Ocen Exploration -term of biography describing the exploration of ocean surfaces and the period when people explored

the ocean
fishes. 1. Notable explorers include: 1. 2. 3. 4. The Greeks Egyptians Polynesians Phytheas 5. Herodotus 6. Vikings 7. Portugese 8. Christopher Columbus

2. Early scientists that began scientific investigation: 1. James cook 2. Charles Darwin 3. Edmund Halley

3. Development in Ocean Exploration: 1. 2. 3. Ship building Diving Navigation 4. 5. 6. Depth measurement Exploration and cartography

EARLY EXPLORATIONS
a.) 150 BCE Ptolemy- produces a map of the Roman world. Including: 1. lines of latitude and longitude, 2. the continents of Asia, Europe, and Africa and the surrounding oceans b.) 240BCE Eratosthenes of Alexandria, Egypt - determines circumference of the Earth using angles of shadows in Syene and Alexandria. c.) 325 BCE Pytheas - developed the use of sightings on the North Star to determine latitude. d.) 500-200 BCE Greeks - developed trade routes in the Mediterranean using the length of the day (corrected for the time of the year) to estimate latitude. d.) 600 BC Phoenicians - developed sea routes around the entire Mediterranean and into the Red Sea and the Indian Ocean. - understood celestial navigation, but stayed within sight of land whenever possible. e.) 1800 BC Egypt done basic measuring of depths f.) 3829 BC Coastal cultures (Greece and China) - dive into the sea as a source of food, gathering commerce and

warfare.

g.) 4000 BC Egyptians - developed sailing vessels, used only in the eastern Mediterranean near the mouth of the Nile River h.) 4000 BC 1000AD Polynesian colonization of South Pacific Islands

i.) 900-1430 Vikings - explore and colonize Greenland, Iceland, Newfoundland j.) 1002 CE Leif Erikson - reaches North America 500 years before Columbus. k.)1405-1433 Chinese - send seven voyages to extend Chinese influence and impress their neighbour states by Zheng He (13711433).

From Age of Exploration to present

1.) 1492-1504 Christopher Columbus - reaches America looking for a searoute to the Indies - discovering lands and islands and establishing a colony on Hispaniola 2.) 1498 Vasco da Gama - sails around Africa from Portugal reaching India - establishing trade routes 3.) 1499-1504 Amerigo Vespucci - explores New World 4.) 1519-1522 Ferdinand Magellan's - ships circumnavigate the world. 5.) 1620 Cornelis Drebbel -builds the world's first submarine -makes several trips in the River Thames at depth of about 12 or 15 feet. 6.) 1698-1700 Edmund Halley - first primarily scientific voyage to study the variation of the magnetic compass, sailing as far as 52 deg S. in the Atlantic Ocean. - expedition to St. Helena, he made an important contribution to knowledge of the trade winds 7.) 1768-1780 James Cook -explores the southern parts of the oceans looking for the southern continent. - first to use a marine chronometer to determine longitude. 8.) 1785 Benjamin Franklin - writes Sundry Marine Observations on improvements to ships and the Gulf Stream. 9.) 1831-1836 Charles Darwin -sails on the Beagle, exploring the Galapagos -which led him to develop the concepts of natural selection and evolution

10.) 1860 U.S. Coast Survey. - published the first chart of the Gulf Stream -Surface temperature in the western North Atlantic. North America is black and dark blue (cold) -the Gulf Stream red (warm). Source: NASA 11.) 1872-1876 The H.M.S. Challenger -travels around the world on a scientific mission - taking sediment samples, water samples, soundings, and collecting many biological specimens. 12.) 1960 Bathyscaphe Trieste - dives the believed deepest point in the Mariana Trench -depth of 10,915 meters

A HISTORY OF THE STUDY OF MARINE BIOLOGY

1. Begun ocean voyage as early as 1200 BC when the Phoenicians using celestial navigation. 2. Homeric poems "The Iliad" and "The Odyssey" greek mythology mystery of the sea which transportation and food source. 3. Aristotle identified crustaceans, echinoderms, mollusks, and fish in 384 322 BC. He recognized that cetaceans are mammals and marine vertebrates are either oviparous (producing eggs that hatch outside the body) or viviparous (producing eggs that hatch within the body). Because of this first observation in marine life he is referred as the father of marine biology.

The Early Expeditions

1.) CAPTAIN JAMES COOK [1728-1779 (18TH CENTURY)] -known for his extensive voyages of discovery for the British Navy - map much of the world's uncharted waters - circumnavigated the world twice which he logged descriptions of numerous plants and animals unknown to most of mankind. 2.) CHARLES DARWIN (1809-1882) -resident naturalist aboard HMS Beagle (1831 to 1836) spent collecting and studying specimens from a number of marine organisms that were sent to the British Museum for cataloguing. - his experience on the HMS Beagle helped Darwin formulate his theories of natural selection and evolution based on the similarities he found in species specimens and fossils he discovered in the same geographic region -his interest in geology gave rise to his study of coral reefs and their formation.

3.) SIR CHARLES WYVILLE THOMSON (1830-1882) -led HMS CHALLEGER - all the oceans of the world during which thousands of marine specimens were collected and analyzed. Voyage referred to as the birth of oceanography. - collected during this trip filled 50 volumes and served as the basis for the study of marine biology - Deep sea exploration was a benchmark of the Challenger's voyage disproving British explorer Edward Forbes' theory that marine life could not exist below about 550 m or 1,800 feet.

FINDINGS:
1.) 4,717 new species; 2.) The first systematic plot of currents and temperatures in the ocean; 3.) A map of bottom deposits much of which has remained current to the present; 4.) An outline of the main contours of the ocean basins; and 5.) The discovery of the mid-Atlantic Ridge

Report of Important Work Still Used by Scientist Today:

-Sir Thomson also wrote a book about the voyage "The Depths of the Sea" and "The Voyage of the Challenger"in 1877.

The Institutions
( These expeditions were soon followed by marine laboratories established to study marine life ) 1. Station Biologique de Roscoff - The oldest marine station in the world established in Concarneau, northwest coast France founded by the College of France in 1859. -established for the cultivation of marine species, such as Dover sole, because of its location near marine estuaries with a variety of marine life. -Today, research is conducted on molecular biology, biochemistry, and environmental studies. US Commission of Fish and Fisheries (now known as the National Marine Fisheries Service ) - the oldest fisheries research facility in the world. - led by Spencer Fullerton Baird in 1871, the first director of the began a collection station in Woods Hole, Massachusetts because of the abundant marine life there and to investigate declining fish stocks. Marine Biological Laboratory (MBL) -established by Alpheus Hyatt in 1888 at Woods Hole - established the first seaside school of natural history on an island near Woods Hole. - designed as a summer program for the study of the biology of marine life for the purpose of basic research and education.

2.

3.

4. Woods Hole Oceanographic Institute -established by Dr. William E. Ritter, in 1903 at San Diego -in response to the National Academy of Science's call for "the share of the United States of America in a worldwide program of oceanographic research" and was funded by a $3 million grant by the Rockefeller Foundation. - which became part of the University of California in 1912 and was named the Scripps Institution of Oceanography - become one of the world's leading institutions offering a multi-disciplinary study of oceanography.

Exploration of the Deep Sea

1.) Bathysphere -William Beebe and Otis Barton in 1934 -descended 923 m/3,028 ft below the surface off the coast of Bermuda -designed and funded by Barton. - Beebe was able to observe deep sea life in its own environment rather than in a specimen jar. -depth record was in 1948 when Barton made a bathysphere dive to 1,372 m/4,500 ft. -Although he was criticized for failing to publish results in professional journals, but his vivid descriptions of the bathysphere dives in the books he published inspired some of today's greatest oceanographers and marine biologists.

2.) Mariana Trench -descent was made to 10,916 m/35,813 ft in the Challenger Deep in 1960 -the deepest known point in the oceans, 10,924 m/35,838 ft deep at its maximum, -near 11 22'N 142 36'E -about 200 miles southwest of Guam.

3.) Bathyscape Trieste -first dive was made in 1953 -was used for a number of oceanographic research projects of biological observation - was chartered and later purchased by the U.S. Navy in 1957 -later used for a submarine recovery mission off the U.S. east coast ; on exhibit at theWashington Naval Historical Center

THE SCIENTISTS
1.) RACHEL CARSON (1907-1964) SCIENTIST AND WRITER -brought the wonders of the sea to people with her lyrical writings and observations about the sea. -was a biologist for the US Fish and Wildlife Service - devoted her spare time to translating science into writings that would infect the reader with her sense of wonder and respect for nature. -published an article in Atlantic Monthly titled "Undersea" in 1937 and "Under the Sea-Wind in 1941 described the sea and the life within it. "The Sea Around Us" in 1951 a prize-winning bestseller on the history of the sea. -the success of this book allowed her to resign from federal service and write full-time. -after, her focus turned to the negative impact of pesticides, a cause to which she remained devoted to by fighting to raise public awareness until her death in 1964.

2.)DR. SYLVIA EARLE (1935 ) -inspired by Willian Beebe - work as an oceanographer at age of 3 when she was knocked off her feet by a wave. -fascinated by the ocean and its creatures growing up near the shore in New Jersey and later in Florida on the Gulf of Mexico. - studies with marine botany based on her belief that vegetation is the foundation of any ecosystem. -while four months pregnant, Earle traveled 30.5 m/100 ft below the surface in a submersible. -Smithsonian Institute in 1969, the call for proposals Earle submitted a proposal to use the opportunity to study the ecology of marine plants and fishes in great detail by combining her observations with those of the ichthyologists on board. Unfortunately deemed due to other applicants were male. -Her request to be a part of the Tektite I mission was rejected; however, the Smithsonian later proposed an all-female Tektite II mission which Earle became a part of. -in 1979 she broke the record for deep diving at 381 m/1,250 ft below the surface with her designed special suit the Jim suit designed to withstand the pressure. - Her record has not been broken. Earle decided to test the Jim suit as part of her research on a book published by National Geographic "Exploring the Deep Frontier", and out of her frustration that scuba diving techniques only scratched the surface of the ocean. -During the 1990s, Earle served as Chief Scientist for the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) . -she is currently an Explorer-in-Residence with National Geographic , and, in addition to her research, remains committed to raising awareness on marine environmental issues. 3.) Dr. Robert Ballard (1942) -known for finding the TITANIC using Argo/Jason a remotely operated vehicles and the technology that transmits video images from the deep sea. -first discovered hydrothermal vents during an exploration in a manned submersible of the Mid-Ocean Ridge. -founded the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution's Deep Submergence Laboratory and spent 30 years there working on the use of manned submersibles. -He created a distance-learning program with more than one million students enrolled, taught by more than 30,000 science teachers worldwide.

EXPLORERS
1.) Jacques Cousteau (1910 1997) -The advent of SCUBA diving -He was determined to safely breath compressed air underwater in order to lengthen dive times. -work with Emil Gagnan which led to the invention of the regulator which releases compressed air tanks allowed Costeau the freedom to film underwater -produced the Academy Award winning The Silent World in 1950 -series "Cousteau Odyssey in 1970 -was criticized for his lack of scientific credentials, however his legacy fostered a greater knowledge and understanding of the devastation caused by threats to ocean health such as pollution of marine resources and resource exploitation.

2.) Dr. Hans Hass (1919) - Cousteau's Austrian counterpart, introduce underwater world to the public. - Hass and his wife Lotte were both passionate about underwater exploration and protection of the marine environment, - invented one of the first underwater flash cameras and contributed to the development of the Drager oxygen rebreather which used in 1942 to film "Men Amongst Sharks" and continued to use on diving expeditions aboard their research vessel "Xarifa" in the Red Sea and Caribbean. -first humans to interact with a sperm whale underwater

THE FUTURE
1) 1.ocean exploration are nearly infinite. 2) In addition to scuba diving, rebreathers, fast computers, remotely-operated vehicles (ROVs), deep sea submersibles, reinforced diving suits, and satellites, other technologies are also being developed. 3) But interdisciplinary research is needed to continue building our understanding of the ocean, and what needs to be done to protect it. 4) In spite of on going technological advances, it is estimated that only 5% of the oceans have been explored. 5) Surprisingly, we know more about the moon than we do the ocean. This needs to change if we are to ensure the longevity of the life in the seasand they cover 71% of the earth's surface. Unlike the moon, they are our backyard. 6) Without a detailed collective understanding of the ramifications of pollution, overfishing, coastal development, as well as the long-term sustainability of ocean oxygen production and carbon dioxide and monoxide absorption, we face great risks to environmental and human health. 7) We need this research so that we can act on potential problems not react to them when it is already too late. 8) Fortunately, thanks to the work of past and present ocean explorers, the public is increasingly aware of these risks which encourage public agencies to take action and promote research. 9) The efforts of public agencies using a multi-disciplinary approach, together with the efforts provided by numerous private marine conservation organizations that work on issues such as advocacy, education, and research, will help drive the momentum needed to face the challenges of preserving the ocean.