SEXUAL ASSAULT AND MALE VICTIMS

Sexual Assault and the effect it has on male victims

By: Madison Spencer ID#: 6687644 For: D, Dutta Human Services I Conestoga College November 21, 2013

SEXUAL ASSAULT AND MALE VICTIMS Sexual Assault and Male Victims Introduction Although the majority of adult sexual crimes are committed by men against women, sexual assault can be perpetrated by or against members of both sexes. It is a common belief in society that sexual assault only happens in one form; male on female. It is stated in research that males are only seen as aggressors, while females are only the victims (Turchik, & Edwards, 2012). Since the 1960's, the discussions around sexual assault as a power-issue began to shed light on

the seuxal assault of women and men, particularly in institutional settings. However, while there has been much research conducted on female victims of sexual assault, there has been a corresponding neglect of investigation into sexual assault of males, specifically outside of institutionalized settings (Katz, & Rooz, 2003). Although there is the belief that a man can only rape a women, that is not true at all. The reality of sexual assault is not fully encapsulated by the neglect of investigation into the sexual assault of males. The incidence of sexual assault continues to escalate, and it is severely under-reported (Wiwanitkit, 2005). This paper will explain what sexual assault is regarding male victims and give background, what the impact is for male survivors, the service approaches that are available, and the implications of these services. Review of Literature What is sexual assault Sexual Assault is generally a term used to refer to all incidents of unwanted sexual activity, including sexual attacks and sexual touching (Sexual Assault in Canada, 2008). Male on male sexual assault is largely an invisible problem in today's society, and most people believe

SEXUAL ASSAULT AND MALE VICTIMS that it will only ever occur in prisons and similar settings (Katz, & Roos, 2003). This is because of the stigma attached to male victimization. Society acknowledges the difficulties that female survivors face, but at the same time, society tends to ignore and hide the same difficulties that male survivors face. There are no accurate estimates of the number of males who have been

sexually assaulted, because they are difficult to obtain for several reasons. Those being that only a few studies report the prevalence rate, and that most studies only report incidence rates, which is the overall rate of sexual assaults that have occurred in a population. A 2002 study done by the U.S Department of Justice says that although existing estimates indicate that 3% to 16% of all men will become a victim of sexual assault in their lifetime, only 1 in 10 male sexual assault's is likely to be reported to police (Kassing et al., 2005). This is because many men feel shame and embarrassment. The main reason is that they think that no one will believe their story, because of the stereotypical gender roles; that men can protect and defend themselves from unwanted sexual advances. It is important to remember while interpreting these estimates the majority of male sexual assaults go underreported. Impact on male survivors The trauma that occurs after a sexual assault is often severe, far-reaching and although there is no typical emotional response for male victims, there is supporting evidence available in literature that suggests men experience "multiple levels of trauma" (Katz, & Roos, 2003). Rape trauma syndrome (RTS) is a stress reaction to a possibly life threatening situation, which includes behavioural, somatic and psychological reactions. RTS has two distinct phases: acute and long-term. The acute phase marks a period of extreme upheaval in the survivors life. That phase is then followed by a more long-term phase in which the survivor attempts to reorganize their life, by gradually coming to terms with their assault.

SEXUAL ASSAULT AND MALE VICTIMS Behavioural reactions There are many behavioural reactions for survivors after experiencing such a traumatic

event. Many male survivors self-medicate after their assault by consuming alcohol or drugs in an attempt to relieve the pain that they are feeling. A somewhat drastic reaction would be the thought of suicide or actually committing suicide. These reactions are fairly common for male survivors who feel unable to reach out for the support they need (Katz, & Roos, 2003). These victims generally become more mistrustful of other men, some men experience overt, conscious fear, discomfort, and distancing when with other adult men, while others have a covert or unconscious inability to get close to men and fear emotional intimacy (Katz, & Roos, 2003). These behavioural reactions have a huge effect on the way that the survivor deals with meeting new people, socializing, and forming intimate relationships with another person. Somatic reactions There are many somatic reactions that male survivors experience. Males tend to show more somatic symptoms, in regards to anxiety, insomnia and social dysfunction (Walker et al., 2005). These somatic reactions can be stress-related, and the symptoms for these include tension headaches, ulcers, and trouble with eating, colitis and upset stomach, as well as extreme disturbances of sleep or appetite. They may also be hypochondriacal, which is having a serious worry of becoming ill. Survivors may experience one or both of these reactions (Katz, & Roos, 2003). Katz and Roos (2003) also stated that male victims are at a high risk of sexual injury that is not always visible. The act of penetration of any kind can cause severe injuries to a victim, and these victims may have contracted any one of a variety of sexually transmitted diseases;

SEXUAL ASSAULT AND MALE VICTIMS Hepatitis B, Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV) and other Sexually Transmitted Diseases (STD's) in the case of anal or oral trauma. Psychological reactions There is intense psychological distress that male survivors will experience after a sexual

assault. Reactions to their experience can include shock, withdrawal, and defensiveness (Katz, & Roos, 2003). They may also find themselves feeling extremely isolated and alone. Depression is another underlying issue that may put a strain on relationships after a sexual assault. Most male sexual assault victims are more likely to exhibit denial or a "controlled" emotional response, being quiet and withdrawn, to their assault then female victims (Kaszniak et al., 1998). How they exhibit these controlled emotional responses is because victims believe they have lost the ability to control their own bodies and lives. Male survivors may experience mood disturbances such as; fear, anxiety, intense anger and hostility. They may also experience an increased sense of vulnerability. Phobias may also start to come up post assault, such as a fear of strangers and walking alone, or being approached from behind and being out at night (Katz, & Roos, 2003). The psychological reactions have the most severe impact on the male survivor, because they are under such emotional distress and have so much fear that it begins to consume their lives, to the point where they are afraid to be alone outside. Other problems/reactions The most significant effects of male assault include the stigma, shame, humiliation and embarrassment that follow as survivors begin to deal with their experience (Katz, & Roos, 2003). After an attack some men feel a loss of their masculinity and of power, control and identity, which may lead to anger towards others. In a study done in 1984, some men equated tarnished

SEXUAL ASSAULT AND MALE VICTIMS masculinity after they experienced a sexual assault (Coxell et al., 1996). After an assault, some men may interpret their experience as an act of sex. This may cause the survivor to believe that

they had a homosexual encounter and lead them to question their sexual orientation in an attempt to make sense of their experience (Katz, & Roos, 2003). Some male survivors may feel as if their bodies are permanently damaged in the eyes of others. This may manifest into low self-esteem and self-worth, as well as causing them to be fearful of intimate relationships (Katz, & Roos, 2003). Service and Treatment Approaches The socialization of males emphasizes the importance of independence and power, so it is difficult to use the same types of treatments that therapists would with female survivors (Coxell et al., 1996). Several sets of researchers have reported that men who are sexually assaulted and seek mental health services frequently do not do so for lengthy periods of time (Tewksbury, 2007). A majority of men who have been sexually assaulted will benefit from a sensitive counseling treatment, and it could be highly effective and help them start to move on and to understand what happened to them. However, it is highly inappropriate to pursue a course of counseling with a survivor who is not yet ready to deal with their assault (Coxell et al., 1996). Tewksubry (2007) explained that a major problem identified in the research literature, is that many rape crisis centres either explicitly refuse their services to male survivors, or are highly insensitive to the male victims needs. Mental health professionals should be aware of the gender differences and incorporate that knowledge into their plan of treatment. These counselors should pay attention to anger-management and the issue of social expectations when working with a male survivor (Winder, 1996). While many men might achieve satisfaction in short-term counseling sessions, more long-term sessions might be needed. Coxell et al., (1996) also state

SEXUAL ASSAULT AND MALE VICTIMS that psychiatric help may be needed by men who develop serious psychological syndromes following their assault. Some of these syndromes might include post traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), or major depression. Implications of Services Benefits of Services/Treatment Although there is starting to be a growing recognition of the frequency and severity of male sexual abuse, it is not an issue that has been researched a lot, and there is not a lot of treatment programs specifically designed for male victims. This has led to increased efforts to develop treatment interventions for this population of male victims. However, there remains

limited verifiable evidence on treatment effectiveness for sexually abused adult males. In a study done by Romano et al., (2005) they describe an individual treatment programs that focuses on three areas related to sexual abuse; specifically feelings of anger, anxiety and self-blame. Male victims often have feelings of low self-esteem, depression, guilt, anxiety and anger. They deal with underlying issues such as substance abuse, relationships, gender and sexual identity, after they experience such a traumatic event. The treatment that is described, develops self-blame and responsibility for the abuse, anger towards the offender, and heightened anxiety that results from the threatening nature of sexual victimization. The three phases in this treatment, which are the victim, survivor and striver phase, helps the victim begin to heal. In the survivor and thriver phase, the focus is on understanding and coping with anger and anxiety that happens after the sexual assault. This phase also helps individuals develop a functional way to deal with their abuse-related emotional, cognitive and behavioural problems. The self-blame treatment phase, is when adult male victims struggle with a feeling of responsibility for their abuse. In the next

SEXUAL ASSAULT AND MALE VICTIMS phase, anger treatment, this is where adult males often experience anger over their abuse, and it can take over their life. These male victims are given activities to do, like letter-writing, to help

them release their anger towards their offender, and it helps them begin to express more difficult feelings such as grief, loss and powerlessness. In the treatment programs discussed by Romano et al., (2005) the overall goals of the anger treatment phase includes helping the participant identify expressing feelings of anger in a socially acceptable way. In the final phase, anxiety treatment, this is where adult male victims demonstrate long-lasting feelings of fear and anxiety. Male sexual assault victims are taught how to reduce their anxiety cognitive-behavioural and behavioural procedures such as relaxation training, and stopping of thoughts. It is suggested that it may be important for male sexual assault victims to develop effective grounding techniques to help them feel more calm, when feelings of anxiety become overwhelming. These may include focusing on a specific object, or deep breathing exercises. While this treatment programs does not focus solely on the sexual assault, it gives the victims a way to examine their concerns, and gives them socially acceptable way to express their feelings. There are many benefits to this program, because it is designed specifically for male survivors, and it targets the different issues that male victims are more likely to face after they experience a sexual assault. Critique of Services/Treatment While the few services that are currently available have some benefits, there are a lot of problems with them regarding how effective they are for male survivors. An important finding in a study done by Kassing et al., (2005) is the negative attitudes toward male sexual assault victims. These male victims are likely to experience effects as a result of these poor attitudes. When medical or law enforcement personnel, and mental health counselors have a negative attitude or disbelief towards male victims, it can cause these victims to experience a recurrence

SEXUAL ASSAULT AND MALE VICTIMS of their trauma. As a result of these attitudes, they might be less likely to report their incident or seek medical or emotional treatment. Therefore, mental health counselors need to examine their

own beliefs towards male sexual assault and male victims, to be able to recognize potential signs of male victimization. Davies et al., (2006) states that many male victims have a fear of reporting their assault, because they are afraid that they will receive homophobic reactions. If the only reason holding an individual back from reporting their sexual assault, is the fear of a homophobic reaction, then scoiety has demonstrated a poor understanding of what male sexual assault really is. Rumeny (2008) believes that these professionals need to be educated on the issue of male sexual assault. There is a need for men and women in police departments, hospitals, and other professionals, to be trained and have sensitivity towards the physical and emotional issues that victims will face. They not only need all of the support structures that society has built for women victims, but more. While this issue is beginning to receive the attention it deserves, there is also a tremendous amount of research that still needs to be done in regards to the issue of male victims, and the treatment that they deserve. Winder (1996) states that although their is research that has already been conducted, it has only focused on investigating the characteristics and symptoms of male victims. Thus, there is a need for research that is directly focused on the effectiveness of specific techniques for treating the various issues and symptoms that adult male survivors face. This research would greatly help people understand that sexual assault does exist for males, and the trauma they suffer after an experience like that is just as bad as what female victims face. Service Improvement There is a lot that still needs to be done to improve the services that are available for male survivors. Mental health counseling does a lot for the male victims that report their assault, and

SEXUAL ASSAULT AND MALE VICTIMS

10

receive help. But, mental health counselors need proper training programs to educate them. They must do this by being provided with proper and relevant coursework and clinical training that focuses on understanding the issues that are involved in working with male sexual assault victims (Kassing et al., 2005). In addition, mental health counselors need to receive continuing education and training in this area so they can understand their clients' experiences and help provide an unbiased and effective treatment. Kassing et al., (2005) says that many male victims already harbour a great amount of shame and self-blame. So it would be beneficial to be aware of the stigma that is attached to male victims, as it would be likely to be a major topic discussed in therapy. In regards to educating the public about the prevalence of male sexual assault, it will be difficult to alter the beliefs already held by a majority of society. Male sexual assault myths are embedded in sociocultural attitudes and beliefs, and the many myths regarding male sexual assault stems from how the media portrays it. When male sexual assault is reported or depicted by the media, it is often done in a way that promotes a stereotypical view of the assault. When male sexual assault is presented in fictitious ways, it is most commonly represented in a prison setting. This portrayl of prison assault fosters the belief that most people have, that male sexual assault only happens in prison and that it is an acceptable consequence of breaking the law. This is one of the only types of violent crimes that is depicted as humours in movies and tv shows. There are many sexual assault myths that people wholeheartedly believe in today's society these include; male sexual assault is a consensual act of sex, it is exclusively just a homosexual issue, and the alleged victims are liars (Turchik et al., 2012). Kassing et al., (2005) says that because of these myths it will be difficult to change the way that women and men are socialized to think, and to challenge the traditional stereotypes and beliefs about masculinity and gender roles. In order to try and change the way that society thinks about male sexual assault, it is crucial that

SEXUAL ASSAULT AND MALE VICTIMS

11

there is more research done in this field, to educate not only professionals, but the rest of society who still believe that male sexual assault does not happen. Conclusion In the end, the impact that sexual assault has on a victim is a life changing one, and it alters the survivors existence in the world that they live in. The lived experiences of these male victims has been ignored for too long, and is only just now starting to be explored. This paper shows that the sexual assault on a male is an intrusive violation of the victims body, and it impacts all parts of their being. It's an upheaval in the survivors life, and they have to try and readapt to the new way of living in a society that is ruled by stereotypes and stigma, after their assault. There is a fear about sharing their experience, because of a fear of being judged by their friends and family, and even members of law enforcement. This paper examined what sexual assault is, in regards to male victimization and gave background on the issue, what the impact is for male victims and survivors, the service approaches that are available, and the implications of these services.

SEXUAL ASSAULT AND MALE VICTIMS

Works Cited Brennan, S., Butts-Taylor, A. (2008). Sexual assault in canada. Canadian Centre for Justice Statics, Statistics Canada. Retrieved from: http://www.statcan.gc.ca/pub/85f0033m/85f0033m2008019-eng.htm Davies, M., Pollard, P., & Archer, J. (2006). Effects of Perpetrator Gender and Victim Blame Toward Male Victims of Sexual Assault. Journal Of Social Sexuality on

12

Psychology, 146(3), 275-291.

Coxell, A. W., & King, M. B. (2010). Adult male rape and sexual assault: prevalence, re- victimisation and the tonic immobility response. Sexual & Relationship Therapy, doi:10.1080/14681991003747430 Coxell, W. A., & King, B. M. (2010). Male victims of rape and sexual abuse. Sexual & Therapy, 25(4), 380-391. doi:10.1080/14681994.2010.518725 Jamel, J., Bull, R., & Sheridan, L. (2008). An investigation of the specialist police service provided to male rape survivors. International Journal Of Police Science & 10(4), 486-508. doi:10.1350/ijps.2008.10.4.101 Kassing, L. R., Beesley, D., & Frey, L. L. (2005). Gender Role Conflict, Homophobia, Age, and Management, Relationship 25(4), 372-379.

Education as Predictors of Male Rape Myth Acceptance. Journal Of Mental Health Counseling, 27(4), 311-328. Kaszniak, A. W., Nussbaum, P. D., Berren, M. R., & Santiago, J. (1988). Amnesia as a consequence of male rape: A case report. Journal Of Abnormal Pychology, 97(1), 100-104. doi:10.1037/0021843X.97.1.100 Romano, E., & De Luca, R. V. (2005). An individual treatment programme for sexually abused adult males: description and preliminary findings. Child Abuse Review, 14(1), 40-56. doi:10.1002/car.880

SEXUAL ASSAULT AND MALE VICTIMS

Roos, V., & Katz, W. (2003). The lived experiences of male on male rape: a review article. Health SA Gesondheid, 8(4), 56-68. Rumney, P. S. (2008). Policing Male Rape and Sexual Assault. Journal Of Criminal Law, 67-86. doi:10.1350/jcla.2008.72.1.478

13

72(1),

Tewksbury, R. (2007). Effects of Sexual Assaults on Men: Physical, Mental and Sexual Consequences. International Journal Of Men's Health, 6(1), 22-35. doi:10.3149/jmh.0601.22 Psychology Of

Turchik, J. A., & Edwards, K. M. (2012). Myths about male rape: A literature review. Men & Masculinity, 13(2), 211-226. doi:10.1037/a0023207

Walker, J., Archer, J., & Davies, M. (2005). Effects of male rape on psychological functioning. British Journal Of Clinical Psychology, 44(Part 3), 445-451. Winder, J. (1996). Counseling adult male survivors of childhood sexual abuse: A review of treatment techniques. Journal Of Mental Health Counseling, 18(2), 123. Wiwanitkit, V. (2005). Male Rape, Some Notes on the Laboratory Investigation. Sexuality & Disability, 23(1), 41-46. doi:10.1007/s11195-004-2079-3

Grade: 95/100