cI InsLIIIs In II m respecL I or II mseI I (reterentic).
./5"
TII s duL y wI LI r eI er ence Lo LIe dI gnI Ly oI IumunI L y wI LII n us, und
so Lo ourseI ves, cun be recognI zed, mor e or Iess, In LIe I oI I owI ng
exumpI es.
Be no mun' s I uckey. Do noL IeL oLIers Lreud wILI I mpunI L y on your
rIgILs. ConL rucL no debL I or wII cI you cunnoL gI ve I uI I securILy. Do
noL uccepL I uvors you couI d do wI LIouL, und do noL be u purusILe or u
IIuLLerer or (wIuL reuIIy dI I I ers I r om LIese onI y In degree) u beggur. Be
LIrI I Ly, LIen, so LIuL you wIII noL become desLILuLe. CompI uI nI ng und
wII nI ng, even cryI ng ouL In bodI I y puI n, Is unworL Iy oI you, especIuIIy
Heucheln, properl y hcuchten |to dissemble| seems to be deri ved I r om Hcuch, a
moaning breath interrupting one's speech (a sigh). Schmeichlen |to Ilatter| seems to
stem I r om Schmieen |to bend| which, as a habit, is called Schmieeln |cringing| and
Iinally, in Hi gh German, Schmeicheln.
zz The Metcphsics oj Morcls
II you ure uwure oI IuvI ng deserved IL; LIus u crI mI nuI ' s deuL I muy be
ennobI ed (ILs dI sgruce uverLed) by LIe resoI uLeness wILI wII cI Ie dIes.
KneeI I ng down or prosL ruL I ng oneseI I on LIe gr ound, even Lo sIow
your veneruL I on I or IeuvenI y objecLs, Is conL rury Lo LIe dI gnI Ly oI
IumunI L y, us Is I nvokI ng L Iem In ucLuuI I muges; I or you L Ien IumbI e
|q;| yourseI I , noL beI or e un idecl presenL ed Lo you by your own reuson, buL
beI or e un idol oI your own mukI ng.
s noL mun' s I eeI I ng I or IIs subI I me vocuLI on, LIuL Is, IIs elction oj spirit
(elctio cnimi) or esL eem I or II mseI I , so cIoseIy ukI n Lo selj-conceit (crro-
cntic), LIe very opposI Le oI Lrue humilit (humilitcs morclis), LIuL IL
wouI d be udvI subIe Lo cuI LIvuLe IumI I I Ly even In compur I ng ourseI ves
wI LI oL Ier men, und noL onI y wILI LIe Iuw? Or wouI d noL LIIs kI nd oI
seI I -ubneguLI on I nsLeud sL rengL Ien oLIers' verdI cL on us Lo LIe poI nL
oI despI sI ng our person, so LIuL IL wouI d be conL rury Lo our duL y (oI
respecL) Lo ourseI ves? BowI ng und scrupI ng beI or e u mun seems In uny
cuse Lo be unworL Iy oI u mun.
PreI erenL I uI LrIbuLes oI respecL In words und munner s even Lo LIose
wIo Iuve no cIvII uuLIorI Ly - reverences, obeI sunces (compI I menLs),
und courLI y pIruses mur kI ng wILI LIe uLmosL precI sI on every dIsLInc-
LIon In runk, someL II ng uI LogeLIer dI I I er enL I r om courLesy (wII cI Is
necessury even I or LIose wIo respecL eucI oL Ier equuI I y) - LIe Du, Er,
Ihr, und Sie, or Eu. Wohledeln, Hochedeln, Hochedeleborenen, Wohlebore-
nen (ohe, icm sctis estl)" us I or ms oI uddress, u pedunL ry In wII cI LIe
Ger muns seem Lo ouL do uny oL Ier peopI e In LIe worI d (excepL possIbIy
LIe ndI un cusLes): Does noL uII LIIs pr ove LIuL L Iere Is u wI despreud
propensI Ly Lo servIIILy In men? (Hce nuce in seric ducunt. )
b
BuL one
wIo mukes II mseI I u wor m cunnoL compI uI n uI L erwurds II peopI e sLep
on II m.
""Stay, that' s enough!" Horace, Sctires I, 5, 12.
' "These triIles lead to serious things."
C H A P T E R |CDnt.]
SecLIon
On Mun's DuLy Lo HImseII us HIs Own
nnuLe Judge
!"#$
Every concepL oI duL y I nvoI ves obj ecLI ve consLruI nL L Ir ougI u Iuw
(u moruI I mperuL I ve I I mI LI ng our I r eedom) und beI ongs Lo prucLIcuI |q8|
undersL undI ng, wII cI provI des u ruI e. BuL LIe I nLernuI imputction oI u
deed, us u cuse I uI I I ng under u Iuw (in meritum cut demeritum), beI ongs Lo
LIe pouer oj judment (indicium), wII cI, us LIe subj ecLI ve prI ncI pI e oI
I mpuL I ng un ucLIon, j udges wILI rI gIL I uI I orce wIeL Ier LIe ucLI on us u
deed (un ucLIon comI ng under u Iuw) Ius occurred or noL. Upon IL
I oI I ows LIe concI usI on oI recson (LIe verdIcL), LIuL Is, LIe connecL I ng oI
LIe rI gIL I uI resuI L wI LI LIe ucLI on (condemnuL I on or ucquILLuI). AI I oI
LIIs Lukes pI uce beI or e u tribuncl (corcm iudicio), wII cI, us u moruI
person gI vI ng eI I ecL Lo LIe Iuw, Is cuIIed u court (jorum). ConscI ousness
oI un interncl court In mun ("beI ore wII cI IIs L IougIL s uccuse or
excuse one unoL Ier") Is &'()&*+(&+$
Every mun Ius u conscI ence und IInds II mseI I observed, L IreuL ened,
und, In generuI , kepL In uwe (respecL coupI ed wI LI I eur) by un I nLernuI
j udge ; und LIIs uuLIorI Ly wuL cII ng over LIe Iuw In II m Is noL some-
L II ng LIuL Ie II mseI I (voIunLurIIy) mcles, buL someL II ng I ncorporuL ed
In IIs beI ng. L IoI I ows II m IIke IIs sIudow wIen Ie pI uns Lo escupe.
He cun I ndeed sLun II mseI I or puL II mseI I Lo sI eep by pI eusures und
dIsLrucLIons, buL Ie cunnoL IeI p comI ng Lo II mseI I or wukI ng up I r om
LI me Lo LI me; und wIen Ie does, Ie Ieurs uL once ILs I eur I uI voIce. He
cun uL mosL, In exL r eme depruvI Ly, brI ng II mseI I Lo heed IL no I onger,
buL Ie sLIII cunnoL IeI p hecrin IL.
Now LIIs orI gI nuI InLeIIecLuuI und (sInce IL Is LIe L IougIL oI duLy)
moruI predI sposI LI on cuIIed conscience Is pecuI I ur In LIuL, uI L IougI ILs
233
busI ness Is u busI ness oI mun wILI II mseI I , u mun consL ruI ned by IIs
reuson sees II mseI I consLruI ned Lo curry IL on us uL LIe bI ddI ng oj
cnother person. or LIe uI I uI r Iere Is LIuL oI L ryI ng c ccse (ccusc) beI or e
u courL. BuL Lo LII nk oI u mun wIo Is cccused by IIs conscI ence us one
cnd the scme person us LIe j udg e Is un ubsurd wuy oI represenL I ng u
courL , sInce L Ien LIe prosecuL or wouI d uIwuys Iose. or uII duLI es
u mun' s conscI ence wIII, uccordI ngI y, Iuve Lo LII nk oj someone other L Iun
II mseI I (I.e., oL Ier L Iun mun us sucI) us LIe j udg e oI IIs ucLIons, I I
conscI ence Is noL Lo be In conLrudI cLI on wI LI ILseII. TII s oL Ier muy be
|qq| un ucLuuI person or u mereI y IdeuI person LIuL reuson creuLes I or
ILseII.
SucI un IdeuI person (LIe uuL IorI zed j udg e oI conscI ence) musL be
u scruLI nI zer oI IeurLs, sInce LIe courL Is seL up uithin mun. BuL Ie musL
uIso impose cll obliction, LIuL Is, Ie musL be, or be L IougIL us, u person
In reI uLI on Lo wIom uII duLI es wIuL soever ure Lo be r egur ded us uIso IIs
communds; I or conscI ence Is LIe I nner j udg e oI uII I ree ucLIons. Now,
sInce sucI u moruI beI ng musL uIso Iuve uII power (In Ieuven und on
eurLI) In order Lo gI ve eI I ecL Lo IIs Iuws (us Is necessurIIy requI red I or
LIe oI I I ce oI j udge) , und sInce sucI un omnI poL enL moruI beI ng Is
cuI I ed ,'-. conscI ence musL be L IougIL oI us LIe subj ecLI ve prI ncI pI e
oI beI ng uccounLubI e Lo God I or uII one' s deeds. n I ucL LIe IuLLer
concepL Is uIwuys conLuI ned (even II onI y In un obscure wuy) In LIe
moruI seI I-uwureness oI conscI ence.
TII s Is noL Lo suy LIuL mun Is enLI LI ed, L Ir ougI LIe deu Lo wII cI IIs
conscI ence unuvoI dubI y guI des II m, Lo cssume LIuL sucI u Supr eme
BeI ng cctucll exists ouLsI de II mseI I - sLIII Iess LIuL Ie Is bound by IIs
conscI ence Lo do so. or LIe deu Is noL gI ven Lo II m objectitel, by
* A man who accuses and judges himselI in conscience must think oI a dual person-
ality in himselI, a doubled selI which, on the one hand, has to stand trembling at the
bar oI a court that is yet entrusted to him, but which, on the other hand, itselI
administers the oIIice oI judge that it holds by innate authority. This requires
clariIication, iI reason is not to Iall into selI-contradiction. I, the prosecutor and yet
the accused as well, am the same mcn (numero idem). But man as the subject oI the
moral lawgiving which proceeds Irom the concept oI Ireedom and in which he is
subject to a law that he gives himselI (homo noumenon) is to be regarded as another
(specie ditersus) Irom man as a sensible being endowed with reason, though only in
a practical respect Ior there is no theory about the causal relation oI the intelli-
gible to the sensible - and this speciIic diIIerence is that oI the Iaculties (higher and
lower) oI man that characterize him. The Iirst is the prosecutor, against whom the
accused is granted a legal adviser (deIence counsel). When the proceedings are
concluded the internal judge, as a person hctin pouer, pronounces the sentence oI
happiness or misery, as the moral results oI the deed. Our reason cannot pursue
Iurther his power (as ruler oI the world) in this Iunction; we can only revere his
unconditional tubeo or teto |"I command" or "I Iorbid"|.
The Doctrine oj RigIt g z
LIeoreLI cuI reuson, buL onI y subjectitel, by prucLIcuI reuson, puL L I ng
ILseII under obI I guLI on Lo ucL In keepI ng wI LI LIIs deu; und L Ir ougI |qqo|
usI ng prucLIcuI reuson, buL onl in jollouin out the cnclo wI LI u
I uwgI ver I or uII ruLI onuI beI ngs In LIe worI d, men ure mereI y poI nL ed
In LIe dI recLI on oI L II nkI ng oI conscI enLI ousness (wII cI Is uIso cuI I ed
reliio) us uccounLubI I I Ly Lo u IoI y BeI ng (moruI I y I uwgI vI ng reuson)
dIsLIncL I r om us yeL presenL In our I nmosL beI ng, und oI submI LLI ng Lo
LIe wIII oI LIIs BeI ng, us LIe ruI e oI j usLI ce. T I e concepL oI reI I gI on Is
Ier e I or mun onI y "u prI ncI pI e oI esLI muLI ng uII IIs duLI es us dI vI ne
communds. "
1) n u cuse I nvoI vI ng conscI ence (ccusc conscienticm tcnens), mun
LII nks oI conscI ence us ucrnin II m (prcemonens) beI or e Ie mukes
IIs decI sI on. n cuses wIer e conscI ence Is LIe soIe j udg e (ccsi-
bus conscientice), beI ng mosL scrupuI ous (scrupulositcs) wIer e LIe
concepL oI duL y (someL II ng moruI In I LseI I) Is concer ned cunnoL
be consI dered IuIr-spIILLIng (u concern wI LI peLLy deLuIIs), nor
cun u reuI vI oI uLI on be consI dered u pecudI I I o (peccctillium) und
be I eI L Lo LIe udvI ce oI u conscI ence LIuL speuks uL wIII (uccord-
I ng Lo LIe prI ncI pI e minimc non curct prcetor)." Hence, uscrI bI ng
u uide conscI ence Lo someone umounL s Lo cuI I I ng II m unconsci-
entious.
z) WIe n LIe deed Ius been done LIe prosecutor IIrsL comes I or wur d
In conscI ence, buL uI ong wILI II m comes u dejense counsel (udvo-
cuLe); und LIeI r dI spuLe cunnoL be seLLIed umI cubI y (per cmiccbilem
compositionem), buL musL ruL Ier be decI ded wILI uII LIe rI gor oI
RI gIL. Upon LIIs IoI I ows
) T I e verdI cL oI conscI ence upon LIe mun, ccquittin or condemnin
II m wILI rI gIL I uI I orce, wII cI concI udes LIe cuse.
q
L sIouI d be
noL ed LIuL wIen conscI ence ucquILs u mun IL cun never decI de on
u reucrd (prcemium), someL II ng guI ned LIuL wus noL IIs beI or e, buL
cun brI ng wI LI IL onI y rejoicin uL IuvI ng escuped LIe dunger oI
beI ng I ound punI sIubI e. Hence LIe bI essedness I ound In LIe com-
I orL I ng encour ugemenL oI one' s conscI ence Is noL positite (joy) buL
mereI y nectite (reIIeI I r om precedI ng unxI eLy); und LIIs uI one Is
wIuL cun be uscrI bed Lo vI rLue, us u sLruggI e uguInsL LIe I nI I uence
oI LIe evII prI ncI pI e In mun.
" "The praetor is not concerned about triIles."
z6 TIe Metcphsics oj Morcls
|qq1| SecLIon
On LIe IrsL Commund oI AII DuLIes
Lo OneseII
!"#$
TII s commund Is "lnou (scruLInIze, IuLIom) ourselj " noL In Lerms oI
your nuLuruI perIecLI on (your IILness or unIILness I or uII sorLs oI op-
LIonuI or even communded ends) buL ruLIer In Lerms oI your moruI
perIecLI on In reIuLIon Lo your duLy. TIuL Is, know your IeurL -
wIeLIer IL Is good or evII, wIeLIer LIe source oI your ucLIons Is pure
or I mpure, und wIuL cun be I mpuLed Lo you us beI ongI ng orIgInuIIy Lo
LIe substcnce oI mun or us derI ved (ucquIred or deveI oped) und beI ong-
I ng Lo your moruI condition.
MoruI seI I-knowI edge, wIIcI seeks Lo peneLruLe InLo LIe depLIs (LIe
ubyss) oI one' s IeurL LIuL ure quILe dI III cuI L Lo IuLIom, Is LIe begI nnI ng
oI uII Iumun wI sdom. or In LIe cuse oI mun, LIe uILImuLe wI sdom,
wIIcI consIsLs In LIe Iurmony oI u beIng' s wIII wILI ILs IInuI end,
requIres II m IIrsL Lo remove LIe obsLucIe wILIIn (un evII wIII ucLuuIIy
presenL In IIm) und LIen Lo deveI op LIe orIgInuI predIsposILIon Lo u
good wIII wILIIn II m, wIIcI cun never be IosL. (OnIy LIe descenL InLo
LIe IeII oI seI I-knowI edge cun puve LIe wuy Lo godIIness.)
%"&$
TII s moruI seI I-knowI edge wIII, IIrsL, dIspeI jcncticcl conL empL I or
oneseI I us mun (Ior LIe wIoI e Iumun ruce), sInce LIIs conLrudIcLs ILseII.
L Is onIy L IrougI LIe nobIe predIsposILIon Lo LIe good In us, wII cI
mukes mun worLIy oI respecL, LIuL one cun IInd u mun wIo ucLs con-
Lrury Lo IL conLempLIbI e (LIe mun IImseII, buL noL LIe IumunI Ly In
IIm). BuL sucI knowI edge wIII uIso counLerucL LIuL eotisticcl seII-
esLeem wIIcI Lukes mere wIsIes - wIsIes LIuL, Iowever urdenL, uIwuys
remuI n empLy oI deeds - I or prooI oI u good IeurL. (Prcer, Loo, Is onIy
u wIsI decI ured InwurdIy beI ore someone wIo knows IeurLs.) mpur-
LIuIILy In uppruI sI ng oneseI I In compurI son wILI LIe Iuw, und sIncerILy
|qqz| In ucknowI edgI ng Lo oneseII one' s I nner moruI worLI or Iuck oI worLI
ure duLIes Lo oneseII LIuL IoIIow dIrecLIy I rom LIIs IIrsL commund oI
seI I-knowI edge.
The Doctrine oj RigIt g z;
EpIsodIc SecLIon
On un AmpIIboIy In MoruI ConcepLs
oI ReIIecLIon, TukIng WIuL s Mun's DuLy
Lo HImseII Ior u DuLy Lo OLIer BeIngs
%"'(
As Iur us reuson uIone cun j udge, mun Ius dudes onIy Lo men (IImseII
und oLIer men), sInce IIs duLy Lo uny subjecL Is moruI consLruInL by
LIuL subjecL's wIII. Hence LIe consLruInIng (bIndIng) subjecL musL, jirst,
be u person; und LIIs person musL, second, be gIven us un objecL oI
experI ence, sInce mun Is Lo sLrIve I or LIe end oI LIIs person' s wIII und
LIIs cun Iuppen onIy In u reIuLIon Lo eucI oLIer oI Lwo beIngs LIuL exIsL
(Ior u mere LIougIL-enLILy cunnoL be LIe ccuse oI uny resuIL In Lerms oI
ends). BuL I rom uII our experI ence we know oI no beI ng oLIer LIun
mun LIuL wouId be cupubIe oI obIIguLIon (ucLIve or pussIve). Mun cun
LIereIore Iuve no duLy Lo uny beIngs oLIer LIun men; und II Ie LIInks
Ie Ius sucI duLIes, IL Is becuuse oI un cmphibol In IIs concepts oj
rejlection, und IIs supposed duLy Lo oLIer beIngs Is onIy u duLy Lo
IImseII. He Is Ied Lo LIIs mIsundersLundIng by mIsLukIng IIs duLy uith
recrd to oLIer beIngs I or u duLy to LIose beIngs.
TII s supposed duLy cun be reI erred Lo objecLs other thcn persons or Lo
objecLs LIuL ure I ndeed persons, buL quILe imperceptible ones (wIo cun-
noL be presenLed Lo LIe ouLer senses). TIe IIrsL (nonhumcn) objecLs cun
be mere InorgunIc muLLer (mIneruIs), or muLLer orgunI zed I or repro-
ducLIon LIougI sLIII wILIouL sensuLIon (pIunLs), or LIe purL oI nuLure
endowed wILI sensuLIon und cIoIce (unImuIs). TIe second (superhu-
mcn) objecLs cun be LIougIL us spIrILuuI beIngs (ungeIs, God). L musL
now be usked wIeLIer LIere Is u reIuLIon oI duLy beLween mun und
beIngs oI LIese Lwo kInds, und wIuL reIuLIon LIere Is beLween LIem.
!"#$ &''()
A propensILy Lo wunLon desLrucLIon oI wIuL Is becutijul In InunImuLe
nuLure (spiritus destructionis) Is opposed Lo mun' s duLy Lo IImseII; I or IL
weukens or uprooLs LIuL IeeIIng In mun wIIcI, LIougI noL oI ILseII
moruI, Is sLIII u dIsposILIon oI sensIbIIILy LIuL greuLIy promoLes moruIILy
or uL IeusL prepures LIe wuy Ior IL: LIe dIsposILIon, numeIy, Lo Iove
someLII ng (e.g., beuuLIIuI crysLuI IormuLIons, LIe IndescrIbubIe beuuLy
oI pIunLs) even upurL I rom uny InLenLIon Lo use IL.
WILI regurd Lo LIe unImuLe buL nonruLIonuI purL oI creuLIon, vIoIenL
und crueI LreuLmenL oI unImuIs Is Iur more InLImuLeIy opposed Lo
mun' s duLy Lo IImseII, und Ie Ius u duLy Lo reIruI n I rom LIIs; I or IL
duIIs IIs sIured IeeI I ng oI LIeIr puIn und so weukens und gruduuI I y
uprooLs u nuLuruI predIsposILIon LIuL Is very servIceubIe Lo moruIILy In
one' s reIuLIons wILI oLIer men. Mun Is uuLIorI zed Lo kIII unImuIs
quIckIy (wILIouL puIn) und Lo puL LIem Lo work LIuL does noL sLruIn
LIem beyond LIeIr cupucILIes (sucI work us mun IImseI I musL submIL
Lo). BuL ugonI zI ng pIysIcuI experI menLs Ior LIe suke oI mere specuIu-
LIon, wIen LIe end couI d uIso be ucIIeved wILIouL LIese, ure Lo be
ubIorred. Even gruLILude I or LIe I ong servIce oI un oId Iorse or dog
(jusL us II LIey were members oI LIe IouseIoI d) beI ongs indirectl Lo
mun' s duLy uith recrd to LIese unImuIs; consI dered us u direct duLy,
Iowever, IL Is uIwuys onIy u duLy oI mun to IImseII.
%"!(
AguI n, we Iuve u duLy uith recrd to wIuL IIes enLIreIy beyond LIe IImILs
oI our experI ence buL wIose possIbIIILy Is meL wILI In our deus, I or
exumpI e, LIe deu oI God; IL Is cuIIed LIe dut oj reliion, LIe duLy "oI
recognI zI ng uII our duLIes cs (instcr) dIvIne communds. " BuL LIIs Is noL
conscIousness oI u duLy to God. or LIIs deu proceeds enLIreIy I r om
our own reuson und we ourseIves muke IL, wIeLIer I or LIe LIeoreLIcuI
purpose oI expI uI nI ng Lo ourseIves LIe purposIveness In LIe unIverse
us u wIoI e or uIso I or LIe purpose oI servIng us LIe IncenLIve In our
|qqq| conducL. Hence we do noL Iuve beI ore us, In LIIs deu, u gIven beIng
*+ wIom we wouI d be under obIIguLIon; I or In LIuL cuse ILs reuIILy
wouI d IIrsL Iuve Lo be sIown (dIscIosed) L IrougI experI ence. RuLIer,
IL Is u duLy oI mun Lo IImseII Lo uppI y LIIs deu, wIIcI presenLs ILseII
unuvoIdubI y Lo reuson, Lo LIe moruI Iuw In IIm, wIere IL Is oI LIe
greuLesL moruI IruILIuIness. n LIIs ,-./0*10/23 sense IL cun L IereI ore be
suId LIuL Lo Iuve reIIgIon Is u duLy oI mun Lo IImseII.
B O O K
ON M A N ' S M P E R E C T D U T E S T O H M S E
( W T H R E G A R D T O H S E ND)
S ECT ON
On Mun's DuLy Lo HImseII Lo DeveIop
und ncreuse HIs NuLuruI PerIecLIon,
TIuL s, Ior u PrugmuLIc Purpose
%"4$
Mun Ius u duLy Lo IImseII Lo cuILIvuLe (culturc) IIs nuLuruI powers
(powers oI spIrIL, mI nd, und body), us meuns Lo uII sorLs oI possIbIe
ends. Mun owes IL Lo IImseII (us u ruLIonuI beIng) noL Lo Ieuve IdIe und,
us IL were, rusLIng uwuy LIe nuLuruI predIsposILIons und cupucILIes LIuL
IIs reuson cun someduy use. Even supposI ng LIuL Ie couId be suLIsIIed
wILI LIe InnuLe scope oI IIs cupucILIes I or IIs nuLuruI needs, IIs reuson
musL IIrsL sIow IIm, by prIncIpIes, LIuL LIIs meuger scope oI IIs cupuc-
ILIes Is sctisjcctor, Ior, us u beI ng cupubIe oI ends (oI mukI ng objecLs IIs
ends), Ie musL owe LIe use oI IIs powers noL mereIy Lo nuLuruI InsLIncL
buL ruLIer Lo LIe I reedom by wIIcI Ie deLermInes LIeIr scope. Hence
LIe busIs on wIIcI mun sIouId deveI op IIs cupucILIes (Ior uII sorLs oI
ends) Is noL regurd I or LIe cdtcntces LIuL LIeIr cuILIvuLIon cun pro- |qq|
vIde; I or LIe udvunLuge mI gIL (uccordIng Lo Rousseuu' s prIncIpIes)
Lurn ouL on LIe sIde oI IIs prude nuLuruI needs. nsLeud, IL Is u com-
mund oI moruIIy prucLIcuI reuson und u dut oI mun Lo IImseII Lo cuI-
LIvuLe IIs cupucILIes (some umong LIem more LIun oLIers, InsoIur us
men Iuve dI I I erenL ends), und Lo be In u prugmuLI c respecL u mun
equuI Lo LIe end oI IIs exIsLence.
Pouers oj spirit ure LIose wIose exercIse Is possIbIe onIy L IrougI
reuson. TIey ure creuLIve Lo LIe exLenL LIuL LIeIr use Is noL druwn
I rom experI ence buL ruLIer derI ved u prIorI I rom prIncIpIes, oI LIe
sorL Lo be I ound In muLIemuLIcs, IogIc, und LIe meLupIysIcs oI nuLure.
TIe IuLLer Lwo ure uIso IncI uded In pIII osopIy, numeIy LIeoreLIcuI pII-
IosopIy, wII cI does noL LIen meun wIsdom, us LIe word ILseII wouI d
suggesL, buL onIy scIence. However, LIeoreLIcuI pIIIosopIy cun IeI p Lo
promoL e LIe end oI wIsdom.
Pouers oj mind ure LIose LIuL ure uL LIe dIsposuI oI undersLundI ng
und LIe ruI e IL uses Lo IuIIIII wIuLever purposes one mI gIL Iuve, und
becuuse oI LIIs experI ence Is LIeIr guIde. TIey IncIude memory, Imug-
InuLIon, und LIe IIke, on wIIcI cun be buIIL I eurnIng, LusLe (InLernuI und
!"#
zqo TIe Metcphsics oj Morcls
exLernuI embeIIIsImenL), und so IorLI, wIIcI IurnI sI InsLrumenLs I or
u vurIeLy oI purposes.
InuIIy, cuILIvuLIng LIe pouers oj the bod (gymnusLIcs In LIe sLrIcL
sense) Is I ookI ng uILer LIe bcsic stujj (LIe muLLer) In mun, wI LIouL wII cI
Ie couI d noL reuIIze IIs ends. Hence LIe conLI nuI ng und purposI ve
InvIgoruLIon oI LIe unImuI In mun Is un end oI mun LIuL Is u duLy Lo
IImseII.
%56(
WII cI oI LIese nuLuruI perIecLIons sIouI d Luke precedence, und In wIuL
proporLI on one uguInsL LIe oLIer IL muy be u mun' s duLy Lo II mseI I Lo
muke LIese nuLuruI perIecLIons IIs end, ure muLLers I eIL I or IIm
Lo cIoose In uccordunce wILI IIs own ruLIonuI reII ecLI on ubouL wIuL
sorL oI IIIe Ie wouI d IIke Lo Ieud und wIeLIer Ie Ius LIe powers
necessury I or IL (e.g., wIeLIer IL sIouI d be u Lrude, commerce, or u
I eurned proIessIon). or, quILe upurL I r om LIe need Lo muInLuIn IIm-
|qq6| seII, wIIcI In ILseII cunnoL esLubIIsI u duLy, mun Ius u duLy Lo IImseII
Lo be u useI uI member oI LIe worI d, sInce LIIs uIso beI ongs Lo LIe worLI
oI IumunI Ly In IIs own person, wIIcI Ie ougIL noL Lo degrude.
BuL mun' s duLy Lo IImseII regurdI ng IIs ncturcl perIecLI on Is onIy u
uide und I mperI ecL duLy; I or wIIIe IL does conLuIn u Iuw I or LIe muxI m
oI ucLIons, IL deLermI nes noLII ng ubouL LIe kInd und exLenL oI ucLIons
LIemseIves buL uIIows u IuLILude I or I ree cIoIce.
S E C T ON
On Mun's DuLy Lo HImseII Lo ncreuse
HIs MoruI PerIecLIon, TIuL s,
Ior u MoruI Purpose OnIy
%!"(
Iirst, LIIs perI ecL I on consIsLs subjecLIveIy In LIe purit (puritcs morclis)
oI one' s dI sposI LI on Lo duL y, numeI y, In LIe Iuw beI ng by ILseII uI one LIe
I ncenLI ve, even wI L IouL LIe udmI xL ure oI uIms derI ved I r om sensI-
bIIILy, und In ucLIons beI ng done noL onI y In conI ormI L y wILI duL y buL
uIso jrom dut. Her e LIe c ommund Is "be IoI y. " Second, us IuvI ng Lo do
wILI one' s enLI re moruI end, sucI perI ecL I on consIsLs obj ecLI veI y In
I uI I I I I I ng uII one' s duLI es und In uLLuI nI ng compI eLeI y one' s moruI end
wILI r egur d Lo oneseI I. Her e LIe c ommund Is "be perI ecL . " BuL mun' s
sLrIvIng uI L er LIIs end uIwuys remuI ns onI y u progress I r om one perI ec-
LIon Lo unoL Ier. " I L Iere be uny vI rLue, und II L Iere be uny pruIse,
sLrIve I or IL. "
q6
%!!(
TII s duL y Lo oneseI I Is u ncrrou und perI ecL one In Lerms oI ILs quuI ILy;
buL IL Is wI de und I mperI ecL In L erms oI ILs degree, becuuse oI LIe jrcilt
(jrcilitcs) oI Iumun nuLure.
L Is mun' s duL y Lo strite I or LIIs perI ecL I on, buL noL Lo recch IL (In LIIs
IIIe), und IIs compI I unce wILI LIIs duLy cun, uccordI ngI y, consIsL onI y
In conLI nuuI progress. Hence, wII I e LIIs duLy Is I ndeed nurrow und
perI ecL uith recrd to ILs obj ecL (LIe deu LIuL one sIouI d muke IL one' s
end Lo reuIIze), uith recrd to LIe subjecL IL Is onI y u wI de und I mperI ecL
duL y Lo II mseI I.
T I e depL Is oI LIe Iumun IeurL ure unI uL IomubI e. WIo knows II m- |qq;|
seII weII enougI Lo suy, wIen Ie IeeIs LIe IncenLIve Lo I uI I I I I IIs duLy,
wIeL Ier IL proceeds enLIreI y I r om LIe represenL uL I on oI LIe Iuw or
wIeL Ier L Iere ure noL muny oL Ier sensIbIe I mpuI ses conL rI buL I ng Lo IL
LIuL I ook Lo one' s udvunL uge (or Lo uvoI dI ng wIuL Is deLrI menLuI ) und
LIuL, In oL Ier cI rcumsLunces, couI d j usL us weII serve vIce? BuL wILI
r egur d Lo perI ecL I on us u moruI end, IL Is Lrue LIuL In ILs deu (objec-
zq1
zqz TIe Metcphsics oj Morcls
LIveIy) LIere Is onIy one vIrLue (us moruI sLrengLI oI one' s muxIms); buL
In IucL (subjecLIveIy) LIere Is u muILILude oI vIrLues, mude up oI severuI
dI I I erenL quuIILIes, und IL wouI d probubIy be ImpossIbIe noL Lo IInd In
IL some Iuck oI vIrLue, II one wunLed Lo Iook I or IL (LIougI, becuuse oI
LIose vIrLues, sucI oLIer quuIILIes ure noL usuuIIy cuIIed vIces). BuL u
sum oI vIrLues sucI LIuL our seI I-knowI edge cun never udequuLeI y LeII
us wIeLIer IL Is compI eLe or deII cI enL cun be LIe busIs onIy oI un
I mperI ecL duLy Lo be perIecL.
AI I duLIes Lo oneseII regurdI ng LIe end oI IumunI Ly In our own per-
son, ure, LIereIore, onIy I mperIecL duLIes.
P A R T |qq8|
D U T E S O V R T U E T O O T H E R S
C HAP T E R
On DuLIes Lo OLIers MereIy us Men
SecLIon
On TIe DuLy oI ove Lo OLIer Men
!"#"$"%&
()*+
TIe cII eI dIvIsIon cun be InLo duLIes Lo oLIers by LIe perI ormunce oI
wIIcI you uIso puL oLIers under obIIguLIon und duLIes Lo oLIers LIe
observunce oI wII cI does noL resuIL In obIIguLIon on LIe purL oI oLIers.
PerI ormI ng LIe IIrsL Is meritorious (In reIuLIon Lo oLIers), buL perI orm-
I ng LIe second Is IuI II I I I ng u duLy thct is oued. Lote und respect ure LIe
IeeIIngs LIuL uccompuny LIe curryI ng ouL oI LIese duLIes. TIey cun be
consI dered sepuruLeIy (eucI by ILseII) und cun uIso exIsL sepuruLeIy
(one cun lote one' s neI gIbor LIougI Ie mI gIL deserve buL IILLIe respect,
und cun sIow II m LIe respecL necessury I or every mun regurdIess oI
LIe IucL LIuL Ie wouI d IurdIy be j udged worLIy oI Iove). BuL LIey ure
busIcuIIy uIwuys unI Led by LIe Iuw InLo one duLy, onIy In sucI u wuy LIuL
now one duLy und now LIe oLIer Is LIe subjecL's prIncIpIe, wILI LIe
oLIer j oI ned Lo IL us uccessory. So we sIuII ucknowI edge LIuL we ure
under obIIguLIon Lo IeI p u poor mun; buL sInce LIe Iuvor we do ImpIIes
LIuL IIs weII-beIng depends on our generosILy, und LIIs IumbI es IIm,
IL Is our duLy Lo beIuve us II our IeI p Is eILIer mereIy wIuL Is due II m |qqq|
or buL u sIIgIL servIce oI Iove, und Lo spure II m IumIIIuLIon und
muInLuIn IIs respecL I or IImseII.
(),+
n speukI ng oI Iuws oI duLy (noL Iuws oI nuLure) und, umong LIese, oI
Iuws I or men' s exLernuI reIuLIons wILI one unoLIer, we consIder our-
seIves In u moruI (InLeIIIgIbIe) worI d wIere, by unuIogy wILI LIe pIys-
IcuI worI d, cttrcction und repulsion bInd LogeLIer ruLIonuI beIngs (on
!"#
zqq TIe Metcphsics oj Morcls
eurLI). TIe prIncIpI e oI -./.01 1%#2 udmonI sIes men consLunLIy Lo
come closer Lo one unoLIer; LIuL oI LIe 32$425/ LIey owe one unoLIer,
Lo keep LIemseIves ct c distcnce I rom one unoLIer; und sIouI d one oI
LIese greuL moruI Iorces IuII, "LIen noLIIngness (ImmoruIILy), wILI
gupI ng LIrouL, wouI d drInk up LIe wIoI e kI ngdom oI (moruI) beIngs
IIke u drop oI wuLer" (II muy use HuIIer' s words, buL In u dI I I erenL
connecLIon).
!"#$
n LIIs conLexL, Iowever, 1%#2 Is noL Lo be undersLood us jeelin (csthet-
isch), LIuL Is, us pIeusure In LIe perIecLI on oI oLIer men; Iove Is noL Lo
be undersLood us deliht In LIem (sInce oLIers cunnoL puL one under
obIIguLIon Lo Iuve IeeIIngs). L musL ruLIer be LIougIL us LIe muxI m oI
benetolence (prucLIcuI Iove), wIIcI resuILs In beneII cence.
TIe sume IoIds Lrue oI LIe 32$425/ Lo be sIown Lo oLIers. L Is noL
Lo be undersLood us LIe mere jeelin LIuL comes I rom compurI ng our
own uorth wILI unoLIer' s (sucI us u cIIId IeeIs mereIy I r om IubIL Lo-
wurd IIs purenLs, u pupII Lowurd IIs LeucIer, or uny subordI nuLe
Lowurd IIs superIor). L Is ruLIer Lo be undersLood us LIe mcxim oI IIm-
ILIng our seII-esLeem by LIe dIgnILy oI IumunI Ly In unoLIer person,
und so us respecL In LIe prucLIcuI sense (obsertcntic cliis prcestcndc).
Moreover, u duLy oI I ree respecL Lowurd oLIers Is, sLrIcLIy speukIng,
onIy u neguLIve one (oI noL exuILIng oneseII ubove oLIers) und Is LIus
unuI ogous Lo LIe duLy oI RIgIL noL Lo encroucI upon wIuL beI ongs Lo
|qo| unyone. Hence, uI LIougI IL Is u mere duLy oI vIrLue, IL Is regurded us
ncrrou In compurI son wILI u duLy oI Iove, und IL Is LIe IuLLer LIuL Is
consI dered u uide duLy.
TIe duLy oI Iove I or one' s neI gIbor cun, uccordIngIy, uIso be ex-
pressed us LIe duLy Lo muke oLIers' ends my own (provI ded onIy LIuL
LIese ure noL ImmoruI). TIe duLy oI respecL I or my neI gIbor Is con-
LuIned In LIe muxI m noL Lo degrude uny oLIer mun Lo u mere meuns Lo
my ends (noL Lo demund LIuL unoLIer LIrow IImseII uwuy In order
Lo sIuve I or my end).
By curryI ng ouL LIe duLy oI Iove Lo someone puL unoLIer under
obIIguLIon; muke myseII deservI ng I r om IIm. BuL In observI ng u duLy
oI respecL puL onIy myseII under obIIguLIon; keep myseI I wILIIn
my own bounds so us noL Lo deLrucL unyLII ng I rom LIe worLI LIuL LIe
oLIer, us u mun, Is uuLIorIzed Lo puL upon IImseII.
6& /72 !./8 %9 :%#2 "& ;03/"5.103
!"#$
SInce LIe Iove oI mun (pIIIunLIropy) we ure LII nkI ng oI Iere Is prucLI-
cuI Iove, noL LIe Iove LIuL Is deIIgIL In men, IL musL be Luken us ucLIve
The Doctrine oj RigIt g zq
benevoIence, und so us IuvI ng Lo do wILI LIe muxI m oI ucLIons. Some-
one wIo IInds suLIsIucLIon In LIe weII-beIng (sclus) oI men consIdered
sImpIy us men, I or wIom IL Is uell wIen LIIngs go weII I or every oLIer,
Is cuIIed u jriend oj mcn In generuI (u pIIIunLIropIsL). Someone I or
wIom IL Is weII onIy wIen LIIngs go budIy Ior oLIers Is cuIIed un enem
oj mcn (u mIsunLIropIsL In LIe prucLIcuI sense). Someone wIo Is IndII-
IerenL Lo Iow LIIngs go I or oLIers II onIy LIey go weII I or IImseII Is
seljish (solipsistc). BuL someone wIo uvoIds oLIer men becuuse Ie cun
II nd no deliht In LIem, LIougI Ie I ndeed uishes uII oI LIem uell, wouI d
be sh oI men (u mIsunLIropIsL In Lerms oI IIs sensIbIIILy |csthetischer ]),
und IIs LurnI ng uwuy I rom men couI d be cuIIed unLIropopIobI u.
()<+
n uccordunce wILI LIe eLIIcuI Iuw oI perIecLIon "Iove your neI gIbor
us yourseII, " LIe muxI m oI benevoIence (prucLIcuI Iove oI mun) Is u
duLy oI uII men Lowurd one unoLIer, wIeLIer or noL one IInds LIem |q1 |
worLIy oI Iove. or every moruIIy prucLIcuI reIuLIon Lo men Is u reIuLIon
umong LIem represenLed by pure reuson, LIuL Is, u reIuLIon oI I ree
ucLIons In uccordunce wILI muxIms LIuL quuIIIy Ior u gIvIng oI unIver-
suI Iuw und so cunnoL be seIIIsI (ex solipsismo prodeuntes). wunL every-
one eIse Lo be benevoIenL Lowurd me (benetolenticm); Ience ougIL
uIso Lo be benevoIenL Lowurd everyone eIse. BuL sInce uII others wILI LIe
excepLIon oI myseII wouI d noL be cll, so LIuL LIe muxI m wouId noL
Iuve wILIIn IL LIe unIversuIILy oI u Iuw, wIIcI Is sLIII necessury I or
ImposIng obIIguLIon, LIe Iuw mukI ng benevoIence u duLy wIII IncIude
myseII, us un objecL oI benevoIence, In LIe commund oI prucLIcuI
reuson. TII s does noL meun LIuL um LIereby under obIIguLIon Lo Iove
myseII (Ior LIIs Iuppens unuvoIdubIy, upurL I rom uny commund, so
LIere Is no obIIguLIon Lo IL); IL meuns InsLeud LIuL IuwgIvIng reuson,
wIIcI IncIudes LIe wIoIe specIes (und so myseII us weII) In ILs deu oI
IumunILy us sucI,
o
IncIudes me us gIvIng unIversuI Iuw uI ong wILI uII
oLIers In LIe duLy oI muLuuI benevoIence, In uccordunce wILI LIe
prIncIpIe oI equuIILy, und permits you Lo be benevoIenL Lo yourseII on
LIe condILIon oI your beIng benevoIenL Lo every oLIer us weII; I or IL Is
onIy In LIIs wuy LIuL your muxI m (oI beneIIcence) quuIIIIes I or u gIvIng
oI unIversuI Iuw, LIe prIncIpIe on wIIcI every Iuw oI duLy Is bused.
z8.
Now LIe benevoIence presenL In Iove I or uII men Is I ndeed LIe greuLesL
In ILs extent, buL LIe smuIIesL In ILs deree, und wIen suy LIuL Luke un
" n LIe IIrsL edI LI on LIe pIruse nicht der Mensch, ("noL mun") occurs Iere. L Is omI L L ed
In LIe second edI LI on.
zq6 TIe Metcphsics oj Morcls
InLeresL In LIIs mun' s weII-beIng onIy ouL oI my Iove I or uII men, LIe
InLeresL Luke Is us sIIgIL us un InLeresL cun be. um onIy noL I ndI I I er-
enL wILI regurd Lo IIm.
YeL one mun Is cIoser Lo me LIun unoLIer, und In benevoI ence um
cIosesL Lo myseII. How does LIIs IIL In wILI LIe precepL "Iove your
neihbor (your IeIIow mun) us yourseI I "? I one Is cIoser Lo me LIun
unoLIer (In LIe duLy oI benevoIence) und um L IereI ore under obIIgu-
LIon Lo greuLer benevoI ence Lo one LIun Lo LIe oLIer buL um udmI LLedI y
cIoser Lo myseII (even In uccordunce wILI duLy) LIun Lo uny oLIer, LIen
IL wouI d seem LIuL cunnoL, wILIouL conLrudIcLIng myseII, suy LIuL
ougIL Lo Iove every mun us myseII, sInce LIe meusure oI seII-Iove
|qz| wouI d uIIow I or no dI I I erence In degree. BuL IL Is quILe obvIous LIuL
wIuL Is meunL Iere Is noL mereIy benevoI ence In uishes, wII cI Is,
sLrIcLIy speukIng, onI y LukIng deIIgIL In LIe weII-beIng oI every oLIer
und does noL requI re me Lo conLrIbuLe Lo IL (every mun I or IImseII,
God I or us uII); wIuL Is meunL Is, ruLIer, ucLIve, prucLIcuI benevoI ence
(beneIIcence), mukI ng LIe weII-beIng und IuppIness oI oLIers my end.
or In wIsIIng cun be equcll benevoI enL Lo everyone, wIereus In
ucLIng cun, wI LIouL vIoIuLIng LIe unIversuIILy oI LIe muxI m, vury LIe
degree greuLIy In uccordunce wILI LIe dI I I erenL objecLs oI my Iove (one
oI wIom concerns me more cIoseIy LIun unoLIer).
!"#"$"%& %9 !./"2$ %9 :%#2
TIey ure duLIes oI A) benejicence, B) rctitude, und C) smpcth.
A.
Dn the Dut oj enejicence
!"#$
ProvI dI ng Ior oneseI I Lo LIe exLenL necessury j usL Lo IInd suLIsIucLIon In
IIvIng (LukIng cure oI one' s body, buL noL Lo LIe poInL oI eI I emI nucy)
beI ongs umong duLIes Lo oneseII. TIe conLrury oI LIIs Is deprI vI ng
oneseI I (sIuvIsIIy) oI wIuL Is essenLIuI Lo LIe cIeerI uI enj oymenL oI IIIe,
by ctcrice, or deprI vI ng oneseII (IunuLIcuIIy) oI enj oymenL oI LIe pIeu-
sures oI IIIe by exuggeruL ed discipline oI one' s nuLuruI IncIInuLIons.
BoLI oI LIese ure opposed Lo mun' s duLy Lo IImseII.
BuL beyond benetolence In our wIsIes I or oLIer men (wIIcI cosLs
us noLIIng) Iow cun IL be requI red us u duLy LIuL LIIs sIouI d uIso
be prucLIcuI, LIuL Is, LIuL everyone wIo Ius LIe meuns Lo do so sIouI d
be benejicent Lo LIose In need? BenevoI ence Is suLIsIucLIon In LIe Iup-
pIness (weII-beIng) oI oLIers; buL beneII cence Is LIe muxI m oI muk-
The Doctrine oj RigIt g zq;
I ng oLIers' IuppIness one' s end, und LIe duLy Lo IL consIsLs In LIe
subjecL's beIng consLruIned by IIs reuson Lo udopL LIIs muxI m us u
unIversuI Iuw.
L Is noL obvIous LIuL uny sucI Iuw Is Lo be I ound In reuson. On LIe
conLrury, LIe muxI m "Every mun I or IImseII, God (IorLune) I or us uII"
seems Lo be LIe mosL nuLuruI one.
!%&$ "#$%&
To be beneIIcenL, LIuL Is, Lo promoLe uccordI ng Lo one' s meuns [Ver-
moen] LIe IuppIness oI oLIers In need, wILIouL IopI ng I or someLIIng
In reLurn, Is every mun' s duLy.
or every mun wIo IInds IImseII In need wIsIes Lo be IeI ped by
oLIer men. BuL II Ie IeLs IIs muxI m oI beIng unwIIIIng Lo ussIsL oLIers
In Lurn wIen LIey ure In need become pubIIc, LIuL Is, mukes LIIs u
unIversuI permIssIve Iuw, LIen everyone wouId IIkewIse deny IIm
ussIsLunce wIen Ie IImseII Is In need, or uL IeusL wouId be uuLIorIzed
Lo deny IL. Hence LIe muxI m oI seII-InLeresL wouI d conIIIcL wILI ILseII
II IL were mude u unIversuI Iuw, LIuL Is, IL Is conLrury Lo duLy. Conse-
quenLIy LIe muxI m oI common InLeresL, oI beneII cence Lowurd LIose
In need, Is u unIversuI duLy oI men, j usL becuuse LIey ure Lo be consId-
ered IeIIow men, LIuL Is, ruLIonuI beIngs wILI needs, unILed by nuLure
In one dweIIIng pIuce so LIuL LIey cun IeIp one unoLIer.
(*=+
A rich mun (one wIo Ius ubundunL meuns [Mitteln] I or LIe IuppIness
oI oLIers, I.e., meuns In excess oI IIs own needs), sIouId IurdIy even
regurd beneII cence us u merILorIous duLy on IIs purL, even LIougI Ie
uIso puLs oLIers under obIIguLIon by IL. TIe suLIsIucLIon Ie derIves
I rom IIs beneII cence, wIIcI cosLs IIm no sucrIIIce, Is u wuy oI reveIIng
In moruI IeeIIngs. He musL uIso cureIuIIy uvoId uny uppeurunce oI
InLendIng Lo bInd LIe oLIer by IL; I or II Ie sIowed LIuL Ie wunLed Lo
puL LIe oLIer under un obIIguLIon (wIIcI uIwuys IumbIes LIe oLIer In
IIs own eyes), IL wouId noL be u Lrue beneIIL LIuL Ie rendered IIm.
nsLeud, Ie musL sIow LIuL Ie Is IImseII puL under obIIguLIon by LIe
oLIer' s uccepLunce or Ionored by IL, Ience LIuL LIe duLy Is mereIy
someLIIng LIuL Ie owes, unIess (us Is beLLer) Ie cun prucLIce IIs beneI-
Icence In compI eLe secrecy. TII s vIrLue Is greuLer wIen LIe beneIuc-
Lor's meuns ure IImILed und Ie Is sLrong enougI quIeLIy Lo Luke on
IImseII LIe IurdsIIp Ie spures LIe oLIer; LIen Ie Is reuIIy Lo be con-
sIdered moruIIy rIcI.
zq8 TIe Metcphsics oj Morcls
|qq| Ccsuisticcl Questions
How Iur sIouId u mun expend IIs meuns In prucLIcIng beneII cence?
SureIy noL Lo LIe exLenL LIuL Ie IImseII wouI d IInuIIy come Lo need LIe
beneII cence oI oLIers. How mucI worLI Ius beneII cence exL ended
wILI u coId Iund (by u wIII Lo be puL InLo eI I ecL uL one' s deuLI)? I
someone wIo exercIses over unoLIer (u serI oI IIs esLuLe) LIe greuLer
power permI LLed by LIe Iuw oI LIe Iund robs LIe oLIer oI IIs I reedom
Lo muke IImseII Iuppy In uccordunce wILI IIs own cIoIces, cun Ie,
suy, consIder IImseI I LIe oLIer' s beneIucLor becuuse Ie Iooks uILer II m
puLernuIIsLIcuIIy In uccordunce wILI his oun concepLs oI IuppIness? Or
Is noL LIe InjusLIce oI deprI vI ng someone oI IIs I reedom someLII ng so
conLrury Lo duLy oI RIgIL us sucI LIuL one wIo wIIIIngIy consenLs Lo
submIL Lo LIIs condILIon, counLI ng on IIs musLer's beneI I cence, com-
mILs LIe greuLesL rejecLIon oI IIs own IumunI Ly, und LIuL LIe musLer' s
uLmosL concern I or IIm wouI d noL reuIIy be beneI I cence uL uII? Or
couI d LIe merIL oI sucI beneII cence be so greuL us Lo ouLweI gI LIe
RIgIL oI men? cunnoL do good Lo unyone In uccordunce wILI m con-
cepLs oI IuppIness (excepL Lo young cII I dren und LIe Insune), LII nkI ng
Lo beneII L IIm by I orcI ng u gI IL upon IIm; ruLIer, cun beneII L IIm
onIy In uccordunce wILI his concepLs oI IuppIness.
HuvI ng LIe meuns Lo prucLIce sucI beneII cence us depends on LIe
goods oI I orL une Is, Ior LIe mosL purL, u resuIL oI cerLuIn men beI ng
I uvored L IrougI LIe InjusLIce oI LIe governmenL, wII cI I nLroduces un
InequuIILy oI weuILI LIuL mukes oLIers need LIeIr beneII cence. Under
sucI cIrcumsLunces, does u rIcI mun' s IeI p Lo LIe needy, on wII cI Ie
so reudIIy prIdes IImseII us someLII ng merILorIous, reuIIy deserve Lo
be cuIIed beneII cence uL uII?
.
Dn the Dut oj Grctitude
Grctitude consIsLs In honorin u person becuuse oI u beneI I L Ie Ius ren-
dered us. TIe IeeI I ng connecLed wILI LIIs j udgmenL Is respecL I or LIe
beneIucLor (wIo puLs one under obIIguLIon), wIereus LIe beneI ucLor Is
|q| vIewed us onIy In u reIuLIon oI Iove Lowurd LIe recIpIenL. Even mere
IeurLIeI L benetolence on unoLIer' s purL, wILIouL pIysIcuI resuILs, de-
serves Lo be cuIIed u duLy oI vIrLue; und LIIs Is LIe busIs I or LIe dIsLInc-
LIon beLween cctite und mereIy cjjectite gruLILude.
'%()
Grctitude Is u duLy. L Is noL u mereIy prudenticl muxI m oI encourugI ng
LIe oLIer Lo sIow me I urL Ier beneII cence by ucknowI edgI ng my obII-
The Doctrine oj RigIt g zqq
guLIon Lo IIm I or u Iuvor Ie Ius done (rcticrum cctio est cd plus dcndum
intitctio), I or wouI d LIen be usIng my ucknowI edgmenL mereIy us u
meuns Lo my I urL Ier purposes. GruLILude Is, ruLIer, dIrecL consLruInL
In uccordunce wILI u moruI Iuw, LIuL Is, u duLy.
BuL gruLILude musL uIso be consIdered, In purLIcuIur, u sccred duLy,
LIuL Is, u duLy LIe vIoIuLIon oI wIIcI (us u scunduIous exumpI e) cun
desLroy LIe moruI IncenLIve Lo beneIIcence In ILs very prIncIpIe. or u
moruI objecL Is sucred II LIe obIIguLIon wILI regurd Lo IL cunnoL be
dIscIurged compIeLeIy by uny ucL In keepI ng wILI IL (so LIuL one wIo
Is under obIIguLIon uIwuys remuIns under obIIguLIon). Any oLIer duLy
Is un ordincr duLy. BuL one cunnoL, by uny repuymenL oI u kIndness
receIved, rid oneseII oI LIe obIIguLIon I or IL, sInce LIe recIpIenL cun
never wIn uwuy I rom LIe beneIucLor IIs priorit oI merIL, numeIy Iuv-
Ing been LIe IIrsL In benevoIence. BuL even mere IeurLIeIL benevo-
Ience, upurL I rom uny sucI ucL (oI beneIIcence), Is uIreudy u busIs oI
obIIguLIon Lo gruLILude. A gruLeIuI dIsposILIon oI LIIs kInd Is cuIIed
cpprecictiteness.
!""#
As Iur us LIe extent oI LIIs gruLILude Is concerned, IL reucIes noL onIy Lo
one's conLemporurIes buL uIso Lo one' s predecessors, even Lo LIose one
cunnoL IdenLIIy wILI cerLuInLy. L Is I or LIIs reuson, Loo, LIuL IL Is
LIougIL I mproper noL Lo deI end LIe uncIenLs, wIo cun be regurded us
our LeucIers, I rom uII uLLucks, uccusuLIons, und dIsduIn, InsoIur us LIIs
Is possIbIe. BuL IL Is u IooIIsI mIsLuke Lo uLLrIbuLe preemI nence In
LuIenLs und good wIII Lo LIe uncIenLs In preIerence Lo LIe moderns j usL
becuuse oI LIeIr unLIquILy, us II LIe worId were sLeudIIy decIInIng In
uccordunce wILI Iuws oI nuLure I rom ILs orIgInuI perIecLIon, und Lo |q6|
despIse everyLII ng new In compurIson wILI unLIquILy.
BuL LIe intensit oI gruLILude, LIuL Is, LIe degree oI obIIguLIon Lo LIIs
vIrLue, Is Lo be ussessed by Iow useIuI LIe Iuvor wus Lo LIe one puL
under obIIguLIon und Iow unseIIIsIIy IL wus besLowed on IIm. TIe
IeusL degree Is Lo render equcl servIces Lo LIe beneIucLor, II Ie cun
receIve LIem (II Ie Is sLIII IIvIng) or, II Ie cunnoL, Lo render LIem Lo
oLIers; IL InvoIves noL regurdI ng u kIndness receIved us u burden one
wouId gIudIy be rId oI (sInce LIe one so Iuvored sLunds u sLep Iower
LIun IIs beneIucLor, und LIIs wounds IIs prIde), buL LukIng even LIe
occusIon I or gruLILude us u moruI kIndness, LIuL Is, us un opporLunILy
gIven one Lo unILe LIe vIrLue oI gruLILude wILI Iove oI mun, Lo combIne
LIe cordiclit oI u benevoIenL dIsposILIon wILI sensititit Lo benevoI ence
(uLLenLIveness Lo LIe smuIIesL degree oI LIIs dIsposILIon In one' s
LIougIL oI duLy), und so Lo cuILIvuLe one' s Iove oI mun.
zo TIe Metcphsics oj Morcls
C.
Smpcthetic Ieelin Is Genercll c Dut
!"$#
Smpcthetic jo und scdness (smpcthic morclis) ure sensIbIe IeeIIngs oI
pI eusure or puIn (wIIcI ure L IereI ore Lo be cuIIed "uesLIeLIc" [csthet-
isch]) uL unoLIer' s sLuLe oI j oy or sorrow (sIured IeeI I ng, sympuLIeLIc
IeeIIng.) NuL ure Ius uIreudy ImpI unLed In mun suscepLIbIIILy Lo LIese
IeeIIngs. BuL Lo use LIIs us u meuns Lo promoLI ng ucLIve und ruLIonuI
benevoI ence Is sLIII u purLIcuIur, L IougI onIy u condILIonuI, duLy. L Is
cuIIed LIe duLy oI humcnit (humcnitcs) becuuse mun Is regurded Iere
noL mereIy us u ruLIonuI beI ng buL uIso us un unImuI endowed wILI
reuson. Now IumunI Ly cun be IocuLed eILIer In LIe ccpccit und LIe uill
Lo shcre in others' jeelins (humcnitcs prccticc) or mereIy In LIe susceptibil-
it, gIven by nuLure ILseII, Lo IeeI j oy und sudness In common wILI
oLIers (humcnitcs cestheticc). TIe IIrsL Is jree, und Is L IereI ore cuIIed
smpcthetic (communio sentiendi liberclis)\ IL Is bused on prucLIcuI reuson.
|q;| TIe second Is unjree (communio sentiendi illiberclis, sertilis)\ IL cun be
cuIIed communiccble (sInce IL Is IIke LIe suscepLIbIIILy Lo wurmL I or
conLugIous dIseuses), und uIso compussIon,
q;
sInce IL spreuds nuLuruIIy
umong men IIvIng neur one unoLIer. TIer e Is obIIguLIon onIy Lo LIe
IIrsL.
L wus u subIIme wuy oI LII nkI ng LIuL LIe SLoIc uscrIbed Lo IIs wIse
mun wIen Ie Iud IIm suy, " wIsI I or u IrI end, noL LIuL Ie mI gIL IeI p
me In poverLy, sIckness, I mprI sonmenL, eLc., buL ruLIer LIuL mI gIL
sLund by him und rescue u mun. " BuL LIe sume wIse mun, wIen Ie
couI d noL rescue IIs IrI end, suId Lo IImseII, "WIuL Is IL Lo me?" n
oLIer words, Ie rejecLed compussIon.
n IucL, wIen unoLIer suIIers und, uI LIougI cunnoL IeI p IIm, IeL
myseII be I nIecLed by IIs puIn (LIrougI my ImugInuLIon), LIen Lwo oI
us suI I er, L IougI LIe evII reuIIy (In nuLure) uIIecLs onIy one. BuL LIere
cunnoL possIbIy be u duLy Lo Increuse LIe evII In LIe worI d und so Lo do
good jrom compcssion. TII s wouI d uIso be un InsuILIng kI nd oI beneII -
cence, sInce IL expresses LIe kInd oI benevoI ence one Ius Lowurd
someone unworLIy, cuIIed pit, und LIIs Ius no pIuce In men' s reIuLIons
wILI one unoLIer, sInce LIey ure noL Lo muke u dIspIuy oI LIeIr worLII-
ness Lo be Iuppy.
!"%#
BuL wIIIe IL Is noL In ILseII u duLy Lo sIure LIe suI I erI ngs (us weII LIe
j oys) oI oLIers, IL Is u duLy Lo sympuLIIze ucLIveIy In LIeIr IuLe; und Lo
The Doctrine oj RigIt g z1
LIIs end IL Is L Ier eI or e un I ndI recL duL y Lo cuILIvuLe LIe compussI onuL e
nuL uruI (uesLIeLIc [csthetische]) I eeI I ngs In us, und Lo muke use oI L Iem
us so muny meuns Lo sympuL Iy bused on moruI prI ncI pI es und LIe
I eeI I ng upproprI uL e Lo L Iem. L Is L Ier eI or e u duL y noL Lo uvoI d LIe
pI uces wIer e LIe poor wIo Iuck LIe mosL busIc necessILIes ure Lo be
I ound buL ruL Ier Lo seek L Iem ouL, und noL Lo sIun sI ck-rooms or
debLors' prI sons und so I orL I In or der Lo uvoI d sIurI ng puI nI uI I eeI I ngs
one muy noL be ubI e Lo resIsL. or LIIs Is sLIII one oI LIe I mpuI ses LIuL
nuL ure Ius I mpI unL ed In us Lo do wIuL LIe represenL uL I on oI duL y uI one
wouI d noL uccompI I sI.
q8
!"#$%
WouI d IL noL be beLLer I or LIe weI I -beI ng oI LIe worI d generuI I y II
Iumun moruI I Ly were I ImILed Lo duLI es oI RI gIL, I uI I I I I ed wI LI LIe
uLmosL conscI enLI ousness, und benevoI ence were consI dered moruI I y
I ndI I I erenL ? L Is noL so eusy Lo see wIuL eI I ecL LIIs wouI d Iuve on
mun' s IuppI ness. BuL uL IeusL u greuL moruI udor nmenL , I ove oI mun,
wouI d L Ien be mI ssI ng I r om LIe worI d. ove oI mun Is, uccordI ngI y,
requI red by ILseII, In or der Lo presenL LIe worI d us u beuuL I I uI moruI
wIoI e In ILs I uI I perI ecL I on, even II no uccounL Is L uken oI udvunL uges
(oI IuppI ness).
GruL I L ude Is noL, sLrIcLIy speukI ng, I ove L owurd u beneI ucL or on LIe
purL oI someone Ie Ius puL under obI I guLI on, buL ruL Ier respect I or
II m. or unI versuI I ove oI one' s neI gIbor cun und musL be bused on
equuIILy oI duLI es, wIereus In gruL I L ude LIe one puL under obI I guLI on
sLunds u sLep I ower L Iun IIs beneI ucL or. s IL noL LIIs, numeI y prI de,
LIuL cuuses so muc I I ngruLI Lude? seeI ng someone ubove oneseI I und
I eeI I ng resenL menL uL noL beI ng ubI e Lo muke oneseI I I uI I y IIs equuI (us
I ur us reI uLI ons oI duL y ure concerned)?
Dn the Vices oj Hctred jor Men, Directl (conLrurIe)
Dpposed to Lote oj Them
!"#$
TIe y comprI se LIe I ouL Isome I umI I y oI ent, inrctitude, und mclice. n
LIese vIces, Iowever , IuL red Is noL open und vI oI enL buL secreL und
veI I ed, uddI ng meunness Lo one' s negI ecL oI duL y Lo one' s neI gIbor, so
LIuL one uIso vIoIuLes u duL y Lo oneseI I.
u) Ent (litor) Is u propensI Ly Lo vIew LIe weI I -beI ng oI oLIers wI LI dIs-
Lress, even L IougI IL does noL deLrucL I r om one' s own. WIe n IL breuks
zz TIe Metcphsics oj Morcls
IorLI InLo ucLIon (Lo dImInIsI LIeIr weII-beIng) IL Is cuIIed envy proper,
oLIerwIse IL Is mereI y jeclous (intidentic). YeL envy Is onIy un IndIrecLIy
muIevoIenL dIsposILIon, numeIy u reIucLunce Lo see our own weII-beIng
oversIudowed by unoLIer' s becuuse LIe sLundurd we use Lo see Iow
|qq|
w e
H I I we ure Is noL LIe InLrInsIc worLI oI our own weII-beIng buL Iow
IL compures wILI LIuL oI oLIers. AccordI ngI y one speuks, Loo, oI enti-
cble Iurmony und IuppIness In u murrI uge or IumIIy und so IorLI, j usL
us II envyI ng someone were permI LLed In muny cuses. MovemenLs oI
envy ure L IereI ore presenL In Iumun nuLure, und onIy wIen LIey
breuk ouL do LIey consLILuLe LIe ubomInubI e vIce oI u suIIen pussIon
LIuL LorLures oneseII und uIms, uL IeusL In Lerms oI one' s wIsIes, uL
desLroyI ng oLIers' good IorLune. TII s vIce Is LIereI ore conLrury Lo u
mun' s duLy Lo IImseII us weII us Lo oLIers.
b) WIen inrctitude Lowurd one' s beneI ucLor exLends Lo IuLred oI II m
IL Is cuIIed inrctitude proper, buL oLIerwIse mere uncpprecictiteness. L Is,
I ndeed, pubIIcIy j udged Lo be one oI LIe mosL deLesLubIe vIces; und yeL
mun Is so noLorIous Ior IL LIuL IL Is noL LIougIL unIIkeIy LIuL one couI d
even muke un enemy by renderI ng u beneIIL. WIuL mukes sucI u vIce
possIbIe Is mI sundersLundI ng one' s duLy Lo oneseII, LIe duLy oI noL
needI ng und uskIng Ior oLIers' beneII cence, sInce LIIs puLs one under
obIIguLIon Lo LIem, buL ruLIer preI errI ng Lo beur LIe IurdsII ps oI IIIe
oneseI I LIun Lo burden oLIers wILI LIem und so Incur IndebLedness
(obIIguLIon); I or we Ieur LIuL by sIowI ng gruLILude we Luke LIe I nIerI or
posILIon oI u dependenL In reIuLIon Lo IIs proLecLor, wII cI Is conLrury
Lo reuI seII-esLeem (prIde In LIe dIgnILy oI IumunI Ly In one' s own
person). Hence gruLILude Is IreeIy sIown Lo LIose wIo musL unctoid-
cbl Iuve preceded us In conI errI ng beneIILs (Lo LIe uncesLors we
commemoruL e or Lo our purenLs); buL Lo conLemporurI es IL Is sIown
onIy spurIngIy und I ndeed LIe very opposILe oI IL Is sIown, In order Lo
IIde LIIs reIuLIon oI InequuIILy. BuL IngruLILude Is u vIce LIuL sIocks
IumunILy, noL mereI y becuuse oI LIe hcrm LIuL sucI un exumpI e musL
brI ng on men In generuI by deLerrI ng LIem I rom I urL Ier beneI I cence
(Ior wILI u genuI ne moruI dIsposILIon LIey cun, j usL by scornI ng uny
sucI reLurn I or LIeIr beneII cence, puL uII LIe more I nner moruI worLI
on IL), buL becuuse IngruLILude sLunds Iove oI mun on ILs Ieud, us IL
were, und degrudes ubsence oI Iove InLo un uuLIorIzuLIon Lo IuLe LIe
one wIo Ioves.
|q6o| c) Mclice, LIe dIrecL opposILe oI sympuLIy, Is IIkewIse no sLrunger Lo
Iumun nuLure; buL wIen IL goes so Iur us Lo IeI p brI ng ubouL evII or
wIckedness IL mukes IuLred oI men vIsIbIe und uppeurs In uII ILs
IIdeousness us mclice proper. L Is I ndeed nuLuruI LIuL, by LIe Iuws oI
ImugInuLIon (numeIy, LIe Iuw oI conLrusL), we IeeI our own weII-beIng
und even our good conducL more sLrongIy wIen LIe mI sIorLune oI
oLIers or LIeIr downIuI I In scunduI Is puL nexL Lo our own condILIon, us
u IoII Lo sIow IL In so mucI LIe brIgILer IIgIL. BuL Lo rejoIce ImmedI-
uLeIy In LIe exIsLence oI sucI enormities desLroyIng wIuL Is besL In LIe
worId us u wIoI e, und so uIso Lo wIsI I or LIem Lo Iuppen, Is secreLIy Lo
IuLe men; und LIIs Is LIe dIrecL opposILe oI Iove I or our neI gIbor,
wIIcI Is I ncumbenL on us us u duLy. L Is LIe hcuhtiness oI oLIers wIen
LIeIr weI Iure Is unI nLerrupLed, und LIeIr selj-conceit In LIeIr good con-
ducL (sLrIcLIy speukIng, onIy In LIeIr good I orLune In IuvI ng so Iur
escuped LempLuLIons Lo pubIIc vIce) - boLI oI wIIcI un egoLIsL uccounLs
Lo IIs merIL - LIuL generuLe LIIs muIevoIenL j oy, wIIcI Is dIrecLIy op-
posed Lo one' s duLy In uccordunce wILI LIe prIncIpIe oI sympuLIy (us
expressed by Terence' s IonesL CIremes): " um u mun; wIuLever be-
IuIIs mun concerns me Loo."
qq
TIe sweeLesL I orm oI muIIce Is LIe desire jor retene. BesIdes, IL mI gIL
even seem LIuL one Ius LIe greuLesL rIgIL, und even LIe obIIguLIon (us
u desIre I or jusLIce), Lo muke IL one' s end Lo Iurm oLIers wILIouL uny
udvunLuge Lo oneseII.
Every deed LIuL vIoIuLes u mun' s rIgIL deserves punI sImenL, LIe
IuncLI on oI wIIcI Is Lo ctene u crIme on LIe one wIo commILLed IL (noL
mereIy Lo muke good LIe Iurm LIuL wus done). BuL punI sImenL Is noL
un ucL LIuL LIe Injured purLy cun underLuke on IIs prIvuLe uuLIorILy,
buL ruLIer un ucL oI u courL dIsLIncL I rom IIm, wIIcI gIves eI I ecL Lo LIe
Iuw oI u supreme cuthorit over uII LIose subjecL Lo IL; und wIen (us we
musL In eLIIcs) we regurd men us In u rI gILIuI condILIon buL in cccor-
dcnce onl uith lcus oj recson (noL cIvII Iuws), LIen no one Is uuLIorIzed
Lo InIIIcL punI sImenL und Lo uvenge LIe wrongs susLuIned by men
excepL HI m wIo Is uIso LIe supreme moruI IuwgIver; und He uIone
(numeIy God) cun suy "Vengeunce Is mIne; wIII repuy. " L Is, LIere-
Iore, u duLy oI vIrLue noL onIy Lo reIruI n I rom repuyI ng unoLIer' s
enmILy wILI IuLred ouL oI mere revenge buL uIso noL even Lo cuII upon
LIe j udge oI LIe worId I or vengeunce, purLIy becuuse u mun Ius
enougI guIIL oI IIs own Lo be greuLIy In need oI purdon und purLIy,
und I ndeed especIuIIy, becuuse no punI sImenL, no muLLer I rom wIom |q61|
IL comes, muy be InIIIcLed ouL oI IuLred. L Is LIereI ore u duLy oI men
Lo be joritin (plcccbilitcs). BuL LIIs musL noL be conIused wILI meel
tolerction oI wrongs (mitis iniuricrum pctientic), renuncIuLIon oI rIgor-
ous meuns (riorosc) I or prevenLI ng LIe recurrence oI wrongs by oLIer
men; I or LIen u mun wouId be LIrowI ng uwuy IIs rIgILs und IeLLIng
oLIers LrumpIe on LIem, und so wouI d vIoIuLe IIs duLy Lo IImseII.
!"# TIe Metcphsics oj Morcls
Remcrl
I vIce Is Luken In LIe sense oI u busIc prIncIpIe (u vIce proper),
LIen uny vIce, wII cI wouI d muke Iumun nuLure ILseII deLesLubIe,
Is inhumcn wIen regurded objecLIveIy. BuL consI dered subjec-
LIveIy, LIuL Is, In Lerms oI wIuL experI ence LeucIes us ubouL our
specIes, sucI vIces ure sLIII humcn. As Lo wIeLIer, In veIemenL
revuIsIon, one couI d cuII some oI LIese vIces detilish, und so Loo
LIe vIrLues opposed Lo LIem cnelic, boLI oI LIese concepLs ure
onIy deus oI u muxI mum used us u sLundurd I or compurI ng
> degrees oI moruIILy; In LIem one ussIgns mun IIs pIuce In hecten
or hell, wILIouL mukI ng oI II m un InLermedIuLe sorL oI beI ng wIo
occupIes neILIer one pIuce nor LIe oLIer. TIe quesLIon muy
remuI n open Iere wIeLIer HuI I er dId noL IIL upon IL beLLer wILI
IIs "un umbI guous IybI rd oI ungeI und beusL." BuL dI vI dI ng
someLII ng composI Le InLo Lwo IeLerogeneous LIIngs yIeIds no
deII nI Le concepL uL uII, und cun Ieud us Lo none In orderI ng beI ngs
wIose cIuss dIsLIncLIons ure unknown Lo us. TIe IIrsL compurI son
(oI ungeIIc vIrLue und devIIIsI vIce) Is un exuggeruLI on. TI e sec-
ond - uI LIougI men do, uIus, uIso IuII InLo brutish vIces - does noL
j usLI Iy uLLrIbuLIng Lo LIem u predIsposILIon Lo LIese vIces belon-
in to their species, uny more LIun LIe sLunLIng oI some Lrees In LIe
IoresL Is u reuson Ior mukI ng LIem u specIuI lind oI pIunL.
|q6z| SecLIon
On DuLIes oI VIrLue Lowurd OLIer Men
ArIsIng Irom LIe RespecL Due TIem
!"#$
Moderction In one' s demunds generuIIy, LIuL Is, wIIIIng resLrIcLIon oI
one mun' s seII-Iove In vIew oI LIe seII-Iove oI oLIers, Is cuIIed modest.
uck oI such moderction (Iuck oI modesLy) us regurds one' s worLIIness Lo
be loted by oLIers Is cuIIed eotism (philcutic). BuL Iuck oI modesLy In
one' s cIuIms Lo be %&'(&)*&+ by oLIers Is selj-conceit (crrocntic). TIe
respect LIuL Iuve I or oLIers or LIuL unoLIer cun requI re I rom me
(obsertcntic cliis prcestcndc) Is LIereI ore recognILIon oI u dinit (dini-
tcs) In oLIer men, LIuL Is, oI u worLI LIuL Ius no prIce, no equIvuIenL
I or wII cI LIe objecL evuIuuLed (cestimii) couI d be excIunged. JudgI ng
someLII ng Lo be worLIIess Is conLempL.
!"#$
Every mun Ius u IegILImuLe cIuIm Lo respecL I rom IIs IeIIow men und
Is in turn bound Lo respecL every oLIer.
HumunI Ly ILseII Is u dIgnILy; Ior u mun cunnoL be used mereIy us u
meuns by uny mun (eILIer by oLIers or even by II mseI I) buL musL
uIwuys be used uL LIe sume LIme us un end. L Is j usL In LIIs LIuL IIs
dIgnILy (personuIILy) consIsLs, by wIIcI Ie ruIses IImseII ubove uII
oLIer beIngs In LIe worId LIuL ure noL men und yeL cun be used, und so
over uII thins. BuL j usL us Ie cunnoL gIve IImseII uwuy I or uny prIce
(LIIs wouI d conIIIcL wILI IIs duLy oI seII-esLeem), so neILIer cun Ie ucL
conLrury Lo LIe equuIIy necessury seII-esLeem oI oLIers, us men, LIuL Is,
Ie Is under obIIguLIon Lo ucknowI edge, In u prucLIcuI wuy, LIe dIgnILy
oI IumunILy In every oLIer mun. Hence LIere resLs on IIm u duLy
regurdI ng LIe respecL LIuL musL be sIown Lo every oLIer mun.
|q6|
To be contemptuous oI oLIers (contemnere), LIuL Is, Lo deny LIem LIe
respecL owed Lo men In generuI, Is In every cuse conLrury Lo duLy; I or
LIey ure men. AL LImes one cunnoL, IL Is Lrue, IeI p InwurdIy loolin
doun on some In compurIson wILI oLIers (despicctui hcbere), buL LIe
ouLwurd munIIesLuLIon oI LIIs Is, neverLIeIess, un oI I ense. WIuL Is
dcnerous Is no objecL oI conLempL, und so neILIer Is u vIcIous mun; und
II my superIorILy Lo IIs uLLucks jusLIIIes my suyIng LIuL despIse IIm,
LIIs meuns onIy LIuL um In no dunger I rom IIm, even L IougI Iuve
prepured no deI ense uguInsL IIm, becuuse Ie sIows IImseII In uII IIs
depruvILy. NoneLIeIess cunnoL deny uII respecL Lo even u vIcIous mun
us u mun; cunnoL wILIdruw uL IeusL LIe respecL LIuL beIongs Lo IIm In
IIs quuIILy us u mun, even LIougI by IIs deeds Ie mukes IImseII
unworLIy oI IL. So LIere cun be dI sgruceIuI punIsImenLs LIuL dI sIonor
IumunILy ILseII (sucI us quurLerIng u mun, IuvIng IIm Lorn by dogs,
cuLLIng oI I IIs nose und eurs). NoL onIy ure sucI punIsImenLs more
puI nIuI LIun Ioss oI possessIons und IIIe Lo one wIo Ioves Ionor (wIo
cIuIms LIe respecL oI oLIers, us everyone musL); LIey uIso muke u
specLuLor bIusI wILI sIume uL beI ongI ng Lo u specIes LIuL cun be
LreuLed LIuL wuy.
Remcrl
On LIIs Is bused u duLy Lo respecL u mun even In LIe IogIcuI use oI
IIs reuson, u duLy noL Lo censure IIs errors by cuIIIng LIem
ubsurdILIes, poor j udgmenL und so IorLI, buL ruLIer Lo suppose
6 TIe Metcphsics oj Morcls
LIuL IIs j udgmenL musL yeL conLuIn some LruLI und Lo seek LIIs
ouL, uncoverI ng, uL LIe sume LIme, LIe decepLIve IIIusIon (LIe
subjecLIve ground LIuL deLermI ned IIs j udgmenL LIuL, by un
oversIgIL, Ie Look I or objecLIve), und so, by expI uI nI ng Lo II m LIe
possIbIIILy oI IIs IuvI ng erred, Lo preserve IIs respecL I or IIs own
undersLundI ng. or II, by usIng sucI expressIons, one denIes uny
undersLundI ng Lo u mun wIo opposes one In u cerLuIn j udgmenL ,
Iow does one wunL Lo brI ng II m Lo undersLund LIuL Ie Ius erred?
TIe sume LII ng uppIIes Lo LIe censure oI vIce, wIIcI musL never
breuk ouL InLo compI eLe conLempL und denIuI oI uny moruI worLI
|q6q| Lo u vIcIous mun; Ior on LIIs supposILIon Ie couI d never be Im-
v
proved, und LIIs Is noL consIsLenL wILI LIe deu oI u mcn, wIo us
sucI (us u moruI beIng) cun never Iose enLIreIy IIs predIsposILIon
Lo LIe good.
!"#$
RespecL I or LIe Iuw, wIIcI In ILs subjecLIve uspecL Is cuIIed moruI
IeeI I ng, Is IdenLIcuI wILI conscIousness oI one' s duLy. TII s Is wIy sIow-
I ng respecL I or mun us u moruI beI ng (IoIdIng IIs duLy In IIgIesL
esLeem) Is uIso u duLy LIuL oLIers Iuve Lowurd II m und u rIgIL Lo wII cI
Ie cunnoL renounce IIs cIuIm. TII s cIuIm Is cuIIed lote oj honor, und ILs
munIIesLuLIon In exLernuI conducL, respectcbilit (honestcs externc). An
oI I ense uguInsL respecLubIIILy Is cuIIed sccndcl, un exumpI e oI dIsre-
gurdI ng respecLubIIILy LIuL mI gIL Ieud oLIers Lo IoIIow IL. To ite scun-
duI Is quILe conLrury Lo duLy. BuL Lo tcle scunduI uL wIuL Is mereIy
unconvenLI onuI (pcrcdoxon) buL oLIerwIse In ILseII good Is u deIusIon
(sInce one IoIds wIuL Is unusuuI Lo be ImpermIssIbIe us weII), un error
dungerous und desLrucLIve Lo vIrLue. or u mun cunnoL curry IIs gIvIng
un exumpI e oI LIe respecL due oLIers so I ur us Lo degeneruL e InLo bIInd
ImILuLIon (In wII cI cusLom, mos, Is ruIsed Lo LIe dIgnILy oI u Iuw), sInce
sucI u Lyrunny oI popuI ur mores wouI d be conLrury Lo u mun' s duLy Lo
IImseII.
!"#$
uIIure Lo IuIIII I mere duLIes oI Iove Is lccl oj tirtue (peccctum). BuL IuII-
ure Lo IuIIII I LIe duLy urIsIng I rom LIe respect owed Lo every mun us sucI
Is u tice (titium). or no one Is wronged II duLIes oI Iove ure negI ecLed;
buL u IuIIure In LIe duLy oI respecL I nIrI nges upon u mun' s I uwIuI cIuIm.
TIe IIrsL vIoIuLIon Is opposed Lo duLy us ILs contrcr (contrcrie oppositum
tirtutis). BuL wIuL noL onIy udds noLII ng moruI buL even uboIIsIes LIe
worLI oI wIuL wouI d oLIerwIse be Lo LIe subjecL's good Is tice.
The Doctrine oj RigIt g z;
or LIIs reuson, Loo, duLIes Lo one' s IeIIow men urIsIng I rom LIe |q6|
respecL due LIem ure expressed onIy neguLIveIy, LIuL Is, LIIs duLy oI
vIrLue wIII be expressed onl indirectl (LIrougI LIe proIIbILIon oI ILs
opposILe).
%& ()*+, -./- ()01/-+ -.+ 23-)+, 04 5+,6+*- 407 %-.+7 8+&
TIese vIces ure A) crrocnce, B) dejcmction, und C) ridicule.
A.
Arrocnce
qz.
Arrocnce (superbic und, us LIIs word expresses IL, LIe IncIInuLIon Lo
be uIwuys on top) Is u kInd oI cmbition (cmbitio) In wIIcI we demund
LIuL oLIers LIInk IILLIe oI LIemseIves In compurIson wILI us. L Is,
LIereIore, u vIce opposed Lo LIe respecL LIuL every mun cun IuwIuIIy
cIuIm.
L dI I I ers I rom 67)9+ 6706+7 :cnimus elctus), wIIcI Is lote oj honor,
LIuL Is, u concern Lo yIeId noLIIng oI one' s Iumun dIgnILy In compurI-
son wILI oLIers (so LIuL LIe udjecLIve "noble" Is usuuIIy udded Lo "prI de"
In LIIs sense); I or urrogunce demunds I rom oLIers u respecL IL denIes
LIem. BuL pride ILseII becomes u IuuIL und un oI I ense wIen IL, Loo, Is
mereIy u demund upon oLIers Lo concern LIemseIves wILI one' s
ImporLunce.
Arrogunce Is, us IL were, u soIIcILuLIon on LIe purL oI one seekIng
Ionor Ior IoIIowers, wIom Ie LIInks Ie Is enLILIed Lo LreuL wILI con-
LempL. L Is obvIous LIuL LIIs Is unjust und opposed Lo LIe respecL owed
Lo men us sucI; LIuL IL Is joll, LIuL Is, IrIvoIILy In usIng meuns Lo
someLIIng so reIuLed Lo LIem us noL Lo be worLI beIng Luken us un end;
LIuL un urrogunL mun Is even u conceited css,
1oo
LIuL Is, LIuL Ie sIows un
oIIensI ve Iuck oI undersLundI ng In usIng sucI meuns us musL brI ng
ubouL, on LIe purL oI oLIer men, LIe exucL opposILe oI IIs end (Ior LIe
more un urrogunL mun sIows LIuL Ie Is LryIng Lo obLuIn respecL, LIe
more everyone denIes IL Lo IIm). BuL IL mIgIL noL be so reudIIy noLIced |q66|
LIuL un urrogunL mun Is uIwuys mecn In LIe depLIs oI IIs souI. or Ie
wouId noL demund LIuL oLIers LIInk IILLIe oI LIemseIves In compurIson
wILI IIm unIess Ie knew LIuL, were IIs IorLune suddenIy Lo cIunge, Ie
IImseII wouId noL IInd IL Iurd Lo groveI und Lo wuIve uny cIuIm Lo
respecL I rom oLIers.
.
Dejcmction
!"#$
By deI umuL I on (obtrectctio) or buckbI L I ng do noL meun slcnder (contu-
melic), c. jclse deI umuL I on Lo be L uken beI or e u courL ; meun onI y LIe
I mmedI uL e IncI InuLIon, wILI no purLI cuI ur uI m In vI ew, Lo br I ng I nLo
LIe open someL II ng prej udI cI uI Lo respecL I or oLIers. TII s Is conL rury
Lo LIe respecL owed Lo IumunI L y us sucI; I or every scunduI gI ven
weukens LIuL respecL, on wII cI LIe I mpuI se Lo LIe moruI I y good resLs,
und us I ur us possIbIe mukes peopI e skepLIcuI ubouL IL.
T I e I nLenLI onuI sprecdin (propclctio) oI someL II ng LIuL deLrucLs
I r om unoLIer' s Ionor - even I I IL Is noL u muL L er oI pubI I c j usLI ce, und
even II wIuL Is suId Is Lrue - dI mI nI sIes respecL I or IumunI L y us sucI,
so us II nuI I y Lo cusL u sIudow oI worLII essness over our ruce ILseII,
mukI ng mI sunL Iropy (sIyI ng uwuy I r om men) or conL empL LIe prevu-
IenL cusL oI mI nd, or Lo duI I one' s moruI I eeI I ng by repeuL edI y exposI ng
one Lo LIe sIgIL oI sucI LII ngs und uccusL omI ng one Lo IL. L Is, LIere-
I ore, u duL y oI vI rLue noL Lo Luke muI I cI ous pI eusure In exposI ng LIe
IuuI Ls oI oLIers so LIuL one wIII be L IougIL us good us, or uL IeusL noL
worse LIun, oL Ier men, buL ruL Ier Lo L Irow LIe veII oI I ove oI mun over
LIeI r IuuI Ls, noL mereI y by soI L enI ng our j udgmenL s buL uIso by keep-
I ng LIese j udgmenL s Lo ourseI ves; I or exumpI es oI respecL LIuL we gIve
oLIers cun urouse LIeIr sLrIvIng Lo deserve IL. or LIIs reuson, u munI u
I or spyI ng on LIe moruI s oI oLIers (cllotrio-episcopic) Is by ILseII uI reudy
un oI I ensI ve InquIsILIveness on LIe purL oI unL IropoI ogy, wII cI every-
one cun resIsL wI LI rI gIL us u vI oI uLI on oI LIe respecL due II m.
j(?]
Ridicule
!""$
Wcnton jcultjindin und mocler, LIe propensI Ly Lo expose oLIers Lo
I uugIL er, Lo muke LIeI r IuuI Ls LIe I mmedI uL e obj ecL oI one' s umuse-
menL , Is u kI nd oI muI I ce. L Is uI L ogeL Ier dI I I erenL I r om bcnter, I r om
LIe IumI I I urI Ly umong I rI ends In wII cI one mukes I un oI LIeI r pecu-
IIurILIes LIuL onI y seem Lo be IuuI Ls buL ure reuIIy murks oI LIeI r pI uck
In someLI mes depurL I ng I r om LIe ruI e oI I usII on (Ior LIIs Is noL derI-
sIon). BuL IoI dI ng up Lo rI dI cuI e u person' s reuI IuuI Ls, or supposed
IuuI Ls us II LIey were reuI, In or der Lo deprI ve II m oI LIe respecL Ie
deserves, und LIe propensI L y Lo do LIIs, u munI u I or ccustic mockery
The Doctrine oj RigIt g zq
(spiritus ccusticus), Ius someL II ng oI I I endI sI j oy In IL; und LIIs mukes
IL un even mor e serI ous vIoIuLIon oI one' s duL y oI respecL I or oL Ier
men.
TII s musL be dI sLI nguI sIed I r om u j ocuI ur, even II derI sI ve, brusI-
I ng usIde wI LI conL empL un I nsuI LI ng uLLuck oI un udversury (retorsio
iocosc), by wII cI LIe mocker (or, In generuI , u muI IcIous buL I neI I ecL uuI
udversury) Is II mseI I mude LIe I uugII ng sLock. TII s Is u I egI LI muLe
deI ense oI LIe respecL one cun requI re I r om II m. BuL wIen LIe obj ecL
oI IIs mocker y Is reuIIy no obj ecL I or wIL buL one In wII cI reuson
necessurIIy Lukes u moruI InLeresL, L Ien no muLLer Iow mucI rI dI cuI e
LIe udversury muy Iuve uL L ered und LIereby I eI L II mseI I open Lo
I uugIL er, IL Is mor e beI I L L I ng LIe dI gnI Ly oI LIe obj ecL und respecL I or
IumunI L y eI LIer Lo puL up no deI ense uguInsL LIe uLLuck or Lo conducL
IL wI LI dI gnI Ly und serIousness.
Remcrl
L wIII be noLI ced LIuL under LIe ubove IeudI ng vI rLues were noL
so muc I c omme nde d us ruL Ier LIe vIces opposed Lo L Iem cen-
sured. BuL LIIs Is uI reudy ImpIIcIL In LIe concepL oI LIe respecL we
ure bound Lo sIow oL Ier men, wII cI Is onI y u nectite duLy. um
noL bound Lo retere
c
oLIers ( regurded mereI y us men) LIuL Is, Lo
sIow L Iem positite II gI esLeem. T I e onI y reverence^ Lo wII cI
um bound by nuL ure Is reverence I or Iuw us sucI (retere leem), |q68|
und Lo revere
rI
LIe Iuw, buL noL Lo revere oL Ier me n In generuI
(reterentic cdtersus hominem) or Lo per I or m some ucL oI reverence
I or L Iem, Is mun' s unI versuI und uncondI L I onuI duL y L owurd oLI-
ers, wII cI eucI oI L Iem cun requI re us LIe respecL orI gI nuI I y
owed oLIers (obsertcntic debitc).
T I e dI I I er enL I or ms oI respecL Lo be sIown Lo oL Iers In uccor-
dunce wILI dI I I er ences In LIeI r quuIILIes or conL I ngenL reIuLIons -
dI I I er ences oI uge, sex, bI rLI, sLrengLI or weukness, or even runk
und dI gnI Ly, wII cI depend In purL on urbI Lrury urrungemenL s -
cunnoL be seL I orL I In deLuII und cIussIIIed In LIe metcphsiccl IIrsL
prI ncI pI es oI u docL rI ne oI vI rLue, sInce LIIs Ius Lo do onI y wI LI ILs
pur e ruLI onuI prI ncI pI es.
" terehren
b
Hochcchtun
' Achtun
c
Verehren. KunL muy weII Iuve In mInd LIe duLy noL Lo gIve scunduI. However, LIe
second edILIon cIunges LIIs senLence Lo reud "To obey LIe Iuw uIso wILI regurd Lo
oLIer men, buL noL Lo . . . "
C HAP T ER
On ELIIcuI DuLIes oI Men
Lowurd One AnoLIer wILI Regurd
Lo TIeIr CondILIon
!
#$%&
TIese (duLIes oI vIrLue) do noL reuIIy cuII I or u specIuI cIupLer In LIe
sysLem oI pure eLIIcs; sInce LIey do noL InvoIve prIncIpIes oI obIIgu-
LIon I or men us sucI Lowurd one unoLIer, LIey cunnoL properI y consLI-
LuLe u pcrt oI LIe metcphsiccl IIrsL prIncIpIes oI u docLrI ne oI vIrLue.
TIey ure onIy ruIes modI I I ed In uccordunce wILI dI I I erences oI LIe
subjects Lo wIom LIe prIncIpIe oI vIrLue (In Lerms oI wIuL Is IormuI )
Is cpplied In cuses LIuL come up In experI ence (LIe muLerIuI). Hence,
IIke unyLII ng dI vI ded on un empIrIcuI busIs, LIey do noL udmIL oI
u cIussIIIcuLIon LIuL couId be guurunLeed Lo be compI eLe. NeverLIe-
Iess, j usL us u pussuge I rom LIe meLupIysIcs oI nuLure Lo pIysIcs Is
needed - u LrunsILIon IuvIng ILs own specIuI ruIes - someLII ng sImIIur
Is rIgILIy requI red I rom LIe meLupIysIcs oI moruIs: u LrunsILIon LIuL,
by uppI yI ng LIe pure prIncIpIes oI duLy Lo cuses oI experI ence, wouI d
schemctize LIese prIncIpIes, us IL were, und presenL LIem us reudy I or
moruIIy prucLIcuI use. How sIouId one beIuve, I or exumpI e, Lowurd
men wIo ure In u sLuLe oI moruI purILy or depruvILy? Lowurd LIe
cuILIvuLed or LIe crude? Lowurd men oI I eurnI ng or LIe I gnorunL, und
|q6q| Lowurd LIe I eurned InsoIur us LIey use LIeIr scIence us members oI
poIILe socIeLy or ouLsIde socIeLy, us specIuIIsLs In LIeIr IIeId (scIoIurs)?
Lowurd LIose wIose I eurnI ng Is prugmuLIc or LIose In wIom IL pro-
ceeds more I rom spIrIL und LusLe? How sIouId peopI e be LreuLed In
uccordunce wILI LIeIr dI I I erences In runk, uge, sex, IeuILI, prosper-
ILy or poverLy, und so IorLI? TIese quesLIons do noL yIeId so muny
dI I I erenL ucs oI I mposI ng eLIIcuI obliction (Ior LIere Is onIy one
wuy, LIuL oI vIrLue us sucI), buL onIy so muny dI I I erenL wuys oI cppl-
in IL (coroIIurIes). Hence LIey cunnoL be presenLed us secLIons oI eLI-
Ics und members oI LIe ditision oI u sysLem (wIIcI musL proceed u
prIorI I rom u ruLIonuI concepL), buL cun onIy be uppended Lo LIe
sysLem. YeL even LIIs uppIIcuLIon beI ongs Lo LIe compI eLe presenLuLIon
oI LIe sysLem.
z6o
! " # ! $ % & ' " # ") * + , , $ , -, # * & ") , * + ' ! &
!" $%& '()$ *"$+,-$& ."+(" (/ 0(1& 2+$% 3&)4&5$
+" 67+&"8)%+4
9:;<
Iriendship (consI dered In ILs perI ecL I on) Is LIe unI on oI L wo persons
L Ir ougI equuI muL uuI I ove und respecL. L Is eusy Lo see LIuL LIIs Is
un I deuI oI eucI purLI cI puLI ng und sIurI ng sympuLIeLI cuI I y In LIe
oLIer' s weI I -beI ng L Ir ougI LIe moruI I y good wIII LIuL unI Les L Iem,
und even L IougI IL does noL pr oduce LIe compI eL e IuppI ness oI
IIIe, LIe udopL I on oI LIIs IdeuI In LIeI r dI sposI LI on L owurd eucI oL Ier
mukes L Iem deservI ng oI IuppI ness; Ience men Iuve u duL y oI
I rI endsII p. BuL IL Is reudI I y seen LIuL I rI endsII p Is onI y un deu
( L IougI u prucLIcuIIy necessury one) und unuLLuI nubI e In prucLI ce,
uI L IougI sLrI vI ng I or I rI endsII p (us u muxI mum oI good dI sposI LI on
L owurd eucI oL Ier) Is u duL y seL by reuson, und no ordI nury duL y buL
un IonorubI e one. or In IIs reI uLIons wILI IIs neI gIbor Iow cun u
mun uscerLuIn wIeL Ier one oI LIe eI emenLs requIsILe Lo LIIs duL y
(e.g., benevoI ence L owurd eucI oLIer) Is equcl In LIe dI sposI LI on oI
eucI oI LIe I rI ends? Or , even mor e dI I I I cuI L , Iow cun Ie LeII wIuL
reI uLI on L Iere Is In LIe sume person beL ween LIe I eeI I ng I r om one
duL y und LIuL I r om LIe oL Ier (LIe I eeI I ng I r om benevoI ence und LIuL
I r om respecL)? An d Iow cun Ie be sure LIuL II LIe lote oI one Is |q;o|
sLronger, Ie muy noL, j usL becuuse oI LIIs, I orI eI L someL II ng oI LIe
oLIer' s respect, so LIuL IL wIII be dI I I I cuI L I or boLI Lo brI ng I ove und
respecL subjecLIveIy InLo LIuL equuI buI unce requI red I or I rI endsII p?
or I ove cun be r egur ded us uLLrucLI on und respecL us repuI sI on, und
II LIe prI ncI pI e oI I ove bIds I rI ends Lo druw cIoser, LIe prI ncI pI e
oI respecL requI res L Iem Lo sLuy uL u pr oper dI sLunce I r om eucI oL Ier.
TII s IImILuLIon on I nLI mucy, wII cI Is expressed In LIe ruI e LIuL even
LIe besL oI I rI ends sIouI d noL muke LIemseI ves Loo I umI I I ur wILI eucI
oLIer, conLuI ns u muxI m LIuL IoI ds noL onI y I or LIe superI or In reIu-
LIon Lo LIe I nI erI or buL uIso In reverse. or LIe superI or, beI or e
Ie reuIIzes IL, I eeI s IIs prI de wounded und muy wunL LIe I nI erI or' s
respecL Lo be puL usIde I or LIe momenL , buL noL uboI I sIed. BuL once
respecL Is vI oI uLed, ILs presence wI LII n Is I rreLrI evubI y IosL, even
L IougI LIe ouL wur d murks oI IL (munners) ure br ougIL buck Lo LIeI r
I or mer course.
z61
z6z TIe Metcphsics oj Morcls
rI endsII p L IougIL us uLLuInubIe In ILs purILy or compI eLeness
(beLween OresLes und PyIudes, TIeseus und PIrILIous) Is LIe Iobby
Iorse oI wrILers oI romunces. On LIe oLIer Iund ArIsLoLIe suys: My
deur IrI ends, LIere Is no sucI LII ng us u IrI end! TIe IoI I owI ng
remurks muy druw uLLenLIon Lo LIe dIIIIcuILIes In perI ecL I rI endsII p.
rom u moruI poInL oI vIew IL Is, oI course, u duLy I or one oI LIe
IrI ends Lo poInL ouL LIe oLIer' s IuuILs Lo IIm; LIIs Is In LIe oLIer' s besL
InLeresLs und Is L IereI ore u duLy oI Iove. BuL LIe IuLLer sees In LIIs u
Iuck oI LIe respecL Ie expecLed I rom IIs I rI end und LIInks LIuL Ie
Ius eILIer uIreudy IosL or Is In consLunL dunger oI IosIng someLII ng oI
IIs IrIend' s respecL, sInce Ie Is observed und secreLIy crILIcIzed by
II m; und even LIe IucL LIuL IIs I rI end observes II m und IInds IuuI L
wILI II m
1 o1
wIII seem In ILseII oIIensI ve.
How one wIsIes I or u I rI end In need (one wIo Is, oI course, un
ucLIve IrI end, reudy Lo IeI p uL IIs own expense)! BuL sLIII IL Is uIso u
Ieuvy burden Lo IeeI cIuIned Lo unoLIer' s IuLe und encumbered wILI
IIs needs. Hence IrI endsII p cunnoL be u unI on uI med uL muLuuI
udvunLuge buL musL ruLIer be u pureI y moruI one, und LIe IeI p LIuL
eucI muy counL on I rom LIe oLIer In cuse oI need musL noL be
regurded us LIe end und deLermI nI ng ground oI I rI endsII p - I or In
|q;1| LIuL cuse one wouI d Iose LIe oLIer' s respecL - buL onIy us LIe ouLwurd
munIIesLuLIon oI un Inner IeurLIeIL benevoI ence, wIIcI sIouI d noL be
puL Lo LIe LesL sInce LIIs Is uIwuys dungerous; eucI Is generousI y con-
cerned wILI spurI ng LIe oLIer IIs burden und beurI ng IL uII by IIm-
seII, even conceuI I ng IL uILogeLIer I r om IIs IrI end, wIIIe yeL Ie cun
uIwuys IIuLLer IImseII LIuL In cuse oI need Ie couI d conII denLI y counL
on LIe oLIer' s IeIp. BuL II one oI LIem uccepLs u I uvor I r om LIe
oLIer, LIen Ie muy weII be ubIe Lo counL on equuIILy In Iove, buL noL
In respecL; I or Ie sees IImseII obvIousIy u sLep I ower In beI ng under
obIIguLIon wILIouL beI ng ubIe Lo Impose obIIguLIon In Lurn. AI L IougI
IL Is sweeL Lo IeeI In sucI possessIon oI eucI oLIer us upproucIes
IusI on InLo one person, IrI endsII p Is someLII ng so deIIcuLe (teneritcs
cmicitice) LIuL IL Is never Ior u momenL suIe I rom I nLerrupLI ons II IL Is
uIIowed Lo resL on IeeIIngs, und II LIIs muLuuI sympuLIy und seII-sur-
render ure noL subjecLed Lo prIncIpIes or ruIes prevenLI ng excessIve
IumIIIurILy und IImILIng muLuuI Iove by requI remenLs oI respecL. SucI
InLerrupLIons ure common umong uncuILIvuLed peopI e, uI LIougI
LIey do noL uIwuys resuIL In u spIIL (Ior LIe rubbIe IIgIL und muke up).
SucI peopI e cunnoL purL wILI eucI oLIer, und yeL LIey cunnoL be uL
one wILI eucI oLIer sInce LIey need quurreIs In order Lo suvor LIe
sweeLness oI beI ng unILed In reconcIIIuLIon. BuL In uny cuse LIe Iove
In IrI endsII p cunnoL be un uIIecL; I or emoLI on Is bIInd In ILs cIoIce,
und uILer u wIIIe IL goes up In smoke.
The Doctrine oj RigIt g z6
!"#$
Morcl jriendship (us dI sLI nguI sIed I r om I rI endsII p bused on I eeI I ng
[.csthetischen |) Is LIe compI eL e conI I dence oI Lwo persons In reveuI I ng
LIeI r secreL j udgmenL s und I eeI I ngs Lo eucI oL Ier, us I ur us sucI dIscIo-
sures ure consI sLenL wI LI muL uuI respecL.
Mun Is u beI ng meunL I or socIeLy ( L IougI Ie Is uIso un unsocI ubI e
one), und In cuI LI vuLI ng LIe socIuI sLuLe Ie IeeI s sLrongI y LIe need Lo
retecl II mseI I Lo oL Iers (even wILI no uI LerI or purpose). BuL on LIe
oL Ier Iund, Ie mme d In und cuuL I oned by I eur oI LIe mIsuse oL Iers
muy muke oI IIs dI scI osI ng IIs L IougIL s, Ie I I nds II mseI I consL ruI ned
to locl up In II mseI I u good purL oI IIs j udgmenL s (especIuIIy LIose
ubouL oL Ier peopI e). He wouI d I I ke Lo dIscuss wILI someone wIuL Ie |q;z|
LII nks ubouL IIs ussocIuLes, LIe governmenL , reI I gI on und so I orL I, buL
Ie cunnoL rIsk IL: purLIy becuuse LIe oL Ier person, wII I e prudenL I y
keepI ng buck IIs own j udgmenL s , mI gIL use LIIs Lo Iur m II m, und
purLI y becuuse, us regurds dI scI osI ng IIs IuuI Ls, LIe oL Ier person muy
conceuI IIs own, so LIuL Ie wouI d Iose someL II ng oI LIe oLIer' s respecL
by presenL I ng II mseI I quI Le cundI dI y Lo II m.
I Ie I I nds someone I nLeI I I genL - someone wIo, mor eover, sIures
IIs generuI ouL I ook on LII ngs - wI LI wIom Ie need noL be unxI ous
ubouL LIIs dunger buL cun reveu! II mseI I wI LI compI eL e conI I dence, Ie
cun L Ien uIr IIs vIews. He Is noL compI eLeI y uI one wI LI IIs L IougIL s,
us In u prI son, buL enj oys u I r eedom Ie cunnoL Iuve wI LI LIe musses,
umong wIom Ie musL sIuL II mseI I up In II mseI I. Every mun Ius IIs
secreLs und dure noL conI I de bI I ndI y In oLIers, purLIy becuuse oI u buse
cusL oI mI nd In mosL men Lo use L Iem Lo one' s dI sudvunL uge und purLI y
becuuse muny peopI e ure I ndI screeL or I ncupubI e oI j udg I ng und dIs-
L I nguI sII ng wIuL muy or muy noL be repeuL ed. T I e necessury com-
bI nuLI on oI quuIILIes Is seI dom I ound In one person (rcrc ctis in ter-
ris, niroque simillimc cno)," especIuIIy sInce LIe cIosesL I rI endsII p
requI res LIuL u j udI cI ous und LrusLed I rI end be uIso bound noL Lo sIure
LIe secreLs enL rusL ed Lo II m wI LI unyone eIse, no muL L er Iow reI I ubI e
Ie LII nks II m, wI L IouL expI IcI L permI ssI on Lo do so.
TII s (mereI y moruI I rI endsII p) Is noL j usL un I deuI buL (IIke bI uck
swuns) ucLuuIIy exIsLs Iere und L Iere In ILs perI ecL I on. BuL LIuL (prug-
muLIc) I rI endsII p, wII cI bur dens ILseII wILI LIe ends oI oL Ier men,
uI L IougI ouL oI Iove, cun Iuve neI LIer LIe purI Ly nor LIe compI eL eness
requIsILe I or u precI seI y deL ermI nunL muxI m; IL Is un IdeuI oI one' s
wIsIes, wII cI knows no bounds In ILs ruLI onuI concepL buL wII cI musL
uI wuys be very I I mI Led In experI ence.
""a bird that is rare on earth, quite like a black swan." Juvenal, Sctires II, 6, 165.
z6q TIe Metcphsics oj Morcls
A. jriend oj mcn us sucI (I.e., oI LIe wIoI e ruce) Is one wIo Lukes un
uIIecLI ve [csthetisch] InLeresL In LIe weII-beIng oI uII men (rejoIces wILI
LIem) und wIII never dIsLurb IL wILIouL IeurLIeI L regreL. YeL LIe expres-
sIon "u jriend oI mun" Is somewIuL nurrower In ILs meunI ng LIun "one
|q;|
w
I o mereIy Ioves mun" (u philcnthropist). or "u I rI end oI mun" In-
cIudes, us weII, L IougIL und consIderuLIon I or LIe equclit umong men,
und Ience LIe deu LIuL In puLLIng oLIers under obIIguLIon by IIs
beneII cence Ie Is IImseII under obIIguLIon, us II uII men were broLIers
under one jcther wIo wIIIs LIe IuppIness oI uII. or LIe reIuLIon oI u
proLecLor, us u beneIucLor, Lo LIe one Ie proLecLs, wIo owes II m
gruLILude, Is I ndeed u reIuLIon oI muLuuI Iove, buL noL oI IrI endsII p,
sInce LIe respecL owed by eucI Is noL equuI. TukI ng Lo IeurL LIe duLy
oI beI ng benevoI enL us u I rI end oI mun (u necessury IumbI I ng oI one-
seII), serves Lo guurd uguInsL LIe prI de LIuL usuuIIy comes over LIose
IorLunuLe enougI Lo Iuve LIe meuns I or beneII cence.
A P P E N D I X
On LIe VIrLues oI SocIuI nLercourse
(tirtutes homileticce)
48.
L Is u duL y Lo oneseI I us weII us Lo oL Iers noL Lo isolcte oneseI I (sepcrctis-
tcm cere) buL Lo use one' s moruI perI ecL I ons In socIuI I nLercourse
(ojjicium commercii, socicbilitcs). WII I e mukI ng oneseI I u I I xed cenL er oI
one' s prI ncI pI es, one ougIL Lo regurd LIIs cIrcIe dr uwn ur ound one us
uIso I or mI ng purL oI un uII-IncIusIve cIrcIe oI LIose wIo, In LIeI r dI spo-
sILIon, ure cILIzens oI LIe worI d - noL exucLI y In or der Lo pr omoL e us LIe
end wIuL Is besL I or LIe worI d buL onI y Lo cuILIvuLe wIuL I euds IndI-
recLIy Lo LIIs end: Lo cuILIvuLe u dI sposI LI on oI recI procI Ly - ugreeubI e-
ness, LoI erunce, muL uuI I ove und respecL (uIIubIIILy und proprI eL y,
humcnitcs cestheticc et decorum), und so Lo ussocIuLe LIe gruces wI LI
vI rLue. To br I ng LIIs ubouL Is ILseII u duL y oI vI rLue.
TIes e ure, I ndeed, onI y externcls or by-producL s (pcrerqc), wII cI
gI ve u beuuL I I uI IIIusIon resembI I ng vI rLue LIuL Is uIso noL decepL I ve
sInce ever yone knows Iow IL musL be Luken. Ajjcbilit, socicbilit, cour-
tes, hospitclit, und entleness (In dI sugreeI ng wI L IouL quurreI I ng) ure,
I ndeed, onI y Lokens, yeL LIey pr omoL e LIe I eeI I ng I or vI rL ue ILseII by u
sLrI vI ng Lo brI ng LIIs IIIusIon us neur us possIbIe Lo LIe LruLI. By uII oI
LIese, wII cI ure mereI y LIe munner s one Is obI I ged Lo sIow In socIuI |q;q|
I nLercourse, one bI nds oLIers Loo; und so LIey sLIII pr omoL e u vI rL uous
dI sposI LI on by uL IeusL mukI ng vI rLue jcshioncble.
BuL LIe quesLI on urIses wIeL Ier one muy uIso keep compuny wI LI
LIose wIo ure wI cked. One cunnoL uvoI d meeL I ng L Iem, wI L IouL Ieuv-
I ng LIe worI d; und besIdes, our j udg me nL ubouL L Iem Is noL com-
peLenL. BuL I I LIe vIce Is u scunduI , LIuL Is, u pubIIcIy gI ven exumpI e oI
conL empL I or LIe sLrIcL Iuws oI duL y, wII cI L IereI ore brI ngs dI sIonor
wILI IL, L Ien even L IougI LIe Iuw oI LIe I und does noL punI sI IL, one
musL breuk o I I LIe ussocIuLIon LIuL exI sLed or uvoI d IL us muc I us
possIbIe, sInce conL I nued ussocIuLIon wILI sucI u person deprI ves
vI rLue oI ILs Ionor und puLs IL up I or suIe Lo unyone wIo Is rI cI enougI
Lo brI be purusILes wILI LIe pI eusures oI I uxury.
z6
|q;;| DOCTRNE O THE METHODS O ETHCS
S ECT ON
TeucIIng ELIIcs

!"#$
T I e very concepL o I vI rLue uI reudy I mpI I es LIuL vI rLue musL be ucquI red
(LIuL IL Is noL I nnuLe); one need noL uppeuI Lo unL IropoI ogI cuI knowI -
edge bused on exper I ence Lo see LIIs. or mun' s moruI cupucI Ly wouI d
noL be vI rLue were IL noL pr oduced by LIe strenth oI IIs resoI uL I on In
conI I I cL wI LI power I uI opposI ng IncIInuLIons. VI rL ue Is LIe pr oducL oI
pur e prucLIcuI reuson I nsoI ur us IL guIns uscenduncy over sucI IncIInu-
LIons wI LI conscI ousness oI ILs supremucy (bused on I r eedom) .
TIu L vI rLue cun und musL be tcuht uI reudy I oI I ows I r om ILs noL
beI ng I nnuLe; u docL rI ne oI vI rLue Is L IereI ore somethin thct ccn be
tcuht [eine Doltrin|. BuL sInce one does noL ucquI re LIe power Lo puL
LIe ruI es oI vI rLue I nLo prucLI ce mereI y by beI ng L uugIL Iow one ougIL
Lo beIuve In or der Lo conI or m wILI LIe concepL oI vI rLue, LIe SLoIcs |In
denyI ng LIuL vI rLue cun be LuugIL| meunL onI y LIuL vI rLue cunnoL be
tcuht mereI y by concepL s oI duL y or by exIorL uL I ons (by puruenesI s),
buL musL I nsLeud be exercised und cuI LI vuLed by eI I orL s Lo combuL LIe
I nner enemy wI LII n mun (usceLIcIsm); I or one cunnoL sLruI gILwuy do
uII LIuL one ucnts Lo do, wI LIouL IuvI ng IIrsL LrI ed ouL und exercI sed
one' s powers. BuL LIe decision Lo do LIIs musL be mude uII uL once und
compI eL eI y, sInce u dI sposI LI on (cnimus) Lo surrender uL LI mes Lo vIce,
In or der Lo breuk uwuy I r om IL gruduuI I y, wouI d ILseII be I mpur e und
even vIcIous, und so couI d brI ng ubouL no vI rLue (wII cI Is bused on u
sI ngI e prI ncI pI e).
|q;8| o.
As I or LIe meL Iod oI LeucII ng (I or every scIenLIIIc docL rI ne musL be
LreuLed methodiccll, oLIerwI se IL wouI d be seL I orL I chcoticcll), LIIs Loo
"Die ethische Didcltil. In the "second division oI ethics," Ak. 413, this was called
"Catechizing," although in Ak. 411 two methods, cathechizing and dialogue, were
distinguished.
z66
The Doctrine oj RigIt g z6;
musL be sstemctic und noL jrcmentcr II LIe docLrIne oI vIrLue Is Lo be
presenLed us u science. BuL IL cun be seL IorLI eILIer by lectures, wIen uII
LIose Lo wIom IL Is dIrecLed mereIy listen, or eIse by questions, wIen LIe
LeucIer usks IIs pupIIs wIuL Ie wunLs Lo LeucI LIem. And LIIs eroLeLIc
meLIod Is, In Lurn, dIvIded InLo LIe meLIod oI "#$%&'() und LIuL oI
*$+)*,#-./ dependI ng on wIeLIer LIe LeucIer uddresses IIs quesLIons
Lo LIe pupII' s reuson or j usL Lo IIs memory. or II LIe LeucIer wunLs Lo
quesLIon IIs pupII' s reuson Ie musL do LIIs In u dIuI ogue In wIIcI
LeucIer und pupII quesLIon und unswer eucI oLIer in turn. TIe LeucIer,
by IIs quesLIons, guIdes IIs young pupII' s course oI LIougIL mereIy by
presenLIng IIm wILI cuses In wIIcI IIs predIsposILIon I or cerLuIn con-
cepLs wIII deveI op (LIe LeucIer Is LIe mI dwI Ie oI LIe pupII' s LIougILs).
TIe pupII, wIo LIus sees LIuL Ie IImseII cun LIInk, responds wILI
quesLIons oI IIs own ubouL obscurILIes In LIe proposILIons udmILLed or
ubouL IIs doubLs regurdI ng LIem, und so provIdes occusIons I or LIe
teccher IImseII Lo lecrn Iow Lo quesLIon skIIIIuIIy, uccordI ng Lo LIe suy-
Ing docendo discimus. (or IogIc Ius noL yeL Luken suIIIcIenLIy Lo IeurL
LIe cIuIIenge Issued Lo IL, LIuL IL sIouI d uIso provI de ruIes Lo dIrecL one
In secrchin I or LIIngs; I.e., IL sIouId noL IImIL ILseII Lo gI vI ng ruIes I or
conclusite j udgmenL s buL sIouId uIso provIde ruIes I or prelimincr
j udgmenL s [indicic prcetic], by wIIcI one Is Ied Lo LIougILs. SucI u
LIeory cun be u guI de even Lo LIe muLIemuLIcIun In IIs dIscoverIes,
und moreover Ie oI Len mukes use oI IL.)
or LIe begI nnI ng pupII LIe IIrsL und mosL essenLIuI InsLrumenL I or
tecchin LIe docLrIne oI vIrLue Is u moruI cctechism. TII s musL precede
u reIIgIous cuLecIIsm; IL cunnoL be InLerwoven, mereIy us un InLerpoIu-
LIon, In LIe LeucIIngs oI reIIgIon buL musL ruLIer be presenLed sep-
uruLeIy, us u seII-subsIsLenL wIoIe; I or IL Is onIy by pure moruI prIn-
cIpIes LIuL u LrunsILIon I rom LIe docLrIne oI vIrLue Lo reIIgIon cun be
mude, sInce oLIerwIse LIe proIessIons oI reIIgIon wouI d be I mpure.
or LIeIr own purL, even LIe worLIIesL und mosL emI nenL LIeoIogIuns
Iuve IesILuLed Lo druw up u cuLecIIsm I or LeucIIng sLuLuLory reIIgIon |q;q|
(wIIcI LIey wouI d personuIIy unswer Ior), LIougI one wouI d Iuve
LIougIL LIIs LIe IeusL LIuL couI d be expecLed I rom LIe vusL Lreusury oI
LIeIr IeurnIng.
BuL u pure morcl cuLecIIsm, us LIe busIc LeucIIng oI duLIes oI vIrLue,
InvoIves no sucI scrupIe or dIIIIcuILy sInce (us Iur us ILs conLenL Is
concerned) IL cun be deveI oped I rom ordInury Iumun reuson, und (us
Iur
us ILs I orm Is concerned) IL needs onIy Lo be udupLed Lo ruIes oI
LeucIIng suILed I or LIe eurIIesL InsLrucLIon. TIe IormuI prIncIpIe oI
sucI I nsLrucLI on does noL, Iowever, permI L SocruLIc dicloue us LIe wuy
oI L eucII ng I or LIIs purpose, sInce LIe pupI I Ius no I deu wIuL ques-
LIons Lo usk; und so LIe LeucIer uI one does LIe quesL I onI ng. BuL LIe
unswer LIuL Ie meLIodI cuI I y druws I r om LIe pupI I ' s reuson musL be
wrI LLen down und preserved In deI I nI L e words LIuL cunnoL eusIIy
be uI Lered, und so be commI L L ed Lo LIe pupI I ' s memor. So LIe wuy oI
L eucII ng by cuLecII sm dI I I ers I r om boL I LIe domctic wuy (In wII cI
onI y LIe L eucIer speuks) und LIe wuy oI dicloue (In wII cI boL I L eucIer
und pupI I quesLI on und unswer eucI oLIer).
!"#$
T I e experimentcl (LecInIcuI) meuns I or cuI LI vuLI ng vI rLue Is ood exum-
pI e on LIe purL o I L Ie LeucIer (IIs exempI ur y conducL ) und ccutioncr
exumpI e In oLIers, sInce, I or u sLIII undeveI oped Iumun beI ng, ImILu-
LIon Is LIe IIrsL deL ermI nuL I on oI IIs wIII Lo uccepL muxI ms LIuL Ie
uI L erwurd mukes I or II mseI I. To I or m u IubIL Is Lo esLubIIsI u I usLI ng
IncI InuLIon upurL I r om uny muxI m, L Ir ougI I requenL I y r epeuL ed gruL-
IIIcuLIons oI LIuL IncIInuLIon; IL Is u mecIunI sm oI sense ruL Ier L Iun u
prI ncI pI e oI L IougIL (und one LIuL Is eusI er Lo ccquire L Iun to et rid oj
uI L erwurd). As I or LIe power oI exumpI es (good or bud) LIuL cun be
|q8o| IeI d up Lo LIe propensI Ly I or I mI LuLI on or wurnI ng, wIuL oL Iers gI ve us
cun esLubIIsI no muxI m oI vI rLue. or u muxI m oI vI rLue consIsLs pre-
cIseIy In LIe subj ecLI ve uuL onomy oI eucI mun' s prucLI cuI reuson und so
ImpI Ies LIuL LIe Iuw ILseII, noL LIe conducL oI oL Ier men, musL serve us
our IncenLIve. AccordI ngI y, u LeucIer wIII noL LeII IIs nuugIL y pupI I :
Tuke un exumpI e I r om LIuL good (orderI y, dII IgenL) boy! or LIIs
wouI d onI y cuuse II m Lo IuLe LIuL boy, wIo puLs II m In un unI uvorubI e
IIgIL. A good exumpI e (exempI ury conducL) sIouI d noL serve us u
modeI buL onI y us u pr ooI LIuL IL Is reuII y possIbIe Lo ucL In conI ormI L y
wI LI duLy. So IL Is noL compurI son wILI uny oL Ier mun wIuL soever
(wILI mun us Ie Is), buL wILI LIe Idec (oI IumunI L y), wI LI mun us Ie
ougIL Lo be, und so compurI son wI LI LIe Iuw, LIuL musL serve us LIe
consLunL sL undurd oI u LeucIer' s I nsLrucLI on.
etsptel |instance|, a German word, is commonly used as synonymous with Exempel
|example|, but the two words really do not have the same meaning. To take some-
thing as an excmple and to bring Iorward an instcnce to clariIy an expression are
altogether diIIerent concepts. An example is a particular case oI a prccticcl rule,
insoIar as this rule represents an action as practicable or impracticable, whereas an
instcnce is only a particular (concretum), represented in accordance with concepts as
contained under a universal (cbstrcct-urn), and is a presentation oI a concept merely
Ior theory.
The Doctrine oj RigIt g z6q
Remcrl
Ircment oj c Morcl Cctechism
T I e LeucIer eIIcILs I r om IIs pupI I ' s reuson, by quesLI onI ng, wIuL Ie
wunLs Lo LeucI II m; und sIouI d LIe pupI I noL know Iow Lo unswer LIe
quesLI on, LIe LeucIer, guI dI ng IIs reuson, suggesLs LIe unswer Lo II m.
1. TeucIer: WIuL Is your greuLesL, In IucL your wIoI e, desI re In IIIe?
PupI I : (Is sIIenL)
TeucIer : TIu L eterthin sIouI d clucs go LIe wuy you wouI d IIke IL Lo.
z. TeucIer: WIuL Is sucI u condI LI on cuIIed?
PupI I : (Is sIIenL)
TeucIer: L Is cuI I ed hcppiness (conLI nuous weI I -beI ng, enj oymenL oI
IIIe, compI eL e suLIsIucLIon wILI one' s condI LI on).
. TeucIer: Now II IL were up Lo you Lo dI spose oI uII IuppI ness (pos-
sIbIe In LIe worI d), wouI d you keep IL uII I or yourseI I or wouI d you
sIure IL wILI your I eI I ow-men?
PupI I : wouI d sIure IL wILI oLIers und muke L Iem Iuppy und suLIs-
IIed Loo.
q. TeucIer : Now LIuL proves LIuL you Iuve u good enougI hecrt, buL IeL
us see wIeL Ier you Iuve u good hecd Lo go uI ong wI LI IL. WouI d you
reuIIy gI ve u Iuzy IeI I ow soI L cusII ons so LIuL Ie couI d puss IIs IIIe |q81|
uwuy In sweeL IdIeness? Or wouI d you see Lo IL LIuL u dr unkur d Is
never sIorL oI wI ne und wIuL ever eIse Ie needs Lo geL dr unk? WouI d
you gI ve u swI ndI er u cIurmI ng uIr und munner Lo dupe oLIer
peopI e? And wouI d you gI ve u vI oI enL mun uuducI Ly und sL rong IIsLs
so LIuL Ie couI d crusI oL Ier peopI e? EucI oI LIese LII ngs Is u meuns
LIuL somebody wI sIes I or In or der Lo be Iuppy In IIs own wuy.
PupI I : No, wouI d noL.
. TeucIer : You see, LIen, LIuL even II you Iud uII IuppI ness In your
Iunds und, uI ong wILI IL, LIe besL wIII, you sLIII wouI d noL gI ve IL
wI LIouL consI deruLI on Lo unyone wIo puL ouL IIs Iund I or IL; InsLeud
you wouI d IIrsL Lry Lo IInd ouL Lo wIuL exL enL eucI wus worL Iy oI
IuppI ness. BuL us I or yourseI I , wouI d you uL IeusL Iuve no scrupI es
ubouL IIrsL provI dI ng yourseI I wI LI everyL II ng LIuL you counL In
your IuppI ness?
PupI I : wouI d Iuve none.
TeucIer: BuL doesn' L IL occur Lo you Lo usk, uguI n, wIeL Ier you your-
seII ure worL Iy oI IuppI ness?
PupI I : OI course.
TeucIer: Now LIe I orce In you LIuL sLrIves onI y Lowurd IuppI ness Is
inclinction, buL LIuL wII cI IImILs your IncIInuLIon Lo LIe condI L I on oI
z;o TIe Metcphsics oj Morcls
your IIrsL beI ng worLIy oI IuppIness Is your recson, und your cupuc-
ILy Lo resLruIn und overcome your IncIInuLIons by your reuson Is LIe
I reedom oI your wIII.
6. TeucIer: As Lo Iow you sIouId seL ubouL sIurIng In IuppI ness und
uIso becomI ng uL IeusL noL unworLIy oI IL, LIe ruIe und InsLrucLIon In
LIIs IIes In your recson uIone. TII s umounLs Lo suyIng LIuL you need
noL Ieurn LIIs ruI e Ior your conducL I rom experI ence or be LuugIL IL
by oLIer men. Your own reuson LeucIes you wIuL you Iuve Lo do und
dIrecLIy communds you Lo do IL. Suppose, I or exumpI e, LIuL u sILuu-
LIon urIses In wIIcI you couI d geL u greuL beneIIL I or yourseI I or
your IrI end by mukI ng up u subLIe lie LIuL wouI d Iurm no one: WIuL
does your reuson suy ubouL IL?
PupII: TIuL ougIL noL Lo IIe, no muLLer Iow greuL LIe beneII Ls Lo
myseII und my IrI end mI gIL be. yI ng Is mecn und mukes u mun un-
uorth oI IuppIness. Here Is un uncondILIonuI necessILuLIon L IrougI
u commund (or proIIbILIon) oI reuson, wII cI musL obey; und In
LIe Iuce oI IL uII my IncIInuLIons musL be sIIenL.
TeucIer: WIuL do we cuII LIIs necessILy, wIIcI reuson Iuys dIrecLIy
|q8z| upon u mun, oI ucLIng In conIormI Ly wILI ILs Iuw?
PupII: L Is cuIIed dut.
TeucIer: So u mun' s observunce oI IIs duLy Is LIe unIversuI und soIe
condILIon oI IIs worLIIness Lo be Iuppy, und IIs worLIIness Lo be
Iuppy Is IdenLIcuI wILI IIs observunce oI duLy.
;. TeucIer: BuL even II we ure conscIous oI sucI u good und ucLIve wIII
In us, by vIrLue oI wIIcI we consIder ourseIves worLIy (or uL IeusL
noL unworLIy) oI IuppIness, cun we buse on LIIs u sure Iope oI sIur-
I ng In IuppIness?
PupII: No, noL on LIIs uIone. or IL Is noL uIwuys wILIIn our power Lo
provI de ourseIves wILI IuppIness, und LIe course oI nuLure does noL
oI ILseII conI orm wILI merIL. Our good I orLune In IIIe (our weI Iure
In generuI) depends, ruLIer, on cIrcumsLunces LIuL ure I ur I r om uII
beIng In mun' s conLroI. So our IuppIness uIwuys remuI ns u wIsI LIuL
cunnoL become u Iope, unIess some oLIer power Is udded.
8. TeucIer: Hus reuson, In IucL, uny grounds oI ILs own I or ussumI ng
LIe exIsLence oI sucI u power, wIIcI upporLI ons IuppI ness In uccor-
dunce wILI u mun' s merIL or guIIL, u power orderI ng LIe wIoI e oI
nuLure und governI ng LIe worI d wILI supreme wIsdom? LIuL Is, uny
grounds I or beIIevIng In God?
PupII: Yes. or we see In LIe works oI nuLure, wIIcI we cun j udge, u
wIsdom so wI despreud und proI ound LIuL we cun expI uI n IL Lo
ourseIves onIy by LIe InexpressIbIy greuL urL oI u creuLor oI LIe
worId. And wILI regurd Lo LIe moruI order, wII cI Is LIe IIgIesL
udornmenL oI LIe worI d, we Iuve reuson Lo expecL u no Iess wIse
The Doctrine oj RigIt g z;1
regIme, sucI LIuL II we do noL muke ourseIves unuorth oj hcppiness,
by vIoIuLIng our duLy, we cun uIso Iope Lo shcre In IuppIness.
n LIIs cuLecIIsm, wIIcI musL be currIed ouL LIrougI uII LIe urLIcIes
oI vIrLue und vIce, LIe greuLesL cure musL be Luken Lo buse LIe com-
mund oI duLy noL on LIe udvunLuges or dIsudvunLuges LIuL IoIIow I rom
observIng IL, wIeLIer I or LIe mun IL Is Lo puL under obIIguLIon or even
I or oLIers, buL quILe pureIy on LIe moruI prIncIpIe. OnI y cusuuI men-
LIon sIouId be mude oI udvunLuges und dIsudvunLuges, us oI u suppIe-
menL wIIcI couId reuIIy be dIspensed wILI buL wIIcI Is servIceubIe,
mereIy us un InsLrumenL, I or LIe LusLe oI LIose wIo ure weuk by
nuLure. L Is LIe shcmejulness oI vIce, noL ILs hcrmjulness (Lo LIe ugenL |q8|
II mseI I), LIuL musL be empIusIzed ubove uII. or unIess LIe dIgnILy oI
vIrLue Is exuILed ubove everyLIIng eIse In ucLIons, LIe concepL oI duLy
ILseII vunIsIes und dIssoIves InLo mere prugmuLIc precepLs, sInce mun' s
conscIousness oI IIs own nobIIILy LIen dIsuppeurs und Ie Is I or suIe
und cun be bougIL I or u prIce LIuL LIe seducLIve IncIInuLIons oI I er IIm.
Now wIen LIIs Is wIseIy und cureIuIIy deveI oped ouL oI u mun' s own
reuson, wILI regurd I or LIe dI IIerences In uge, sex, und runk wIIcI Ie
gruduuIIy encounLers, LIen LIere Is sLIII someLIIng LIuL musL come uL
LIe end, wIIcI moves LIe souI InwurdIy und puLs u mun In u posILIon
In wIIcI Ie cun Iook upon IImseII onIy wILI LIe greuLesL wonder uL LIe
orIgInuI predIsposILIon dweIIIng wILIIn IIm, LIe ImpressIon oI wIIcI Is
never erused. WIen, numeIy, uL LIe end oI IIs InsLrucLIon IIs duLIes
ure once more, by wuy oI summury, recounLed In LIeIr order (recupIL-
uIuLed); und wIen, In LIe cuse oI eucI oI LIem, IIs uLLenLIon Is druwn
Lo LIe IucL LIuL none oI LIe puIns, IurdsIIps, und suIIerI ngs oI IIIe -
noL even LIe LIreuL oI deuLI - wIIcI muy beIuII IIm becuuse Ie IuILI-
IuIIy uLLends Lo IIs duLy cun rob IIm oI conscIousness oI beIng LIeIr
musLer und superIor Lo LIem uII, LIen LIe quesLIon Is very cIose Lo IIm:
WIuL Is IL In you LIuL cun be LrusLed Lo enLer InLo combuL wILI uII LIe
Iorces oI nuLure wILIIn you und uround you und Lo conquer LIem II
LIey come InLo conIIIcL wILI your moruI prIncIpIes? AI L IougI LIe
soIuLIon Lo LIIs quesLIon IIes compIeLeIy beyond LIe cupucILy oI specu-
IuLIve reuson, LIe quesLIon urIses oI ILseII; und II Ie Lukes IL Lo IeurL, LIe
very IncompreIensIbIIILy In LIIs seII-knowIedge musL produce un exuI-
LuLIon In IIs souI wIIcI onIy InspIres IL LIe more Lo IoId ILs duLy sucred,
LIe more IL Is ussuIIed.
n LIIs cuLecIIsLIc moruI InsLrucLIon IL wouId be mosL IeI pIuI Lo LIe
pupII' s moruI deveI opmenL Lo ruIse some cusuIsLIcuI quesLIons In LIe
unuIysIs oI every duLy und Lo IeL LIe ussembIed cIIIdren LesL LIeIr
undersLundI ng by IuvIng eucI suy Iow Ie wouI d soIve LIe LrIcky
probI em puL Lo IIm. TIe udvunLuge oI LIIs Is noL onIy LIuL IL Is u culti-
z;z Metcphsics oj Morcls
|q8q| tction oj recson mosL suILed Lo LIe cupucILy oI LIe undeveI oped (sInce
quesLIons ubouL wIuL one' s duLy Is cun be decI ded I ur more eusIIy LIun
specuIuLIve quesLIons), und so Is LIe mosL upproprI uLe wuy Lo sIurpen
LIe undersLundI ng oI young peopI e In generuI. Ls udvunLuge IIes
especIuIIy In LIe IucL LIuL IL Is nuLuruI I or u mun Lo lote u subjecL wII cI
Ie Ius, by IIs own IundI I ng, brougIL Lo u scIence (In wII cI Ie Is now
proIIcIenL); und so, by LIIs sorL oI prucLIce, LIe pupI I Is druwn wI LIouL
noLIcIng IL Lo un interest In moruIILy.
BuL IL Is mosL I mporLunL In LIIs educuLI on noL Lo presenL LIe moruI
cuLecIIsm mI xed wILI LIe reIIgIous one (Lo combI ne L Iem InLo one) or,
wIuL Is worse yeL, Lo Iuve IL IoIIow upon LIe reIIgIous cuLecIIsm. On
LIe conLrury, LIe pupII musL uIwuys be brougIL Lo u cIeur InsIgIL InLo
LIe moruI cuLecIIsm, wIIcI sIouI d be presenLed wILI LIe uLmosL dIII-
gence und LIorougIness. or oLIerwIse LIe reIIgIon LIuL Ie uI Lerwurd
proIesses wIII be noLII ng buL IypocrIsy; Ie wIII ucknowI edge duLIes
ouL oI I eur und I eI gn un InLeresL In LIem LIuL Is noL In IIs IeurL.
S E C T I O N I I
ELIIcuI AsceLIcs
!"#$
T I e ruI es I or prucLI cI ng vI rLue (exercitiorum tirtutis) uI m uL u I r ume oI
mI nd LIuL Is boL I tclicnt und cheerjul In I uI I I I I I ng ILs duLI es (cnimus
strenuus et hilcris). or vI rLue noL onI y Ius Lo musL er uII ILs I orces Lo
over come LIe obsLucIes IL musL conL end wI LI; IL uIso I nvoI ves sucrI II cI ng
muny oI LIe j oys oI IIIe, LIe Ioss oI wII cI cun someLI mes muke one' s
mI nd gI oomy und suIIen. BuL wIuL Is noL done wI LI pI eusure buL
mereI y us compuI sory servIce Ius no I nner worL I I or one wIo uLLends
Lo IIs duL y In LIIs wuy und sucI servIce Is noL I oved by II m; I nsLeud, Ie
sIIrks us muc I us possIbIe occusIons I or prucLI cI ng vI rLue.
WI LI r egur d Lo LIe prI ncI pI e o I u vI gorous, spI rI Led, und vuIIunL
prucLI ce oI vI rLue, LIe cuI LI vuLI on oI vI rLue, LIuL Is, moruI cscetics, Lukes
us ILs moL L o LIe Stoic suyI ng: AccusL om yourseI I to put up uith LIe
mI sI orL unes oI IIIe LIuL muy Iuppen und to do uithout ILs super I I uous
pI eusures (cssuesce incommodis et descuesce commoditctibus titce). TII s Is u
kI nd oI reimen [Dictetil| I or keepI ng u mun IeuI LIy. BuL heclth Is onI y |q8|
u neguL I ve kI nd oI weI I -beI ng: L cunnoL ILseII be IeIL. SomeL II ng musL
be udded Lo IL, someL II ng wII cI, L IougI IL Is onI y moruI , uI I or ds un
ugreeubI e enj oymenL Lo IIIe. TII s Is LIe ever- cIeerI uI IeurL, uccordI ng
Lo LIe I deu oI LIe vI rLuous Epicurus. or wIo sIouI d Iuve mor e reuson
I or beI ng oI u cIeer I uI spIrIL, und noL even I I ndI ng IL u duL y Lo puL
II mseI I In u cIeer I uI I r ume oI mI nd und muke IL IubI LuuI , L Iun one
wIo Is uwure oI no I nLenLI onuI LrunsgressI on In II mseI I und Is secured
uguI nsL I uI I I ng I nLo uny? (hie murus cheneus esto eLc., Horct.)
c
On LIe
oL Ier Iund, monkI sI usceLIcs, wII cI I r om supersLI LI ons I eur or Iypo-
crILIcuI I ouL II ng oI oneseI I goes Lo wor k wILI seI I-LorLure und morLI I I -
cuLI on oI LIe I I esI, Is noL dI recLed Lo vI rLue buL ruL Ier Lo IunLusLIcuIIy
pur gI ng oneseI I oI sIn by I mposI ng punI sImenL s on oneseI I . nsLeud
oI moruI I y repentin sIns (wILI u vIew Lo I mprovI ng), IL wunLs Lo do pen-
cnce by punI sImenL s cIosen und I nII I cLed by oneseI I. BuL sucI punI sI-
" "Let this be our wall oI bronze," etc. Horace, Epistles I, 1, 60.
273
z;q TIe Metcphsics oj Morcls
menL Is u conLrudIcLIon (becuuse punI sImenL musL uIwuys be I mposed
by unoLIer); moreover, IL cunnoL produce LIe cIeerI uI ness LIuL
uccompunIes vIrLue, buL mucI ruLIer brIngs wILI IL secreL IuLred I or
vIrLue' s commund. ELIIcuI gymnusLIcs, LIereI ore, consIsLs onIy In com-
buLIng nuLuruI ImpuIses suIIIcIenLIy Lo be ubIe Lo musLer LIem wIen u
sILuuLIon comes up In wIIcI LIey LIreuLen moruIILy; Ience IL mukes
one vuIIunL und cIeerI uI In LIe conscIousness oI one' s resLored Iree-
dom. To repent oI someLII ng und Lo Impose u pencnce on oneseI I (sucI
us u IusL) noL I or IygIenIc buL I or pIous consIderuLIons ure, mor-
uIIy speukIng, Lwo very dI I I erenL precuuLI onury meusures. To repenL
oI u pusL LrunsgressIon wIen one recuIIs IL Is unuvoI dubI e und, In IucL,
IL Is even u duLy noL Lo IeL LIIs recoIIecLIon dI suppeur; buL doI ng pen-
unce, wIIcI Is cIeerIess, gI oomy, und suIIen, mukes vIrLue ILseII IuLed
und drIves udIerenLs uwuy I rom IL. Hence LIe LruInIng (dIscIpIIne) LIuL
u mun prucLIces on IImseII cun become merILorIous und exempI ury
onIy L IrougI LIe cIeerIuI ness LIuL uccompunIes IL.
!"#$%
CONC US ON
ReIIgIon us LIe DocLrIne oI
DuLIes Lo God Ies Beyond LIe Bounds
oI Pure MoruI PIIIosopIy
ProLugorus oI Abder u begun IIs book wILI LIe words: "As jor uhether
there cre ods or not, I do not lnou uhct to sc." or LIIs LIe ALIenI uns
drove II m oI I IIs Iund und I rom LIe cILy und burned IIs books beI ore
LIe pubIIc ussembIy. (QuInLIIIun, Institutio Drctoric, Book , CIupL er
).
1oz
n doI ng LIIs LIe AL IenI un j udges, us men, dId IIm u greuL uron.
BuL us ojjicicls oj the stcte und j udges LIey proceeded quILe rihtl und
consIsLenLIy; I or Iow couId u mun sweur un ouLI unIess IL Iud been
decreed pubIIcIy und IuwIuIIy, on hih cuthorit (de pcr le Senct), LIuL
LIere ure gods?
BuL grunLI ng LIIs beIIeI und udmI LLI ng LIuL reliion Is un InLegruI purL |q8;|
oI LIe generuI doctrine oj duties, LIe probI em now Is Lo deLermI ne LIe
boundurI es oI LIe science Lo wIIcI IL beIongs. s IL Lo be consI dered u
purL oI eLIIcs (Ior wIuL Is In quesLIon Iere cunnoL be LIe rIgILs oI men
uguInsL one unoLIer), or musL IL be regurded us IyIng enLIreIy beyond
LIe bounds oI u pureI y pIIIosopIIc moruIs?
TIe jormcl cspect oI uII reIIgIon, II reIIgIon Is deI I ned [erllcrt | us "LIe
sum oI uII duLIes cs (instcr) dIvIne communds, " beI ongs Lo pIIIosopIIc
"De diis, neque ut smt, neque ut non sint, hcbeo dicere."
uL er on, Iowever , u greuL und wIse moruI I uwgI ver compI eL eI y I or bude LIe L ukI ng
oI ouLIs us someL II ng ubsurd und, uL L Ie sume LI me, uI mosL bor der I ng on bIus-
pIemy; Iowever, I r om u poIILIcuI poI nL oI vIew peopI e sLIII muI nLuI n LIuL LIIs devI ce
Is quI Le I ndI spensubI e us u meuns servI ng LIe udmI nI sLruLI on oI pubI I c j usLI ce, und
IIberuI I nL erpreL uL I ons oI LIuL proII bI L I on Iuve been L IougIL up In or der Lo soI L en
IL. AI L IougI IL wouI d be ubsurd Lo sweur In eurnesL LIuL L Iere Is u Go d (becuuse one
musL uI reudy Iuve posLuI uLed LIIs In or der Lo be ubIe Lo Luke un ouL I uL uII), LIe
quesLI on sLIII remuI ns: wIeL Ier un ouL I wouI d noL be possIbIe und vuI Id II someone
sweurs onI y In cuse L Iere Is u God (IIke ProL ugorus, decI dI ng noL II ng ubouL IL)? n
IucL, every ouL I LIuL Ius been Luken boL I sIncereI y und cI rcumspecL I y muy weII Iuve
been L uken In j usL LIIs sense. or II s omeone Is wI I I I ng sI mpI y Lo sweur LIuL God
exIsLs, IIs oI I er , IL mI gIL seem, I nvoI ves no rIsk I or II m, wIeL Ier Ie beI I eves In Go d
or noL. I L Iere Is u God (LIe deceI ver wIII suy), L Ien Iuve IIL LIe mur k; II L Iere Is
no God, L Ien neI L Ier Is L Iere unyone Lo cuII me Lo uccounL , und by sucI un ouL I
run no rIsk. BuL ij there is c God, L Ien Is L Iere no dunger oI beI ng cuugIL In u IIe
deI I beruLeI y LoI d j usL In or der Lo deceI ve HI m?
'()
z;6 TIe Metcphsics oj Morcls
moruIs, sInce LIIs deIInILIon expresses onIy LIe reIuLIon oI reuson Lo
LIe Idec oI God wIIcI reuson mukes Ior ILseII; und LIIs does noL yeL
muke u duLy oI reIIgIon InLo u duLy to (erc) God, us u BeI ng exIsLIng
ouLsIde our deu, sInce we sLIII ubsLrucL I rom HIs exIsLence. TIe
ground on wIIcI mun Is Lo LIInk oI uII IIs duLIes In keepI ng wILI LIIs
jormcl cspect oI reIIgIon (LIeIr reIuLIon Lo u dIvIne wIII gI ven u prIorI) Is
onIy subjecLIveIy IogIcuI. TIuL Is Lo suy, we cunnoL very weII muke
obIIguLIon (moruI consLruInL) InLuILIve I or ourseIves wILIouL LIereby
LIInkIng oI cnother's wIII, numeIy God' s (oI wIIcI reuson In gIvIng
unIversuI Iuws Is onIy LIe spokesmun). BuL LIIs duLy uith recrd to God
(properI y speukIng, wILI regurd Lo LIe deu we ourseIves muke oI sucI
u BeI ng) Is u duLy oI mun Lo IImseII, LIuL Is, IL Is noL objecLIve, un
obIIguLIon Lo perI orm cerLuIn servIces I or unoLIer, buL onIy subjecLIve,
Ior LIe suke oI sLrengLIenI ng LIe moruI IncenLIve In our own IuvJgIvIng
reuson.
BuL us I or LIe mctericl uspecL oI reIIgIon, LIe sum oI duLIes to (erc)
God, LIuL Is, LIe servIce Lo be perI ormed I or IIm (cdprcestcndum), LIIs
wouI d be ubIe Lo conLuIn specIuI duLIes us dIvIne communds LIuL do noL
proceed onIy I rom reuson gI vI ng unIversuI Iuws, so LIuL LIey couId be
known by us onIy empIrIcuIIy, noL u prIorI, und wouI d LIereI ore be-
I ong onIy Lo reveuIed reIIgIon. TIey wouId L IereI ore uIso Iuve Lo
ussume LIe exIsLence oI sucI u BeI ng, noL mereI y LIe deu oI HI m Ior
prucLIcuI purposes, und Lo ussume IL noL uL wIII buL ruLIer us someLIIng
LIuL couI d be seL IorLI us gIven dIrecLIy (or IndIrecLIy) In experI ence.
BuL sucI u reIIgIon wouI d sLIII comprIse no purL oI u purel philosophic
morcls, no muLLer Iow weI I -grounded IL mI gIL oLIerwIse be.
|q88| So reliion us LIe docLrIne oI duLIes to God IIes enLIreIy beyond LIe
bounds oI pureI y pIIIosopIIc eLIIcs, und LIIs serves Lo j usLI Iy LIe
uuLIor oI LIe presenL eLIIcuI work I or noL IuvI ng IoI I owed LIe usuuI
prucLIce oI brI ngI ng reIIgIon, conceIved In LIuL sense, InLo eLIIcs, In
order Lo muke IL compIeLe.
We cun I ndeed speuk oI u "ReI IgIon uithin the Limits |or ounds | oI
Reuson AI one, "
1 o
wIIcI Is noL, Iowever, derIved jrom reuson uIone
buL Is uIso bused on LIe LeucIIngs oI IIsLory und reveIuLIon, und con-
sIders onIy LIe hcrmon oI pure prucLIcuI reuson wILI LIese (sIows LIuL
LIere Is no conIIIcL beLween LIem). BuL In LIuL cuse us weII reIIgIon Is
noL pure, IL Is ruLIer reliion uppIIed Lo u IIsLory Iunded down Lo us,
und LIere Is no pIuce Ior IL In un ethics LIuL Is pure prucLIcuI pIIIosopIy-
Concludin Remcrl
AI I moruI reIuLIons oI ruLIonuI beIngs, wIIcI InvoIve u prIncIpIe
oI LIe Iurmony oI LIe wIII oI one wILI LIuL oI unoLIer, cun be
The Doctrine oj RigIt g z;;
reduced Lo lote und respect, und, InsoIur us LIIs prIncIpIe Is prucLI-
cuI, In LIe cuse oI Iove LIe busIs I or deLermI nI ng one's wIII cun be
reduced Lo unoLIer' s end, und In LIe cuse oI respecL, Lo unoLIer' s
riht. I one oI LIese Is u beIng LIuL Ius onIy rIgILs und no duLIes
Lo LIe oLIer (God) so LIuL LIe oLIer Ius onIy duLIes und no rIgILs
uguInsL IIm, LIen LIe prIncIpIe oI LIe moruI reIuLIon beLween
LIem Is trcnscendent. (On LIe oLIer Iund, LIe moruI reIuLIon oI
men Lo men, wIose wIIIs IImIL one unoLIer, Ius un immcnent
prIncIpIe.)
God' s end wILI regurd Lo LIe Iumun ruce (In creuLIng und
guI dI ng IL) cun be LIougIL onIy us proceedI ng I rom lote, LIuL Is,
us LIe hcppiness oI men. BuL LIe prIncIpIe oI God' s wIII wILI
regurd Lo LIe respect (uwe) due Lo HI m, wIIcI IImILs LIe eIIecLs oI
Iove, LIuL Is, LIe prIncIpIe oI God' s rIgIL, cun be none oLIer LIun
LIuL oI justice. To express LIIs In Iumun Lerms, God Ius creuLed
ruLIonuI beIngs I rom LIe need, us IL were, Lo Iuve someLII ng
ouLsIde HI mseI I wIIcI He couId Iove or by wIIcI He couI d uIso
be Ioved.
BuL In LIe j udgmenL oI our own reuson, LIe cIuIm LIuL dIvIne |q8q|
justice mukes upon us Is noL onIy us greuL buL even greuLer (be-
cuuse LIe prIncIpIe Is u IImILIng one), und LIe cIuIm Is LIuL oI pu-
nitite justice. or LIere Is no pIuce I or reucrd (prcemium, remuner-
cte rctuitc) I nj usLI ce Lowurd beIngs wIo Iuve onIy duLIes und no
rIgILs In reIuLIon Lo unoLIer, buL onIy In HIs Iove und beneII cence
(beninitcs) Lowurd LIem;
1 oq
sLIII Iess cun u cIuIm Lo compensuLIon
(merces) be mude by sucI beIngs, und compensctor justice (iustitic
brcbeuticc) In LIe reIuLIon oI God Lo men Is u conLrudIcLIon.
BuL In LIe deu oI un exercIse oI jusLIce by u BeI ng WIo Is
ubove uny I nLerIerence wILI HIs ends LIere Is someLIIng LIuL
cunnoL weII be reconcIIed wILI men' s reIuLIon Lo God: numeIy,
LIe concepL oI u uron LIuL couId be done Lo LIe InIInILe und
InuccessIbIe ruI er oI LIe worId; I or wIuL Is In quesLIon Iere Is noL
men' s vIoIuLIons oI eucI oLIer' s rIgILs, on wIIcI God, us LIe
punIsIIng j udge, pusses senLence, buL oI u vIoIuLIon supposed Lo
be done Lo God HImseII und HIs rIgIL. TIe concepL oI LIIs Is
trcnscendent, LIuL Is, IL IIes enLIreIy beyond LIe concepL oI uny
punILIve jusLIce I or wIIcI we cun brI ng Iorwurd uny InsLunce (I.e.,
uny InsLunce umong men) und InvoIves exLruvugunL prIncIpIes
LIuL cunnoL be brougIL InLo uccord wILI LIose we wouId use In
cuses oI experI ence und LIuL ure, uccordIngIy, quILe empLy I or
ur prucLIcuI reuson.
Here LIe deu oI dIvIne punILIve jusLIce Is personIIIed. TIer e
no purLIcuIur j udgI ng beI ng LIuL exercIses IL (Ior LIen LIIs beI ng
z;8 TIe Metcphsics oj Morcls
wouI d come InLo conIIIcL wILI prIncIpIes oI RIgIL); InsLeud IL Is
justice - us II IL were u subsLunce (oLIerwIse cuIIed eterncl jusLIce)
wIIcI, IIke LIe jcte (desLIny) oI LIe uncIenL pIIIosopIIcuI poeLs, Is
ubove even JupI Ler - LIuL pronounces on rIgILs In uccordunce
wILI un Iron, InevILubIe necessILy wII cI we cunnoL peneLruLe Iur-
LIer. Now some InsLunces oI LIIs.
PunI sImenL (uccordIng Lo Horuce)
1 o
does noL IeL LIe crImInuI
ouL oI ILs sIgIL us Ie sLrIdes proudI y beI ore IL; ruLIer, IL keeps
I I mpI ng uILer II m unLII IL cuLcIes IIm. BI ood InnocenLI y sIed
crIes ouL I or vengeunce. CrI me cunnoL remuI n unuvenged; II
|qqo| punI sImenL does noL sLrIke LIe crImInuI, LIen IIs descendunLs
musL suI I er IL, or II IL does noL beIuII IIm durI ng IIs IIIeLIme, LIen
IL musL Luke pIuce In u IIIe uILer deuLI, wIIcI Is uccepLed und
reudIIy beIIeved In expressIy so LIuL LIe cIuIm oI eLernuI jusLIce
muy be seLLIed. wIII noL uIIow blood-uilt Lo come upon my Iund
by grunLI ng purdon Lo un evII, murderI ng dueIIsL I or wIom you
InLercede, u wIse ruI er once suId. Guilt jor sins musL be expI uLed,
even II u compIeLeIy InnocenL person sIouId Iuve Lo oI I er IIm-
seII Lo uLone I or IL (In wIIcI cuse LIe suI I erI ng Ie Look upon
IImseII couI d noL properI y be cuIIed punI sImenL, sInce Ie IIm-
seII Iud commI LLed no crIme). AI I oI LIIs mukes IL cIeur LIuL LIIs
j udgmenL oI condemnuLI on Is noL uLLrIbuLed Lo u person udmInIs-
LerIng jusLIce (Ior LIe person couI d noL pronounce In LIIs wuy
wILIouL doI ng oLIers wrong), buL ruLIer LIuL justice by ILseII, us u
LrunscendenL prIncIpIe uscrIbed Lo u supersensIbIe subjecL, deLer-
mInes LIe rI gIL oI LIIs beIng. AI I oI LIIs conI orms, I ndeed, wILI
LIe jormcl cspect oI LIIs prIncIpIe, buL IL conIIIcLs wILI LIe mctericl
cspect oI IL, LIe end, wIIcI Is uIwuys LIe hcppiness oI men. or, In
vIew oI LIe evenLuuI muI LILude oI crImInuIs wIo keep LIe regIsLer
oI LIeIr guIIL runnI ng on und on, punILIve jusLIce wouI d muke LIe
end oI creuLIon consIsL noL In LIe creuLor' s lote (us one musL yeL
LIInk IL Lo be) buL ruLIer In LIe sLrIcL observunce oI HIs riht (IL
wouI d muke God' s rI gIL ILseII, IocuLed In HIs lor, LIe end). BuL
sInce LIe IuLLer (jusLIce) Is onIy LIe condILIon IImILIng LIe I ormer
L Is noL even necessury Lo brI ng LIe IypoL IesI s oI u I uL ur e I I Ie I nLo LIIs, In or der
Lo presenL LIuL LIreuL oI punI sImenL us compI eL eI y I uI I I I I ed. or u mun, consI dered
In L erms oI IIs moruI I Ly, Is j udg e d us u supersensI bI e obj ecL by u supersensI bI e
j udge , noL unde r condI LI ons oI LI me; onI y IIs exI sLence Is reI evunL Iere. HI s I I Ie on
eurLI - be IL sIorL or I ong or even everI usL I ng - Is onI y IIs exI sL ence In uppeur unce,
und LIe concepL oI j usL I ce does noL need Lo be deL er mI ned mor e cIoseIy sInce beI I eI
In u I uL ur e I I Ie does noL, properI y speukI ng, come IIrsL, so us Lo IeL LIe eI I ecL oI
crI mI nuI j usL I ce upon IL be seen; on LIe conL rury, IL Is I r om LIe necessILy oI punI sI-
menL LIuL LIe I nI er ence Lo u I uL ur e I I Ie Is druwn.
The Doctrine oj RigIt g z;q
(benevoIence), LIIs seems Lo conLrudIcL prIncIpIes oI prucLIcuI |qq1|
reuson, by wIIcI LIe creuLIon oI u worId musL Iuve been omILLed
II IL wouI d Iuve produced u resuIL so conLrury Lo LIe InLenLIon oI
ILs uuLIor, wIIcI cun Iuve onIy Iove I or ILs busIs.
rom uII LIIs IL Is cIeur LIuL In eLIIcs, us pure prucLIcuI pIIIoso-
pIy oI InLernuI IuwgIvIng, onIy LIe moruI reIuLIons oI men to men
ure conceIvubIe by us. TIe quesLIon oI wIuL sorL oI moruI reIu-
LIon IoIds beLween God und mun goes compIeLeIy beyond LIe
bounds oI eLIIcs und Is uILogeLIer InconceIvubIe I or us. TII s,
LIen, conII rms wIuL wus muInLuIned ubove: LIuL eLIIcs cunnoL
exLend beyond LIe IImILs oI men' s duLIes Lo one unoLIer.
|qqz| Tcble oj the ditision oj ethics
. DOC T R NE O T H E E E ME NT S O ET H CS .
P ART .
On Mun' s Duties to Himselj.
B OOK .
On Mun' s Perject Duties Lo HI mseI I .
CIupL er .
On Mun' s DuLI es Lo HI mseI I us un Animcl ein.
CIupL er .
On Mun' s DuLI es Lo HI mseI I MereI y us u Morcl BeI ng.
SecLI on .
On Mun' s DuLI es Lo HI mseI I us HI s Own nnuL e 1ude.
SecLI on .
On LIe IrsL Co mmu nd oI AI I DuLI es Lo OneseI I .
EpI sodI c SecLI on.
On un AmpII boI y In MoruI Concepts oj Rejlection
wI LI Regur d Lo DuL I es Lo OneseI I .
!"#$%
'( ( )
On Mun' s Imperject DuL I es Lo HI mseI I
wI LI Regur d Lo HI s End.
SecLI on .
On LIe DuL y Lo Ones eI I Lo DeveI op und ncreuse
One' s NuL uruI PerI ecL I on.
SecLI on .
On LIe DuL y Lo OneseI I Lo ncreuse
One' s MoruI PerI ecL I on.
P ART .
On ELII cuI Duties to Dthers.
CIupL er .
On DuLI es Lo OL Ier s Merel cs Men.
SecLI on .
On LIe Dut oj Lote Lo OL Ier Men.
SecLI on .
On LIe Dut oj Respect I or OL Iers.
CIupL er .
On DuL y Lo OL Ier s In Accor dunc e wI LI Dijjerences
In Their Condition.
ConcI usI on oI LIe DocL rI ne oI EI emenL s.
On LIe MosL nL I muL e UnI on oI ove wI LI RespecL
In rI endsII p.
. DOC T R NE O T H E ME T HODS O E T H C S
SecLI on .
TeucII ng ELIIcs.
SecLI on .
ELII cuI AsceLI cs.
ConcI usI on oI LIe EnLI re ELIIcs.
TrunsIuLor's NoLes Lo LIe TexL
1 On LIe Lerm "RIgIL" (Recht) see TrunsIuLor's NoLe on LIe TexL, puge x. As Ior
"docLrIne," KunL concIudes IIs PreIuce Lo LIe Critique oj 1udment by noLIng
LIuL LIIs crILIque concIudes LIe crILIcuI purL oI IIs enLerprIse und LIuL Ie wIII
now proceed Lo LIe docLrInuI (doltrinell) purL, I.e., Lo LIe uppIIcuLIon oI LIe
prIncIpIes esLubIIsIed In LIe IrsL Lwo crILIques In u meLupIysIcs oI nuLure
und u meLupIysIcs oI moruIs (Ak. V, 1;o).
z Metcphsische Anjcnsrunde der Ncturuissenshcjt (1;8), Ak. V.
CIrIsLIun Gurve (1;qz-1;q8) wus proIessor oI pIIIosopIy uL eIpzIg. PurL
oI KunL's essuy "On LIe Common SuyIng: TIuL Muy Be True In TIeory BuL
L Does NoL AppIy In PrucLIce" (1;q), Ak. V, wIIcI deuIs wILI LIe reIu-
LIon oI LIeory Lo prucLIce In moruI pIIIosopIy In generuI, Is u repIy Lo some
objecLIons ruIsed by Gurve In IIs Versuche uber terschiedene Geenstcnde cus der
Morcl und Literctur. KunL's reIerence Lo Gurve In LIe presenL conLexL Is LopI-
cuI, sInce In IIs Vermischte Aujsctze (1;q6) Gurve compIuIns ubouL LIe mIscIIeI
LIuL "vurIous uuLIors oI LIe KunLIun scIooI" (LIougI noL KunL IImseII) Iuve
been mukIng In popuIur pIIIosopIy.
q AnLoIne uurenL uvoIsIer (1;q-1;qq), wIose dIscovery oI LIe roIe oI oxy-
gen In combusLIon und InIIuence In esLubIIsIIng LIe nomencIuLure oI cIem-
IsLry eurned IIm LIe LILIe oI prIncIpuI urcIILecL oI LIe new scIence oI cIem-
IsLry.
On JoIn Brown's sysLem, see my InLroducLIon Lo LIe LrunsIuLIon oI KunL's
Reltorctsrede, "On PIIIosopIers' MedIcIne oI LIe Body," In ewIs W. Beck,
ed., Kcnt's Lctin Writins (New York und Berne: PeLer ung, 1q86).
6 CIrIsLIun Huusen (16q-1;q) wus proIessor oI muLIemuLIcs uL eIpzIg.
AccordIng Lo NuLorp (Ak.V, o-;), LIe revIewer Irom TbIngen wus prob-
ubIy LIe sume JoIunn rIedrIcI IuLL Lo wIom KunL reIers In LIe PreIuce Lo
LIe Critique oj Prccticcl Recson. IuLL's recurrenL LIeme, LIuL KunL's curdInuI
dIsLIncLIons Iud uIreudy been mude In subsLunce by oLIer wrILers, seems Lo
Iuve been one LIuL unnoyed KunL.
; See WuILer SLruuss, Iriedrich Nicolci und die lritische Philosophie: ein eitrc zur
Geschichte der Aujllcrun (SLuLLgurL: KoIIIummer, 1qz;). n 1;q6 NIcoIuI, In
IIs eschreibun einer Reise durch Deutschlcnd und die Schueiz im 1chre :;8:,
rIdIcuIed LIe use Lo wIIcI ScIIIIer und IIs IoIIowers Iud puL KunLIun LermI-
noIogy. DespILe KunL's wurnIng LIuL LIIs crILIcIsm sIouId noL be exLended Lo
crILIcuI pIIIosopIy ILseII, NIcoIuI dId jusL LIuL wILI IIs Leben und Meinunen
z81
z8z Notes to Pces 8-(
Sempronius Gundiberts (1;q8), wIIcI cuIIed IorLI KunL's Ueber die uchmcch-
erei: Zuei rieje cn Herrn Iriedrich Nicolci (Ak. V, q1-8).
8 AnLIony AsIIey Cooper, LIIrd EurI oI SIuILesbury (161-1;1). TIe reI-
erence Is Lo IIs Chcrccteristics oj Men, Mcnners, Dpinions, Times, TreuLIse
, "Sensus communis, un Essuy on LIe reedom oI WIL und Humour" (1;og),
SecLIon : "TruLI . . . muy beur uII IgILs: und one oI LIose prIncIpuI
IgILs . . . Is RIdIcuIe ILseII. . . . So mucI, uL IeusL, Is uIIow'd by AII, wIo uL
uny LIme uppeuI Lo LIIs CrILerIon."
q TIuL LIe Doctrine oj Riht wus wrILLen und pubIIsIed beIore LIe Doctrine oj
Virtue uccounLs Ior LIe LILIe puge |zo| und TubIe oI ConLenLs |z1o| In LIe
Alcdemie edILIon.
1o TIe dIsLIncLIon Iuve murked beLween LIe "cupucILy Ior desIre" und "de-
sIre In LIe nurrow sense" Is LIuL beLween eehrunstermoen und eierde.
11 n LIIs InILIuI occurrence oI LIe Lerms Willlur und Wille Iuve, wIen IL
seemed udvIsubIe, LrunsIuLed Willlur IuIIy, us "LIe cupucILy Ior cIoIce."
Iuve done so uguIn uL LIe begInnIng oI The Doctrine oj Virtue. HereuILer,
Willlur Is LrunsIuLed sImpIy us "cIoIce" excepL wIen IL Is necessury Lo dIsLIn-
guIsI Willlur occurrIng wILI LIe IndeIInILe urLIcIe Irom Wchl, "u cIoIce" or
"IIs cIoIce" (I.e., u cIoIce Ie mukes); LIe correspondIng verb Is uchlen.
SomeLIIng Is IosL by LIIs LrunsIuLIon oI Willlur In pussuges wIere KunL Is
dIscussIng LIe reIuLIon oI Willlur und Wille. WIuL mIIILuLes uguInsL consIs-
LenLIy LrunsIuLIng Willlur us "LIe cupucILy Ior cIoIce" Is noL so mucI LIe
wordIness LIIs wouId InvoIve; IL Is ruLIer LIuL KunL seems uL LImes Lo use
Willlur Lo sIgnIIy LIe exercIse oI LIIs cupucILy or exLernuI ucLIons resuILIng
Irom IL. To IndIcuLe LIIs wouId, Iowever, InvoIve dIsLorLIng LIe Germun
LexL. L sIouId uIso be noLed LIuL, IuvIng druwn LIe dIsLIncLIon beLween
Willlur und Wille, KunL does noL uIwuys observe IL. NeverLIeIess, cureIuI
uLLenLIon wouId seem Lo be requIred Iere In vIew oI KunL's usserLIon (Ak.
zI8n) LIuL der Alt der jreien Willlur uberhcupt Is LIe IIgIesL concepL In LIe
sysLem oI LIe meLupIysIcs oI moruIs.
1z mit den Lehren der Sittlichleit. n Ak. z1q KunL dIsLInguIsIes beLween LIe
IeguIILy oI un ucLIon und ILs Morclitct (Sittlichleit); druwIng LIe sume dIsLInc-
LIon In Ak. zz Ie uses Sittlichleit (morclitcs). n LIe presenL conLexL, Iow-
ever, IL wouId seem LIuL Ie conLInues Lo dIscuss wIuL Ie Ius been cuIIIng
Sittenlehre, I.e., LIe "docLrIne oI moruIs" or oI duLIes generuIIy. n Ak. zq
Ie reIers Lo LIe meLupIysIcs oI moruIs In boLI ILs purLs us Sittenlehre (Morcl ).
1 Kunst. n LIe Grounduorl oj the Metcphsics oj Morcls (Ak.V, q1) KunL cuIIs
sucI precepLs LIose oI "skIII" (Geschicllichleit).
1q ton den pctholoischen estimmunsrunden der Willlur. n order Lo uvoId LIe
suggesLIon oI "dIseused," pctholoisch Is LrunsIuLed LIrougIouL us "sensIbIy
dependenL."
1 rechtlich. TIe Lerm Is InLroduced Iere us, uppurenLIy, synonymous wILI
"jurIdIcuI" (juridisch). Once LIe concepL oI u rIgIL Is derIved, In LIe nLro-
ducLIon Lo LIe Doctrine oj Riht, rechtlich seems oILen Lo be used In LIe
generuI sense oI "IuvIng Lo do wILI u rIgIL or rIgILs." Iuve so used IL In
LIe remuInder oI LIe nLroducLIon Lo The Metcphsics oj Morcls. TIe Lerm
becomes promInenL In PrIvuLe RIgIL. See noLes z8 und z beIow.
z8 Notes to Pces 8-(
16 enotit (necessitiert). KunL repeuLedIy gIves Zucn (consLruInL) und Notiun
(necessILuLIon) us synonyms. AILIougI Notiun Is perIups IIs Iuvored
Lerm, Iuve oILen LrunsIuLed Notiun by LIe more common EngIIsI word
"consLruInL." KunL uses Zucn (und zuinen) Ior boLI LIe consLruInL exer-
cIsed upon one's cupucILy Ior cIoIce by one's own wIII, LIrougI LIe LIougIL
oI duLy, und LIe consLruInL exercIsed by unoLIer's cIoIce, LIrougI one's
uversIons. WIen Zucn occurs In LIe conLexL oI RIgIL und wILIouL LIe
modIIIer cussere (exLernuI), Iuve LrunsIuLed IL us "coercIon" (In keepIng
wILI oI LIe nLroducLIon Lo The Metcphsics oj Morcls). As LIe LexL mukes
cIeur, coercIon In uccordunce wILI u unIversuI Iuw oI ouLer Ireedom consLI-
LuLes obIIguLIon.
1; zur Verpjlichtun. AILIougI KunL uppurenLIy uses boLI Verbindlichleit und
Verpjlichtun Ior "obIIguLIon," LIe IuLLer seems uL LImes Lo Iuve LIe sense oI
"puL under obIIguLIon" und Lo be cIoseIy reIuLed Lo terbinden, wIIcI oILen
LrunsIuLe us "Lo bInd."
18 Erllcrunsprinzip. As KunL noLes In LIe Critique oj Pure Recson, A:;o;
B:;8, LIe Germun Iunguuge Ius onIy one word, Erllcrun, Lo express
"exposILIon," "expIIcuLIon," "decIuruLIon," und "deIInILIon." DespILe LIe
sLrIcLures Ie pIuces upon "deIInILIon," Ie udds LIuL "we need noL be so
sLrIngenL In our requIremenLs us uILogeLIer Lo reIuse Lo pIIIosopIIc expo-
sILIons |Erllcrunen| LIe IonorubIe LILIe, deIInILIon." AL LIe concIusIon oI
LIe presenL purugrupI Ie gIves dejinitio hbridc us equIvuIenL Lo cs-
tcrderllcrun. See uIso IIs use oI Dejinition und Erllcrun (or dejinieren und
erllcren) In, e.g., Ak. zq8-q, z6o, und z86-;. n LIe Doctrine oj Riht, us
weII us In LIose pussuges oI LIe Doctrine oj Virtue wIere KunL dIscusses LIe
Erllcrun oI LIe concepL oI vIrLue, Iuve used "deIIne" und "deIInILIon,"
IndIcuLIng LIe Germun In bruckeLs.
1q uilllurlich. See Ak. zzq, wIere KunL suys LIuL In LIe cuse oI posILIve Iuws LIe
IegIsIuLor bInds oLIers durch seine blosse Willlur. Becuuse IL Is noL uIwuys
possIbIe Lo LrunsIuLe uilllurlich us "cIosen," Iuve used u vurIeLy oI words:
"uL wIII," "wIIIIuI," "opLIonuI" und "voIunLury" - uILIougI "voIunLury" Is
uIso used Ior jreiuilli.
zo unrechtmcssi. See noLe beIow.
z1 ucs Rechtens sei. AccordIng Lo Ak. XX, z6z, wIuL Is IuId down us rIgIL
(Rechtens, iuris est) Is wIuL Is rIgIL In uccordunce wILI posILIve Iuws.
zz n Ak. zz-q KunL used erecht und unerecht, iustum und iniustum, Ior wIuL
Is rIgIL or wrong In uccordunce wILI exLernuI Iuws, und recht und unrecht Ior
wIuL Is rIgIL or wrong generuIIy. n LIe Doctrine oj Riht Ie uses sImpIy recht
und unrecht, uILIougI LIe conLexL mukes IL cIeur LIuL onIy exLernuI Iuws ure
under consIderuLIon.
z cls Icltc, perIups "us deeds." n Ak. zz; jcctum wus gIven us LIe purenLIeL-
IcuI equIvuIenL oI Tct or "deed." n u number oI pussuges IL Is uncIeur
wIeLIer Tct Is Lo be Luken us "IucL" or us "deed."
zq Zustcnd. TIrougIouL LIe Doctrine oj Riht Iuve LrunsIuLed Zustcnd us "con-
dILIon" excepL 1) wIere LIe IumIIIur Lerm "sLuLe oI nuLure" Is cuIIed Ior und
z) wIere IL seems Lo requIre LIe LrunsIuLIon "sLuLus," In KunL's dIscussIon oI
rIgILs Lo persons ukIn Lo rIgILs Lo LIIngs. n LIe Doctrine oj Virtue, wIere
z8q Notes to Pces 8-(
LIere Is no occusIon Ior mIsLukIng "sLuLe" Ior Stcct, Iuve used "sLuLe" und
"condILIon" InLercIungeubIy.
z "A posLuIuLe Is u prucLIcuI ImperuLIve gIven u prIorI, LIe possIbIIILy oI wIIcI
cunnoL be expIuIned [leiner Erllcrun . . . jchier ] (so LIuL no prooI oI IL cun
be gIven)." "PerpeLuuI Peuce In PIIIosopIy," Ak. V, q18m Tuken ouL oI
conLexL, LIIs seems upproprIuLe Lo LIe presenL LexL; Iowever, IL Is ruLIer
unusuuI Ior KunL Lo use "posLuIuLe" Ior u moruI ImperuLIve (In LIIs cuse, LIe
ImperuLIve Lo promoLe LIe summum bonum) us dIsLInguIsIed Irom LIe
proposILIons ubouL Ireedom, God und ImmorLuIILy esLubIIsIed Ior prucLIcuI
purposes by meuns oI un ImperuLIve. TIe wuy In wIIcI LIe word "posLu-
IuLe" Is InLroduced Iere, " und dieses sct sie cls ein Postulct," mIgIL be u reI-
erence Lo Ak. zz, wIere IL wus suId LIuL moruI Iuws, IIke muLIemuLIcuI
posLuIuLes, ure IndemonsLrubIe und yeL upodIcLIcuIIy cerLuIn.
z6 die Sentenz, perIups "LIe senLence." KunL seems Lo druw no cIeur or consIs-
LenL dIsLIncLIon beLween u "senLence" und u "verdIcL" or "decIsIon" oI u
courL. or IurLIer dIscussIon oI "LIe rIgIL oI necessILy," see "TIeory und
PrucLIce," Ak. V, oon.
z; rechtliche Ehrbcrleit. L Is dIIIIcuIL Lo brIng ouL LIe connecLIon beLween
Ehrbcrleit Iere und sucI words us Ehrliebe (honestcs internc, iustum sui cestim-
ium), Ak. z6, und Ehrlichleit, Ak. qzq. WIuL LIey Iuve In common, Iow-
ever, Is LIe prucLIcuI uIIIrmuLIon oI one's dIgnILy us u person. TIe source oI
LIIs LermInoIogy muy weII be LIe SLoIc "honestum." As Ior "LIe RIgIL
oI IumunILy In our own person" menLIoned In LIe concIudIng senLence oI
LIIs purugrupI und uIso In LIe LubIe on Ak. zqo, one wouId expecL KunL Lo
dIscuss IL wILIIn LIe Doctrine oj Virtue. However, Ie mukes no reIerence
Lo IL LIere. L Is menLIoned occusIonuIIy In LIe Vorcrbeiten, e.g., Ak. XX,
z;6 und qo.
z8 rechtliche Alt. n Ak. XX, z6z, KunL deIInes u rIgILIuI ucLIon (eine recht-
liche Hcndlun, cctus iuridicus) us "someone's ucLIon Irom wIIcI u rIgIL oI
IIs urIses." (SLrIcLIy speukIng, un Alt, LrunsIuLed us "ucL," Is noL LIe sume us
un "ucLIon," Hcndlun.) n LIe LexL oI PrIvuLe RIgIL Iuve oILen LrunsIuLed
rechtliche Alt us "un ucL esLubIIsIIng u rIgIL," uILIougI LIIs needs Lo be modI-
IIed wIen KunL Is dIscussIng empIrIcuI ucLIons LIuL ure necessury buL noL
suIIIcIenL condILIons Ior ucquIrIng rIgILs; und u rIgILIuI ucL cun uIso be one
by wIIcI someone gIves up u rIgIL (Ak. oo). Now LIuL LIe concepL oI u
rIgIL Ius been derIved, sIuII oILen LrunsIuLe rechtlich by sucI pIruses us "In
Lerms oI rIgILs," "wILI regurd Lo rIgILs," "ubouL rIgILs," "uIIecLIng rIgILs,"
"beurIng upon rIgILs." See LIe use oI rechtlich In o6.
ug n LIe conLexL oI mun's nuLuruI LuIenLs und cupucILIes, LIIs Is LrunsIuLed us
"Lo deveIop." However, In LIe conLexL oI unuIyLIc und synLIeLIc proposI-
LIons, see LIe JuscIe Loil (X, 111, Anmerlun 1), wIere IL Is suId LIuL In un
ImpIIcILIy IdenLIcuI proposILIon (us dIsLInguIsIed Irom u LuuLoIogy), u pred-
IcuLe wIIcI IIes unentuiclelt (implicite) In LIe concepL oI LIe subjecL Is mude
cIeur by meuns oI Entuiclelun (explicctio). n D (Ak. z1) KunL suId LIuL
(LIe concepL oI ) un uuLIorIzuLIon Lo use coercIon, I.e., "u rIgIL," Is con-
necLed wILI (LIe concepL oI) "RIgIL" by LIe prIncIpIe oI conLrudIcLIon.
Compure Ak. q6, wIere LIe "supreme prIncIpIe oI LIe docLrIne oI RIgIL"
Is LIe proposILIon esLubIIsIed In E. n vIew oI LIIs, perIups den Rechten In
LIe purugrupI ubove mIgIL be beLLer LrunsIuLed us "RIgILs," I.e., RIgILs In
LIe sense oI 1) under IeudIng B. In Ak. z;.
o dcs Seine. TIIs Is oILen LrunsIuLed us "wIuL Is IIs," "un objecL LIuL Is IIs,"
"one's beIongIngs," "wIuL beIongs Lo IIm." SImIIur expressIons ure used Ior
dcs Meine und dcs Deine.
1 Scche. AILIougI CIupLer oI PrIvuLe RIgIL Is concerned wILI objecLs oI
cIoIce generuIIy, KunL's Iunguuge Iere, us In oLIer pussuges (noLubIy Ak.
z-6), IndIcuLes LIuL Ie Is concerned especIuIIy wILI rIgILs Lo LIIngs.
z Rechtliches Postulct der prcltischen Vernunjt. SInce LIIs posLuIuLe esLubIIsIes
LIuL coercIon Lo prevenL oLIers Irom doIng wIuL wouId noL vIoIuLe one's
InnuLe rIgIL Lo Ireedom cun be consIsLenL wILI RIgIL, IL seems upproprIuLe
Lo sLress In LIe LrunsIuLIon LIe curdInuI IuncLIon oI LIIs posLuIuLe In esLub-
IIsIIng LIe possIbIIILy oI ucquIrIng rIgILs. See LIe use oI rechtlich In Ak. o6.
KunL now begIns Lo use IrequenLIy LIe Lerm rechtsuidri und ILs opposILe,
rechtmcssi. AccordIng Lo Ak. XX, z6z, LIuL Is rechtmcssi wIIcI Is noL
conLrury Lo Rechtsesetzen. eLLers Lo KunL Irom udwIg HeInrIcI Jukob oI
Muy 1o und SepLember 18, 1;q; (Ak. X, 16o und 1q6) IndIcuLe LIuL KunL
Iud repIIed Lo u quesLIon us Lo Iow un uLLuck In u sLuLe oI nuLure couId be
rechtmcssi (6, Ak. q6 beIow) wIen LIere Is no deLermInuLe rIgIL (or
RIgIL) (lein bestimmtes Recht) In LIe sLuLe oI nuLure. UnIorLunuLeIy, we do
noL Iuve KunL's IeLLer. AL LImes rechtmcssi seems Lo be equIvuIenL Lo recht
(or erecht), Iowever, Lo murk LIe dIsLIncLIon Iuve LIen LrunsIuLed recht-
mcssi us "consIsLenL(Iy) wILI rIgIL," "In conIormILy wILI rIgIL," or "In
uccord wILI rIgIL." AguIn, KunL IoIds LIuL LIere cun be LIe presumpLIon oI
u rIgIL, provIsIonuI possessIon, In u sLuLe oI nuLure, und rechtmcssi some-
LImes suggesLs LIe sense "compuLIbIe wILI rIgILs" or "In conIormILy wILI
rIgILs," us rechtsuidri suggesLs "conLrury Lo rIgILs." n some cuses, LIe wuy
In wIIcI LIese Lerms ure used us modIIIers or LIe wuy In wIIcI LIe subsLun-
LIve Rechtmcssileit Is used wouId muke eILIer LrunsIuLIon so uwkwurd LIuL
Iuve used "IegILImuLe" und "IIIegILImuLe."
q On permIssIve Iuws, see IurLIer "Towurd PerpeLuuI Peuce," Ak. V, q;n
und ;n.
lcdiert. n Ak. zqq KunL gIves Abbruch . . . , "wouId InIrInge upon," us u
purenLIeLIcuI expIunuLIon oI Lcsion . . . uurde. Luke LIe cIunge Irom Scche
Lo Dbjelt In LIe IoIIowIng senLences us IndIcuLIve oI LIe Lendency menLIoned
In noLe 1 ubove.
6 n IIs essuy "On un AIIeged RIgIL Lo Ie Irom BenevoIence" (1;q;), KunL
suys LIuL u meLupIysIcs oI RIgIL requIres "1) un uxIom, LIuL Is, un upodIcLI-
cuIIy cerLuIn proposILIon LIuL IoIIows ImmedIuLeIy Irom LIe deIInILIon oI
exLernuI RIgIL (consIsLency oI LIe Ireedom oI eucI wILI LIe Ireedom oI
everyone In uccordunce wILI u unIversuI Iuw . . . " (Ak. V, qzq). He goes
on Lo udd LIuL IL requIres, "z) u posLuIuLe (oI exLernuI pubIIc Iuw . . . )."
Compure Ak. o;.
; L Is generuIIy ugreed LIuL LIe IoIIowIng IIve purugrupIs, wIIcI Iuve
encIosed In bruckeLs, do noL beIong Iere. On LIe IIsLory oI LIIs dIscovery,
see TIomus MuuLner, "KunL's MeLupIysIcs oI MoruIs: u NoLe on LIe TexL,"
Kcnt-Studien ;z (1q81): 6-q. TIere Is u dIIIerence oI opInIon umong
KunL scIoIurs us Lo wIeLIer LIe omIssIon oI LIese purugrupIs Ieuves u
breuk In LIe conLInuILy oI 6 und wIeLIer LIese purugrupIs beIong eIse-
wIere In PrIvuLe RIgIL or ure purLs oI un eurIIer druIL InserLed by mIsLuke.
8 n Ak. XX, z, KunL poInLs ouL LIuL In LIe crILIcuI pIIIosopIy "Iuv-
Ing" (hcbere) Is u predIcubIe, or derIvuLIve concepL, oI LIe cuLegory oI
cuusuIILy.
q KunL's usserLIons ubouL LIe unuIyLIc or synLIeLIc nuLure oI LIe proposILIons
puL Iorwurd In LIe Doctrine oj Riht ure dIIIIcuIL Lo InLerpreL. As Ior LIe
posLuIuLe InLroduced In z, some LexLs In Ak. XX, sucI us z1q-1 und
z;-6, suggesL LIuL wIereus u proposILIon usserLIng LIe possIbIIILy oI InLeI-
IIgIbIe possessIon Is unuIyLIc, one usserLIng LIe possIbIIILy oI possessIng un
empIrIcuI objecL mereIy by rIgIL Is umpIIuLIve, sInce IL requIres LIe exIsLence
oI u generuI wIII wIIcI, us KunL poInLs ouL In Ak. z6q beIow, Is objecLIveIy
necessury buL subjecLIveIy conLIngenL.
qo AILIougI KunL does noL menLIon Hugo GroLIus by nume, Ie Is presumubIy
LIInkIng oI GroLIus's LIeory (unLIcIpuLed und udopLed by muny oLIers In
LIe "nuLuruI Iuw" LrudILIon) LIuL LIe prImILIve sLuLe oI LIe Iumun ruce wus
LIuL oI common ownersIIp oI goods; LIIs wus u condILIon LIuL couId IusL
onIy us Iong us men's needs remuIned sImpIe und couId be suLIsIIed by wIuL
nuLure provIded. BuL us men cume Lo wunL u beLLer IIIe, work becume
necessury und wILI IL u dIvIsIon oI goods. TIIs dIvIsIon Look pIuce by u con-
LrucL LIrougI wIIcI everyone ugreed, expIIcILIy or LucILIy, Lo prIvuLe owner-
sIIp oI Iund by wIoever uIreudy occupIed IL. De iure belli cc pccis libri tres, ,
z, 1-z. ReInIurd BrundL, In Eientumstheorien ton Grotius bis Kcnt (SLuLLgurLJ
Bud CunsLuLL: romunn, 1q;q), pp. 1-qq und 16;-;q, provIdes nLroduc-
LIons Lo GroLIus und KunL, LogeLIer wILI u Germun LrunsIuLIon oI LIe
reIevunL purugrupIs Irom GroLIus und seIecLIons Irom KunL's eurIy LIeory
oI properLy Iound In IIs unpubIIsIed emerlunen (Ak. XX) Lo IIs Dbsertc-
tions on the Ieelin oj the ecutijul cnd the Sublime (1;6q).
q1 emcchtiun. n LIe cuse oI Iund, "occupyIng IL" wouId be LIe upproprIuLe
LrunsIuLIon. BuL KunL uIso uses LIe Lerm In LIe conLexL oI rIgILs Lo LIIngs
generuIIy und In LIe conLexL oI rIgILs uguInsL persons ukIn Lo rIgILs Lo
LIIngs.
qz uber denselben zu terjuen. Verjuun Is used In Ak. 1q, und LIe pIruse
uber. . . terjuen Is used In Ak. 1 und uguIn In Ak. o, wIere IL Is
IoIIowed by (disponiren).
q Moses MendeIssoIn, Gescmmelte Schrijten (HIIdesIeIm: H. A. GersLenberg,
1q;z), pp. z-6z. KunL Is probubIy reIerrIng Lo MendeIssoIn's vIew LIuL
"u conLrucL Is noLIIng oLIer LIun one purLy's reIInquIsIIng IIs rIgIL und LIe
oLIer purLy's uccepLIng IL" (p. z;q). By LIIs, LIe IIrsL purLy's "perIecL rIgIL"
Lo someLIIng Ie does noL need Ior IIs preservuLIon (IIs rIgIL Lo use coer-
cIon) becomes un "ImperIecL rIgIL" (u rIgIL Lo requesL or peLILIon). TIe
LermInoIogy oI "perIecL" und "ImperIecL" rIgILs seems Lo Iuve orIgInuLed
wILI GroLIus. KunL oI course rejecLs IL, uILIougI In LIe Doctrine oj Virtue Ie
uses LIe Iunguuge oI wIuL Is "owed" or "due" wILI regurd Lo duLIes oI
respecL.
Notes to Pces p-:o8 z8;
qq As In SecLIons und , LIe IeudIng Iere suggesLs "LIe sum oI prIncIpIes"
IuvIng Lo do wILI sucI possessIon. However, LIIs LIIrd member oI LIe
dIvIsIon oI rIgILs Is un InnovuLIon on KunL's purL, und LIere Is no EngIIsI
Lerm Ior IL correspondIng Lo "properLy" und "conLrucL." AL LIe begInnIng
und uL LIe end oI SecLIon , uccordIngIy, Iuve someLImes used "rIgILs"
In conLexLs LIuL wouId cuII Ior "RIgIL."
q esitzstcnd. See Ak. o6.
q6 GoLLIrIed AcIenwuII's Ius Ncturce wus one oI LIe LexLs KunL used Ior LIe
course on NuLuruI RIgIL LIuL Ie guve uL IeusL LweIve LImes durIng IIs
LeucIIng cureer. AcIenwuII's LexL, wILI KunL's commenLs on IL, Is IncIuded
In Ak. XX, .
q; Ileiss. n vIew oI wIuL KunL regurds us IIs dIrecL quoLuLIon Irom Adum
SmILI (Ak. z8q), one wouId expecL IIm Lo use Arbeit, "Iubor," ruLIer LIun
Ileiss, "IndusLrIousness" or "dIIIgence." However, In "LrunsIuLIng" SmILI's
senLence InLo Germun KunL uses Ileiss. TIrougIouL LIIs pussuge use
"IndusLry" In LIe sense oI "IndusLrIousness."
q8 Adum SmILI suys mereIy: "L Is In LIIs munner LIuL money Ius become In
uII cIvIIIzed nuLIons LIe unIversuI InsLrumenL oI commerce, by LIe InLerven-
LIon oI wIIcI goods oI uII kInds ure bougIL und soId, or excIunged Ior one
unoLIer." The Weclth oj Nctions, Bk. , CI. V, (MIddIesex und New York:
PenguIn Books, 1q;o), p. 11. He does, Iowever, deveIop In CIupLer V LIe
noLIon LIuL Iubor deLermInes LIe vuIue oI uII goods.
qq Or "pubIIsIIng books wILIouL IuvIng been empowered by LIe uuLIor." To
LrunsIuLe ucherncchdrucl us "IILerury pIrucy" wouId seem InconsIsLenL wILI
LIe "uppeurunce oI beIng rIgILIuI" LIuL KunL suys IL Ius. TIe Iunguuge used
Iere Is sImIIur Lo LIuL oI IIs essuy "Von der Unrechtmcssileit des ucherncch-
drucls," wIIcI wus pubIIsIed In LIe erliner Monctsschrijt oI Muy 1;8 (Ak.
V, ;;-8;). TIe word LrunsIuLed Iere, und In LIe conLexL oI conLrucLs, us
"on IIs own InILIuLIve" Is eienmcchti, wIIcI wus eurIIer (In, e.g., Ak. zo)
LrunsIuLed us "unsuncLIoned."
o ton rechtsueen terboten. TIe Lerm ton rechtsueen wus used eurIIer (Ak.
zo), uppurenLIy In LIe sense oI "by IeguI proceedIngs."
1 TIe dIsLIncLIon beLween "Iong possessIon" (Ersitzun, usuccpio) und "super-
unnuuLIon oI cIuIms" (Verjchrun, prcescriptio) dIscussed Iere Ius u Iong
IIsLory. n Romun uw, ucquIrIng ownersIIp (dominium) oI u LIIng by
usuccpio wus orIgInuIIy uvuIIubIe onIy under LIe ius citile, Ior Romun cILI-
zens, und prcescriptio Iud Lo be devIsed us un unuIogous procedure Ior pro-
vIncIuIs or IoreIgners. L dId noL conIer ownersIIp buL enubIed LIe posses-
sor Lo bur u cIuImunL's rIgIL oI ucLIon uguInsL IIm II Ie couId sIow LIuL Ie
Iud been possessor In good IuILI Ior LIe prescrIbed perIod oI LIme. BuL
beIore LIe LIme oI JusLInIun, prescrIpLIon Iud come Lo exLInguIsI LIe
cIuImunL's LILIe InsLeud oI mereIy burrIng IIs ucLIon; und wIen JusLInIun
uboIIsIed LIe dIsLIncLIon beLween LuIIun und provIncIuI Iund (wIIcI Iud
beIonged Lo LIe Romun peopIe or Lo LIe Emperor), prescrIpLIon by o
yeurs' possessIon guve ownersIIp Lo u possessor In good IuILI, even II LIe
LIIng Iud orIgInuIIy been sLoIen. See R. W. euge, Romcn Pritcte Lcu (on-
don: MucmIIIun, 1qo), pp. 1q- ;1.
z88 Notes to Pces ::8-z
z KunL seems Lo be LIInkIng Iere oI "LIe decIsory ouLI," wIIcI wouId decIde
u IucL uL Issue In u cuse. TIIs wus one oI LIe devIces oI cIvII procedure
desIgned Lo proLecL LIe j udge Irom LIreuLs by LIe weuILIy und LIe power-
IuI. "TIe decIsory ouLI worked In LIe IoIIowIng wuy: PurLy A couId puL
PurLy B on IIs ouLI us Lo u IucL uL Issue LIuL wus wILIIn PurLy B's knowIedge.
I PurLy B reIused Lo sweur, LIe IucL wus Luken us concIusIveIy proved
uguInsL IIm. I PurLy B swore, LIe IucL wus Luken us concIusIveIy proved In
IIs Iuvor." JoIn Henry Merrymun, The Citil Lcu Trcdition (SLunIord: SLun-
Iord UnIversILy Press, 1q6q), p. 1z6.
ejehlshcber. KunL Ius noL yeL dIscussed LIe reIuLIon oI LIe IegIsIuLIve, exec-
uLIve, und judIcIuI uuLIorILIes In u sLuLe. WIen Ie does so In Ak. 16, LIe
(Dberbejehlshcber Is ussocIuLed wILI LIe execuLIve uuLIorILy. Here, Iowever,
us In q;, KunL Is uppurenLIy usIng LIe word sImpIy In LIe sense oI "u
superIor In generuI."
q GrummuLIcuIIy, LIe reIuLIon oI "wILI uII oLIers" Lo LIe resL oI LIe senLence
Is umbIguous: TIe pIruse couId modIIy "proceed." My reusons Ior LIe
ubove LrunsIuLIon ure 1) KunL's LIesIs oI "orIgInuI possessIon In common" oI
LIe eurLI's IubILubIe surIuce by LIe wIoIe Iumun ruce und z) LIe IucL LIuL
LIe IeudIng oI q1 IndIcuLes LIuL qz Is purL oI LIe LrunsILIon Irom PrIvuLe
RIgIL Lo LIe wIoIe oI PubIIc RIgIL. As KunL Ius suId (Ak. z66), unLII "LIe
orIgInuI conLrucL" exLends Lo LIe wIoIe Iumun ruce, ucquIsILIon wIII uIwuys
remuIn provIsIonuI.
TIe EngIIsI Lerms "munIcIpuI Iuw" und "InLernuLIonuI Iuw" mIgIL be used
Iere, II IL were kepL In mInd LIuL KunL's concern Is onIy wILI u prIorI
prIncIpIes. However, gIven LIe meunIng oI Recht specIIIed In Ak. zzq, IL
seems preIerubIe Lo conLInue usIng LIIs Lerm LIrougIouL dcs ojjentliche
Recht or "pubIIc RIgIL."
6 AILIougI KunL conLInues Lo use Gesetzebun und Gesetzeber, wIIcI were
LrunsIuLed In prIvuLe RIgIL us "IuwgIvIng" und "IuwgIver," Ie Is now dIs-
cussIng u condILIon In wIIcI LIere ure posILIve Iuws. Hence "IegIsIuLIon"
und "IegIsIuLor" seem upproprIuLe.
; Or, more IumIIIurIy, "powers" (Geuclten). n purugrupIs q und qq KunL
used Mccht (potentic), wIIcI wus LrunsIuLed us "power." He now begIns Lo
use Geuclt (potestcs). BuL once Ie dIsLInguIsIes LIe LIree "powers" or "uu-
LIorILIes" wILIIn u sLuLe, IL Is onIy LIe execuLIve uuLIorILy LIuL Ius "power"
In one sense, I.e., IL Is LIe uuLIorILy LIuL exercIses coercIon.
8 n LIIs InILIuI dIsLIncLIon oI LIe LIree uuLIorILIes wILIIn u sLuLe KunL specI-
IIes LIuL "sovereIgnLy" (die Herrschereuclt, Soutercnitct) beIongs Lo LIe Ieg-
IsIuLIve uuLIorILy. SubsequenLIy Ie InLroduces, wILIouL expIunuLIon, sucI u
vurIeLy oI Lerms LIuL IL Is noL uIwuys cIeur wIIcI oI LIe LIree uuLIorILIes Is
under dIscussIon. n IIs "GeneruI Remurk" (Ak. 18-;) Luke IL LIuL A
und B Iuve Lo do prImurIIy wILI LIe IegIsIuLIve uuLIorILy und C, D, und E
wILI LIe execuLIve. Iuve used "sovereIgn" onIy wIen KunL specIIIes Sou-
tercn or, us Iere, Herrschereuclt. OLIerwIse Iuve used LIe more generuI
"Ieud oI sLuLe," excepL Ior pussuges wIIcI mIgIL IndIcuLe LIuL one (pIysI-
cuI) person Ius boLI IegIsIuLIve und execuLIve uuLIorILy. n Ak. 16 KunL
speuks oI "LIe execuLIve uuLIorILy oI LIe Dberbejehlshcber," und noLes LIuL
Notes to Pces p-:o8 z8q
IIs ejehle ure noL "Iuws." PerIups KunL's very cusuuI vocubuIury wILI
regurd Lo LIe uuLIorILIes wILIIn u sLuLe sLems Irom IIs recognILIon oI LIe
exIsLence und IegILImucy oI Iorms oI sLuLe LIuL IuII Iur sIorL oI LIe deu oI
u sLuLe ('s 1-z). n un uuLocrucy, Ior exumpIe, one person Ius boLI uII
"uuLIorILy" und uII "power."
!" NuLorp suggesLs LIuL u IuIrIy exLensIve porLIon oI LIe LexL muy be mIssIng
Iere, In wIIcI "IIrsL," "second," und "LIIrd" occurred LwIce und LIe IIrsL
occurrence oI "LIIrd" goL repIuced by LIe second. n uny cuse, LIe "LIIrd"
poInL Iere seems Lo concern LIe reIuLIon oI LIe judIcIuI uuLIorILy Lo LIe
IegIsIuLIve und LIe execuLIve uuLIorILIes, noL unoLIer reIuLIon puruIIeI Lo
coordInuLIon und subordInuLIon.
#$ AILIougI KunL goes on Lo cuII u "moderuLe" (emcssite) consLILuLIon ein
Undin (un "ubsurdILy" In LIe sense, uppurenLIy, oI u IogIcuI ImpossIbIIILy),
IL wouId seem Irom Ak. zz LIuL LIe ubsurdILy consIsLs In supposIng LIuL u
purIIumenL represenLIng LIe peopIe cun cctitel resIsL LIe IIgIesL execuLIve
uuLIorILy. Luke IL LIuL IIs reIerences Lo u "moderuLe" und Lo u "IImILed"
(eineschrcnlte) consLILuLIon ure boLI dIrecLed uL LIe BrILIsI consLILuLIon.
, As Ie poInLs ouL In "TIeory und PrucLIce" (Ak. V, o), LIe BrILIsI
consLILuLIon suys noLIIng ubouL wIuL LIe peopIe muy do II LIe monurcI
vIoIuLes LIe conLrucL oI 1688. SInce LIe consLILuLIon couId noL, wILIouL
; seII-conLrudIcLIon, conLuIn u public provIsIon LIuL LIe peopIe muy over-
LIrow LIe exIsLIng governmenL, LIe peopIe musL tccitl reserve LIe rIgIL Lo
rebeI. BuL u LucIL rIgIL cunnoL be purL oI u consLILuLIon sInce "uII LIe Iuws oI
u consLILuLIon musL be conceIved us urIsIng ouL oI u pubIIc wIII." To exLrIcuLe
LIemseIves Irom sucI dIIIIcuILIes, LIe Ieuders or "guurdIuns" oI LIe BrILIsI
peopIe Iud Lo InvenL LIe noLIon LIuL Jumes Iud voIunLurIIy ubdIcuLed.
UnIIke muny oI IIs conLemporurIes, KunL wus no urdenL udmIrer oI LIe
BrILIsI consLILuLIon, wIIcI Ie regurded us IuIIIng LIe peopIe wILI un IIIu-
sIon oI Ireedom.
61 Or "supreme owner" (Dbereientumer). On Eientum (properLy), see ubove
Ak. z;o.
6z Leibeiener, LecInIcuIIy, "serI." n Ak. zq1 KunL cIussed Leibeiene und
Sllcten LogeLIer: TIey wouId be "men wILIouL personuIILy." n Ak. zq Ie
used runduntertcni (lebce cdscripti) - us In LIe presenL pussuge Ie uses
Gutsuntertcn (lebce cdscriptus) - und cuIIed serIs serti. Here Loo Ie reIers Lo
u Leibeiener us sertus in sensu stricto or sImpIy sertus. n Ak. , u crImInuI
Is suId Lo Iuve reduced IImseII Lo LIe sLuLus oI u sIuve (Sllctenstcnd). sIuII
IenceIorLI reserve "serI" Ior Gutsuntertcn und "sIuve" Ior Sllcte und use
LIe more generuI "bondsmun" Ior Leibeiener.
6 As NuLorp noLes, Iere uguIn someLIIng Is uppurenLIy mIssIng Irom LIe LexL,
regurdIng LIe IIrsL kInd oI crIme. L wouId seem LIuL In some cuses un ucL
muy be boLI u LorL requIrIng compensuLIon Irom LIe oIIendI ng purLy (u
prIvuLe crIme), und u pubIIc crIme requIrIng judIcIuI punIsImenL.
6q Strcjesetz. TIe prIncIpIe oI reLrIbuLIon, gIven In LIe IoIIowIng purugrupI,
Ius been LrunsIuLed us "IIke Ior IIke." KunL's pIruse Gleiches mit Gleichem, us
weII us LIe conLexL oI LIe dIscussIon, suggesLs boLI equuIILy In LIe umounL
or quunLILy oI puIn InIIIcLed und sImIIurILy or resembIunce In kInd or
quuIILy: repuyIng equuIIy und (us Iur us possIbIe) In kInd.
z go Notes to Pces :(z-
6 ArLIur EIpIInsLone, 6LI Buron BuImerIno, wIo Look purL In LIe uLLempL oI
1;q-6 Lo puL PrInce CIurIes Edwurd SLuurL on LIe BrILIsI LIrone, wus
cupLured In LIe deIeuL oI LIe ScoLs Iorces uL CuIIoden und subsequenLIy
beIeuded.
66 KunL Is uppurenLIy reIerrIng Lo deporLuLIon Lo u provInce us dIsLInguIsIed
Irom exIIe. See beIow, Ak. 8.
6; Cesure Bonesunu, MurcIese BeccurIu, wIose InIIuenLIuI Dei delitti e deltc
pene (1;6q) urgued Ior u reIorm oI LIe IursI penuI codes oI LIe LIme.
KunL's InLeresL In BeccurIu muy weII Iuve urIsen Irom BeccurIu's reIIunce on
u LexL Irom Rousseuu's Socicl Contrcct, wIIcI Iud been pubIIsIed In 1;6z:
"AII Iuws musL be regurded us II LIey proceeded Irom LIe ununImous wIII
oI LIe peopIe." x
68 Unterhcuses. Some edILors suggesL LIuL LIIs Is u LypogrupIIcuI error Ior
Untertcns, In wIIcI cuse KunL wouId meun onIy LIuL LIe moLIer counLry
possesses LIe provInce us u subjecL. n LIe IeLLer oI Muy 1o, 1;q;, reIerred
Lo In noLe ubove, LIe quesLIon oI Unterhcus, us weII us oI rechtmcssi, wus
ruIsed. I Unterhcuses Is noL u LypogrupIIcuI error, KunL muy meun LIuL LIe
cILIzens oI LIe moLIer counLry ure noL, by bIrLI, cILIzens oI LIe provInce oI
LIe ruIIng sLuLe. See Ak. 8 und q8. A provInce Is u "IoreIgn counLry"
(Auslcnd) us Iur us LIe "moLIer counLry" or ruIIng sLuLe Is concerned.
6q n 1;8q ouIs XV convoked LIe EsLuLes GeneruI, wIIcI LrunsIormed IL-
seII InLo LIe NuLIonuI AssembIy und LIen, us LIe ConsLILuenL AssembIy,
udopLed u new consLILuLIon In 1;q1.
;o An umpIIcLyonIc Ieugue, In Greek IIsLory, wus un ussocIuLIon oI neIgIbor-
Ing sLuLes or LrIbes Ior LIe proLecLIon oI und In LIe InLeresLs oI u common
reIIgIous cenLer. WIen cupILuIIzed, LIe AmpIIcLyonIc eugue reIers Lo LIe
DeIpIIc AmpIIcLyony, Iormed Lo proLecL LIe LempIe oI ApoIIo uL DeIpII
und Lo dIrecL LIe PyLIIun gumes.
;1 n "Towurd PerpeLuuI Peuce," Iowever, KunL reucIes LIe opposILe concIu-
sIon by usIng IIs "prIncIpIe oI pubIIcILy," Ak. V, 8q.
;z PurL oI "TIeory und PrucLIce" (see noLe ), dIrecLed uguInsL Moses
MendeIssoIn, Is concerned wILI CosmopoIILun RIgIL, us PurL , dIrecLed
uguInsL Hobbes, Is concerned wILI TIe RIgIL oI u SLuLe.
; KunL moves beLween Wechseluirlun, I.e., InLerucLIon, InLercourse, or "com-
merce" In u very generuI sense, und Verlehr, wIIcI Ie used In IIs dIscussIon
oI conLrucLs Lo sIgnIIy excIunge oI properLy, "commerce" In u more specIIIc
sense. n "Towurd PerpeLuuI Peuce," Ak. V, 68, Ie muInLuIns LIuL "LIe
spIrIL oI commerce" Is u drIvIng Iorce In Iumun nuLure und, sInce com-
merce und wur ure IncompuLIbIe, one oI LIe Iorces by wIIcI nuLure cun be
vIewed us workIng Lowurd u sLuLe oI peuce.
;q AnLon rIedrIcI BscIIng (1;zq-q) wus u weII-known geogrupIer und
uIso u LIeoIogIun.
; TIe uppendIx wus udded In LIe 1;q8 edILIon oI The Doctrine oj Riht In
repIy Lo u revIew by rIedrIcI BouLerwek (reprInLed In Ak. XX). As NuLorp
poInLs ouL, KunL's quoLuLIons ure noL uIwuys uccuruLe.
;6 Rechtsuissenschcjt. See Ak. zzq, wIere KunL seemed Lo suy LIuL onIy sysLem-
uLIc knowIedge oI nuLuruI RIgIL Is u Lrue scIence. WIen coupIed wILI LIuL
pussuge, IIs use Iere oI erhcben oder tersteien, wIIcI Iuve LrunsIuLed us
Notes to Pces p-:o8 zq1
"rIse or venLure," mIgIL be u suggesLIon LIuL some pIIIosopIIc jurIsLs ure
ouL oI LIeIr eIemenL In uLLempLIng Lo dIscuss LIe Issues uL Iund.
;; Zueinun. n Ak. zq Zueinun (cpproprictio) wus suId Lo be LIe LIIrd oI
LIe Momente (cttendendc) oI orIgInuI ucquIsILIon. As KunL poInLed ouL (Ak.
zgI), IdeuI ucquIsILIon cun Luke eIIecL onIy In cIvII socIeLy. n LIe remuInder
oI LIe purugrupI LIe LexL seems Lo be corrupL.
;8 uelchem die Weltliche durch Vermcchtnisse . . . sich cls ihr Eientum hineeben
hcben. n LIe conLexL oI LIe dIscussIon, one wouId Iuve expecLed KunL Lo
suy LIuL Iuymen Iuve gIven LIeIr esLuLes und LIe IeuduI subjecLs uLLucIed
Lo LIem Lo u cIurcI. So Loo, uL LIe begInnIng oI LIe nexL purugrupI wIen
KunL ruIses LIe quesLIon oI wIeLIer LIe cIurcI "cun beIong Lo" (cls dcs Seine
cnehoren lcnn) LIe sLuLe or LIe sLuLe Lo LIe cIurcI, LIe kInd oI rIgIL
InvoIved wouId seem Lo requIre u dIsLIncLIon beLween LIe esLuLes oI u
cIurcI und u cIurcI us u body oI beIIevers (Ak. z;).
;q cn diesem oder jenem Teil, oder cr cnz. PerIups "In LIIs or LIuL respecL, or
Indeed enLIreIy." TIe remuInder oI LIe senLence Is grummuLIcuIIy deIec-
LIve. NuLorp suggesLs LIuL LIe pussuge "so LIuL . . . Iure weII In LIe oLIer
worId" muy Iuve been wrILLen In LIe murgIn Ior InserLIon eurIIer In LIe
senLence, uILer "beIIevIng souIs." n LIuL cuse, IL wouId be LIe InLenLIon oI
LIese souIs, noL oI LIe sLuLe, Lo Improve LIeIr IoL In LIe nexL worId.
8o TIe IoIIowIng purugrupI begIns Ein jedes Icltum (Tctscche). WIuL Is In
quesLIon Is, IIrsL, someone's ucLuuIIy LukIng conLroI or seIzIng power, und
second, un ucLuuIIy exIsLIng consLILuLIon. TIe dIIIIcuILIes menLIoned ubove
(noLes z, ;, und 8) become ucuLe.
81 TIe prImury sense oI Glucl, u componenL oI LIe Germun word Ior "Iup-
pIness" (Gluclselileit) Is "Iuck" or "IorLune." See uIso Ak. 8;.
8z NuLorp suggesLs LIuL KunL's reIerence Is Lo PurL oI "TIeory und PrucLIce,"
wIIcI wus IIrsL pubIIsIed In LIe erliner Monctsschrijt In 1;q. AnoLIer
possIbIIILy, suggesLed by VorIunder, Is "On u RecenLIy PromInenL EIevuLed
Tone In PIIIosopIy," Ak. V, wIIcI uppeured In LIuL journuI In 1;q6.
8 "NuLuruI" Is uIso used Lo LrunsIuLe phsisch In dIscussIons oI one's nuLuruI
IuppIness, one's nuLuruI weIIure, und one's nuLuruI perIecLIon (us dIsLIn-
guIsIed In eucI cuse Irom ILs moruI counLerpurL).
8q eonIurd CocIIus's "Untersuchun uber die Neiunen" wus LIe prIze essuy
oI LIe BerIIn Acudemy Ior 1;6;.
8 ILeruIIy, "LrunsgressIon oI LIem," ihre Uebertretun. n dIscussIng duLIes oI
vIrLue, noLubIy duLIes oI Iove, KunL someLImes reIers Lo "negIecL" oI LIem,
e.g., Verncchlcssiun (Ak. qz), Pjlichtteressenheit (Ak. qz), Vercbscumun
(Ak. q6q). TrunsgressIon oI u duLy oI vIrLue Is IuIIure Lo udopL u muxIm oI
promoLIng un end LIuL Is uIso u duLy. More generuIIy, wIen Uebertretun
occurs wILI "oI u duLy" or "oI u Iuw," Iuve someLImes LrunsIuLed IL us "vIo-
IuLIng" u duLy or "breukIng" u Iuw.
86 Wohltun. n Ak. qoII. KunL dIscusses LIe dIIIerence beLween LIe duLy oI
benevoIence, Wohluollen, und LIe duLy oI beneIIcence, Wohltun. ExcepL In
LIuL pussuge Iuve oILen LrunsIuLed Wohltun und ILs cognuLes by sucI
expressIons us "Lo do good," "Lo IeIp," "u Iuvor."
8; .e., LIe prIncIpIe enuncIuLed In E, Ak. zz.
zqz Notes to Pces :pp-z:
88 Here, und uguIn In Ak. q61, KunL cILes or reIers Lo AIbrecIL HuIIer's poem
"Ueberden Ursprun des Uebels," und In Ak. qqq reIers Lo IIs poem "Ueber die
Euileit." NuLorp's noLes gIve LIe reIevunL porLIons oI LIe poems.
8g Achtun. AILIougI Iuve LrunsIuLed Achtun LIrougIouL us "respecL," IL
sIouId be noLed LIuL KunL gIves Lwo dIIIerenL uLIn equIvuIenLs: reterentic
In LIe conLexL oI one's IeeIIng Ior LIe moruI Iuw und Ior oneseII us LIe
source oI LIe Iuw (e.g., Ak. qoz), und obsertcntic cliis prcestcndc In LIe
conLexL oI duLIes oI vIrLue Lo oLIer men (e.g., Ak. qz).
qo einer dcs Gesetz cusjuhrenden Geuclt. KunL seems Lo be druwIng un unuIogy
beLween LIe wIII und LIe cupucILy Ior cIoIce on LIe one Iund und LIe
IegIsIuLIve und execuLIve uuLIorILIes In u sLuLe on LIe oLIer Iund.
q1 Ajjelten und Leidenschcjten. n my eurIIer LrunsIuLIon oI LIe Tuendlehre
rendered LIese more descrIpLIveIy, Ajjelt us "ugILuLIon" und Leidenschcjt us
"obsessIon." However, LIey ure so promInenL In KunL's wrILIngs LIuL LIInk
LIey cun be consIdered LecInIcuI Lerms. On LIe uIIecLs und pussIons, und
purLIcuIur uIIecLs und pussIons, see Anthropolo jrom c Prcmctic Point oj
Vieu, Ak. V, z1-8z, The Conjlict oj the Icculties, PurL , Ak. V, und LIe
Reltorctsrede reIerred Lo In noLe ubove. n LIese conLexLs KunL oILen uses
LIe SLoIc prIncIpIes sLuLed In Ak. q1q, uIong wILI tim titclem excere (ReIIex-
Ion 1qo, Ak. XV, z, q6), "exercIse your vILuI Iorce," In dIscussIng boLI
duLIes Lo oneseII und u regImen Ior preservIng one's IeuILI. HIs Lerm
"upuLIy" Is uIso oI SLoIc orIgIn.
qz ein quclijiciertes ose. Quclijiciert Is used LIrougIouL LIe dIscussIon oI vIces
opposed Lo duLIes oI Iove (Ak. q8-61) und Is LrunsIuLed us "proper." As Ior
"evII," KunL uses ose Ior moruI evII und Uebel Ior wIuL mIgIL be cuIIed
pIysIcuI evII or "IIIs." n Ak. q6o, wIen Ie uses LIe pIruse Uebel oder oses,
Iuve, us occusIonuIIy eIsewIere, LrunsIuLed LIe IuLLer us "wIckedness." or
LIe mosL purL, Iowever, LIe conLexL mukes IL cIeur wIIcI Is InLended und
Iuve someLImes used "evII" (or "evIIs") Lo LrunsIuLe Uebel.
q Or "commIL un oIIense," beleidien lonne. n dIscussIng perIecL duLIes Lo
oneseII, us weII us ImperIecL duLIes oI respecL Lo oLIers, KunL oILen uses LIe
LermInoIogy oI The Doctrine oj Riht, us e.g., In LIe precedIng purugrupI Ie
cuIIed kIIIIng oneseII u Verbrechen, wIIcI In The Doctrine oj Riht wus u
"crIme" (crimen). GIven LIe conLexL In wIIcI LIese Lerms were InLroduced,
Iowever, IL does noL uIwuys seem udvIsubIe Lo LrunsIuLe LIem precIseIy us
LIey were used In speukIng oI rIgILs.
qq rederIck LIe GreuL.
q der den eschluss mccht. L boLI concIudes LIe cuse und Is LIe concIusIon
(Schluss) oI LIe prucLIcuI syIIogIsm dIscussed ubove, Ak. q8.
g6 TIe quoLuLIons In LIIs purugrupI ure Luken Irom 1 PeLer 1:16, MuLLIew
:q8, und PIIIIppIuns q:8.
q; TIe words LrunsIuLed us "sympuLIeLIc," "communIcubIe," und "compus-
sIon" ure, respecLIveIy, teilnehmend, mitteilend, und Mitleidenschcjt.
q8 See uIso KunL's usserLIon, In "TIe End oI AII TIIngs" (1;8q), Ak. V, LIuL
II one consIders noL onIy wIuL ougIL Lo be done buL wIeLIer IL ucLuuIIy wIII
be done, Iove Is un IndIspensubIe suppIemenL Lo LIe ImperIecLIon oI Iumun
nuLure, sInce unIess IL Is udded one couId noL counL on very mucI beIng done.
Notes to Pces p-:o8 zq
qq Terence, The Selj-Tormentor, , 1z.
1oo TIe dIsLIncLIon beLween beIng "IooIIsI" und beIng "u conceILed uss" Is, us
In Anthropolo jrom c Prcmctic Point oj Vieu, Ak. V, z1o, LIuL beLween
Torheit und Ncrrheit. "A IooI Is one wIo sucrIIIces LIIngs oI vuIue Lo ends
LIuL Iuve no vuIue, Ior exumpIe, domesLIc IuppIness Lo pubIIc gIumour. A
mun wIose IoIIy Is oIIensIve Is cuIIed u conceILed uss."
1o1 TIe conLexL oI "even LIe IucL" wouId muke emeistert (IInds IuuIL wILI)
seem u mIsprInL Ior emustert (exumInes).
1oz NuLorp suggesLs LIuL LIe reIerence Is probubIy Lo CIcero, Dn the Ncture oj
the Gods , z, 6.
1o Reliion uithin the Limits oj Recson Alone (1;q), Ak. V.
1oq L seems InupproprIuLe Lo speuk oI u "rewurd" (elohnun) us IuvIng u
pIuce In Iove und beneIIcence. PerIups KunL Is reIerrIng Lo u rewurd LIuL
"wus promIsed In LIe Iuw" (Ak. zz;).
1o Ddes , z, 1-z.
SeIecLIve BIbIIogrupIy
(or u more exLensIve bIbIIogrupIy oI Germun IILeruLure on The Doctrine oj
Riht, see LIe books by Bernd udwIg und WoIIgung KersLIng IIsLed In LIIs
bIbIIogrupIy.)
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295
zq6 ibliorcph
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Hermun, Burburu. "On LIe VuIue oI AcLIng Irom LIe MoLIve oI DuLy," Philo-
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oo ibliorcph
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ndex
acceptance: oI a beneIit, 247, 262 (see clso
gratitude); oI a giIt, 114; oI a legacy,
110-11, 171-2; oI a promise, 76,
91- 5, 102 (see clso contract(s))
Achenwall, 104, 121
acquisition: division oI 81 (see clso right(s);
act oI choice); ideal, 108, (by good rep-
utation) 111-12, (by inheritance)
11011, 712; (by prolonged posses-
sion) 10810, 16971; original and
derived, 80,91, (oI children) 98100,
(oI persons) 95, (oI promises) 90- 5,
(oI servants) 100-1, (oI spouses)
96- 8, (oI things, derived, see act, pos-
sessory; contract(s); delivery; transIer-
ence), (oI things, original, oI land) 83,
86, 88, 134, (oI things, provisional
only) 84- 9, 93, 133-4; principle oI,
80; provisional and conclusive, 85, 124
act: oI Iree choice, 45n; oI Ireedom, 190;
oI general will, 81; possessory, 95,
109, 170; oI public justice, 128; see clso
act oI choice
act oI choice: as basis Ior acquisition, 81,
(to bring object under control), 69, 80,
(in contracts) 91-3, (to establish a
right) 77, 80, 84, 87, 89, 91, 92, 98, (to
take control) 84, 85, 87; see clso acqui-
sition
action: end oI, 41-2, 186, 189-90, 193;
external, 42, 457, 56, 64; Iorbidden,
48- 9; inner, 196; internal, 45- 7;
legality and morality oI, 46, 51, 196;
meritorious, 53, 194; morally indiIIer-
ent, 49, 209, 251; permitted, 48 g;
and reaction, 43, 58; right, 50, 56; vir-
tuous, 198; see clso deed
advantage, 44, 195, 200, 239, 271; and
principles oI Right, 138, 141, 148,
159, 161
aesthetic oI morals, 207
aIIects, 208-9, 262
ambition, 217, 231, 257
amphiboly, 237
animality, 44, 191, 195, 201, 216
animals, 66, 230, 238
anthropology, 44, 190, 206, 258
antinomy, 76, 214-15
apathy, 208, 209
appearance, 52, 71, 76, 85
aptitude, 189, 2078, see clso habit
Aristotle, 205, 262
arrogance, 231, 257
art (skill), 45, 191
ascetics, 211-12, 213, 273- 4
author: oI an action (deed), 50, 53; oI a
book, 106-7; I
a
'
aw
~ 53; I obliga-
tion, 53,214
authority: oI moral law(s), 44, 51, 185;
supreme in a state, (origin oI ) 129,
147, (resistance to) 1478, 12933,
!
"#
$
"
authorities: Iunction oI, (executive)
127-8, 155 (judicial) 118, 128-9 (leg-
islative) 57, 118, 125, 127; relation oI,
125, 127; i`eaiso right(s); state
authorization: corresponding to any duty,
188; to break a lease, 168; to coerce,
578, 5g, 122 (see clso right(s)); to
deIend someone's reputation,
111-12; to do what is permitted, 49;
innate, 63- 4; to obligate others, 51,
69; to punish, 144, 253; to require an
oath, 119; to take possession oI things,
856, 171; t ouseat hi ng, 89
autocracy: as Iorm oI a state, 147; oI prac-
tical reason, 188
autonomy: oI practical reason, 188, 268;
oI a state, 129
avarice, 205n, 216, 225, 227-30, 246
Balmerino, 142
Beccaria, 143
beneIicence, 56, see clso love
o1
benevolence, 47, see clso Iove
book, 106-7, sec oZso uuLIor
Brown, 36
Bsching, 159
casuistical questions: avarice, 22930;
beneIicence, 248; deIiling oneselI by
lust, 2212; love generally, 251; lying,
227-8; murdering oneselI, 21920;
servility, 232; stupeIying oneselI by
Iood and drink, 223-4
casuistry, 211,212
catechism, see method
Cato, 223
causality, 81,90, 93, 95, 108; category oI,
70, 28m; oI reason, 48, 215; oI a rep-
resentation, 162
chance, 83, 86, 99
character, 140, 208, 217, see clso virtue, as
moral disposition
ChesterIield, 223
children: innate right oI, 98, 101; moral
education oI, 2668, 269-72; object
oI choice, 70, 96; obligation oI, 99-100;
parental rights over, gg100, 140, 166;
state's concern with, 136-7, 144-5
choice: determination oI, 42, 46, 48, 201;
distinguished Irom will, 42, 52; Iorm
oI, 49, 56, 181; Ireedom oI, 42, 44,
232; matter oI, 49, 56-7, 121, 181;
perIection oI, 207-8; as phenomenon,
52; property oI, 49, 51; a supersensi-
ble object, 52; use oI , 42, 6 8 - 9 ; see clso
object oI choice
church, 134-5, 137, 173-4
Cicero, 64, 3i 8n
citizens: oIast at e, 1256, 146; oI the
world, 99, 158, 265; see clso right(s)
Cochius, 189
coercion: to ends, 186; and executive
authority, 128; as incentive, 47; and
Right, 56-8, (under private Right) 77,
85, 102, 114, 122, (under public
Right) 114, 124, 148, (and rights) 59,
(spiritual) 119; see clso right(s); con-
straint
colonies, 86, 146, 154, 159
command, 4g, 52, 84, 124-5,
1
7~
authority to, 44, 51, 101, 127, 147;
ethical, 47, ig4; positive, 208, 216
commerce, 1036, 113, 1201, 158
commonwealth, 10g, 125, 126, 127, 137,
149; authorities in, 146; deIined, 123;
obligation to, 136; see clso state
community: category oI, 70; household,
95; oI possession, original and primi-
tive, 73, 80
concepts: and capacity Ior desire, 41; con-
struction oI, 37, 58, 204; deduction oI,
(acquisition by contract) g2-3, (end
that is also a duty) ig8, igg, (intelligi-
ble possession) 712, 74, (original
acquisition) 889; preliminary to
metaphysics oI morals, 4854; system
oI pure rational, 44, 181 (see clso meta-
physics);`` clso deIinition
concupiscence, 41, 196
condition, civil or rightIul, 67, 77-8, 81,
87, 120, 151, 152, 153, 253; as civil
constitution, 77-8, 123, 125, 161, 175;
as distributive justice, 121-2, 124; and
ideal acquisition, 108, 110-11; and
judgments about rights, 114-16; see
clso state oI nature
conditions: oI acquisition, see acquisition,
provisional and conclusive; Ior judicial
decision, 59-61, 113-18; oI posses-
sion, see possession
conIlict: between church and state, 137;
oI duties, 50; oI maxims with law, 193;
about rights, 64, 778, 124 (see clso
condition, civil or rightIul)
conscience, 202; court oI, 60, 233-5;
regarding an oath, 120
constitution: and authorities in state, 125,
127 (see clso state); change oI, 133,
148-9, 156, 159, 176-7; duty to real-
ize, 86, 129; Idea oI, 168, 176-7; lim-
ited, 133; moderate, 131; and natural
Right, 77, 85, 113, 121, 124-5; I
r
peace, 151, 160-1; and punitive jus-
tice, 167; oI a spiritual state, 173; see
clso condition, civil or rightIul
constraint, 185-7: external, 47, 57, 77 (see
clso coercion); i nt ernal , 52 (see clso
obligation, ethical); moral, 237, 276;
objective, 233; see clso duty; impera-
tive`); lawgiving; necessitation; obli-
gation
contempt, 217, 254-6
contentment, 189, 195, 197
contract(s), 47, 59, 70, 81, 90-5, 110; con-
Iusion oI rights acquired by, 106-7;
distributivejustice regarding, 11416,
118; division oI rights acquired by,
1013; marriage, g8; original, 87,
127; (and capital punishment) 143-4,
(as Idea) 127, 148, 151, (as Idea, and
league oI nations) 151, (as Idea, and
republican constitution) 148; with ser-
vants, 100-1; void, g7, 101, 139-40;
see clso acceptance; acquisition
court: deIined, 53, 113, 121, 144; in
equivocal Right, 59-61; judgments oI
oz Index
Index o
and by reason, 11320; see clso j udge; jus-
tice, distributive
crime, 50, 130, 189, 227, 218: and per-
sonality, 101, 1394o\ see clso punish-
ment
critique, 38; oI capacity Ior reason, 36; oI
practical reason, 35, 76
Critique oj 1udment, 4 5
Critique oj Pure Recson, 38, 71, 73
Curtius, 219
custom, 44, 107, 11516
damages, 60, 107, 115-16
deduction: oI division oI system, 45n; see
clso concepts, deduction oI
deed, 50, 53, 56, 203; a sensible object,
176; see clso i mp u t a t i o n
deIamation, 257, 258
deIiling oneselI by lust, 220- 1
deIinition: oI capacity Ior desire, 163; oI
externally mine, 71; oI Ireedom oI
choice, 52; hybrid, 52; oI money,
104-6; nominal and real, 71, 82,
104-6; oI philosophy, 37; oI right to
person akin to right to thing, 165; oI
right to thing, 82; oI virtue and vice,
205, 208
delight: inactive 41 (see clso taste); see clso
love
delivery, 94- 5, 102
desire: capacity Ior, 40- 2, 162, 207, 222
(see clso choice; will); habitual, 41 (see
clso inclination); and passion, 208,
222; Ior revenge, 253; unnatural,
220- 1
dialogue, see met hod
dignities, 127, 138 (see clso nobility); civic,
127
dignity: absolute inner worth, 230; oI citi-
zen, 139 (see clso personality, civil); oI
humanity, 255 (see clso humanity); oI
law, 200; oI personality, 230- 1, 255
(see clso pe r s ona l i t y)
doctrine: oI happiness, see happiness; oI
method, 211 (see clso method); oI
Right, 35, 47, 55; oI virtue, 181, 185,
186, 187-8, 193, 287; technically and
morally practical, 45, 198
duty: to animals, 66, 238; concept oI, 49,
1856, 188, 193, 198, 370; conIlict oI,
50; ethical, 186, 194, 198; to God,
66- 7, 238, 276; oI humanity, 250;
imperIect, 65, 194, 240, 241-2, (lati-
t ude in) 58, 194, 2i i , 228n, 240; as
incentive, 46- 7, 186, 188, 191-2, 194;
to oneselI, 21415; perIect, 65, (to
oneselI) 218-19, 241; positive and
negative, 215-16, 259; oI Right, 47-8,
64, 74, 188, 198, (external and internal)
62, 65; sacred, 249; oI virtue, 46- 7,
64, 188, 197-8; see clso obligation
end: and categorical imperative, 49, 190,
198, 199; Iinal, oI man, 206; Iinal, oI
reason, 18m; matter oI choice in
Right, 56; matter oI choice in ethics,
181, 186; nature' s, 220- 2; perpetual
peace as, 160-1; oI pure reason, 186,
199, 396; see clso action; virtue; duty
envy, 251-2
Epicurus, 58, 273
equality; in marriage, 97; in Iriendship,
261-2, 264 (see clso gratitude; ingrati-
tude); innate right oI, 63; oI citizens,
125-6, (and hereditary nobility) 138
equity, 59- 60
ethics, 47, 56, 60; divisions oI, 212-13; a
doctrine oI virtue, 185, 186-7, i88;
moral relation within, 279
eudaemonism, 141, 183
evil, 201, 252; heart, 236; and lying, 227;
principle in man, 235; as t rue vice,
208; will in man, 236
examples: in Doctrine oI Right, 35; oI
Iree choice, 52; use in teaching ethics,
268
Iault: distinguished I r om crime, 50; dis-
tinguished I r om vice, 228n
Ieeling, 40, 182; in Iriendship, 2612; oI
love and respect, 243, 248; moral, 48,
135, 182, 192, 201; susceptibility to be
aIIected by duty, 200- 4; oI sympathy,
250; see clso aIIects; delight; love
Iorce, rightIul, 53, 118
Ireedom: oI choice, 42, 52 (see clso
choice); oI citizens, 125, 127, 148, 152,
154; innate right oI, 63, 83; inner,
186, 199, 2078, 215, 216; knowledge
oI, 51, 64, 215; lawless, 127, 150; laws
oI, 42- 3; as noumenon, 52; object oI
metaphysics, 44; outer, 186, 188, 199,
207, 230- 3
Iriendship, 261-4
Garve, 35
God, 66, 99n, 234, 238, 253, 270, 275- 9
gratitude, 237, 100, 248- 9, 251-2, 264
habit, 189, 207-8, 210, 268
Haller, 244, 254
happiness, 43- 4, 192, 248, 269; oI citi-
zens, 129; doctrine oI, 43- 4, 183; as
God's end Ior men, 2779; one' s own
34
Index
happiness, (cont.)
as indirect duty only, 190, 192-3; oI
others, 190, 192, 196-7 (see clso love,
as beneIicence, duty oI)
hatred, 203, 208, 274; vices oI, 251-3
Hausen, 37
health, 189, 260; moral, 209, 216, 273
holiness, 185, 188-9, !99~ 206; command
to be holy, 241, see clso virtue
honor, 43, 112, 142-3; Ieeling oI, 144-5,
168n; love oI, 217; rightIul, 62
Horace, 223, 278
humanity: as capacity to set ends, 191,
!95; dignity oI, 216, 244, 252, 255;
duty oI, 250; duty to in one's own per-
son, g8, 231; end oI, 65, 195, 242;
Idea oI, 205, 268; ideal oI, 206; and
innate right to Ireedom, 63; man as
moral being, i85n, 219, 225, 236; and
personality, 255; respect Ior in wrong-
doer, 168; Right oI, 62, 65, 95, 97,
!"#$ &'(
humility, 2312; Ialse, see servility
hypocrisy, 227, 231, 272
Idea (rational concept), 84, 176; oI civil
constitution, 176, 177; oI civil union,
134; oI community oI all nations, 158;
oI duty, 47; oI Iriendship, 261; oI God,
234, 238, 276; oI head oI state, 146; oI
humanity, 205, 268; oI original com-
munity oI land, 73; oI original contract,
127, 148, 151; oI Right oI nations,
153, 157; oI sovereign, 1467; oI a
state, 125; oI will oI all united, 85
imperative(s): categorical, 129, 176, igo,
(and conditional) 49, (and laws) 42, 48,
49, 52, (oI penal justice) 141, 145; the
categorical (imperative), 51, 74, 183,
188; the moral (imperative), 64, 185,
188, 199, 233
imputation, 50, 53; internal, 223, 227
incentive, 45, 51; duty or law as, 46-7,
188, 196; principle oI Right as, 56- 7
inclination, 41; ends oI, 186; ground oI
choice, 42, 46; and habit, 268; mastery
oI, 188, 208
independence: civil, 125-6, 128; innate
right, 63
inIringement (wrong): on Ireedom, 56,
71; on rights, 77-8, 97, 173
ingratitude, 251, 252; see clso gratitude
inheritance, 110-11, 171-2
interest, 201; in being in rightIul condi-
tion, 123; oI inclination and oI reason,
41; in morality, 272
intuition, 37, 58, 734, 21 in, 204
judge, 53, 59, 124, 128; God as, 277;
practical reason as, 202, 2335;
s e e
court; justice, distributive
judgment (imputation), 53; administra-
tion oI justice, 113; see clso verdict
judgment (subsumption), 45, 62, 125,
202, 233; in casuistry, 211
justice: commutative, 11`5, 117, 120; dis-
tributive, 113, 118, 121, 122, 124; pro-
tective, 120; public, 120, 124, 141,
145; punitive, 140-5, 168-g, 277-8
knowledge: anthropological, 266; a pri-
ori, 44; empirical, 43-5, 55, 205-6;
moral selI-knowledge, 236, 241-2,
271; practical, 51, 71, 734; rational,
205; theoretical, 48, 71; see clso meta-
physics; philosophy
land, 72-3, 83-4, 85-go, 133-5
Lavoisier, 36
law: element oI lawgiving, 46; Iorm oI
will, 182, ig3; an incentive, 191, 196
(see clso incentive; virtue); and recom-
mendation, 191, 193
lawgiving: capacity oI reason (will), 42,
52; elements oI, 45-6; ethical or inter-
nal, 46-7, 52, 198; external or juridi-
cal, 46-7, 50-1, 55, 64, 198, (by
general will) 77, 84, 88
laws: coercive, 77; distinguished Irom
decrees, 128; oI Ireedom, 42-3, oI
Ireedom, 42-3, (oI inner Ireedom)
206, (oI outer Ireedom) 69, 70, 71, 75,
see clso Ireedom; moral, 42, 48, (a pri-
ori basis oI) 43, (external) 50, (exter-
nal, natural and positive) 501; oI
nature, 42, 45; penal, 60, 144; permis-
sive, 49, 222 (see clso principle(s))
league oI nations, 151
legislator, 53; oI positive Right, 63; see clso
authorities, legislative
lie as violation oI right, 63n, 225, 226
liIe, 40, 215
love: as beneIicence, 246, (duty oI)
246-8; as benevolence, 203, 222,
(maxim oI) 244, 245, (in wishes) 246;
as delight in another, 203, 244, duties
oI, 243, 244-6; as sexual inclination,
222
lust, 220-2
lying, 216, 225-7, 270
malice, 251, 252-3, 258
man: as end, 395 (see clso happiness, oI
others); nature oI, 44,52,191, 216, 254
(see clso anthropology); worth oI, 230
Index
305
marriage, 96-8, 166, 222
Marsden, 119
mathematics, 37, 58, 204, 239
maxim(s), 51; and ends, 187-8; oI ends,
198; Iitness oI Ior law, 42,51, 193,
245; oI internal morality, 66; law Ior,
193, 194; Ior right action, 56; oI using
objects, 68- 9
Mendelssohn, 92
merit, 108, 139; Ior deed, 53-4; and
imperIect duty, 194-5
metaphysics, 44, 181; Iormal, 36; oI
morals, 35,44, 207, (division oI) 35,
45-7, 207, (Iirst principles oI) 2, 67,
259; oI nature, 43, 239; transition
Irom, 260
method: oI moral prooI, 204; oI practic-
ing virtue, see ascetics; oI teaching
ethics, 182, 211-12, (catechism)
267-72, (dialogue) 267
moderation, 60, 209, 254
monarch, 13m, 133, 137, 147; monarchi-
cal constitution, 147, 174
money, 59, 104-6, 140, 230
morality: oI an action, 42, 46, 51; an end
in itselI, 219; human, 188 (see clso
virtue); interest in, 272; teachings oI,
##
murder, 136, 142-5; oI oneselI, 216,
21820
necessitation: distinguished Irom neces-
sity, 48-9; will not subject to, 52; see
clso constraint; obligation
necessity: case oI, 119, 143; habit as, 207;
oI laws, 43; objective, practical, 49,50;
oI possession oI objects, 120; right oI,
601, 13m; oI will, 52
Nero, 219
Newton, 43
Nicolai, 38
nobility, 138-9, 174
oaths, 11819,
2
75
object oI choice, 68; external as mine,
689,6970,75,77,165, (provision-
ally mine) 779; see clso acquisition;
possession
obligation 48; and authorities, 128, 148,
149; author oI, 53, 214; as burden oI
prooI, 64, 170; and categorical imper-
ative, 51; conIlict oI grounds oI, 50;
ethical, 47, 186-8, 198; narrow, 194;
and oaths, 119; reciprocity oI in
rights, 77; and Right, 56-7, 194, (con-
tract) 93, (marriage) 98, (oI nations)
151, (parental) 99, (property) 823,
85; and rights, 63, 64, 66, 69, 75,
77-8; selI-imposed, 214-15; oI things
to persons, 82,163; wide, 194, 196,
198
ownership, see property
passions, 208, 252
perIection: natural and moral, 191-2,
195-6; one's own, as imperIect duty,
190,195-6, 216, 241-2; oI others, a
negative duty, 197 (see clso scandal)
perIormance, see contract(s)
person: ideal, 234; in moral relations,
237; in relations oI rights, 66; subject
oI imputation, 50; subject oI morally
practical reason, 230; see clso right(s);
use
person, moral: authorities in state as, 127;
court as, 113; state as, 150
personality: as being endowed with inner
Ireedom, 215; dignity oI, 255 (see clso
humanity); as humanity, 65; moral
and psychological, 49; renunciation
oI, 219, 226
personality, civil, 66, 125, 126, 13940;
see clso citizens
Phaedrus, 229
philosophy: critical, 36-8; deIined, 181;
practical, 41, 44- 5, 50, 181, 27g; theo-
retical, 42-3, 45, 48, 239
pleasure, 40-1; moral, 48, 183 (see clso
Ieeling, moral); sexual, 95
possession: antinomy regarding, 76; in
appearance, 80; conclusive, 78; condi-
tion oI use, 68; empirical concept oI,
68-9, 70, 76; intelligible, 71, 72, 74,
81, (deduction oI concept oI) 71-2,
73-4, (practical reality oI concept oI)
74; oI objects oI choice, 6970 (see clso
right(s)); particular, 87; private, 72;
provisionally rightIul, 78; rational
concept oI, 71; taking, 80 (see clso
acquisition); understanding' s concept
oI, 75,88
postulates, see Right
power : as belonging to executive author-
ity, 127-8; oI head oI state, 130, 177
(see clso sovereign); as physical capacity
to use object, 69
powers: oI spirit, mind, body, 239-40;
states as, 123, 133, 153
prayer, 236
predisposition(s): to be aIIected by con-
cepts oI duty, 2004; conscience as
intellectual and moral, 233; to the
good, 236; moral, 2312; natural, 43,
191, 238; to vices, 254
Index
preservation oI oneselI, 215 - 16, m one's
animal nature, 216, vices opposed to,
see deIiling oneselI by lust, murdering
oneselI, stupeIying oneselI by Iood or
drink, as moral being only, 216, vices
opposed to, see avarice, lying, servility
pride, 257, 252, 261
principle(s) a priori and concept oI origi-
nal possession in common, 84, a prion
Ior division oI contracts, 102, constitu-
tive and regulative, 48, empirical, in a
constitution, 124-5, empirical, oI
Right, 55, expository, 52 (see clso deIi-
nition), Iormal, oI duty, 193, moral,
and Ieeling, 182, permissive, 59, 6g,
88, 95, supreme, oI doctrine oI
morals, 51, supreme, oI doctrine oI
Right, 199, supreme, oI doctrine oI
virtue, 198, theoretical, 67-8
property, 90, labor theory oI, 86, 89, see
clso Right, private, division oI prop-
erty, right(s), acquired, division oI, by
kind oI right to a thing
propositions analytic, 72, 92, 199, a pri-
ori, 72, 73, 76, 92, synthetic, 71-2, 76,
92, 396-7
Protagoras, 275
prudence, 44, 138, i68n, 190, 222, 228n,
248
punishment, 3, 60, 140-5, 278
Qumtilian, 275
reason morally and technically practical,
191, pure practical, (a capacity Ior
ends) 198, (virtue the product oI) 266,
(and will) 42
relation(s) oI moral beings, 243-4,
276-7, reciprocal in rights, 55-8, 77
religion, 119, 137, 173,235, 238, 275-6
Reliion uithin the Limits oj Recson Alone,
276
respect Ior a beneIactor, 251, 264, in
Iriendship, 261-3, 264, Ior the law,
204, 256, Ior oneselI, 200, 203-4,
221, 230, 243 (see clso selI-esteem), Ior
other men, 243-4,
2
77~ (duties oI)
254-7, (vices opposed to) 257-9, I
r
Right, 194
revenge, 253
ridicule, 257, 258-9
Right, 56, and authorization to coerce,
57, axiom oI, 72, 88, construction oI
concept oI, 58, duties oI, 47, 64, 188,
189, 207, oI humanity, 62, 65, 95, 97,
metaphysics oI, 35, moral and empiri-
cal, 56, natural, (and distributivejus-
tice) 113, 118, 121, 122, 124, (division
into public and private) 121, (and
ideal acquisition) 109, 111, 169, 172,
natural and positive, 63, 778, postu-
late oI public Right, 121-2, postulate
with regard to rights, 68, 71, 79, 83,
88, 92, 109, private, division oI, 67,
(contract) 91, (domestic society) 95,
164-7, (property) 82, public, division
oI, 123, in strict sense, 57, supreme
principle oI, 57, 199, synthetic propo-
sitions oI, 69, 71-5, 76-7, universal
principle oI, 56, (laid down as postu-
late) 57, in wider sense, 59- 60
right(s) acquired, division oI, (by act oI
choice as basis) 81 (see clso act oI
choice), (by kind oI right, against a
person) 81,91, (by kind oI right, to a
person akin to right to thing) 81, 95,
97, 100, 165, (by kind oI right, to a
thing) 81, 82-3, (by usable objects) 81
(see clso acquisition), (in state oI nature
and in civil condition) 85- 7 (see clso
justice, distributive), oI authorities in a
state (to administer economy,
Iinances, police) 135, (to banish,
deport, exile) 146, (to control Iounda-
tions) 137, 138-40, 1725, (to dis-
tribute civil oIIices) 138, (to distribute
dignities) 138-40, (to encourage
immigration) 146, (to grant clemency)
140, 143, 145, (to inspect associations)
135, (to punish) 140-5, 168-9, (to
require perIormance oI services) 135,
(to tax) 135, 136, oI citizens oI a state,
125-6, 127, 138, 139, 152, (to emi-
grate) 146, (to resist supreme author-
ity) 129-33, 176-7, oI citizens oI the
world, 158-9, division oI by beings
related, 66, division into innate and
acquired, 63, (innate, to be on land)
83, (innate, oI children) 98, (innate, to
Ireedom) 63-4, moral concept oI, 57,
oI states with regard to war (aIter a
war) 154-5, (during a war) 153-4,
155, (to go to war) 152-3, see clso pos-
session, conclusive, acquisition
Rousseau, 129, 239
scandal, 197, 249, 256, 265
schema, ggn, 260
selI-constraint, see obligation, ethical
selI-esteem, 230-1, 236, 244, 252, 255
Seneca, 219
sensation, 4on, 41, 237
sensibility, 4on, 48, 53, 209
servility, 216, 225, 231-2
!"#
Index
37
ShaItesbury, 38
Smith, Adam, 106
society civil, 67, 121, 125 (see clso condi-
tion, civil, state), domestic, see Right,
private, in state oI nature, 67, 121,
and virtues oI social intercourse, 265
Socrates, 1 g2, see clso method
sovereign, 134, 139, 148, 149, 176-7, as
legislative authority, 125, 149, as
thought-entity and as physical person,
1467, as united will oI citizens, 147
state, 124-5, authorities in, 125, 127-9
(see clso authorities, nght(s)), constitu-
tion oI, 125, 147-9 (see clso constitu-
tion), Iorms oI, 148-9
state oI nature, 67, 72, 77-8, 85, 123-4,
143, deIined, 121, ideal acquisition in,
109, judgments about acquisition in,
115, 117, among states, 150, 151, 152,
156 see clso condition, civil
stupeIying oneselI by Iood or drink,
220-3
superannuation oI claims, 108, 170
taste, 41, 222, 239-40, 260, negative, 135
Terence, 253
thing, 50, 216, 226, in itselI, 71, 176
transIerence, 91, 93, 94, 103, 110
transgression, 48, 50, 54, 194, and vice,
Ulpian, 62
understanding concepts oI, 74, 88, (hav-
mg) 75, 88, Iunction oI, 4on, practical,
233
use oI choice, 42, 68- g, oI persons,
95-7, 101, 139-40, 151-2, 165-6,
255, oI things, go
verdict, 53, 233, oI conscience, 2335,
required by conditions oI a court,
59- 6i , 113-18
vice(s), 241, 265, 266, 271, deIinition oI,
ig4, 205, 228, oI disrespect, see arro-
gance, deIamation, ridicule, oI
hatred, see envy, ingratitude, malice,
and lack oI virtue, 189, 194, 208, and
passion, 208, predisposition to, 254,
regarding one's preservation, see
preservation oI oneselI, see clso virtue
violence, 60, 122, 124
virtue as courage, 186, 235, 266, 273, and
duties oI virtue, 188 (see clso dut), (divi-
sion oI) 190-1, 212, 143, and ends,
187, 188-90, 193, Iorm and matter
oI, 188, 198, 210-11, 215-16, and
habit, 189, 207-8, 210, 268, and holi-
ness, 185, 188-g, 199, 206, 241, and
inner Ireedom, 197, 207, 215, 216,
and mean between vices, 228-9, and
merit, 194-5, 207, 243, 248, as moral
disposition, 186, 191-2, 194, 231-2,
and moral weakness, 189, 2045, 206,
254, 256, 268, and obligation, 187,
188, 190-5, as strength, 194, 197,
200, 242, and vice, 189, 204-5, 206,
254, 256, see clso doctrine, oI virtue
voting, 126, see clso citizens, oI a state
war punitive, 153, 154, reason's veto oI,
161, oI subjugation, 153, 155, see clso
nght(s), oI states with regard to war
wealth, distribution oI, 136, and injustice,
248
what is mine or yours, see nght(s)
will distinguised Irom capacity Ior
choice, 42, 52, 208, divine, 53, gen-
eral, 77, 81, 84-5, 139, law oI, 193,
pure, 48, virtue a property oI, 208, see
clso choice
wisdom, 45, 18m, 206, 236, 239
wishes, 56, 236, 246, 270, and capacity Ior
desire, 42, 163
WolII, 37

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