Biotechnology

The term biotechnology refers to the use of scientific techniques, including genetic engineering, to improve or modify plants, animals, and microorganisms. In its most basic forms, biotechnology has been in use for millennia. For example, Middle Easterners who domesticated and bred deer, antelope, and sheep as early as !,""" #.$.E.% Egyptians who made wine in &"""
#.$.E.% and 'ouis (asteur,

who developed pasteurization in !) , all used

biotechnology. In recent years, however, food biotechnology has become synonymous with the terms genetically engineered foods and genetically modified organism *+M,-. Traditional biotechnology uses techniques such as crossbreeding, fermentation, and enzymatic treatments to produce desired changes in plants, animals, and foods. $rossbreeding plants or animals involves the selective passage of desirable genes from one generation to another. Microbial fermentation is used in ma.ing wine and other alcoholic beverages, yogurt, and many cheeses and breads. /sing enzymes as food additives is another traditional form of biotechnology. For example, papain, an en0yme obtained from papaya fruit, is used to tenderi0e meat and clarify beverages.

Genetic Engineering
The DNA contained in genes determines inherited characteristics. Modifying 123 to remove, add, or alter genetic information is called genetic modification or genetic engineering. In the early 4!"s, scientists developed recombinant 123 techniques that allowed them to extract 123 from one species and insert it into another. 5efinements in these techniques have allowed identification of specific genes within 1236and the transfer of that particular gene sequence of 123 into another species. For example, the genes responsible for producing insulin in humans have been isolated and inserted into bacteria. The insulin that is then produced by these bacteria, which is identical to human insulin, is then isolated and given to people who have diabetes. 7imilarly, the genes that produce chymosin, an en0yme that is involved in cheese manufacturing, have also been inserted into bacteria. 2ow, instead of having to extract chymosin from the stomachs of cows, it is made by bacteria. This type of application of

genetic engineering has not been very controversial. 8owever, applications involving the use of plants have been more controversial. 3mong the first commercial applications of genetically engineered foods was a tomato in which the gene that produces the en0yme responsible for softening was turned off. The tomato could then be allowed to ripen on the vine without getting too soft to be pac.ed and shipped. 3s of 9""9, over forty food crops had been modified using recombinant 123 technology, including pesticide:resistant soybeans, virus:resistant squash, frost:resistant strawberries, corn and potatoes containing a natural pesticide, and rice containing beta:carotene. $onsumer negativity toward biotechnology is increasing, not only in the /nited 7tates, but also in the /nited ;ingdom, <apan, +ermany, and France, despite increased consumer .nowledge of biotechnology. The principle ob=ections to biotechnology and foods produced using genetic modification are> concern about possible harm to human health *such as allergic responses to a ?foreign gene?-, possible negative impact to the environment, a general unease about the ?unnatural? status of biotechnology, and religious concerns about modification.

Biotechnology in Animals
The most controversial applications of biotechnology involve the use of animals and the transfer of genes from animals to plants. The first animal:based application of biotechnology was the approval of the use of bacterially

7cientists inserted daffodil genes and other genetic material into ordinary rice to ma.e this golden rice. The result is a strain of rice that provides vitamin 3, a nutrient missing from the diets of many people who depend on rice as a food staple. @3(ABide Borld (hotos. 5eproduced by permission.C

produced bovine somatotropin *b7T- in dairy cows. #ovine somatotropin, a naturally occurring hormone, increases mil. production. This application has not been commercially successful, however, primarily because of its expense. The cloning of animals is another potential application of biotechnology. Most experts believe that animal applications of biotechnology will occur slowly because of the social and ethical concerns of consumers.

Concerns about Food Production

7ome concerns about the use of biotechnology for food production include possible allergic reactions to the transferred protein. For example, if a gene from #ra0il nuts that produces an allergen were transferred to soybeans, an individual who is allergic to #ra0il nuts might now also be allergic to soybeans. 3s a result, companies in the /nited 7tates that develop genetically engineered foods must demonstrate to the /.7. Food and 1rug 3dministration *F13- that

they did not transfer proteins that could result in food allergies. Bhen, in fact, a company attempted to transfer a gene from #ra0il nuts to soybeans, the companyDs tests revealed that they had transferred a gene for an allergen, and wor. on the pro=ect was halted. In 9""" a brand of taco shells was discovered to contain a variety of genetically engineered corn that had been approved by the F13 for use in animal feed, but not for human consumption. 3lthough several antibiotechnology groups used this situation as an example of potential allergenicity stemming from the use of biotechnology, in this case the protein produced by the genetically modified gene was not an allergen. This incident also demonstrated the difficulties in .eeping trac. of a genetically modified food that loo.s identical to the unmodified food. ,ther concerns about the use of recombinant 123 technology include potential losses of biodiversity and negative impacts on other aspects of the environment.

afety and !abeling

In the /nited 7tates, the F13 has ruled that foods produced though biotechnology require the same approval process as all other food, and that there is no inherent health ris. in the use of biotechnology to develop plant food products. Therefore, no label is required simply to identify foods as products of biotechnology. Manufacturers bear the burden of proof for the safety of the food. To assist them with this, the F13 developed a decision:tree approach that allows food processors to anticipate safety concerns and .now when to consult the F13 for guidance. The decision tree focuses on to"icants that are characteristic of each species involved% the potential for transferring food allergens from one food source to another% the concentration and bioavailability of nutrients in the food% and the safety and nutritional value of newly introduced proteins.

Biotechnology and Global #ealth

The Borld 8ealth ,rgani0ation estimates that more than ! million lives could be saved by 9" " by combating infectious diseases and malnutrition through developments in biotechnology. 3 study conducted by the <oint $entre for #ioethics at the /niversity of Toronto identified biotechnologies with the greatest potential to improve global health, including the following>

8and:held devices to test for infectious diseases including 8IE and malaria. 5esearchers in 'atin 3merica have already made brea.throughs with such devices in combating dengue fever.

+enetically engineered vaccines that are cheaper, safer, and more effective in fighting 8IEA3I17, malaria, tuberculosis, cholera, hepatitis, and other ailments. Edible vaccines could be incorporated into potatoes and other foods.

1rug delivery alternatives to needle in=ections, such as inhalable or powdered drugs.

+enetically modified bacteria and plants to clean up contaminated air, water, and soil.

Eaccines and microbicides to help prevent sexually transmitted diseases in women.

$omputeri0ed tools to mine genetic data for indications of how to prevent and cure diseases.

+enetically modified foods with greater nutritional value.

Paula Kepos 'abeling of genetically modified foods has spar.ed additional debate. 'abels are required on food produced through biotechnology to inform consumers of any potential health or safety ris.. For example, a label is required if a potential allergen is introduced into a food product. 3 label is also required if a food is transformed so that its nutrient content no longer resembles the original food. For example, so:called golden rice has been genetically engineered to have a higher concentration of beta:carotene than regular rice, and thus it must be included on the label. In response to consumer demands, regulators in England have instituted mandatory labeling laws for all pac.aged foods and menus containing genetically modified ingredients. 7imilar but less restrictive laws have been instituted in <apan. In $anada, the policy on labeling has remained similar to that of the /nited 7tates. 7ome consumer advocates maintain that not requiring a label on all genetically modified foods violates consumersD right to ma.e informed food choices, and many producers of certain foods, such as foods containing soy protein, now include the term ?non:+M,? on the label to indicate that the product does not contain genetically modified ingredients. The application of recombinant 123 technology to foods, commonly called biotechnology, may be viewed as an extension of traditional cross:breeding and fermentation techniques. The technology enables scientists to transfer genetic material from one species to another, and may produce food crops and animals that are different than those obtained using traditional techniques. The F13 has established procedures for approval of food products manufactured using recombinant 123 technology that require food producers to demonstrate the safety of their products. The 3merican 1ietetic 3ssociation, the 3merican Medical 3ssociation, and the Borld 8ealth ,rgani0ation have each adopted statements that techniques of biotechnology may have the potential to improve the food supply. These organi0ations and others ac.nowledge that long:term

health and environmental impacts of the technology are not .nown, and they encourage continual monitoring of potential impacts.
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Bibliography
3ltman, 3rie, ed. * 44!-. Agricultural Biotechnology. 2ew For.> Marcel 1e..er. <ohnson:+reen, (erry *9""9-. Introduction to ood Biotechnology. #oca 5aton, F'> $5$ (ress. 7erageldin, Ismail * 444-. ?#iotechnology and Food 7ecurity in the 9 st $entury.? !cience 9!G>H!IJH!4.