Fatigue Crack Propagation in Functionally Graded Materials

A Thesis
By

Matthew T. Tilbrook

Submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for Doctor of Philosophy School of Materials Science & Engineering, University of New South Wales

2005

Supervisor:

Mark Hoffman

Acknowledgements
A great debt of thanks is owed to all those who assisted in this project. In particular: My supervisor, A/Prof. Mark Hoffman, for providing the opportunity to work on this project, for being a great mentor and intellectual sparring partner, and for tolerating my non-linear approach to both problems and schedules; Dr Robert Moon, my co-supervisor, upon whom I could always rely for advice and assistance, especially in laboratory and editing matters; Lyndal Rutgers, my FGMs partner-in-crime, who paved the way in the lab and with whom I shared many a fruitful discussion;

The technical staff who enabled things to happen in the labs: John Sharp, John Budden, Brian Cooper, Yu Wang, Cathy Lau, Jane Gao. The School of Materials Science and Engineering for administrative, facilities and general support, particularly Chris, Lana, Flora, Julie, Owen and Alan. Lab and office colleagues over the years: Pond, Pom, Richie, the Daves, Kong Meng, Sven, Achim, Frieder, Peter, Rezan, Jacob, Singh.

My very kind hosts and collaborators in the US and Germany: Ivar Reimanis at Colorado School of Mines, Eric Steffler at Idaho National Laboratory, Keith Rozenburg at CSM/INL, Keith Bowman at Purdue University, Brian Cox at Rockwell Scientific, Jurgen Rdel & group at TU Darmstadt, Achim Neubrand at Fraunhofer IWM Freiburg; The organisers of the conferences I was fortunate enough to attend, and reviewers of conference and journal papers for their valuable feedback, which has contributed to this thesis;

The Australian Research Council for funding the project and providing APA scholarship;

And, with the utmost gratitude, my parents, family and friends, particularly my wonderful girlfriend, Maarinke, for their support and encouragement.

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Abstract
Functionally graded materials (FGMs), those materials which exhibit a spatial variation in composition and properties, have the potential to improve component performance in a range of industrial, aerospace and biomedical applications. Despite the considerable advances in understanding of functionally graded materials over the past decade, several key areas require further work, in particular their fatigue behaviour and expected crack propagation paths.

In the present study, propagation of cracks in FGMs under cyclic loading was investigated via experiments and finite element (FE) analysis. Alumina-epoxy composites with an interpenetrating-network structure and tailored spatial variation in composition were produced via a multi-step infiltration technique. Compressed polyurethane foam was infiltrated with alumina slip. After foam burn-out and sintering, epoxy was infiltrated into the porous alumina body. Non-graded specimens with a range of compositions were produced, and elastic properties and fatigue behaviour were characterised. An increase in crack propagation resistance under cyclic loading was quantified via a novel analytical approach. Results from homogeneous specimens were utilised for estimating spatial property distribution and crack-extension effect in the graded specimens. Cracks were initiated in graded specimens and propagated under cyclic four-point bend loading and crack trajectories and growth rates were measured.

A simulation platform was developed with the commercial FE package ANSYS. Material gradient was applied via nodal temperature definitions. Stress intensity factors were calculated from nodal displacements near the crack-tip. Deflection criteria were compared and the local symmetry criterion provided the most accurate and efficient predictions. An automated mesh-redefinition algorithm enabled incremental simulation of crack propagation. Effects of gradient and crack-geometry parameters on crack-tip stresses were investigated, along with influences of crack-shape, crack-bridging, residual

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stresses and plasticity. The model provided predictions and data analysis for experimental specimens.

Fatigue cracks in graded specimens deflected due to elastic property mismatch, concordant with FE predictions. In other FGMs, thermal or plastic properties may dominate deflection behaviour. Weaker step-interfaces influenced crack paths in some specimens; otherwise effects of toughness variation and gradient steps on crack path were negligible. Crack shape has an influence, but this is secondary to that of elastic gradient. Cracks in FGM specimens initially experienced increase in fatigue resistance with crackextension followed by sudden decreases at step-interfaces. Bridging had a notable effect on crack propagation resistance but not on crack path. Similarly, crack paths did not differ between monotonic and cyclic loading, although crack-extension effects did.

Recommendations for analysis and optimisation strategies for other FGM systems are given. Experimental characterization of FGMs is important, rather than relying on theoretical models. Opportunities for optimization of graded structures are limited by the properties of the constituent materials and resultant general crack deflection behaviour.

List of publications & presentations associated with this work

Journal Articles 1. Tilbrook MT, Moon RJ, Hoffman M. Crack Propagation in Graded Composites, Compos. Sci. Technol. 2005; 65(2): 201-220. 2. Tilbrook MT, Moon RJ, Hoffman M. On the Mechanical Properties of AluminaEpoxy Composites with an Interpenetrating Network Structure. Mat. Sci. Engrg. A 2005; 393(1-2): 170-8. 3. Tilbrook MT, Moon RJ, Hoffman, M., Finite Element Analysis of Crack-Tip Stresses and Crack Propagation in Functionally Graded Materials, Engrg. Fract. Mech. (in publication) 2005. 4. Tilbrook MT, Reimanis IE, Hoffman M. Finite Element Simulations of Cracks near Interfaces: Effects of Thermal, Elastic and Plastic Mismatch. J. Am. Ceram. Soc. (in publication) 2005. 5. Tilbrook MT, Hoffman M. Approximation of Curved Cracks under Mixed-Mode Loading. Int. J. Fract., 2005 (in review). 6. Tilbrook MT, Moon RJ, Hoffman M. Curved crack propagation in homogeneous and graded materials. Fatigue Fract. Engrg. Mat. Struct. (in publication) 2005. 7. Tilbrook MT, Hoffman M. Crack-growth simulations with the local symmetry criterion. Engrg. Fract. Mech., 2005 (in publication). 8. Tilbrook MT, Rutgers L, Moon RJ, Hoffman M. Fatigue crack propagation resistance in homogeneous and graded alumina-epoxy composites. Int. J. Fatigue 2005 (in review). 9. Tilbrook MT, Reimanis IE, Rozenburg K, M. Hoffman. Effects of plastic yielding on crack propagation near ductile/brittle interfaces. Acta mater. (in publication) 2005. 10. Moon RJ, Tilbrook MT, Hoffman M, and Neubrand A. Al-Al2O3 Composites with Interpenetrating Network Structures: Composite Modulus Estimation. J. Am. Ceram. Soc., 2005; 88(3): 666-674. 11. Tilbrook MT, Rozenburg K, Steffler ED, Rutgers L, Hoffman M. Crack paths in layered graded ceramic composites. Compos. B: Engrg. (in publication) 2005. 12. Rutgers L, Tilbrook MT, Moon RJ, Hoffman M. Effective Fracture Toughness of Graded Alumina-Epoxy Composites. Acta materialia (in preparation) 2005. vi

Conference Papers 13. Tilbrook MT, Moon RJ, Hoffman M. Crack Propagation in Graded AluminaPolyester Composites. Proceedings Int. Conf. Struct. Integr. Fract., Perth, 2002. 14. Tilbrook MT, Rutgers L, Moon RJ and Hoffman M. Fatigue Crack Propagation in Graded Composites. Proc. Aust. Conf. Comp. Mat., Sydney, 2004. 15. Tilbrook MT, Rutgers L, Moon RJ and Hoffman M. Effective thermomechanical properties of interpenetrating-structured composites. Proc. Aust. Conf. Comp. Mat., Sydney, 2004. 16. Tilbrook MT, Rutgers L, Moon RJ and Hoffman M. Fracture and Fatigue Crack Propagation in Graded Composites. Proc. Multifunctional & Functionally Graded Materials 2004, Leuven; Materials Science Forum 2005; 492-493: 573-580. 17. Tilbrook MT, Moon RJ, and Hoffman M. Propagation of curved cracks in homogeneous and graded materials. Proc. Euro. Conf. Fract., Stockholm, 2004. 18. Tilbrook MT, Rutgers L, Moon RJ, and Hoffman M. Effective crack-propagation resistance under monotonic and cyclic loading. Proc. Int. Conf. Struct. Integr. Fract., Brisbane, 2004. 19. Tilbrook MT and Hoffman M. Implementation of the local symmetry criterion for crack-growth simulations. Proc. Int. Conf. Struct. Integr. Fract., Brisbane, 2004. 20. I. E. Reimanis, M. Tilbrook, K. Rozenburg, M. Hoffman. Effects of plasticity and residual stress for cracks near interfaces. European Conference on Fracture, 2006.

Prize Best student paper, Crack Propagation in Graded Alumina-Polyester Composites. International Conference on Structural Integrity and Fracture, Perth, 2002.

Invited Presentations Rockwell Scientific, Thousand Oaks, California, USA, June 2, 2004 School of Materials Engineering, Purdue University, Indiana, USA, June 29, 2004 School of Materials Science, Technical University of Darmstadt, Germany, July 20, 2004 Fraunhofer Institute for Material Mechanics, Freiburg, Germany, July 23, 2004

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List of symbols
*, A ao ak b C E E* g Gc J Kbr K Kc kI,kII Kr l n tip effective, auxiliary property Paris law coefficient initial crack length test-kink length geometric length compliance angular refinement width error corrected Youngs modulus effective Youngs modulus strain angular function for displacement toughness (critical MERR) domain boundary of J-integral loading angle J-integral SIF due to bridging stress intensity factor (SIF) toughness (critical SIF) kink-tip SIFs residual stress SIF contribution characteristic gradient length property smoothing length shear modulus normal vector crack angle crack-tip Poissons ratio a a C E Etip crack length crack extension increment CTE exponential gradient parameter compliance tensor Kronecker delta Youngs modulus crack-tip Youngs modulus

E1,E2 Youngs moduli f G h Ko Kappl K KR L m n N P angular function for stress mechanical energy release rate gradient parameter height of specimen relative crack position intrinsic toughness (critical SIF) Applied SIF SIFs in Modes I, II and III

KI,KII,KIII

SIF amplitude total critical SIF relaxation volume specimen length Paris law exponent gradient profile exponent number of cycles Poissons ratio load viii

P R RE rc r o t T v v1,v2 W x1

ellipsoid polarisation tensor load ratio Youngs modulus ratio critical length scale stress remanent strength bridging stress specimen thickness change in temperature crack-sliding displacement volume fractions of phase 1 and 2 energy density position ellipsoid shape factor

p, px R rn S R T NT T u v w Y

bridging traction crack-growth resistance notch-root radius strain energy density residual stress parallel stress notch-tip stress temperature displacement volume fraction gradient width domain of J-integral geometry factor mode-mixity

Frequently-Used Abbreviations

FGM SIF EMA FEA MTS MERR IPN INS

functionally graded material stress intensity factor effective medium approximation finite element analysis maximum tangential stress maximum energy release rate interpenetrating network interpenetrating network structure

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TABLE of CONTENTS

Certificate of Originality Acknowledgements Abstract List of publications and presentations associated with this work List of symbols Table of Contents

ii iii iv vi viii x

Introduction 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 Functionally Graded Materials Crack Propagation Cracks in graded materials Present Study Thesis Outline

1-1 1-2 1-2 1-4 1-7 1-8

Literature Review 2.1 Graded Materials 2.1.1 Applications & Processing 2.1.2 Gradient Description 2.2 Composite Materials & Properties 2.2.1 IPN Composites 2.2.2 First- & Second-Order Bounds 2.2.3 Unit-cell Models 2.2.4 Effective Medium Approximation 2.2.5 Computational Approaches 2.2.6 Predictions 2.2.7 Heterogeneity 2.2.8 Materials containing Damage 2.3 Mechanics of Cracks 2.3.1 Stress Fields 2.3.2 Energetic Considerations 2.3.3 Fracture Mechanics Methods 2.3.4 Fracture Testing 2.3.5 Crack Deflection 2.3.6 Deviant Cracks 2.4 Crack Propagation Processes 2.4.1 Intrinsic Toughness 2.4.2 R-curve effects

2-1 2-1 2-2 2-5 2-9 2-10 2-12 2-14 2-15 2-18 2-19 2-20 2-21 2-22 2-23 2-27 2-29 2-32 2-34 2-38 2-41 2-41 2-44 x

2.4.3 Crack-Bridging 2.4.4 Fatigue 2.4.5 Bridging and fatigue 2.5 Cracks in Interfacial and Layered Materials 2.5.1 Stresses near interfaces 2.5.2 Cracks at interfaces 2.5.3 Cracks near interfaces 2.5.4 Cracks in layered materials 2.6 Cracks in Graded Materials 2.6.1 Stress singularity 2.6.2 Stress field asymmetry 2.6.3 Calculation of stress intensity factors 2.7 Crack propagation parallel to gradient 2.7.1 Stress intensity factor calculations 2.7.2 Intrinsic fracture toughness variation 2.7.3 Variation in crack-extension toughening 2.7.4 Residual stress distributions 2.7.5 Resultant fracture behaviour 2.8 Crack propagation perpendicular to gradient 2.8.1 Stress intensity factor calculations 2.8.2 Crack deflection 2.8.3 Resultant fracture behaviour 2.8.4 Crack propagation path 2.9 Fatigue in graded materials 2.10 Final remarks

2-46 2-52 2-55 2-58 2-60 2-61 2-63 2-66 2-70 2-71 2-72 2-73 2-77 2-77 2-81 2-82 2-84 2-85 2-88 2-89 2-93 2-94 2-96 2-98 2-100

Investigation 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 Outstanding issues Hypotheses Approach Framework

3-1 3-1 3-3 3-4 3-6

Procedures 4.1 Sample processing 4.1.1 Foam preparation 4.1.2 Slip-casting & drying 4.1.3 Foam burn-out & sintering 4.1.4 Polymer infiltration 4.1.5 Grinding 4.1.6 Polishing 4.1.7 Cutting 4.1.8 Other specimens 4.2 Microstructural analysis

4-1 4-1 4-2 4-3 4-5 4-6 4-7 4-7 4-8 4-8 4-10 xi

4.3 4.4 4.5 4.6

Elastic property characterisation Fatigue testing Moir Interferometry Computational Procedures

4-15 4-16 4-20 4-21

Computational Simulations: Methods & Validation 5.1 5.2 Methods Modelling Issues 5.2.1 Application of material gradient 5.2.2 Calculation of fracture parameters 5.2.3 Simulation of crack propagation 5.3 Validation of simulation methods 5.4 Implementation of the local symmetry criterion 5.4.1 Stress intensity factors for kinked cracks 5.4.2 Finite element implementation 5.4.3 Crack growth simulations 5.4.4 Further remarks 5.5 Experimental specimens: Simulations & data analysis

5-1 5-2 5-6 5-6 5-7 5-9 5-12 5-18 5-18 5-22 5-24 5-28 5-31

Simulation Results: Effect of Elastic Gradient 6.1 Straight cracks: Fracture parameters 6.1.1 Effect of crack position 6.1.2 Stepped & continuous gradients 6.1.3 Effects of gradient steepness & shape 6.1.4 Effect of crack length 6.1.5 Generalised gradient effect Propagating cracks Toughness influences Prior to initiation Summary

6-1 6-1 6-1 6-3 6-4 6-9 6-10 6-11 6-17 6-23 6-26 7-1 7-1 7-3 7-5 7-6 7-7 7-10 7-18 7-26 7-29

6.2 6.3 6.4 6.5 7

Simulation Results: Effect of Crack Shape 7.1 Quantifying crack shape 7.2 Analytical model 7.2.1 Mechanical energy release rate 7.2.2 Deflection angle 7.3 FE Simulations 7.4 Results: Curved cracks in homogeneous materials 7.5 Results: Curved cracks in graded materials 7.6 Discussion 7.7 Summary

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Simulation Results: Non-linear effects 8.1 Simulation of crack-bridging 8.2 Crack-bridging & effective toughness 8.3 Crack-bridging & mode-mixity 8.3.1 Bridging tractions 8.3.2 Analytical solution 8.3.3 Computational solution 8.4 Crack-bridging & propagation path 8.5 Incorporating thermal & plastic mismatch 8.6 Results: Effect of thermal stresses 8.7 Results: Effects of plasticity 8.7.1 Moderate plastic mismatch 8.7.2 High plastic mismatch 8.7.3 Discussion 8.8 Thermal & plastic mismatch: Further remarks 8.9 Summary Experimental Results: Homogeneous Composites 9.1 9.2 9.3 9.4 9.5 9.6 Elastic properties EMA for other IPN composites Fatigue crack propagation Fatigue analysis R-curve analysis Summary

8-1 8-1 8-3 8-7 8-8 8-9 8-15 8-16 8-22 8-29 8-31 8-35 8-40 8-44 8-46 8-47 9-1 9-1 9-7 9-11 9-16 9-21 9-25

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Experimental Results: Graded Specimens 10.1 10.2 10.3 10.4 10.5 10.6 10.7 10.8 Crack initiation Crack propagation paths Fatigue crack propagation Comparison of specimens Effective resistance to fatigue crack growth Moir interferometry Comparison with monotonic loading Summary

10-1 10-2 10-4 10-11 10-20 10-24 10-29 10-34 10-38

11

Discussion 11.1 11.2 Hypotheses Other FGM systems 11.2.1 Thermomechanical property gradient 11.2.2 Crack propagation resistance gradient 11.2.3 Effective property relations 11.2.4 Crack-extension effects

11-1 11-1 11-14 11-15 11-16 11-16 11-17 xiii

11.2.5 Crack path & shape 11.2.6 Interfaces 11.2.7 Monotonic & cyclic loading 11.2.8 Modelling of crack propagation 11.2.9 Analysis of FGMs 11.3 Optimisation of graded interfaces

11-17 11-18 11-18 11-19 11-20 11-21

12

Conclusions

12-1

References

R-1

Appendices: A EMA formulation B Sample ANSYS macro C Comparison with analytical model D Crack propagation in graded specimens: Additional FE results E Curved cracks in graded specimens: Additional FE results F Additional experimental results

A-1 A-6 A-25 A-26 A-33 A-35

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