Martyn Smith 1102214 Romantic Literature 2013

[...] I think it is still usual for people to speak of Wordsworth and perhaps even to think of him as one of the so-called Romantic poets [...] Perhaps they are misled because they know that Wordsworth and Coleridge were very close friends at one time [] Wordsworth made no breach with the Eighteenth Century. His chief interests were realism in speech and in manner, and moral edification (BASIL BUNTING).1

Debate the merits or demerits of this view in relation to your knowledge of the work of both Wordsworth and Coleridge in Lyrical Ballads. (If you wish, you may range more widely in their works.)

For man has closed himself up, till he sees all things thro narrow chinks of his cavern.2 Basil Bunting, through focusing on his chief interests, has made the assumption that William Wordsworth was not a Romantic poet. Bunting has myopically neglected the true literary range in Wordsworths oeuvre. Stephen Bygrave declared, the period called Romanticism took place during 1780-18303. Wordsworth certainly wrote most of his poetry between these dates, including perhaps his most influential work, Lyrical Ballads (1798). Wordsworth is different from the other Romantics but only in the way that Lord Byron is different from John Keats, and Percy Bysshe Shelley is different from Samuel
1 2

Basil Bunting. Peter Makin (ed.) Basil Bunting on Poetry (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins, 2003), p. 84 William Blake. Mary Lynn Johnson (ed.) John E. Grant (ed.) Blakes Poetry and Designs. A Norton Critical Edition. Second Edition. (New York: W.W. Norton and Company, 2008), The Marriage of Heaven and Hell, Plate 14, p.74 3 Stephen Bygrave. Coleridge and the Self. Romantic Egotism. (Basingstoke: Macmillan, 1986), p.3

Martyn Smith 1102214 Romantic Literature 2013 Taylor Coleridge. Due to the accusation that Wordsworth is only a Romantic because of his association with Coleridge, both of their poetical works will be examined and compared and contrasted. This essay will ascertain that Wordsworth has enough merits in his work to be labelled a Romantic, analysing qualities associated with the movement, according to Isaiah Berlin (and others), including an enquiry into the self4, states of mind, and the attitudes towards religion aestheticism, man and nature. Wordsworth produced many poems using diverse verse forms, including sonnets, odes, ballads and blank verse. There are two distinguishable aspects of the poetry of Wordsworth, compared to his Romantic contemporaries. The first is the lack of classical references. He pantheism precludes Greek and Roman allusions. Secondly, are not excursions into fantastic dream worlds. Many of the other Romantic poets employ a combination of both qualities, for example: Prometheus Unbound (1820) by Shelley; Ode to a Grecian Urn (1819) by Keats and Kubla Khan (1816) by Coleridge, which will be looked at the end of this essay. The allegation that Wordsworth did not breach the Eighteenth Century is incorrect. Poems, in Two Volumes (1807) contained many of the poems Wordsworth is remembered for, from this collection is of all his poetry not least, I Wandered Lonely as a Cloud, perhaps the most famous of his poems. One of the predominant reasons for this is the encapsulation of the Wordsworthian ambition of transcribing a spot of time5. This is the notion of imaginative moments being recreated later when in pensive mood, as he did for example, when he called forth the image of the dancing daffodils6 lying on his couch. The simple language, using iambic tetrameter lines, along with the ABABCC rhyme scheme of this poem reflects the realistic quality of the moment Wordsworth is expressing from his later reflection.
4

Isaiah Berlin. The Roots of Romanticism. Second Edition. (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2013), p.108 5 William Wordsworth. Stephen Gill. (ed.) The Major Works. (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000), The Prelude, Book Eleven, l.258 , p.565 6 Wordsworth. Gill (ed.) [I Wandered Lonely A Cloud], l.4, p.303

Martyn Smith 1102214 Romantic Literature 2013 The spots of time may not be the exact same escape into fantasy, as noted in the work of the other Romantics but there is fictional creation of the imagination, even if it is one based on the real world. This is unlikely to be the realism Bunting refers to. Coleridge stated that Wordsworths proper title is Spectator ab extra7. This translates from the Latin, observer from the outside, and in psychological terminology, Wordsworth has an external locus. Coleridge bolsters Buntings point about realism; however, Wordsworths simplified language reflected the everyday, informal vernacular of the rustic life, and the subject matter he conveyed, like nature itself: The speech most perfectly attuned to the essential passions of the heart is not that of educated people living in cities, but of people living in constant communication with the grand and enduring objects of nature.8 Jones states that their isolation has its external aspect placed at the verge of life9. The Preface to the Lyrical Ballads was a romantic manifesto10, influencing many other poets of the period. The humourous poem, Peter Bell the Third (1839) by Shelley was a parody of Wordsworths original, Peter Bell (1819). Shelleys The Mask of Anarchy (1832), was written the same year. The command Rise like Lions after slumber11 repeated throughout the poem is like a Wordsworth and Coleridge idea of a waking state after sleep. Wordsworth was political, and held relatively liberal views, until the terror of Robespierre and became
7

Samuel Taylor Coleridge. Nicholas Halmi (ed.) Paul Maguson (ed.) Raimonda Modiano (ed.) Coleridges Poetry and Prose. A Norton Critical Edition. (New York: W.W. Norton and Company, 2004), William Wordsworth, p.609 8 Wordsworth. Gill (ed), Preface to the Lyrical Ballads 1802, p.597 9 John Jones. The Egotistical Sublime. A History of Wordsworths Imaginat ion. (London: Chatto and Windus, 1970), p.67 10 Alun R. Jones (ed.) William Tydeman (ed.) Wordsworth. Lyrical Ballads. A Casebook. (Basingstoke: Macmillian, 1972), M.H. Abrams. Varieties of Romantic Theory: Wordsworth and Coleridge (1953), p.175 11 Shelley, et al, The Mask of Anarchy, p.326

Martyn Smith 1102214 Romantic Literature 2013 increasingly conservative over the course of his life. Wordsworths motives are expressed in his political poem, Resolution and Independence: While he was talking thus, the lonely place, The Old Mans shape, and speech, all troubled me: In my minds eye I seemd to see him pace About the weary moors continually, Wandering about alone and silently While I these thoughts within myself pursued, He, having made a pause, the same discourse renewed.12 There is an impression of a shift between states of consciousness; a contraction and expansion13 of the inner self, as Grard describes it. This mode of transition is outlined by different uses of senses. What the poet hears and sees in the natural world, is transferred in the seventh stanza to the inward eye14. Repetition of I expresses the poets inner thoughts. The personal pronoun encourages the reader to do so too; as their internal voice is conjuring up this harmony: [harmony] is achieved as the outcome of a deep and urgent inner conflict, which forms the main theme of the work and is reflected in its motifs, its diction and its general structure.15

12 13

Wordsworth. Gill (ed.) Resolution and Independence, l.134-140, p.264 Jones (ed.). Grard, p.114 14 Wordsworth. Gill (ed.) [I Wandered Lonely as a Cloud], p.303 15 Alun R. Jones (ed.) Wordsworth: The 1807 Poems. A Casebook. (Basingstoke: Macmillan, 1990), Albert Grard. Resolution and Independence: Wordsworths Coming of Age, p.113

Martyn Smith 1102214 Romantic Literature 2013 Keats referred to this as Wordsworths egotistical sublime16, because he felt his poetry had a self-centred quality. For example, lines 15-18 are self-referential. This is similar to Coleridges definition of madness: It is the sleep of the spirit with certain conditions of wakefulness: that is to say, lucid intervals17. This evocation of madness is evident in both Coleridge and Wordsworths poetry. Wordsworths description of Thomas Chattertons sleepless soul18, for example, is comparable to the soul-stifling shame!19 in The Pains of Sleep (1816) by Coleridge. These poets are exploring alternative states of mind, which cause confusion to their very being. Keats surmised this feeling in his famous interrogative: Do I Wake or Sleep?20 in Ode to a Nightingale (1818). This shift of mental states is expressed through the poem and is an exploration of identity: When Wordsworth depicts an object he is also depicting himself or, rather, a truth about himself, a self-acquired revelation21. The poet pities the leech gatherer and realises no matter how awful his state of mind becomes, he is not in his situation. The realisation might be captured in the idiom there is always someone worse off than you. The dancing daffodils are a projection, the stirring inside him, something beautiful from the melancholy. This emotion recollected in tranquillity22, which runs through Wordsworths work, will be explored upon later when looking at The Solitary Reaper (1808).

16

John R. Strachan (ed.) A Routledge Literary Sourcebook on the Poems of John Keats , (London: Routledge, 2003), Letter from Keats to Richard Woodhouse, 27 October, 1818, p.17 17 Coleridge. Halmi (ed.) et al, Madness, p.598 18 Wordsworth. Gill (ed.) Resolution and Independence, l.44, p.262 19 Coleridge. Halmi (ed.) et al, The Pains of Sleep, p.184 20 John Keats. John Barnard (ed.) Selected Poems. (London: Penguin, 1999), p.172 21 Geoffrey H. Hartman. Wordsworths Poetry. 1787-1814. (Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1987), p.5 22 Wordsworth. Gill (ed.), The Preface, p.611

Martyn Smith 1102214 Romantic Literature 2013 Another such poem with great intense revelation, with the seemingly simple imagery, is garnered in Composed upon Westminister Bridge, Sept. 3, 1803 (1807):

All bright and glittering in the smokeless air. Never did sun more beautifully sleep In his first splendour, valley, rock, or hill; Neer saw I, never felt, a calm so deep!

Once again, Wordsworth causes the external world to mirrors his internal feeling, this time elevating an urban prospect into the Romantic sublime. The simple language is relatable to the common people, not just the educated. The poet seems to wish to express his feeling to all the people, there is the implication that everyone can feel this sense of awe and wonder as deeply as he does.

The reverence of seeing and feeling is again described with vitality in Lines Written in Early Spring (1798) are explicitly brought to the cerebral network of the poet, and in turn the reader: To her fair works did nature link The human soul that through me ran; And much it is grievd my heart to think What man has made of man.23

The experience of observation is captured in The Solitary Reaper (1816). Wordsworth is anything but outside the situation:

23

Wordsworth. Gill (ed.) Lines Written in Early Spring, p.80

Martyn Smith 1102214 Romantic Literature 2013 The reflective stopping of the poet, which like the shock of selfconsciousness and may express it in a mild and already distanced form, is a general feature of Romantic lyricism and related to its penseroso or white melancholy.24 The use of negatives in this poem, such as No nightingale did ever chaunt, cannot be proved and suggests Wordsworths omniscience, a technique used in the sonnet Composed Upon Westminster Bridge: Never did sun more beautifully steep In his first splendour, valley, rock or hill25 Wordsworth is conveying his heart26. Behold her, he is commanding himself, as well as the reader. He is actively conjuring the image from within his heart, as he feels the music within himself. The woman is beside a sickle. This might suggest that she could choose death, if she wished to put herself out of her misery. Instead, she vents her sorrow through singing, which Wordsworth perceives as beautiful: Whateer the theme, it is the song that matters, and no predatory determination to pin down the meaning must be allowed to put an end to that. Instead of seeking, the heart and mind must listen, watch and receive.27 Wordsworth has conveyed the Romantic trope of watching and receiving. There is a transcendence of consciousness achieved through the woman singing. The what is not

24 25

Hartman, p.12 Wordsworth. Gill (ed.) Composed Upon Westminster Bridge, p.285 26 Wordsworth. Gill (ed.) Preface, p.598 27 Alun R. Jones (ed.) G. Ingli James. Wordsworths Solitary Reaper, p.133

Martyn Smith 1102214 Romantic Literature 2013 important, but the feeling evokes, a significance missed by Bunting. However, his comment about moral edification is shown in The Rime of the Ancyent Marinere, in Seven Parts (1798) by Coleridge, for example: He prayeth best who loveth best, All things both great and small: For the dear God, who loveth us, He made and loveth all.28 The entire lengthy poem climaxes at this point; the Mariner has instructed the wedding guest to beware of rejecting God and his teachings. The wedding guest is like the reader. William Blakes poetry is full of children being mistreated by their elders, especially in Songs of Innocence and Experience (1789). Wordsworth has empathy toward young people too, which is for example addressed directly in To H.C., Six Years Old (1807). Blake and Wordsworth use paradoxes which reveal a hidden truth. Wordsworths line: The Child is the Father of the Man has transcended his poem [My Heart Leaps Up When I Behold] (1807). This line is like a proverb from Blakes Hell in The Marriage of Heaven and Hell (1793). Characteristics of a Child Three Years Old encapsulates this feeling of overwhelming joy, which is the concern of a considerable amount of Wordsworths poetry: The many colours impressed Upon the bosom of a placid lake.

The myriad of different light patterns creates an impressionistic vision. The reflection is a multivalent mental picture which can be read as the poets impression of how he sees the
28

Coleridge. Halmi (ed) The Rime of the Ancyent Marinere, p.98

Martyn Smith 1102214 Romantic Literature 2013 child in harmony with Mother Nature. Through the use of mixed metaphors (the characteristics) evokes the senses: laughing eyes and touch with soft breeze of the wind. Wordsworth is again observing but has enormous empathy for the subject and transcribes his feelings through his subjective perspective, and evokes it in the reader. This poem was written about his daughter, who tragically died a year after he wrote it, in 1812, at the age of three. With this knowledge, this image in the lake might be an insight into his memory; and be itself a spot of time, a theme repeated with There was a Boy (1802). Coleridges translation of The Death of Wallenstein (1800) by Friedrich Schiller, the epigraph, Mediative Poems in Blank Verse (1817) embodies the same sentiment, in similar language, as Wordsworths image of his daughter: Like shadows on a stream, the forms of life Impress their characters on the smooth forehead: Nought sinks into the Bosoms silent depth.29 Both Wordsworth and Coleridge held high regard for the German Romantics, and were influenced by their works. The simile is still evolving water, but is more directly projected on the forehead, into the mind. Coleridges poetry generally approaches and treats youthful experiences with reverence, although there is a sense of regret, in Youth and Age from Poetical Works (1814): It cannot be, that Thou art gone!30. This is also seen in the older character of The Mariner, who reflects on his youth, to the wedding guest who is several generations younger. unsafe to assume that we as readers are in a superior position as readers31. The mariner is like one of the phantasms conjured up by the all-miscreative

29 30

Coleridge. Halmi (ed.) et al, Mediative Poems In Blank Verse, p.194 Coleridge. Halmi (ed) et al, Youth and Age, p.222 31 Bygrave, p.137

Martyn Smith 1102214 Romantic Literature 2013 brain of Jove32 in Shelleys Prometheus Unbound (1820). Shelley uses the voices of the furies to convey the selfs in the mental cognition of the reader. Coleridge uses exotic myth too as in Kubla Khan. Coleridges dreamlike wonder is explored through the description of imaginative fantasy. The Mariner uses seductive technique similar to a hypnosis induction, which the reluctant wedding guest and the reader both submit, which assists them to transcend through a mental katabasis: Merry did we drop Below the Kirk, below the Hill, Below the Light-house top.33 The Kirk is an established and recognisable symbol of religion, a permanent fixture which fades away from sight in the descent. The falling into this alternate state of mind is away from the light and beacon of conscious reality. The German physician Franz Mesmer, was well known when Coleridge wrote this poem, for the practice of Animal Magnetism, in particular. He wrote about early applications of mesmerism, a type of hypnotism, which is a key quality of the Mariner. According to Peter Larkin, Coleridge focuses on a locus of magnetic attraction, of sensuous exception34. The Mariner is a conduit to the wedding guest, and the reader. The Mariner simultaneously creates the spell as well as being the victim of his own creation. Wordsworth creates the same relationship in The Solitary Reaper, but without the need for a narrative intermediary of The Mariner. Instead Wordsworths perception is delivered through the egotistical sublime. Both poets have the same objective, to have the reader experience their feelings through the poetry.

32

Percy Bysshe Shelley. Donald H. Reiman (ed.) Neil Fraistat (ed.). Shelleys Poetry and Prose. A Norton Critical Edition. Second Edition. (New York: W.W. Norton and Company, 2002), Prometheus Unbound 1, p.223 33 Coleridge. Halmi (ed.) et al, The Rime of the Ancyent Marinere, p.60 34 Larkin, p.151

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Martyn Smith 1102214 Romantic Literature 2013 Religious imagery is important to the Romantic poets, albeit deployed in different ways. Loving the God that made me!35, Coleridges awe is different from the approach in Blakes question: Did he who made the Lamb make thee?36. Halmi et al suggest that this sentiment was drafted in the autumn of 1796, when Coleridge was reading Ecclesiastics, a text which impressed him and was at the forefront of his thoughts. The religious imagery in The Rime of the Ancyent Marinere is unlike the subject matter in the poetry of Wordsworth. The repeated image of the sun going up and down is a clever device to mark the passing of days in each part of the poem. The pun on this word, also meaning son, or Jesus Christ was an established use (for example, appearing in George Herberts poem, Easter and other works in The Temple (1633) and in John Donnes Good Friday 1613 Riding Westward (1613)). The sun like The Mariner is an observer and onlooker. Wordsworths sun is limited to being the illuminating object in the sky, devoid of further symbolism. The reverence for Nature is the predominant subject of his poetry: Wordsworth reveres nature but he transcribes perception to external reality: Wordsworths imagination, on separating from nature and selfconsciously seeking its own sphere of action, enters the world of men only precariously.37 Coleridge develops natural symbolism further than Wordsworth: Down dropt the breeze, the Sails dropt down, Twas sad as sad could be And we did speak only to break The silence of the sea38

35 36

Coleridge. Halmi (ed.) et al, Fears In Solitiude, p.115 Blake. Johnson (ed.) Grant (ed.), The Tyger, p.39 37 Hartman, p.124

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Martyn Smith 1102214 Romantic Literature 2013 The sibilance contrasts to the alliterative fricatives of the furrow followed free in the previous stanza. The speech creates the sound. The mariner and his crew actively impress their mark onto nature; they create the impact and burst into the silent sea39. Commenting on the killing of the albatross Jackson Bates suggests: Coleridge felt free to make as much as he did of the act simply because the incident, which Wordsworth had suggested to him, was not too obviously extreme. The implication is Wordsworth has influence in helping guide this poem. The murder of a human being would have created complications beyond the control of the poem.40 The emphasis of the Mariner becoming increasingly scared of the consequences of shooting the albatross is shown in the repetition of the word fear in part four. The language is much more explicit with lexical emphasis on Christ and soul, which expresses the feelings of a person in crisis. The Mariner has committed an offence against nature and Christianity, the crossbow being the symbol of the crucifix. The curse of the Mariner seeing the dead men for seven days and seven nights inversely mirrors the act of the creation myth. The time of a week is also an easy and familiar concept to most readers. Like Wordsworth, Coleridges poetry appeals to the everyman, even if through imaginative voyages. The Ancient Marinere And I quakd to think of my own voice41. Perhaps it is the wedding guest who fears his real self, hence the vision of the Mariner. The voices are split in the sixth part, what Coleridge dubs the Polar Spirits42 in the 1834 version. The mariners curse is that he has not died. The pun on Pilot declaring his deep concern is another manifestation, perhaps his judge or Father in the Wordsworthian context. Through Christian myth, the
38 39

Coleridge. Halmi (ed.) et al, The Rime of the Ancyent Marinere, p.66 Coleridge. Halmi (ed.) et al, The Rime of the Ancyent Marinere, p.66 40 W. Jackson Bate. Coleridge. (Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1987), p.59 41 Coleridge. Halmi (ed.) et al, The Rime of the Ancyent Marinere, p.80 42 Coleridge. Halmi (ed.) et al, The Rime of the Ancyent Marinere, p.81

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Martyn Smith 1102214 Romantic Literature 2013 Roman prefect, Pontius Pilate, who convicted Jesus Christ. The poem could be implying that the wedding guest is in danger of aligning a part of himself with the crime in all its symbolic significance, because he has rejected God. Coleridge certainly had explored his mind, often through dreams and fantasies. Geraldine in Christabel (1800) is a kind of lamia, shifting between a mortal and immortal state43, because she may might be a phantasm. She is transcending between states, just as Coleridge does with his dreams. Wordsworth was also capable of expressing his identity though his poetry. Wordsworths Lucy is what Hartman describes as a boundary being44. Lucy is like Coleridges Mariner, a character who is a manifestation of reality. In Michael: A Pastoral Poem (1800), for example, Wordsworth uses elements from the natural world for his thoughts. The burden of this secret consciousness in Wordsworth should not be underestimated. It is he who stands between us and the death of nature; and this is also justification for the egotistical sublime in his poetry. [...] He feels that he must personally fasten or new-create the link between nature and the human mind.45 Through viewing the dell as representing the imagination in this way, it becomes evident how Wordsworth has achieved the hypnogogic states of Coleridge: [...] the alarm of war is an arousal that mediates the precursive freshness of the dell and indemnifies it against inertia, against the risk

43 44

Bate, p.68 Hartman, p.158 45 Hartman, p.337

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Martyn Smith 1102214 Romantic Literature 2013 of a total evaporation of conscious objects lying just beyond a visionary half-sleep.46 The character of Michael, like the Mariner, is the emblem of experience. Both have noble, hardy spirits; and have witnessed death, in the case of Michael, his son Luke. This is a Biblical name, and the imagery of sheep and shepherds are present in the Psalms of the New Testament. The syntax is also in the King James Bible (1611): And soon as they had reachd the placed he stoppd And thus the old Man spake to him: My Son, To-morrow thou wilt leave me; with full heart47 The repeating of and and archaic vocabulary such as spake is similar to Biblical language. The relationship between father and son is also a motif from the Bible, for example, Abraham and Isaac, and God and Jesus. Wordsworth seems to manipulate this powerful idea through his ability to conjure up experiences in the minds eye. The exacting focus on these flights of fancy is a key aspect of Romanticism, as Bate comments on Michael: A Pastoral Poem: The theme, in short, as so often in the Romantic lyrics that take this form, is the hope and precarious achievement of the human imagination itself.48 This is the subject of Fancy (1819) by Keats, Ozymandias by Shelley and Kubla Khan (1816) by Coleridge. The last invites the reader on an exotic trip into a world of extraordinary fantasy. One particular description is the moon that was haunted by woman wailing for her
46 47

Larkin, p.155 Wordsworth. Gill (ed.) Michael. A Pastoral Poem, l. 340-3, p.233 48 Bate, p.78

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Martyn Smith 1102214 Romantic Literature 2013 demon-lover!49. This woman according to Halmi et al, could be Cybele, the Asiatic goddess of wild nature who wailed for the loss of her lover Attis50. Perhaps the woman in The Solitary Reaper is also grieving over the loss of a lover as Wordsworths work evidently contemplates. Coleridges damsel in Kubla Khan sings a song, as does the girl in The Solitary Reaper. There is instruction to the reader to see what the poet is seeing, close your eyes similar to Wordsworths opening command Behold her!51. This puts the reader in the position of the dreamer, to be cautious of Kubla Khan, and be in awe of the Highland singer. This essay, like the ship in The Rime of the Ancyent Marinere has sailed into the storms of Romanticism and must return back to the fixed reality, hopefully wiser than before. Coleridges poetry is from laudanum fuelled dreamscapes, which are inspired from his extensive knowledge of myths and legends in books. Wordsworths imaginings are from the natural world. Wordsworth could be dubbed the Father of Romanticism because his manifesto and its influence upon others in this movement. If The Child is the father of the man then Shelley, Keats, Byron and arguably Coleridge are his sons. If Buntings doors of perception are cleansed with only that idea then the work of Wordsworth can be considered Romantic.

49 50

Coleridge. Halmi (ed.) et al, Kubla Khan, p.182 Coleridge. Halmi (ed.) et al, Kubla Khan, p.182 51 Wordsworth. Gill (ed.) The Solitary Reaper, p.319

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Martyn Smith 1102214 Romantic Literature 2013 Bibliography Bate, W. Jackson. Coleridge. (Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1987) Berlin, Isaiah. The Roots of Romanticism. Second Edition. (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2013) Blake, William. Johnson, Mary Lynn (ed.) Grant, John E. (ed.) Blakes Poetry and Designs. A Norton Critical Edition. Second Edition. (New York: W.W. Norton and Company, 2008) Bygrave, Stephen. Coleridge and the Self. Romantic Egotism. (Basingstoke: MacMillan, 1986) Coleridge, Samuel Taylor. Halmi, Nicholas (ed.) Maguson, Paul (ed.) Modiano, Raimonda (ed.) Coleridges Poetry and Prose. A Norton Critical Edition. (New York: W.W. Norton and Company, 2004) Coleridge, Samuel Taylor. Wordsworth, William. Roas, Guy (ed.) Wordsworth and Coleridge. (London: Thomas Nelson and Sons, 1936) Hartman, Geoffrey H. Wordsworths Poetry. 1787-1814. (Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1987), Jones, Alun R. (ed.) Wordsworth: The 1807 Poems. A Casebook. (Basingstoke: Macmillan, 1990) Jones, Alun R. (ed.) Tydeman, William (ed.) Wordsworth. Lyrical Ballads. A Casebook. (Basingstoke: Macmillian, 1972) Keats, John. Barnard, John (ed.) Selected Poems. (London: Penguin, 1999)

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Martyn Smith 1102214 Romantic Literature 2013 Jones, John. The Egotistical Sublime. A History of Wordsworths Imagination. (London: Chatto and Windus, 1970) Larkin, Peter. Wordsworth and Coleridge Promising Losses. (Basingstoke: Macmillan, 2012) Shelley, Percy Bysshe. Reiman, Donald H. (ed.) Fraistat, Neil (ed.). Shelleys Poetry and Prose. A Norton Critical Edition. Second Edition. (New York: W.W. Norton and Company, 2002) Strachan, John R. (ed.) A Routledge Literary Sourcebook on the Poems of John Keats. (London: Routledge, 2003) Tarkovsky, Andrey. Hunter-Blair, Kitty (trans.) Sculpting in Time. Reflections on the Cinema. (London: The Bodley Head, 1986) Wordsworth, William. Gill, Stephen. (ed.) The Major Works. (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000), Preface to the Lyrical Ballads 1802, p.597

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