Chapter 8.

3 SYSTEMS ENGINEERING
ST A N L E Y C. SU B O L E S K I , RO B E R T E. CA M E R O N ,
AND

ER I C K. AL B E R T

8.3.1 INTRODUCTION
As Mutmansky (1973) has noted, The terms systems engineering, systems analysis, and operations research, common in todays technical literature, often are interchanged because of their similar meaning. However, some differences exist . . . He then defines each term as follows. Systems engineering is the conception, planning, design, and engineering of any system of interacting elements so that the objective of the system is automatically optimized. Thus systems engineering normally is concerned with systems not yet activated. Systems analysis may be described as a scientific method of making decisions based on a quantitative or other objective evaluation of all action alternatives. It is very similar to systems engineering, but usually is not considered to be restricted to problems of design prior to use. While the previous two disciplines are somewhat vague and can encompass a great variety of engineering functions, operations research can be more specifically defined as the application of mathematical models to the problem of optimizing the objective of any predefined system. Mutmansky further listed the techniques of operations research. This is largely reproduced as Table 8.3.1. The techniques of operations research and systems engineering most widely used in practice within the mining industry are as follows: 1. Stochastic simulation. 2. Linear programming. 3. Network analysis/CPM (critical path method)/PERT (project evaluation and review technique). 4. Optimum pit limit techniques. 5. Nonstochastic modeling or simulation. 6. Structural/regression models. 7. Control charts. 8. Mixed-integer programming. This chapter covers the principles of these systems used most widely in practice, along with applications and limitations of

Communications).

8.3.1.1 General Method of Solution

Scientific problem solving comprises the following general steps: 1. Definition of the problem. 2. Construction of a model of the system. 3. Gathering data. 4. Testing of the model under known conditions. 5. Solution of the problem using the model. 6. Implementing the solution. Often systems engineering problems are ill-defined or of such complexity that classical methods of solution cannot readily be applied. Direct optimization may not be possible; aid for making intelligent decisions may be the best that can be hoped for.

8.3.2 DATA COLLECTION

Often the most difficult part of systems engineering is the collection of data. Data are of four types (Manula, 1979): 1. Static data that do not change with time and space, e.g., length, weight, and capacity of a vehicle. 2. Kinematic data that deal with the motion of objects in time and space, e.g., speeds of trucks, shuttle cars, locomotives, etc. 3. Dynamic data that may change over time but do not necessarily involve space, e.g., methane emission, airflow rates in ventilation, etc. 4. Statistical data that deal with factors that follow no predictable pattern but can be studied using probability and statistical theory and by particular arrangement of measurements. The most difficult problem lies in collecting statistical data. These problems concern determining: 1. What method to use. 2. When enough samples have been collected. 3. Whether to alter the raw data. 4. How to validate the data.

Table 8.3.1. Compilation of th e More Common Operations Research Techniques

Lagrange multipliers Mathematical programming methods; Linear programming Parametric programming Nonlinear programming Stochastic programming Simulation methods Multistage optimization methods: Markov processes Dynamic programming Maximum principles of Pontryagin Queuing theory Expert systems
Source:

8.3.2.1 Collection Method

Generally the method of collection of kinematic or statistical data involves time studies or work sampling. The latter (also known as a ratio-delay study) is a sampling technique used to study ele ments that occur infrequently, thus making continuous observation impractical. Here the machines are observed at random intervals over a long period of time, and the percentage of time that the infrequent event (such as a specific type of breakdown) occurs is determined statistically. Note that often historical records, such as breakdown reports, can be used to collect these data as well. At times, these records may be of doubtful accuracy, and work sampling may be used to validate the data.

Game theory Utility and decision theory Inventory theory Response surface methods; Search methods Evolutionary operation (EVOP) Simplex self-directing evolutionary operations (SSDEVOP) Sequencing theory Network analysis: Project evaluation and review technique (PERT) Critical path method (CPM)

After Mutmansky, 1973.

each. Examples of applications are also included in appropriate chapters of this Handbook, for example, 8.4 (Computer Methods), 9.4 (Cycles and Systems), and 12.6 (Monitoring, Control, and