EC2353 - Antenna and Wave Propagation

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EC2353 -Antenna and wave propagation Introduction
An antenna is an electrical conductor or system of conductors Transmission - radiates electromagnetic energy into space Reception - collects electromagnetic energy from space In two-way communication, the same antenna can be used for transmission and reception An antenna is a circuit element that provides a transition form a guided wave on a transmission line to a free space wave and it provides for the collection of electromagnetic energy. In transmit systems the RF signal is generated, amplified, modulated and applied to the antenna In receive systems the antenna collects electromagnetic waves that are cutting! through the antenna and induce alternating currents that are used by the receiver
CONCEPT OF VECTOR POTENTIAL
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ert!ian dipo"e
A simple practical antenna is a doublet or "ert#ian dipole $see a figure below%. It is very short length of wire over which the current distribution can be assumed uniform. &axwell's e(uations show that such an antenna when energi#ed by a high fre(uency current is associated with an induction field which decreases inversely as s(uare of the distance and a radiation field which decreases inversely as distance only. The later is still measurable at large distances from the doublet and is well-)nown radiation field used in radio communications
#EFINITION$
Radiation Inten%it&' In a given direction, the power radiated form an antenna per unit solid angle. #irective (ain' In a given direction, *+ times the ratio of theradiation intensity in that direction to the total power radiated by the antenna. #irectivit&' The value of the directive gain in the direction of its maximum value. Power (ain' In a given direction, *+ times the ratio of the radiationintensity in that direction to the net power accepted by the antenna from the connected transmitter. ,-T./0 $1% 2hen thedirection is not stated, the power gain is usually ta)en to be thepower gain in the direction of its maximum value. $3% 4ower gain does not include reflection losses arising from mismatchof impedance. )ea*widt+ is the angular separation of the half-power points of the radiated pattern
)andwidt+ is the difference between the upper and lower cutoff fre(uencies of,for example, a filter, a communication channel, or a signal spectrum, and is typically measured in hert#. In case of a baseband channel or signal, the andwidth is e(ual to its upper cutoff fre(uency. 5andwidth in hert# is a centralconcept in many fields, including electronics, information theory, radio communications, signal processing, and spectroscopy (AIN 6ain is an antenna property dealing with an antenna7s ability to direct its radiated power in a desired direction, or to receive energy preferentially from a desired direction. "owever, gain is not a (uantity which can be defined in terms of physical (uantities such as the 2att, ohm or 8oule, but is a dimensionless ratio. As a conse(uence, antenna gain results from the interaction of all other antenna characteristics.Antenna characteristics of gain, beamwidth, and efficiency areindependent of the antenna7s use for either transmitting or receiving. 6enerally these characteristics are more easilydescribed for the transmitting case, however, the properties apply as well to receiving applications. Radiation re%i%tance An important property of a transmitting antenna is its radiation resistance which is associated with power radiated by the antenna. If I is the r.m.s $root mean s(uare% antenna current and Rr is its radiation resistance, then the power radiated is I3Rr watts where Rr is a fictitious resistance which accounts for the radiated power somewhat li)e a circuit resistance which dissipates heat. The larger the radiation resistance the larger the power radiated by the antenna. In contrast, for receiving antenna its input impedance is important. The input impedance is defined as the ratio of voltage to current at its input and it must be generally matched to the connecting line or cable. The input impedance may or may not be e(ual to radiation resistance, though very often it does. In most case Rr may be calculated or it can be determined experimentally. a",-wave"engt+ dipo"e This type of antenna is a special case where each wire is exactly one-(uarter of the wavelength, for a total of a half wavelength. The radiation resistance is about 9: ohms if wire diameter is ignored, ma)ing it easily matched to a coaxial transmission line. The directivity is a constant 1.;*, or 3.1< d5. Actual gain will be a little less due to ohmic losses' Fo"ded dipo"e A folded dipole is a dipole where an additional wire $=3% lin)s the two ends of the $=3% half wave dipole. The folded dipole wor)s in the same way as a normal dipole, but the radiation resistance is about :>> ohms rather than the 9< ohms which is expected for a normal dipole. The increase in radiation resistance allows the antenna to be driven from a :>> ohm balanced line.
RECIPROCIT-. An antenna ability to transfer energy form the atmosphere to its receiver with the same efficiency with which it transfers energy from the transmitter into the atmosphere Antenna characteristics are essentially the same regardless of whether an antenna is sending or receiving electromagnetic energy An antenna with a non-uniform distribution of current over its length ? can be considered as having a shorter effective length ?e over which the current is assumed to be uniform and e(ual to its pea). The relationship between ?e and ? is given by0
E,,ective aperture The power received by an antenna can be associated with collecting area. .very antenna may be considered to have such a collecting area which is called its effective aperture A. If 4d is a power density at the antenna and 4r is received power, then0
4olari#ation is the direction of the electric field and is the same as the physical attitude of the antenna A vertical antenna will transmit a vertically polari#ed wave The receive and transmit antennas need to possess the same polari#ation Antenna (ain Relationship between antenna gain and effective area G @ antenna gain Ae @ effective area f @ carrier fre(uency c @ speed of light $A : B 1>C m=s% @ carrier wavelength Radiation Pattern Radiation pattern is an indication of radiated field strength around the antenna. 4ower radiated from a =3 dipole occurs at right angles to the antenna with no power emitting from the ends of the antenna. -ptimum signal strength occurs at right angles or 1C>D from opposite the antenna
Radiation pattern 6raphical representation of radiation properties of an antenna Eepicted as two-dimensional cross section 5eam width $or half-power beam width% &easure of directivity of antenna Reception pattern Receiving antenna's e(uivalent to radiation pattern
Antenna Te*perature
$ % is a parameter that describes how much noise an antenna produces in a given environment. This temperature is not the physical temperature of the antenna. &oreover, an antenna does not have an intrinsic Fantenna temperatureF associated with itG rather the temperature depends on its gain pattern and the thermal environment that it is placed in. To define the environment, we7ll introduce a temperature distribution - this is the temperature in every direction away from the antenna in spherical coordinates. For instance, the night s)y is roughly * HelvinG the value of the temperature pattern in the direction of the .arth7s ground is the physical temperature of the .arth7s ground. This temperature distribution will be written as . "ence, an antenna7s temperature will vary depending on whether it is directional and pointed into space or staring into the sun. For an antenna with a radiation pattern given by mathematically defined as0 , the noise temperature is
This states that the temperature surrounding the antenna is integrated over the entire sphere, and weighted by the antenna7s radiation pattern. "ence, an isotropic antenna would have a noise temperature that is the average of all temperatures around the antennaG for a perfectly directional antenna $with a pencil beam%, the antenna temperature will only depend on the temperature in which the antenna is Floo)ingF. The noise power received from an antenna at temperature can be expressed in terms of the bandwidth $B% the antenna $and its receiver% are operating over0
In the above, K is 5olt#mann7s constant $1.:C I 1>J-3: KLoules=Helvin @ L=HM%. The receiver also has a temperature associated with it $ %, and the total system temperature $antenna plus receiver% has a combined temperature given by . This temperature can be used in the above e(uation to find the total noise power of the system. These concepts begin to illustrate how antenna engineers must understand receivers and the associated electronics, because the resulting systems very much depend on each other.
A parameter often encountered in specification sheets for antennas that operate in certain environments is the ratio of gain of the antenna divided by the antenna temperature $or system temperature if a receiver is specified%. This parameter is written as 6=T, and has units of d5=Helvin Kd5=HM. N,IT O3 /IRE ANTENNA$ AN# ANTENNA ARRA-$ "alf wave antenna
0uarter wave or unipo"e antenna

The (uarter wave or unipole antenna is a single element antenna feed at one end, that behaves as a dipole antenna. It is formed by a conductor in length. It is fed in the lower end, which is near a conductive surface which wor)s as a reflector $see .ffect of ground%. The current in the reflected image has the same direction and phase that the current in the real antenna. The set (uarter-wave plus image forms a half-wave dipole that radiates only in the upper half of space.
Antenna array is a group of antennas or antenna elements arranged to provide the

desired directional characteristics. 6enerally any combination of elements can form an array. "owever, e(ual elements in a regular geometry are usually used. PATTERN 12LTIPLICATION The pattern multiplication principle states that the radiation patterns of an array of N identical antennas is e(ual to the product of the element pattern Fe( ) $pattern of one of the antennas% and the array pattern Fa( ), where Fa( ) is the pattern obtained upon replacing all of the actual antennas with isotropic sources.
LOOP ANTENNA
The small loop antenna is a closed loop as shown in Figure 1. These antennas have low radiation resistance and high reactance, so that their impedance is difficult to match to a transmitter. As a result, these antennas are most often used as receive antennas, where impedance mismatch loss can be tolerated. The radius is a, and is assumed to be much smaller than a wavelength $ aPP %. The loop lies in the x-y plane.
Figure 1. /mall loop antenna. /ince the loop is electrically small, the current within the loop can be approximated as being constant along the loop, so that I@ The fields from a small circular loop are given by0 .
The variation of the pattern with direction is given by , so that the radiation pattern of a small loop antenna has the same power pattern as that of a short dipole. "owever, the fields of a small dipole have the .- and "- fields switched relative to that of a short dipoleG the .-field is hori#ontally polari#ed in the x-y plane. The small loop is often referred to as the dual of the dipole antenna, because if a small dipole had magnetic current flowing $as opposed to electric current as in a regular dipole%, the fields would resemble that of a small loop. 2hile the short dipole has a capacitive impedance $imaginary part of impedance is negative%, the impedance of a small loop is inductive $positive imaginary part%. The radiation resistance $and ohmic loss resistance% can be increased by adding more turns to the loop. If there are N turns of a small loop antenna, each with a surface area S $we don7t re(uire the loop to be circular at this point%, the radiation resistance for small loops can be approximated $in -hms% by0
For a small loop, the reactive component of the impedance can be determined by finding the inductance of the loop, which depends on its shape $then Q@3IpiIfI?%. For a circular loop with radius a and wire radius p, the reactive component of the impedance is given by0
/mall loops often have a low radiation resistance and a highly inductive component to their reactance. "ence, they are most often used as receive antennas. .xaples of their use include in pagers, and as field strength probes used in wireless measurements.
Loop antenna A loop antenna has a continuous conducting path leading from one conductor of a two-wire transmission line to the other conductor. All planar loops are directional antennas with a sharp null, and have a radiation pattern similar to the dipole antenna. "owever, the large and small loops have different orientations with respect to their radiation pattern. $*a"" "oop% A loop is considered a small loop if it is less than 1=* of a wavelength in circumference. &ost directional receiving loops are about 1=1> of a wavelength. The small loop is also called the magnetic loop because it is more sensitivie to the magnetic component of the electromagnetic wave. As such, it is less sensitive to near field electric noise when properly shielded. The received voltage of a small loop can be greatly increased by bringing the loop into resonance with a tuning capacitor. /ince the small loop is small with respect to a wavelength, the current around the antenna is nearly completely in phase. Therefore, waves approaching in the plane of the loop will cancel, and waves in the axis perpendicular to the plane of the loop will be strongest. This is the opposite mechanism as the large loop. Large "oop% The $large% loop antenna is similar to a dipole, except that the ends of the dipole are connected to form a circle, triangle $% or s(uare. Typically a loop is a multiple of a half or full wavelength in circumference. A circular loop gets higher gain $about 1>R% than the other forms of large loop antenna, as gain of this antenna is directly proportional to the area enclosed by the loop, but circles can be hard to support in a flexible wire, ma)ing s(uares and triangles much more popular. ?arge loop antennas are more immune to locali#ed noise partly due to lac) of a need for a groundplane. The large loop has its strongest signal in the plane of the loop, and nulls in the axis perpendicular to the plane of the loop. This is the opposite orientation to the small loop. A1 "oop% A& loops are loops tuned for the A& broadcasting band. 5ecause of the extremely long wavelength, an A& loop may have multiple turns of wire and still be less than 1=1> of a wavelength. Typically these loops are tuned with a capacitor, and may also be wound around a ferrite rod to increase aperture. #irection ,inding wit+ "oop%
?oops are somewhat directional along the axis of highest gain, but have a sharp null in the axis perpendicular to their highest gain. Therefore, when using a loop for direction finding, the plane of the antenna is rotated until the signal disappears. As planar loops have a 1C> degree symmetry, other methods must be used to determine if the signal is in front or behind the loop. Fre(uently, a dipole and a loop are used together, to obtain a combined cardioid radiation pattern with a sharp null on only one side.
2ni,or* "inear arra&
$"ot antenna% are used typically at fre(uencies between :>> &"# and
3* 6"#. These antennas are popular because they can be cut out of whatever surface they are to be mounted on, and have radiation patterns that are roughly omnidirectional $similar to a linear wire antenna, as we7ll see%. The polari#ation is linear. The slot si#e, shape and what is behind it $the cavity% offer design variables that can be used to tune performance. Sonsider an infinite conducting sheet, with a rectangular slot cut out of dimensions a and b, as shown in Figure 1. If we can excite some reasonable fields in the slot $often called the aperture%, we have an antenna.
Figure 1. Rectangular /lot antenna with dimensions a and b. To gain an intuition about slot antennas, first we7ll learn 5abinet7s principle $put into antenna terms by ". 6. 5oo)er in 1T*;%. This principle relates the radiated fields and impedance of an aperture or slot antenna to that of the field of its dual antenna. The dual of a slot antenna would be if the conductive material and air were interchanged - that is, the slot antenna became a metal slab in space. An example of dual antennas is shown in Figure 30
Figure 3. Eual antennas. ,ote that a voltage source is applied across the short end of the slot. This induces an .-field distribution within the slot, and currents that travel around the slot perimeter, both contributed to radiation. The dual antenna is similar to a dipole antenna. The voltage source is applied at the center of the dipole, so that the voltage source is rotated. 5abinet7s principle relates these two antennas. The first result states that the impedance of the slot $ % is related to the impedance of its dual antenna $ % by the relation0
In the above, is the intrinsic impedance of free space. The second ma8or result of 5abinet7s=5oo)er7s principle is that the fields of the dual antenna are almost the same as the slot antenna $the fields components are interchanged, and called FdualsF%. That is, the fields of the slot antenna $given with a subscript S% are related to the fields of it7s complement $given with a subscript C% by0
"ence, if we )now the fields from one antenna we )now the fields of the other antenna. "ence, since it is easy to visuali#e the fields from a dipole antenna, the fields and impedance from a slot antenna can become intuitive if 5abinet7s principle is understood. ,ote that the polari#ation of the two antennas are reversed. That is, since the dipole antenna on the right in Figure 3 is vertically polari#ed, the slot antenna on the left will be hori#ontally polari#ed.
#ua"it& E3a*p"e
As an example, consider a dipole similar to the one shown on the right in Figure 3. /uppose the length of the dipole is 1*.* centimeters and the width is 3 centimeters, and that the impedance at 1 6"# is ;<U81< -hms. The fields from the dipole antenna are given by0
2hat are the fields from a slot at 1 6"#, with the same dimensions as the dipoleV Nsing 5abinet7s principle, the impedance can be easily found0
The impedance of the slot for this case is much larger, and while the dipole7s impedance is inductive $positive imaginary part%, the slot7s impedance is capacitive $negative imaginary part%. The .-fields for the slot can be easily found0
2e see that the .-fields only contain a phi $a#imuth% componentG the antenna is therefore hori#ontally polari#ed. "orn antennas are very popular at N"F $:>> &"#-: 6"#% and higher fre(uencies $I7ve heard of horns operating as high as 1*> 6"#%. They often have a directional radiation pattern with a high gain , which can range up to 3< d5 in some cases, with 1>-3> d5 being typical. "orns have a wide impedance bandwidth, implying that the input impedance is slowly varying over a wide fre(uency range $which also implies low values for /11 or W/2R%. The bandwidth for practical horn antennas can be on the order of 3>01 $for instance, operating from 1 6"#-3> 6"#%, with a 1>01 bandwidth not being uncommon. The gain often increases $and the beamwidth decreases% as the fre(uency of operation is increased. "orns have very little loss, so the directivity of a horn is roughly e(ual to its gain. "orn antennas are somewhat intuitive and not relatively simple to manufacture. In addition, acoustic horns also used in transmitting sound waves $for example, with a megaphone%. "orn antennas are also often used to feed a dish antenna, or as a Fstandard gainF antenna in measurements. 4opular versions of the horn antenna include the .-plane horn, shown in Figure 1. This horn is flared in the .-plane, giving the name. The hori#ontal dimension is constant at w.
Figure 1. .-plane horn. Another example of a horn is the "-plane horn, shown in Figure 3. This horn is flared in the "-plane, with a constant height for the waveguide and horn of h.
Figure 3. "-4lane horn. The most popular horn is flared in both planes as shown in Figure :. This is a pyramidal horn, and has width B and height A at the end of the horn.
Figure :. 4yramidal horn. "orns are typically fed by a section of a waveguide, as shown in Figure *. The waveguide itself is often fed with a short dipole, which is shown in red in Figure *. A waveguide is simply a hollow, metal cavity. 2aveguides are used to guide electromagnetic energy from one place to another. The waveguide in Figure * is a rectangular waveguide of width b and height a, with bXa. The .field distribution for the dominant mode is shown in the lower part of Figure 1.
Figure *. 2aveguide used as a feed to horn antennas.
Re,"ector Antenna
To increase the directivity of an antenna, a fairly intuitive solution is to use a reflector. For example, if we start with a wire antenna $lets say a half-wave dipole antenna%, we could place a conductive sheet behind it to direct radiation in the forward direction. To further increase the directivity, a corner re,"ector may be used, as shown in Figure 1. The angle between the plates will be T> degrees.
Figure 1. 6eometry of Sorner Reflector.
The radiation pattern of this antenna can be understood by using image theory, and then calculating the result via array theory. For ease of analysis, we7ll assume the reflecting plates are infinite in extent. Figure 3 below shows the e(uivalent source distribution, valid for the region in front of the plates.
Figure 3. .(uivalent sources in free space. The dotted circles indicate antennas that are in-phase with the actual antennaG the x7d out antennas are 1C> degrees out of phase to the actual antenna. Assume that the original antenna has an omnidirectional pattern given by . Then the radiation pattern $R% of the Fe(uivalent set of radiatorsF of Figure 3 can be written as0
The above directly follows from Figure 3 and array theory $ k is the wave number. The resulting pattern will have the same polari#ation as the original vertically polari#ed antenna. The directivity will be increased by T-13 d5. The above e(uation gives the radiated fields in the region in front of the plates. /ince we assumed the plates were infinite, the fields behind the plates are #ero. The directivity will be the highest when d is a half-wavelength. Assuming the radiating element of Figure 1 is a short dipole with a pattern given by , the fields for this case are shown in Figure :.
Figure :. 4olar and a#imuth patterns of normali#ed radiation pattern. The radiation pattern, impedance and gain of the antenna will be influenced by the distance d of Figure 1. The input impedance is increased by the reflector when the spacing is one half wavelengthG it can be reduced by moving the antenna closer to the reflector. The length of the reflectors in Figure 1 are typically 3Id. "owever, if tracing a ray travelling along the y-axis from the antenna, this will be reflected if the length is at least . The height of the plates should be taller than the radiating elementG however since linear antennas do not radiate well along the #-axis, this parameter is not critically important.
The Parabolic Reflector Antenna (Satellite Dish)

The most well-)nown reflector antenna is the parabolic reflector antenna, commonly )nown as a satellite dish antenna. .xamples of this dish antenna are shown in the following Figures.
Figure 1. The Fbig dishF of /tanford Nniversity.
Figure 3. A random FdirecTW dishF on a roof. 4arabolic reflectors typically have a very high gain $:>-*> d5 is common% and low cross polari#ation. They also have a reasonable bandwidth, with the fractional bandwidth being at least <R on commercially available models, and can be very wideband in the case of huge dishes $li)e the /tanford Fbig dishF above, which can operate from 1<> &"# to 1.< 6"#%. The smaller dish antennas typically operate somewhere between 3 and 3C 6"#. The large dishes can operate in the W"F region $:>-:>> &"#%, but typically need to be extremely large at this operating band. The basic structure of a parabolic dish antenna is shown in Figure :. It consists of a feed antenna pointed towards a parabolic reflector. The feed antenna is often a horn antenna with a circular aperture.
Figure :. Somponents of a dish antenna. Nnli)e resonant antennas li)e the dipole antenna which are typically approximately a half-wavelength long at the fre(uency of operation, the reflecting dish must be much larger than a wavelength in si#e. The dish is at least several wavelengths in diameter, but the diameter can be on the order of 1>> wavelengths for very high gain dishes $X<> d5 gain%. The distance between the feed antenna and the reflector is typically several wavelenghts as well. This is in contrast to the corner reflector, where the antenna is roughly a half-wavelength from the reflector. In the next section, we7ll loo) at the parabolic dish geometry in detail and why a parabola is a desired shape. To start, let the e(uation of a parabola with focal length F can be written in the $!"#% plane as0
This is plotted in Figure 1.
Figure 1. Illustration of parabola with defining parameters. The parabola is completely described by two parameters, the diameter $ and the focal length F. 2e also define two auxilliary parameters, the vertical height of the reflector $%% and the max angle between the focal point and the edge of the dish $ %. These parameters are related to each other by the following e(uations0
To analy#e the reflector, we will use approximations from geometric optics. /ince the reflector is large relative to a wavelength, this assumption is reasonable though not precisely accurate. 2e will analy#e the structure via straight line rays from the focal point, with each ray acting as a plane wave. Sonsider two transmitted rays from the focal point, arriving from two distinct angles as shown in Figure 3. The reflector is assumed to be perfectly conducting, so that the rays are completely reflected.
Figure 3. Two rays leaving the focal point and reflected from the parabolic reflector. There are two observations that can be made from Figure 3. The first is that both rays end up travelling in the downward direction $which can be determined because the incident and reflected angles relative to the normal of the surface must be e(ual%. . The rays are said to be collimated. The second important observation is that the path lengths AE. and A5S are e(ual. This can be proved with a little bit of geometry, which I won7t reproduce here. These facts can be proved for any set of angles chosen. "ence, it follows that0 Y All rays emanating from the focal point $the source or feed antenna% will be reflected towards the same direction. Y The distance each ray travels from the focal point to the reflector and then to the focal plane is constant. As a result of these observations, it follows the distribution of the field on the focal plane will be in phase and travelling in the same direction. This gives rise to the parabolic dish antennas highly directional radiation pattern. This is why the shape of the dish is parabolic. Finally, by revolving the parabola about the #-axis, a paraboloid is obtained, as shown below.
For design, the value of the diameter $ should be increased to increase the gain of the antenna. The focal length F is then the only free parameterG typical values are commonly given as the ratio F&$, which usually range between >.: and 1.>. Factors affecting the choice of this ratio will be given in the following sections. In the next section, we7ll loo) at gain calculations for a parabolic reflector antenna. The fields across the aperture of the parabolic reflector is responsible for this antenna7s radiation. The maximum possible gain of the antenna can be expressed in terms of the physical area of the aperture0
The actual gain is in terms of the effective aperture, which is related to the physical area by the efficiency term $ %. This efficiency term will often be on the order of >.;->.9 for a well designed dish antenna0
Nnderstanding this efficiency will also aid in understanding the trade-offs involved in the design of a parabolic reflector. The efficiency can be written as the product of a series of terms0
2e7ll wal) through each of these terms.
www.eeeexclusive.blogspot.com Radiation E,,icienc&

The radiation efficiency is the usual efficiency that deals with ohmic losses, as discussed on the efficiency page. /ince horn antennas are often used as feeds, and these have very little loss, and because the parabolic reflector is typically metallic with a very high conductivity, this efficiency is typically close to 1 and can be neglected.
Aperture Taper E,,icienc&

The aperture radiation efficiency is a measure of how uniform the .-field is across the antenna7s aperture. In general, an antenna will have the maximum gain if the .-field is uniform in amplitude and phase across the aperture $the far-field is roughly the Fourier Transform of the aperture fields%. "owever, the aperture fields will tend to diminish away from the main axis of the reflector, which leads to lower gain, and this loss is captured within this parameter. This efficiency can be improved by increasing the F&$ ratio, which also lowers the cross-polari#ation of the radiated fields. "owever, as with all things in engineering, there is a tradeoff0 increasing the F&$ ratio reduces the spillover efficiency, discussed next.
$pi""over E,,icienc&
The spillover efficiency is simple to understand. This measures the amount of radiation from the feed antenna that is reflected by the reflector. Eue to the finite si#e of the reflector, some of the radiation from the feed antenna will travel away from the main axis at an angle greater than , thus not being reflected. This efficiency can be improved by moving the feed closer to the reflector, or by increasing the si#e of the reflector.
Ot+er E,,iciencie%
There are many other efficiencies that I7ve lumped into the parameter . This is a ma8or of all other Freal-world effectsF that degrades the antenna7s gain and consists of effects such as0 Y $ur,ace Error - small deviations in the shape of the reflector degrades performance, especially for high fre(uencies that have a small wavelength and become scattered by small surface anomalies Y Cro%% Po"ari!ation - The loss of gain due to cross-polari#ed $non-desirable% radiation
Y Aperture )"oc4age - The feed antenna $and the physical structure that holds it up% bloc)s some of the radiation that would be transmitted by the reflector. Y Non-Idea" Feed P+a%e Center - The parabolic dish has desirable properties relative to a single focal point. /ince the feed antenna will not be a point source, there will be some loss due to a non-perfect phase center for a horn antenna.
Ca"cu"ating E,,icienc&
The efficiency is a function of where the feed antenna is placed $in terms of F and $% and the feed antenna7s radiation pattern. Instead of introducing complex formulas for some of these terms, we7ll ma)e use of some results by /. /ilver bac) in 1T*T. "e calculated the aperture efficiency for a class of radiation patterns given as0
TZpically, the feed antenna $horn% will not have a pattern exactly li)e the above, but can be approximated well using the function above for some value of '. Nsing the above pattern, the aperture efficiency of a parabolic reflector can be calculated. This is displayed in Figure 1 for varying values of and the F&$ ratio.
Figure 1. Aperture .fficiency of a 4arabolic Reflector as a function of F&$ or the angle , for varying feed antenna radiation patterns. Figure 1 gives a good idea on design of optimal parabolic reflectors. First, $ is made as large as possible so that the physical aperture is maximi#ed. Then the F&$ ratio that maximi#es the aperture efficiency can be found from the above graph. ,ote that the e(uation that relates the ratio of F&$ to the angle can be found here. In the next section, we7ll loo) at the radiation pattern of a parabolic antenna. In this section, the :d radiation patterns are presented to give an idea of what they loo) li)e. This example will be for a parabolic dish reflector with the diameter of the dish $ e(ual to 11 wavelengths. The F&$ ratio will be >.<. A circular horn antenna will be used as the feed. The maximum gain from the physical aperture is G the actual gain is 3T.: d5 @ C<1, so we can conclude that the overall efficiency is 99R. The :E patterns are shown in the following figures.
As can be seen, the pattern is highly directional. The "452 is approximately < degrees, and the front-to-bac) ratio is approximately :: d5.
LEN$ ANTENNA.[Another antenna that can change spherical waves into flat plane waves is the lens antenna. This antenna uses a microwave lens, which is similar to an optical lens to straighten the spherical wavefronts. /ince this type of antenna uses a lens to straighten the wavefronts, its design is based on the laws of refraction, rather than reflection. Two types of lenses have been developed to provide a plane-wavefront narrow beam for trac)ing radars, while avoiding the problems associated with the feedhorn shadow. These are the co'ducti'( $acceleration% type and the dielect)ic $delay% type. The lens of an antenna is substantially transparent to microwave energy that passes through it. It will, however, cause the waves of energy to be either converged or diverged as they exit the lens. Sonsider the action of the two types of lenses. The conducting type of lens is illustrated in figure 1-1>, view A. This type of lens consists of flat metal strips placed parallel to the electric field of the wave and spaced slightly in excess of one-half of a wavelength. To the wave these strips loo) li)e parallel waveguides. The velocity of phase propagation of a wave is greater in a waveguide than in air. Thus, since the lens is concave, the outer portions of the transmitted spherical waves are accelerated for a longer interval of time than the inner portion.
Helical Antenna
Antennas ?ist Antenna Theory "ome "elix antennas have a very distinctive shape, as can be seen in the following picture.
4hoto courtesy of Er. ?ee 5oyce. The most popular helical antenna $often called a 7helix7% is a travelling wave antenna in the shape of a cor)screw that produces radiation along the axis of the helix. These helixes are referred to as axial-mode helical antennas. The benefits of this antenna is it has a wide bandwidth, is easily constructed, has a real input impedance, and can produce circularly polari#ed fields. The basic geometry is shown in Figure 1.
Figure 1. 6eometry of "elical Antenna. The parameters are defined below. Y $ - Eiameter of a turn on the helix. Y C - Sircumference of a turn on the helix $C@piI$%. Y S - Wertical separation between turns. Y - pitch angle, which controls how far the antenna grows in the #-direction per turn, and is given by Y N - ,umber of turns on the helix. Y % - Total height of helix, %@NS. The antenna in Figure 1 is a left handed helix, because if you curl your fingers on your left hand around the helix your thumb would point up $also, the waves emitted from the antenna are ?eft "and Sircularly 4olari#ed%. If the helix was
wound the other way, it would be a right handed helical antenna. The pattern will be maximum in the U# direction $along the helical axis in Figure 1%. The design of helical antennas is primarily based on empirical results, and the fundamental e(uations will be presented here. "elices of at least : turns will have close to circular polari#ation in the U# direction when the circumference C is close to a wavelength0
-nce the circumference C is chosen, the ine(ualites above roughly determine the operating bandwidth of the helix. For instance, if C@1T.;C inches $>.< meters%, then the highest fre(uency of operation will be given by the smallest wavelength that fits into the above e(uation, or @>.9<C@>.:9< meters, which corresponds to a fre(uency of C>> &"#. The lowest fre(uency of operation will be given by the largest wavelength that fits into the above e(uation, or @1.:::C@>.;;9 meters, which corresponds to a fre(uency of *<> &"#. "ence, the fractional 52 is <;R, which is true of axial helices in general. The helix is a trave""ing wave antenna, which means the current travels along the antenna and the phase varies continuously. In addition, the input impedance is primarly real and can be approximated in -hms by0
The helix functions well for pitch angles $ % between 13 and 1* degrees. Typically, the pitch angle is ta)en as 1: degrees. The normali#ed radiation pattern for the .-field components are given by0
For circular polari#ation, the orthogonal components of the .-field must be T> degrees out of phase. This occurs in directions near the axis $#-axis in Figure 1% of
the helix. The axial ratio for helix antennas decreases as the number of loops N is added, and can be approximated by0
The gain of the helix can be approximated by0
In the above, c is the speed of light. ,ote that for a given helix geometry $specified in terms of C" S" N%, the gain increases with fre(uency. For an N@1> turn helix, that has a >.< meter circumference as above, and an pitch angle of 1: degrees $giving S@>.1: meters%, the gain is C.: $T.3 d5%. For the same example helix, the pattern is shown in Figure 3.
Figure 3. ,ormali#ed radiation pattern for helical antenna $d5%. The "alf-4ower 5eamwidth for helical antennas can be approximated $in degrees% by0
Yagi-Uda Antenna
Antennas ?ist Antenna Theory .com The -agi-2da antenna or Zagi is one of the most brilliant antenna designs. It is simple to construct and has a high gain, typically greater than 1> d5. These antennas typically operate in the "F to N"F bands $about : &"# to : 6"#%, although their bandwidth is typically small, on the order of a few percent of the center fre(uency. Zou are probably familiar with this antenna, as they sit on top of roofs everywhere. An example of a Zagi-Nda antenna is shown below.
The Zagi antenna was invented in Lapan, with results first published in 1T3;. The wor) was originally done by /hintaro Nda, but published in Lapanese. The wor) was presented for the first time in .nglish by Zagi $who was either Nda7s professor or colleague, my sources are conflicting%, who went to America and gave the first .nglish tal)s on the antenna, which led to its widespread use. "ence, even though the antenna is often called a Zagi antenna, Nda probably invented it. A picture of 4rofessor Zagi with a Zagi-Nda antenna is shown below.
In the next section, we7ll explain the principles of the Zagi-Nda antenna. The basic geometry of a Zagi-Nda antenna is shown in Figure 1.
Figure 1. 6eometry of Zagi-Nda antenna.P=F-,TP S.,T.RX The antenna consists of a single 7feed7 or 7driven7 element, typically a dipole or a folded dipole antenna. This is the only member of the above structure that is actually excited $a source voltage or current applied%. The rest of the elements are parasitic - they reflect or help to transmit the energy in a particular direction. The length of the feed element is given in Figure 1 as F. The feed antenna is almost always the second from the end, as shown in Figure 1. This feed antenna is often altered in si#e to ma)e it resonant in the presence of the parasitic elements $typically, >.*<->.*C wavelengths long for a dipole antenna%.
The element to the left of the feed element in Figure 1 is the reflector. The length of this element is given as R and the distance between the feed and the reflector is SR. The reflector element is typically slightly longer than the feed element. There is typically only one reflectorG adding more reflectors improves performance very slightly. This element is important in determining the frontto-bac) ratio of the antenna. "aving the reflector slightly longer than resonant serves two purposes. The first is that the larger the element is, the better of a physical reflector it becomes. /econdly, if the reflector is longer than its resonant length, the impedance of the reflector will be inductive. "ence, the current on the reflector lags the voltage induced on the reflector. The director elements $those to the right of the feed in Figure 1% will be shorter than resonant, ma)ing them capacitive, so that the current leads the voltage. This will cause a phase distribution to occur across the elements, simulating the phase progression of a plane wave across the array of elements. This leads to the array being designated as a travelling wave antenna. 5y choosing the lengths in this manner, the Zagi-Nda antenna becomes an end-fire array - the radiation is along the Uy-axis as shown in Figure 1. The rest of the elements $those to the right of the feed antenna as shown in Figure 1% are )nown as director elements. There can be any number of directors N, which is typically anywhere from N@1 to N@3> directors. .ach element is of length $i, and separated from the ad8acent director by a length S$i. As alluded to in the previous paragraph, the lengths of the directors are typically less than the resonant length, which encourages wave propagation in the direction of the directors. The above description is the basic idea of what is going on. Zagi antenna design is done most often via measurements, and sometimes computer simulations. For instance, lets loo) at a two-element Zagi antenna $1 reflector, 1 feed element, > directors%. The feed element is a half-wavelength dipole, shortened to be resonant $gain @ 3.1< d5%. The gain as a function of the separation is shown in Figure 3.
Figure 3. 6ain versus separation for 3-element Zagi antenna. The above graph shows that the gain is increases by about 3.< d5 if the separation S$ is between >.1< and >.: wavelengths. /imilarly, the gain can be plotted as a function of director spacings, or as a function of the number of directors used. Typically, the first director will add approximately : d5 of overall gain $if designed well%, the second will add about 3 d5, the third about 1.< d5. Adding an additional director always increases the gainG however, the gain in directivity decreases as the number of elements gets larger. For instance, if there are C directors, and another director is added, the increases in gain will be less than >.< d5. In the next section, I7ll go further into the design of Zagi-Nda antennas. The design of a Zagi-Nda antenna is actually (uite simple. 5ecause Zagi antennas have been extensively analy#ed and experimentally tested, the process basically follows this outline0 Y ?oo) up a table of design parameters for Zagi antennas Y 5uild it $or model it numerically%, and twea) it till the performance is acceptable As an example, consider the table published in FZagi Antenna EesignF by 4 Wie#bic)e from the ,ational 5ureau of /tandards, 1T;C, given in Table I. ,ote that the FboomF is the long element that the directors, reflectors and feed elements are physically attached to, and
dictates the lenght of the antenna. Ta5"e I' Opti*a" Lengt+% ,or -agi-2da E"e*ent%6 ,or #i%tinct )oo* Lengt+%
d@>.>>C< SR@>.3 9': R E1 E3 E: E* E< E; E9 EC ET E1> E11 E13 E1: E1* E1< /pacing between directors, $/E= % T.3< 11.:< 13.:< 1*.*> 1<.<< 1;.:< 6ain $d5% >.*C3 >.**3 >.*C3 >.*3C >.*3* >.*3C 9'; >.*C3 >.*3C >.*3> >.*3> >.*3C <'2 >.*C3 >.*:3 >.*1< >.*>9 >.:TC >.:T> >.:T> >.:T> >.:T> >.:TC >.*>9 2'2 >.*C3 >.*3C >.*3> >.*>9 >.:TC >.:T* >.:T> >.:C; >.:C; >.:C; >.:C; >.:C; >.:C; >.:C; >.:C; >.:C; 3'2 >.*9< >.*3* >.*3* >.*3> >.*>9 >.*>: >.:TC >.:T* >.:T> >.:T> >.:T> >.:T> >.:T> >.:T> :'2
)oo* Lengt+ o, -agi-2da Arra& 7in
>.3>
>.3>
>.3<
>.3>
>.3>
>.:>C
There7s no real roc)et science going on in the above table. I believe the authors of the above document did experimental measurements until they found an optimi#ed set of spacings and published it. The spacing between the directors is uniform and given in the second-to-last row of the table. The diameter of the elements is given by d@>.>>C< . The above table gives a good starting point to estimate the re(uired length of the antenna $the boom length%, and a set of lengths and spacings that achieves the specified gain. In general, all the spacings, lengths, diamters $including the boom diameter% are design variables and can be continuously
optimi#ed to alter performance. There are thousands of tables that further give results, such as how the diamter of the boom affects the results, and the optimal diamters of the elements. As an example of Zagi-antenna radiation patterns, a ;-element Zagi antenna $with axis along the Ux-axis% is simulated in F.H- $1 reflector, 1 driven halfwavelength dipole, * directors%. The resulting antenna has a 13.1 d5i gain, and the plots are given in Figures 1-:.
Figure 1. .-plane gain of Zagi antenna.
Figure 3. "-4lane gain of Zagi antenna.
Figure :. :-E Radiation 4attern of Zagi antenna.
The above plots are 8ust an example to give an idea of what the radiation pattern of the Zagi-Nda antenna resembles. The gain can be increased $and the pattern made more directional% by adding more directors or optimi#ing spacing $or rarely, adding another refelctor%. The front-to-bac) ratio is approximately 1T d5 for this antenna, and this can also be optimi#ed if desired.
A LON(-/IRE ANTENNA is an antenna that is a wavelength or more long at the operating fre(uency. These antennas have directive patterns that are sharp in both the hori#ontal and vertical planes.
)EVERA(E ANTENNA$ consist of a single wire that is two or more wavelengths long.
A V ANTENNA is a bi-directional antenna consisting of two hori#ontal, long wires arranged to form a W.
The R O1)IC ANTENNA uses four conductors 8oined to form a rhombus shape. This antenna has a wide fre(uency range, is easy to construct and maintain, and is noncritical as far as operation and ad8ustment are concerned.
The T2RN$TILE ANTENNA consists of two hori#ontal, half-wire antennas mounted at right angles to each other.
LO(-PERIO#IC ANTENNA LO(-PERIO#IC ANTENNA In telecommunication, a "og-periodic antenna $LP, also )nown as a "og-periodic arra&% is a broadband, multielement, unidirectional, narrow-beam antenna that has impedance and radiation characteristics that are regularly repetitive as a logarithmic function of the excitation fre(uency. The individual
components are often dipoles, as in a "og-periodic dipo"e arra& $LP#A%. ?og periodic antennas are arrays that are designed to be self-similar and thus are fractal antenna arrays. It is normal to drive alternating elements with a ci)ca 1C>o $\ radian% phase shift from the last element. This is normally done by wiring the elements alternatingly to the two wires in a balanced transmission line.The length and spacing of the elements of a log- increase logarithmically from one end to the other.The result of this structural condition is that if a plot is made of the input impedance as a function of log of fre(uency then the variation will be periodic i.e. the impedance will go through the cycles of variation in such a way that each cycle is exactly li)e its preceding one and hence the name. ?og.-4eriodic Antenna, 3<> ] 3*>> &"#
&utual impedance^ self-impedance The method helps us to compute voltages, currents and impedances in antenna systems. The method understands the voltage, which is observed at the input port of every single antenna element, being induced by the radiation of all the antenna elements $including the own element%. The voltage can be composed from contributions of single elements. .ach contribution is proportional to the current of the respective
element. ..g., voltage * 1 at the input of the first antenna element e(uals to the summation where I 1, I 3, I : are currents at the input ports of single elements, + 11, + 13, + 1: are impedances. + 11 is selfimpedance, + 1n are mutual impedances between the first element and the other elements in the antenna system. These impedances depend on the mutual position and mutual distance of antenna elements Biconical antenna
A 5iconica" antenna consists of an arrangement of two conical conductors, which is driven by potential, charge, or an alternating magnetic field $and the associated alternating electric current% at the vertex. The conductors have a common axis and vertex. The two cones face in opposite directions. 5iconical antennas are broadband dipole antennas, typically exhibiting a bandwidth of : octaves or more.
-mnidirectional 5iconical Antenna
&icrostrip or patch antennas are becoming increasingly useful because they can be printed directly onto a circuit board. They are becoming very widespread within the mobile phone mar)et. They are low cost, have a low profile and are easily fabricated. Sonsider the microstrip antenna shown in Figure 1, fed by a microstrip transmission line. The patch, microstrip and ground plane are made of high conductivity metal. The patch is of length , width ,, and sitting on top of a substrate $some dielectric circuit board% of thic)ness h with permittivity The thic)ness of the ground plane or of the microstrip is not critically .
important. Typically the height h is much smaller than the wavelength of operation.
$a% Top Wiew
$b% /ide Wiew Figure 1. 6eometry of &icrostrip $4atch% Antenna. The fre(uency of operation of the patch antenna of Figure 1 is determined by the length . The center fre(uency will be approximately given by0
The above e(uation says that the patch antenna should have a length e(ual to one half of a wavelength within the dielectric $substrate% medium. The width , of the antenna controls the input impedance. For a s(uare patch fed in the manner above, the input impedance will be on the order of :>> -hms. 5y increasing the width, the impedance can be reduced. "owever, to decrease the input impedance to <> -hms often re(uires a very wide patch. The width further controls the radiation pattern. The normali#ed pattern is approximately given by0
In the above, k is the free-space wavenumber, given by of the fields, given by0
. The magnitude
The fields are plotted in Figure 3 for ,@ @>.<
Figure 3. ,ormali#ed Radiation 4attern for &icrostrip $4atch% Antenna. The directivity of patch antennas is approximately <-9 d5. The fields are linearly polari#ed. ,ext we7ll consider more aspects involved in 4atch $&icrostrip% antennas.
Spiral antenna
In microwave systems, a %pira" antenna is a type of RF antenna. It is shaped as a twoarm spiral, or more arms may be used.K1M /piral antennas operate over a wide fre(uency range and have circular polari#ation. /piral antennas were first described in 1T<;.
App"ication%
A spiral antenna transmits .& waves having a circular polari#ation. It will receive linearly polari#ed .& waves in any orientation, but will attenuate signals received with the opposite circular polari#ation. A spiral antenna will re8ect circularly polari#ed waves of one type, while receiving perfectly well waves having the other polari#ation. -ne application of spiral antennas is wideband communications. Another application of spiral antennas is monitoring of the fre(uency spectrum. -ne antenna can receive over a wide bandwidth, for example a ratio <01 between the maximum and minimum fre(uency. Nsually a pair of spiral antennas are used in this application, having identical parameters except the polari#ation, which is opposite $one is right-hand, the other left-hand oriented%. /piral antennas are useful for microwave direction-finding.K3M
E"e*ent%
The antenna includes two conductive spirals or arms, extending from the center outwards. The antenna may be a flat disc, with conductors resembling a pair of loosely-nested cloc) springs, or the spirals may extend in a three-dimensional shape li)e a screw thread. The direction of rotation of the spiral defines the direction of antenna polari#ation. Additional spirals may be included as well, to form a multi-spiral structure. Nsually the spiral is cavity-bac)ed, that is there is a cavity of air or non-conductive material or vacuum, surrounded by conductive wallsG the cavity changes the antenna pattern to a unidirectional shape. The output of the antenna
Measuring Radiation Pattern and an Antenna's ain

Antennas $"ome% Antenna &easurements "ome 4revious0 &easurements Ranges ,ow that we have our measurement e(uipment and an antenna range, we can perform some measurements. 2e will use the source antenna to illuminate the antenna under test with a plane wave from a specific direction. The polari#ation and gain $for the fields radiated toward the test antenna% of the source antenna should be )nown. Eue to reciprocity, the radiation pattern from the test antenna is the same for both the receive and transmit modes. Sonse(uently, we can measure the radiation pattern in the receive mode for the test antenna. The test antenna is rotated using the test antenna7s positioning system. The received power is recorded at each position. In this manner, the magnitude of the radiation pattern of the test antenna can be determined. 2e will discuss phase measurements and polari#ation measurements later. The coordinate system of choice for the radiation pattern is spherical coordinates.
Measurement Example An example should ma)e the process reasonably clear. /uppose the radiation pattern of a microstrip antenna is to be obtained. As is usual, lets let the direction the patch faces $7normal7 to the surface of the patch% be towards the #-axis. /uppose the source antenna illuminates the test antenna from Uy-direction, as shown in Figure 1.
Figure 1. A patch antenna oriented towards the #-axis with a /ource illumination from the Uy-direction. In Figure 1, the received power for this case represents the power from the angle0 . 2e record this power, change the position and record again. Recall that we only rotate the test antenna, hence it is at the same distance from the source antenna. The source power again comes from the same direction. /uppose we want to measure the radiation pattern normal to the patch7s surface $straight above the patch%. Then the measurement would loo) as shown in Figure 3.
Measuring
Antennas $"ome%
ain
5ac)0 &easurement of Antenna Radiation 4atterns
Antenna &easurements
-n the previous page on measuring radiation patterns, we saw how the radiation pattern of an antenna can be measured. This is actually the FrelativeF radiation pattern, in that we don7t )now what the pea) value of the gain actually is $we7re 8ust measuring the received power, so in a sense can figure out how directive an antenna is and the shape of the radiation pattern%. In this page, we will focus on measuring the pea) gain of an antenna - this information tells us how much power we can hope to receive from a given plane wave. 2e can measure the pea) gain using the Friis Transmission .(uation and a Fgain standardF antenna. A gain standard antenna is a test antenna with an accurately )nown gain and polari#ation $typically linear%. The most popular types of gain standard antennas are the thin half-wave dipole antenna $pea) gain of 3.1< d5% and the pyramidal horn antenna $where the pea) gain can be accurately calculated and is typically in the range of 1<-3< d5%. Sonsider the test setup shown in Figure 1. In this scenario, a gain standard antenna is used in the place of the test antenna, with the source antenna transmitting a fixed amount of power $ -.%. The gains of both of these antennas are accurately )nown.
Figure 1. Record the received power from a gain standard antenna. From the Friis transmission e(uation, we )now that the power received $ -R% is given by0
If we replace the gain standard antenna with our test antenna $as shown in Figure 3%, then the only thing that changes in the above e(uation is GR - the gain of the receive antenna. The separation between the source and test antennas is fixed, and the fre(uency will be held constant as well.
Figure 3. Record the received power with the test antenna $same source antenna%. ?et the received power from the test antenna be -R/. If the gain of the test antenna is higher than the gain of the Fgain standardF antenna, then the received power will increase. Nsing our measurements, we can easily calculate the gain of the test antenna. ?et G( be the gain of the Fgain standardF antenna, -R be the power received with the gain antenna under test, and -R/ be the power received with the test antenna. Then the gain of the test antenna $ G.% is $in linear units%0
The above e(uation uses linear units $non-d5%. If the gain is to be specified in decibels, $power received still in 2atts%, then the e(uation becomes0
And that is all that needs done to determine the gain for an antenna in a particular direction.
Efficiency and Directivity
Recall that the directivity can be calculated from the measured radiation pattern without regard to what the gain is. Typically this can be performed by approximated the integral as a finite sum, which is pretty simple. Recall that the efficiency of an antenna is simply the ratio of the pea) gain to the pea) directivity0
"ence, once we have measured the radiation pattern and the gain, the efficiency follows directly from these. In the next section, we7ll loo) at measuring the phase of an antenna7s radiation pattern.
Anechoic chamber
An anechoic chamber An anec+oic c+a*5er is a room designed to stop reflections of either sound or electromagnetic waves. They are also insulated from exterior sources of noise. The combination of both aspects means they simulate a (uiet open-space of infinite dimension, which is useful when exterior influences would otherwise give false results. Anechoic chambers were originally used in the context of acoustics $sound waves% to minimi#e the reflections of a room. Their radiofre(uency counterpart have also been in use for a few decades, for example to test antennas, radars, or electromagnetic interference. The wavelength of audible sound in air falls in the same range as that of commonly used radio waves, and their propagation patterns bear many similarities. This is why both types loo) similar. Anechoic chambers range from small compartments to ones as large as aircraft hangars. The si#e of the chamber depends on the si#e of the ob8ects to be tested and the fre(uency
range of the signals used, although scale models can sometimes be used by testing at shorter wavelengths.
Acou%tic anec+oic c+a*5er%

Anechoic chambers are commonly used in acoustics to conduct experiments in nominally Ffree fieldF conditions. All sound energy will be traveling away from the source with almost none reflected bac). Sommon anechoic chamber experiments include measuring the transfer function of a loudspea)er or the directivity of noise radiation from industrial machinery. In general, the interior of an anechoic chamber is very (uiet, with typical noise levels in the 1>]3> d5A range. According to 6uinness 2orld Records, 3>><, -rfield ?aboratory7s ,I/T certified .c)el Industries-designed anechoic chamber is FThe (uietest place on earthF measured at _T.* d5A. K1MK3M The human ear can typically detect sounds above > d5, so a human in such a chamber would perceive the surroundings as devoid of sound. The Nniversity of /alford has a number of Anechoic chambers, of which unofficially one is the (uietest in the world with a measurement of _13.* d5A.K:M
Semi-anechoic chambers
Full anechoic chambers aim to absorb energy in all directions. /emi-anechoic chambers have a solid floor that acts as a wor) surface for supporting heavy items, such as cars, washing machines, or industrial machinery, rather than the mesh floor grille over absorbent tiles found in full anechoic chambers. This floor is damped and floating on absorbent buffers to isolate it from outside vibration or electromagnetic signals. A recording studio may utili#e a semi-anechoic chamber to produce high-(uality music free of outside noise and unwanted echoes.
Radio-,re=uenc& anec+oic c+a*5er%
An RF anechoic chamber. The internal appearance of the radio fre(uency $RF% anechoic chamber is sometimes similar to that of an acoustic anechoic chamber, however, the interior surfaces of the RF anechoic chamber are covered with radiation absorbent material $RA&% instead of acoustically absorbent material K1M. The RF anechoic chamber is typically used to house the e(uipment for performing measurements of antenna radiation patterns,
electromagnetic compatibility $.&S% and radar cross section measurements. Testing can be conducted on full-scale ob8ects, including aircraft, or on scale models where the wavelength of the measuring radiation is scaled in direct proportion to the target si#e. Soincidentally, many RF anechoic chambers which use pyramidal RA& also exhibit some of the properties of an acoustic anechoic chamber, such as attenuation of sound and shielding from outside noise.
Radiation absorbent material

The RA& is designed and shaped to absorb incident RF radiation $also )nown as nonionising radiation%, as effectively as possible, from as many incident directions as possible. The more effective the RA& is the less will be the level of reflected RF radiation. &any measurements in electromagnetic compatibility $.&S% and antenna radiation patterns re(uire that spurious signals arising from the test setup, including reflections, are negligible to avoid the ris) of causing measurement errors and ambiguities. -ne of the most effective types of RA& comprises arrays of pyramid shaped pieces, each of which is constructed from a suitably lossy material. To wor) effectively, all internal surfaces of the anechoic chamber must be entirely covered with RA&. /ections of RA& may be temporarily removed to install e(uipment but they must be replaced before performing any tests. To be sufficiently lossy, RA& can neither be a good electrical conductor nor a good electrical insulator as neither type actually absorbs any power. Typically pyramidal RA& will comprise a rubberi#ed foam material impregnated with controlled mixtures of carbon and iron. The length from base to tip of the pyramid structure is chosen based on the lowest expected fre(uency and the amount of absorption re(uired. For low fre(uency damping, this distance is often 3* inches, while high fre(uency panels are as short as :]* inches. 4anels of RA& are installed with the tips pointing inward to the chamber. 4yramidal RA& attenuates signal by two effects0 scattering and absorption. /cattering can occur both coherently, when reflected waves are in-phase but directed away from the receiver, or incoherently where waves are pic)ed up by the receiver but are out of phase and thus have lower signal strength. This incoherent scattering also occurs within the foam structure, with the suspended carbon particles promoting destructive interference. Internal scattering can result in as much as 1>d5 of attenuation. &eanwhile, the pyramid shapes are cut at angles that maximi#e the number of bounces a wave ma)es within the structure. 2ith each bounce, the wave loses energy to the foam material and thus exits with lower signal strength. K*M An alternative type of RA& comprises flat plates of ferrite material, in the form of flat tiles fixed to all interior surfaces of the chamber. This type has a smaller effective fre(uency range than the pyramidal RA& and is designed to be fixed to good conductive surfaces. It is generally easier to fit and more durable than the pyramidal type RA& but is less effective at higher fre(uencies. Its performance might however be (uite ade(uate if tests are limited to lower fre(uencies $ferrite plates have a damping curve that ma)es them most effective between :>]1>>> &"#%K3M. There is also a hybrid type, a ferrite in pyramidal shape. Sontaining the advantages of both technologies the fre(uency range can be maximi#ed while the pyramid remains small $1> cm%K:M.
Effectiveness over frequency
Slose-up of a pyramidal RA& 2aves of higher fre(uencies have shorter wavelengths and are higher in energy, while waves of lower fre(uencies have longer wavelengths and are lower in energy, according to the relationship ` @ 0 = f where lambda represents wavelength, v is phase velocity of wave, and f is fre(uency. To shield for a specific wavelength, the cone must be of appropriate si#e to absorb that wavelength. The performance (uality of an RF anechoic chamber is determined by its lowest test fre(uency of operation, at which measured reflections from the internal surfaces will be the most significant compared to higher fre(uencies. 4yramidal RA& is at its most absorptive when the incident wave is at normal incidence to the internal chamber surface when the pyramid height is approximately e(ual to ` = *, where ` is the free space wavelength. Accordingly, increasing the pyramid height of the RA& for the same $s(uare% base si#e improves the effectiveness of the chamber at low fre(uencies but results in increased cost and a reduced unobstructed wor)ing volume that is available inside a chamber of defined si#e.
Installation into a screened room

An RF anechoic chamber is usually built into a screened room, designed using the Faraday cage principle. This is because most of the RF tests that re(uire an anechoic chamber to minimi#e reflections from the inner surfaces also re(uire the properties of a screened room to attenuate unwanted signals penetrating inwards and causing interference to the e(uipment under test and prevent lea)age from tests penetrating outside.
hamber si!e and commissionin"

The actual test setups usually re(uire extra room than that re(uired to simply house the test e(uipment, the hardware under test and associated cables. For example, the far field criteria sets a minimum distance between the transmitting antenna and the receiving antenna to be observed when measuring antenna radiation patterns. Allowing for this and the extra space that may be re(uired for the pyramidal RA& means that a substantial capital investment is re(uired into even a modestly dimensioned chamber. For most companies, such an investment in a large RF anechoic chamber is not 8ustifiable unless it is li)ely to be used continuously or perhaps rented out. /ometimes for radar cross section measurements it is possible to scale down the ob8ects under test and reduce the chamber si#e provided that the wavelength of the test fre(uency is scaled down in direct proportion.
RF anechoic chambers are normally designed to meet the electrical re(uirements of one or more accredited standards. For example, the aircraft industry may test e(uipment for aircraft according to company specifications or military specifications such as &I?-/TE *;1.. -nce built, acceptance tests are performed during commissioning to verify that the standard$s% are in fact met. 4rovided they are, a certificate will be issued to that effect, valid for a limited period.
#perational use
Test and supporting e(uipment configurations to be used within anechoic chambers must expose as few metallic $conductive% surfaces as possible, as these ris) causing unwanted reflections. -ften this is achieved by using non-conductive plastic or wooden structures for supporting the e(uipment under test. 2here metallic surfaces are unavoidable, they may be covered with pieces of RA& after setting up to minimi#e such reflection as far as possible. A careful assessment of whether to place the test e(uipment $as opposed to the e(uipment under test% on the interior or exterior of the chamber is re(uired. ,ormally this may be located outside of the chamber provided it is not susceptible to interference from exterior fields which, otherwise, would not be present inside the chamber. This has the advantage of reducing reflection surfaces inside but it re(uires extra cables and particularly good filtering. Nnnecessary cables and=or poor filtering can collect interference on the outside and conduct them to the inside. A good compromise may be to install human interface e(uipment $such as 4Ss%, electrically noisy and high power e(uipment on the outside and sensitive e(uipment on the inside. -ne useful application of fiber optic cables is to provide the communications lin)s to carry signals within the chamber. Fiber optic cables are non-conductive and of small cross-section and therefore cause negligible reflections in most applications. It is normal to filter electrical power supplies for use within the anechoic chamber as unfiltered supplies present a ris) of unwanted signals being conducted into and out of the chamber along the power cables.
$ealth and safety ris%s associated &ith R' anechoic chamber

The following health and safety ris)s are associated with RF anechoic chambers0

RF radiation ha#ard Fire ha#ard Trapped personnel
4ersonnel are not normally permitted inside the chamber during a measurement as this not only can cause unwanted reflections from the human body but may also be a radiation ha#ard to the personnel concerned if tests are being performed at high RF powers. /uch ris)s are from RF or non-ioni#ing radiation and not from the higher energy ioni#ing radiation.
As RA& is highly absorptive of RF radiation, incident radiation will generate heat within the RA&. If this cannot be dissipated ade(uately there is a ris) that hot spots may develop and the RA& temperature may rise to the point of combustion. This can be a ris) if a transmitting antenna inadvertently gets too close to the RA&. .ven for (uite modest transmitting power levels, high gain antennas can concentrate the power sufficiently to cause high power flux near their apertures. Although recently manufactured RA& is normally treated with a fire retardant to reduce such ris)s, they are difficult to completely eliminate. /afety regulations normally re(uire the installation of a gaseous fire suppression system including smo)e detectors. 6aseous fire suppression avoids damage caused by the extinguishing agent which would otherwise worsen damage caused by the fire itself. A common gaseous fire suppression agent is carbon dioxide. ,ormally the fire detection system is lin)ed into the power supply to the chamber, so that the fire detection system can disconnect the power supply if smo)e or a fire is detected.
2NIT-5 /AVE PROPA(ATION 4ropagation &odes 6round-wave propagation /)y-wave propagation ?ine-of-sight propagation 6round-wave propagation
Follows contour of the earth San 4ropagate considerable distances Fre(uencies up to 3 &"# .xample A& radio /)y 2ave 4ropagation
/ignal reflected from ioni#ed layer of atmosphere bac) down to earth /ignal can travel a number of hops, bac) and forth between ionosphere and earth's surface Reflection effect caused by refraction .xamples Amateur radio S5 radio ?ine-of-/ight 4ropagation
Transmitting and receiving antennas must be within line of sight /atellite communication ] signal above :> &"# not reflected by ionosphere 6round communication ] antennas within effecti0e line of site due to refraction Refraction ] bending of microwaves by the atmosphere Welocity of electromagnetic wave is a function of the density of the medium 2hen wave changes medium, speed changes 2ave bends at the boundary between mediums -ptical line of sight .ffective, or radio, line of sight d @ distance between antenna and hori#on $)m% h @ antenna height $m% H @ ad8ustment factor to account for refraction, rule of thumb H @ *=: &aximum distance between two antennas for ?-/ propagation0
:.<9
h1 + h3
h1 @ height of antenna one h3 @ height of antenna two
(reat-circle distance
The great-circ"e di%tance or ort+odro*ic di%tance is the shortest distance between any two points on the surface of a sphere measured along a path on the surface of the sphere $as opposed to going through the sphere7s interior%. 5ecause spherical geometry is rather different from ordinary .uclidean geometry, the e(uations for distance ta)e on a different form. The distance between two points in .uclidean space is the length of a straight line from one point to the other. -n the sphere, however, there are no straight lines. In non.uclidean geometry, straight lines are replaced with geodesics. 6eodesics on the sphere are the ()eat ci)cles $circles on the sphere whose centers are coincident with the center of the sphere%. 5etween any two different points on a sphere which are not directly opposite each other, there is a uni(ue great circle. The two points separate the great circle into two arcs. The length of the shorter arc is the great-circle distance between the points. A great circle endowed with such a distance is the Riemannian circle. 5etween two points which are directly opposite each other, called a'tipodal poi'ts, there are infinitely many great circles, but all great circle arcs between antipodal points have the same length, i.e. half the circumference of the circle, or \), where ) is the radius of the sphere. 5ecause the .arth is approximately spherical $see .arth radius%, the e(uations for greatcircle distance are important for finding the shortest distance between points on the surface of the .arth $as the c)o1 flies%, and so have important applications in navigation.
For*u"ae
?et be the geographical latitude and longitude of two points $a base FstandpointF and the destination FforepointF%, respectively, and their differences and the $spherical% angular difference=distance, or central angle, which can be constituted from the spherical law of cosines0 A useful way to remember this formula is cos$central angle%@ cos$longitude difference ST& % , where ST& could be ta)en to mean 7-nly the cos terms in longitude angle difference cosine expansion to be multiplied with cos$latitude difference%7. The central angle is alternately expressed in terms of latitude and longitude differences dlat,dlong, using only cosines, as0 arcco%7 co%7d"at8 - co%7"at<8>co%7"at28>7< - co%7d"ong8 8'
The distance d, i.e. the arc length, for a sphere of radius ) and given in radians, is then0 This arccosine formula above can have large rounding errors for the common case where the distance is small, however, so it is not normally used for manual calculations. Instead, an e(uation )nown historically as the haversine formula was preferred, which is much more numerically stable for small distances0K1M "istorically, the use of this formula was simplified by the availability of tables for the haversine function0 hav$2% @ sin3 $2=3%. Although this formula is accurate for most distances, it too suffers from rounding errors for the special $and somewhat unusual% case of antipodal points $on opposite ends of the sphere%. A more complicated formula that is accurate for all distances is the following special case $a sphere, which is an ellipsoid with e(ual ma8or and minor axes% of the Wincenty formula $which more generally is a method to compute distances on ellipsoids%0
K3M
2hen programming a computer, one should use the atan2() function rather than the ordinary arctangent function $atan()%, in order to simplify handling of the case where the denominator is #ero, and to compute unambiguously in all (uadrants. 2hen using a spreadsheet program such as .xcel the arccosine formula is suitable since it is simpler and rounding errors disappears with high precision used. If ) is the great-circle radius of the sphere, then the great-circle distance is .
)ector version
Another representation of similar formulas, but using using '-vector instead of latitude=longitude to describe the positions, is0K:M where and are the '-vectors representing the two positions s and f. /imilarly to the e(uations above based on latitude and longitude, the expression based on arctan is the only one that is well-conditioned for all angles. If the two positions are originally given as latitudes and longitudes, a conversion to '-vectors must first be performed.
'rom chord len"th

A line through three-dimensional space between points of interest on a spherical .arth is the chord of the great circle between the points. The central angle between the two points can be determined from the chord length. The great circle distance is proportional to the central angle. The great circle chord length may be calculated as follows for the corresponding unit sphere, by means of Sartesian subtractionK*M0
Spherical cosine for sides derivation
5y using Sartesian products rather than differences, the origin of the spherical cosine for sides becomes apparent0
? Radiu% ,or %p+erica" Eart+

The shape of the .arth closely resembles a flattened sphere $a spheroid% with e(uatorial radius a of ;,:9C.1:9 )mG distance b from the center of the spheroid to each pole is ;:<;.9<3 )m. 2hen calculating the length of a short north-south line at the e(uator, the sphere that best approximates that part of the spheroid has a radius of b3 = a, or ;,::<.*:T )m, while the spheroid at the poles is best approximated by a sphere of radius a3 = b, or ;,:TT.<T* )m, a 1R difference. /o as long as we7re assuming a spherical .arth, any single formula for distance on the .arth is only guaranteed correct within >.<R $though we can do better if our formula is only intended to apply to a limited area%. The average radius for a spherical approximation of the figure of the .arth is approximately ;:91.>1 )m $:T<C.9; statute miles, :**>.>9 nautical miles%.
?-/ 2ireless Transmission Impairments Attenuation and attenuation distortion Free space loss ,oise Atmospheric absorption &ultipath Refraction Thermal noise Atmospheric absorption ] water vapor and oxygen contribute to attenuation &ultipath ] obstacles reflect signals so that multiple copies with varying delays are received Refraction ] bending of radio waves as they propagate through the atmosphere
&ultipath 4ropagation Reflection - occurs when signal encounters a surface that is large relative to the wavelength of the signal Eiffraction - occurs at the edge of an impenetrable body that is large compared to wavelength of radio wave /cattering ] occurs when incoming signal hits an ob8ect whose si#e in the order of the wavelength of the signal or less The .ffects of &ultipath 4ropagation &ultiple copies of a signal may arrive at different phases If phases add destructively, the signal level relative to noise declines, ma)ing detection more difficult Intersymbol interference $I/I% -ne or more delayed copies of a pulse may arrive at the same time as the primary pulse for a subse(uent bit Types of Fading Fast fading /low fading Flat fading /elective fading Rayleigh fading Rician fading
.rror Sompensation &echanisms Forward error correction Adaptive e(uali#ation Eiversity techni(ues

EC2353 - Antenna and Wave Propagation

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CONCEPT OF VECTOR POTENTIAL

0uarter wave or unipo"e antenna

Antenna array is a group of antennas or antenna elements arranged to provide the

2ni,or* "inear arra&

Figure *. 2aveguide used as a feed to horn antennas.

Figure 1. 6eometry of Sorner Reflector.

The Parabolic Reflector Antenna (Satellite Dish)

Figure 1. The Fbig dishF of /tanford Nniversity.

This is plotted in Figure 1.

2e7ll wal) through each of these terms.

www.eeeexclusive.blogspot.com Radiation E,,icienc&

Aperture Taper E,,icienc&

The gain of the helix can be approximated by0

)oo* Lengt+ o, -agi-2da Arra& 7in

Figure 1. .-plane gain of Zagi antenna.

Figure 3. "-4lane gain of Zagi antenna.

Figure :. :-E Radiation 4attern of Zagi antenna.

-mnidirectional 5iconical Antenna

$a% Top Wiew

The fields are plotted in Figure 3 for ,@ @>.<

Measuring Radiation Pattern and an Antenna's ain

Acou%tic anec+oic c+a*5er%

Radio-,re=uenc& anec+oic c+a*5er%

Radiation absorbent material

Installation into a screened room

hamber si!e and commissionin"

$ealth and safety ris%s associated &ith R' anechoic chamber

RF radiation ha#ard Fire ha#ard Trapped personnel

'rom chord len"th

? Radiu% ,or %p+erica" Eart+

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