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"Inrecent years, researchers and pedagogues have recognized performance arrxiety as a normal phenomenon that happens TO most performing artists at some time, and that itcan be dealt With during the preparation phase of the performance."

Sang-fie Lee, a

pianistand piano pedago9gy .*ecialist,is ian associateprofessor ofmutsic at the Universiiy ofSozah Florida in Tampa. She has contributed articlesto musicjournalsand has-performed widely in the United States; Canadaand Italy

phase of the performance. The last three decades saw an influx of research reports and publications on this subject. Empirical research, scholadly writings, instructional materials and more open discussion about *the subjecct have illuminated sources of performance anxiety and coping strategies.

Music as a Social Art Form

* K. D. Pruett, a clinical professor of psychiatry at the Yale Child Study Center, *theorizes that musicians initially try to ignore the painUl dilemma of performancze anxiety, then realize the fear, and eventually learn to accept it as an opportunity to embrace the audience.' He wrote about an intriguing case scenario of a gifted twelveyear-old musician. This young man played piano for a music school children's string ensemble at age 6. He was fearless during those years an'd reveled in the attention. At age 8, he joined a boy choir and became the head chorister within three years. His clean tone and stable pitch gained him a reputation and put him in high demand. Things began to change: Approaching adolescent years, perhaps triggered by his parents' divorce, whicITmight have forced him

performance anxiety have been neglected in traditional music curricula. The reality is music students and professionals alike experience performance anxiety that can affect the outcome, resulting in less than satisfactory performance. Consequences may be feelings of guilt and shame. In recent years, researchers and pedagogues have recognized performance anxiety as a normal phenomenon that happens to most performing artists at some time, and that it can be dealt with during the preparation
AMERICAN MUSIC TE-ACHER

Problems
dealing with musician~s

to grow up sooner than he would have otherwise, he began developing sensitivity to nervousness and fear. He now worried about maldng mistakes, missing entrances and cracking his voice on important notes. He was envious of other kids playing outside seemingly without a worry. Fortunately, further conversation with this young man revealed that he had already begun employing some complex coping strategies, such as giving himself pep talk and imitating a model who seemed to have control over nervousness on stage. This scenario is an example of a feadless, gifted young child who goes through a narcissistic stage when he is confident, selfabsorbed and even grandiose. Public exhibition is natural to a child at this phase. As he or she approaches adolescent yehrs, peer acceptance and criticism become more important than self-acceptance. Thus, the conflict between the self and the other, one of the core sources of stage fright, begins as a developmental process. We ask, "Is the other, for example, audience, enemy or friend?" Perhaps separation between "me and the other" was the cause of Narcissus's self-love and the eventual drowning of self
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in admiration of the mirror image of himself in the water. The antidote to this problem might be that as the young performer begins to grasp the notion that the audience is not necessarily the other, but I, and the other, are all a part of "us," a different perspective can emerge. Gradually, developing an attitude of appreciating and embracing the audience, instead of ignoring or fearing it, becomes a realistic goal. James Allen points out that while most young performers take up their art for emotional pleasure and deeper selfsatisfaction, the performing arts, in
essence, is the most social of all art forms.2

Musicians' Performance Anxiety

Paul G. Salmon distinguishes stage fright from performance anxiety: Stage fright is the heightened nervous state during a performance; performance anxiety is the vulnerable state in anticipation of performance. A musician's performance often is hindered by the anxiety set prior to the performance, as many anxious thoughts surface about things that may or may not disrupt a person's peace of mind. This anticipatory anxiety produces a chain of physiological, behavioral and cognitive reactions. An awareness of some danger causes fearful thoughts that trigger sweaty palms, dry mouth or trembling hands, that, in turn, cause behavioral responses such as missing notes and forgetting words. Charlotte Whitaker and Donald Tanner, citing Matthew McKay's Thoughts and Feelings, identified nine distorting thought patterns that have damaging effects on the performer's behavior: tunnel vision; polarized thinking; overgeneralization; mind reading; catastrophizing; personalization; fallacy of power and control; blaming; and should.' Tunnel vision is when the individual looks at only one element of a situation and forgets all other aspects. An example is a music student who views his or her upcoming audition as the only thing that matters in life. Polarized thinking refers to a thought condition in which everything is either superb or terrible. An anxious performer tends to think either he or she is very good or not good at all; thete is no middle ground. Overgeneralization is when one bad performance or one bad spot is made to represent his or her entire capability. A mind reader tends to make a snap judgment about what others might think. A performer may quickly conclude that no one likes her performance, or the other extreme version is when he thinks everyone may be jealous of his performance. Catastrophizing is the tendency to magnify a small event to a degree that one thinks everything has declined. It is analogous to making a mountain out of a mole hole. Personalization means taking everything as related to one's personal well-being, personal injury or personal glory instead of being able to separate the person and the task. Fallacy of power and control is a state when a person either feels all-powerful and responsible for everything or feels completely powerless and out of control. Shame and guilt are the outcomes of such fallacy. Blaming is the opposite

It is quite contradictory to the usual lifestyle of the musician who practices many hours in a lone practice room and who, for the most part, struggles to compete for self-improvement with the self It is true that performers, more often than not, perform together, and most performances involve an audience. This social aspect of musical life is not addressed enough in our music training programs. Further, because musicians jealously have to guard their time and energy for practice, this social side of-music making is often left unattended by individuals. Let us think about the building structure in a music school at a university. The architect does his best to isolate every studio and practice room in the building from possible interference. The musician works alone behind the closed door and within formidable soundproof walls. In comparison, in typical offices of a history department or journalism school or even in science labs, the doors tend to be open, and people may talk across the hall between doors and in seminar rooms. Musicians get together to rehearse; this is a time to have fun making music together, time to improve and fine-tune for the final performance. Sometimes, rehearsals are invigorating and fun, and sometimes they are not. Often, the individual's lone practice habits hinder accepting others' ideas and cooperating with one another. Not surprisingly, one study identified performance anxiety and the problems with stand partners as the two most serious problems of musical life.' While use of group training to alleviate performance anxiety has been adopted by some researchers, the social aspect or the lack of it, has not been focused on as a factor of performance anxiety.

pole of power and control. Rather than taking charge and responsibiiity of the situation, one finds someone or something to blame. Finally, should describes a condition when one imposes upon oneself a list of inflexible expectations or rules that can paralyze an otherwise smooth performance. These types of thoughts are automatic and, unless recognized and interfered in some systematic way, the performer can easily put himself in the chain reaction model that sets up pre-performance anxiety.'-' Musician's stress also can come from the uncertainty about employment, irregular hours, competition with colleagues, poor financial rewards 7 and restricted hours for social and family life." Stuart Dunkel discusses the myriad tribulations of real life in the arts. Unlike the business world, musicians are forced constantly into conditions such as living between reality and fantasy, having to depend on others' approval of one's excellence or worth, having to face fear and anxiety, having to deal with criticism, failure or jealousy, and often being unable to separate self from the work. Dunkel concedes that in the midst of these perilous conditions of making music, musicians create ingenious and incredible coping strategies that make life in music vital and worthwhile?

Anxiety as a Coping Strategy and Other Tactics

In the old school of pedagogy, the antidote to any performance weakness was captioned in three words: practice, practice and practice. Heinrich Neuhaus cites Hoffman's learning methods: Learn a piece at the piano with the music, learn a piece at the piano without the music, learn a piece with the music without the piano and learn a piece without the piano and without the music. Neuhaus added a fifth point: Learn the piece in one's sleep.' 0 Obviously, this kind of rigorous preparation is necessary to produce the desired performance. The question is, "Can a performer ever be completely free of the negative influence of anxiety?" Clearly, some anxiety is helpful for successful performance. Psychologists have labeled a type of heightened state of arousal as a biologically based, motivating force. D. L. Hamman's studies showed that musicians with the highest level of formal training were able to use the anxiety factor for positive performance effect."' 2 Wolfe similarly learned that professional musicians used
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the positive anxiety components, such as arousal and intensity, to promote performance rather than letting the negative elements, like apprehension and distractability, diminish performance quality.'3 In another study, Salmon, Schrodt and Wright found that experienced musicians were able to reach an anxiety peak prior to performance and attained calm control during performance. The study recommended three strategies for coping with performance anxiety: systematic rehearsal and exposure to performance-related situations; positive and realistic self-statements to counteract unrealistic anticipatory fears; and the combined use of mental imagery and relaxation training to develop anticipatory coping responses.' 4 In a Kendrick, Craig and Lawson study, participants were trained to replace self-degrading, negative thoughts with positive task-oriented self-talk.' 5 Studies focusing on modification of performance anxiety as a proactive measure found group discussion therapy and systematic desensitization to be effective."'l' 178'9Other behavioral techniques used by researchers were meditation and muscle relaxation tech2 niques;'0 attentional training;" electromyographic biofeedback training to reduce musde tension;22 23' and musical analysis and improvisation techniques.25 Wolfe developed a comprehensive seventy-six-item Performing Musician Coping Inventory in a study using 162 performing musicians.' Coping strategies were defined as either problem-focused or emotion-focused. Among the problem-focused were such performance factors as proper eating and being well rested before the performance, lots of dress rehearsals, playing before a small audience and over-learning the music. Wolfe covered social and emotional aspects of performance under emotion-focused factors, which induded items like talking to the audience, muscle relaxation, concentration on the music, self-talk, prayer, medication and mental practice. Wolfe concluded that musicians reporting high levels of nervousness and apprehension about performing tended to avoid using strategies that might relieve those symptoms; while musicians reporting high levels of arousal, intensity, confidence and competence used a wide variety of both problemfocused and emotion-focused strategies. In his instructional guidebook for auditioning musicians, Dunkel stresses a positive outlook when dealing with internal and social aspects of performing. He
AMERICAN MUSIC TEACHER

stresses the importance of self-reliance and anxiety proactively at the preparation stage self-realization when facing the audience. rather than attempting to cure symptoMost of all, he reminds us that trusting matic manifestations is the best strategy to oneself in a publicly vulnerable situation is ensure successful performance. Research the key to overcoming stage fright.7 After shows that performance anxiety can be all, once on stage, one has total autonomy. managed from cognitive, pedagogical, psyIt is too late to try to pretend to be somechodynamic, skills-based and biological one else. All she has, momentarily, is the perspectives. These management skills can self to offer and share with the audience. be taught effectively to individuals as well Whatever it is we are presenting is the act as groups. By keeping performance anxiety of giving of self for mutual benefit, enrichlevels in check, musicians can focus on ment and enjoyment. Only when self-trust conveying music as a form of social art, is attained and expressed, does trust in oth- realizing the performing self and the audiers, and consequently mutual trust, ence are a friendly community. They can become possible. set negative thoughts aside and fixate on Timothy Gallwey offers the art of conthe simple joy of sharing music. centration as the ultimate solution to Ultimately, musicians will transform anxianxiety-free performance in his book, The ety into a motivating force for success, Jnner Game of Tennis. He explains concenlearn the art of self-reliance and concentration as the act of focusing one's attentrate on their love of music. tion to a single object here and now. AMT Gallwey's instruction begins with simply NOTES watching the ball with intensely focused 1. Pruett, K. D., "Young Narcissus at attention while playing tennis. Through the Music Stand: Developmental the simple method of watching the ball Perspectives from Embarrassment to with its exact pattern and movement with Exhibitioriism." MedicalProblemsof no other thoughts in mind, one learns the PerformingArtists,3 (2), June 1988): art of effective and deeper concentration. pp. 69-75. One of the most practicalways to 2. Allen, J. S., "Educating Performers," increase concentrationon the ball is to The KeyReporter (Spring 1992): pp. 5-9. learn to love it! Get to know the tennis Originally appeared in The American ball; appreciateits qualities.... Forgetfor Scholar (Spring 1992). a moment thatit is a tennis balland look 3. Bayer, L. J., The Stress Process in freshly at its shape, its texture, itsfeel.... ProfessionalMusicians: An ExploratoryStzudy Allowyourself to know the ball both intel- (University of Cincinnati: Unpublished lectzzally and throughyour senses. Make Dissertation, 1982). friends; do anything to starta relationship 4. Salmon, P. G., "APsychological with it. It will help concentration Perspective on Musical Performance immeasurably."8 Anxiety: A Review of the Literature," Musicians, while focusing on hearing MedicalProblems ofPerformingArtists, 5 every tone, every phrase, every harmonic (1), (March 1990): pp. 2-11. change, every rhythmic nuance, and feel5. Whitaker, C. S. and Tanner, D. R., ing every tactile sense and the emotional Butt I PlayedIt Perfectly in the Practice response during practice, can train the Room! (Lanham, New York: University mind to concentrate on music rather than Press of America, 1987). letting other thoughts enter the mind. Let 6. Whitaker, C. S., Modification of us think how much more there is to love PsychophysiologicalResponses to Stress in and behold and concentrate on music PianoPerformer (Texas Tech University: compared to a tennis ball: And yet, how Unpublished Doctoral Dissertation, 1984). often we lose concentration while playing 7. Steptoe, A., "Stress, Coping and Stage music and let the demonic thoughts enter Fright in Professional Musicians," the mind. Recognizing performance anxiPsychology ofMusic, 17 (1), (1989): ety as a problem, a will to change habits pp. 2-11. and a step-by-step discipline can help 8. Cooper, C. L. and Wills, G. I. D., maintain our concentration on the sound "Popular Musicians Under Pressure," and the music making process; which can Psychology ofMusic, 17 (1), (1989): prevent extraneous thoughts from interferpp. 22-36. ing with the performance energy. Modifying musicians' performance Continued on page 95
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Multifaceted Nationalism
Continued from page 35 Still's that the communicative power of music is uppermost in his creative thinking. Each day was for him a new beginning, yet another opportunity to serve the Creator of all and through Him to serve humanity by doing what he did best and enjoyed most.

AMI
NOTES 1. Jefferson, Thomas, Notes on the State of Virginia. (Boston: Lilly and Wait, 1832), pp. 146-147. 2. Brockwell, Richard. Program notes for John Powell's Rhapsodie Negre. Boston Symphony Orchestra Program Book (December 29-30, 1922), pp. 654, 656, 658. The notes accompanied the first performance of the work on March 23, 1918, in New York, on which occasion Powell was piano soloist, and Modest Altschuler conducted the Russian Symphony Orchestra. 3. This anecdote was relayed by Still in "A Composer's Viewpoint," William GrantStill and the Fusion of Culture in American Music,

edited by Robert B. Haas, (Los Angeles: Black Sparrow Press, 1972), p. 125. 4. Quoted from interviews of Still by R. Donald Brown on November 13, 1967, and December 4, 1967, transcript, "Negro Serious Music," edited by Judith Anne Still, California Blick Oral History Project (Fullerton: California State University), pp. 7-8, 29. Reprinted, in Carolyn L. Quin, "Biographical Sketch of William Grant Still," in Judith Anne Still, Michael J. Dabrishus and Carolyn L. Quin, William GrantStill: A Bio-Bibliography (Westport, Connecticut, and London: Greenwood Press, 1996), p. 18. 5. Dvorak, Antonin, "Music in America," HarpersNew Monthly Magazine, Vol. xc (December 1894-May 1895), p. 432. 6. Perkins, Francis D., "Litde Symphony Program Varied in Second Recital," New York Herald-Tribune(March 21, 1927). 7. Saunders, Richard D., "New Works Offered for Recital Fans," Hollywood Citizen-News (December 14, 1936). 8. Ibid. 9. Downes, Olin, "Music," The New York Times (November 29, 1926), p. 16.

10. Varese, Louise, Varese:A LookingGlass Diary, Vol. 1: 1883-1928 (New York: W.W. Norton and Co., 1972), p. 227. 11. Sabin, Stewart B., "Composers Present As Works Given," Rochester Democratand Chronicle (May 2, 1930). 12. Saunders, Richard B., "Native Music Gains Favor of Audience," Hollywood Citizen-News (April 29, 1936). 13. "Philharmonic Orchestra," Musical Courier 1 1l (November 30, 1935), p. 16. 14. Downes, Olin, "Two Premieres Offered by Lange," The New York Times (November 21, 1935). 15. Still, William Grant, "A Vital Factor in America's Racial Problem," The William Grant Still Reader, Essays on American Music, edited by Jon Michael Spencer. A special issue of Black SacredMusic: A Journalof Theomusicology, Vol. 6, No. 2 (Fall 1992), p. 172. (Printed by Duke University Press). Originally quoted in OberlinAlumni Magazine (March 1950). 16. Arvey, Verna, In One Lifetime (Fayetteville, Arkansas: University of Arkansas Press, 1984), p. 186. 17. Arvey, op. cit., p. xii.

Musician Performance Anxiety Continied from page 39 9. Dunkel, S. E., The Audition Process, (Stuvesant, New York: Pendragon Press, 1990). 10. Neuhaus, H., Die Kunst Des Klavierspiels(1967). Translated by K. A. Leibovitch (New York. Praeger Publishers, 1973). 11. Hamman, D. L., "An Assessment of Anxiety in Instrumental and Vocal Performances," JRME, 30 (2), (1982): pp. 77-90 12. Hamman, D. L. and M. Sobaje, "Anxiety and the College Musician: A Study of Performance Conditions and Subject Variables," Psychology ofMusic, 11, (1983): pp. 37-50. ,13. Wolfe, M. L,, "Correlates of Adaptive and Maladaptive Musical Performance Anxiety," MedicalProblems of PerformingArtists, 4 (1), (March 1989): pp. 49-56. 14. Salmon, P., R. Schrodt and J. Wright, "A Temporal Gradient of Anxiety in a Stressful Performance Context," MedicalProblems ofPerformingArtists,4 (2), (une 198 9): pp. 77-80.
AMERICAN MUSIC TEACHER

15. Kendrick, M. J., K. D. Craig, D. M. Lawson and P. 0. Davidson, "Cognitive and Behavioral Therapy for Musical Performance Anxiety, Journalof Consult ClinicalPsychology, 50, (1982): pp. 353-362. 16. Wardle, A., "Behavioral Modification by Reciprocal Inhibition of Instrumental Music Performance Anxiety," Research in Music Behavior: Modi.fying Music Behavior in the Classroom (New York: Columbia University, Teacher's College Press, 1979). 17. Appel, S., Modijying Solo PerformnanceAnxiety in Adult Pianists (Dissertation Abstracts International, 35, 1974): 3503A, 1074. 18. Norton, G. R., L. MacLean and E. Wachna, "The Use of Cognitive Desensitization and Self-Directed Mastery Training for Treating Stage Fright," Cognitive Therapy and Research, 2 (1), (1978): pp. 61-64. 19. McCune, B., FunctionalPerformance Anxiety Modification in Adult Pianists (Columbia University: Unpublished Dissertation, 1982). 20. Whitaker (1984). 21. Kendrick, et al.

22. Levee, J. R., M. J. Cohen and W. H. Rickles, "Electromyographic Biofeedback for Relief of Tension in the Facial and Throat Muscles of a Woodwind Musician," Biofeedback and Self-Regulation, 1, (1976): pp. 113-120. 23. Morasky, R. L., C. Reynolds and L. E. Sowell, "Generalization of Lowered EMG Levels During Musical Performance Following Biofeedback Training," Biofeedback and Self-Regulation, 8, (1983): pp. 207-216. 24. LeVine, W R. and J. K. Irvine, "In Vivo EMG Biodfeedback in Violin and Viola Pedagogy," Biofeedback and SelfRegulation, 9, (1984): pp. 161-168. 25. McCune. 26. Wolfe, M. L., "Relationships Between Dimensions of Musical Performance Anxiety and Behavioral Coping Strategies," MedicalProblems of PerformingArtists, Vol. 5, No. 4, (December 1990): pp. 139-144. 27. Dunkel. 28. Gallwey, Timothy, The Inner Game of Tennis (New York: Bantam Books, 1974): pp. 107-108.

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TITLE: Musicians performance anxiety and coping strategies SOURCE: The American Music Teacher 52 no1 Ag/S 2002 WN: 0221304603004 The magazine publisher is the copyright holder of this article and it is reproduced with permission. Further reproduction of this article in violation of the copyright is prohibited. To contact the publisher: http://www.mtna.org/index1.htm.

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