ELSEVIER Sedimentary Geology 119 (1998) 85–102

Meteoric water participation in the genesis of Jurassic cherts in the

Subbetic of southern Spain — a significant indicator of
penecontemporaneous emergence
M.A. Bustillo a,Ł , A. Delgado b , J. Rey c , P.A. Ruiz-Ortiz d
a
Museo Nacional de Ciencias Naturales, CSIC, C= José Gutiérrez Abascal, 2, 28006-Madrid Spain
b Estación Experimental del Zaidı́n, CSIC, Profesor Albareda, 1, 18008-Granada, Spain
c Departado de Geologı́a, Universidad de Jaén, E.U. Politécnica de Linares, 23700-Linares (Jaén), Spain
d Departado de Geologı́a, Universidad de Jaén, Facultad de Ciencias Experimentales, 23071-Jaén, Spain

Received 14 April 1997; accepted 18 February 1998

Abstract

In the eastern sector of the Betic Cordillera outcrops of the Internal Subbetic display chert lenses in the upper parts
of oolitic limestones (Camarena Formation, Mid-Jurassic). The stratigraphy indicates a sedimentary record related to
synsedimentary tectonics (tilting). The sediments were deposited in different tectonic blocks, at varying depths. The
Camarena Formation is mainly made up of shallow platform oolitic limestones and was deposited on a ‘pelagic’ swell, a
shallow isolated platform that developed far from continental areas. The chert lenses appear in those stratigraphic units
deposited in the lowermost sunken fault blocks which display biosiliceous facies overlying the Camarena Formation.
The chert mainly consists of megaquartz, formed by replacement of the oolitic host rocks without an opaline precursor.
The part of the host that has been most affected by the silicification is the carbonate cement. The petrological features
indicate a slow replacement from solutions which were poor in silica and cations. Comparing the textures and fabric of
the cherts and their host rocks, it is deduced that the silicification took place after compaction, cementation, fracturing
and local dissolution of the oolitic limestones. The stable isotopic data (δ18 O, δ13 C) obtained from the chert, oolitic host
rock and overlain biosiliceous rocks display significant differences. The host rocks (Camarena Formation) and overlying
biosiliceous rocks have isotopic signatures that are typical of marine environments or shallow-marine diagenesis. However,
the chert isotopic values are interpreted to suggest meteoric water participation in the silicification process. The timing of
the chertification is suggested to have been between the Bathonian (beginning of the deposition of the biosiliceous source
facies) and the Aptian (first appearance of this chert as clasts in breccia beds). In palaeogeographic terms the optimum
timing would have been during emergence (i.e. between the Bathonian and Tithonian). The exposed areas could have acted
as recharge areas of meteoric water into the regional aquifer system. The involvement of meteoric water in the silicification
processes gives new support to the hypothesis that pelagic swells were subjected to episodic exposure.  1998 Elsevier
Science B.V. All rights reserved.

Keywords: chert; oolitic limestones; stable isotopes; meteoric water; emergence; Bathonian–Tithonian

Ł Corresponding author. Fax: C34 (91) 564-4740; E-mail: abustillo@mncn.csic.es

0037-0738/98/$19.00  1998 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved.

PII S 0 0 3 7 - 0 7 3 8 ( 9 8 ) 0 0 0 5 0 - 5
86 M.A. Bustillo et al. / Sedimentary Geology 119 (1998) 85–102

1. Introduction with intercalated shallow-marine facies and emer-

The Mesozoic sediments of the southern Iberian
continental margin make up part of the External
Zones of the Betic Cordillera. The palinspastic re-
constructions of these folded chains for the Middle
Jurassic show two main palaeogeographic domains:
the Prebetic, marine platform to the south of the con-
tinental Iberian areas; and the Subbetic, open marine
environments with mainly pelagic sediments, but
gence episodes associated with pelagic swells (e.g.
Vera et al., 1988; Garcı́a-Hernández et al., 1988,
1989; Jiménez de Cisneros et al., 1993) (Fig. 1).
Subaerial erosion, and the reworking of sediments
during subsequent transgressive episodes, led to a
poorly preserved record of the emergence phases on
pelagic swells. Calcrete and bauxite deposits, as well
as the morphologies and infills of neptunian dykes,
support the swell–emergence hypothesis (Jiménez de

Fig. 1. (A) Map showing the distribution of units of the Betic Cordillera (modified from Garcı́a-Hernández et al., 1989). (B)
Palaeogeographic reconstruction of the southern continental margin of the Iberian plate for the Middle–Late Jurassic showing the
differentiation into swells and troughs (from Garcı́a-Hernández et al., 1989). The study area is indicated.
 M.A. Bustillo et al. / Sedimentary Geology 119 (1998) 85–102 87

Cisneros et al., 1993; Molina et al., 1995; Martı́n-
Algarra and Vera, 1995). However, this hypothesis of
the genesis of neptunian dykes has been questioned
by Winterer and Sarti (1994).
The deposits that accumulated on the innermost
pelagic swells of the Jurassic Subbetic basin and in
surrounding pelagic areas are named Internal Sub-
betic (Fig. 1). In their easternmost outcrops, near
Vélez Blanco (Fig. 2), large lenses of chert are
present in the upper part of the limestones of the
Middle Jurassic, Camarena Formation. Although sili-
cification of limestones in the Betic External Zones
has been previously studied and attributed to re-
placement in a marine environment (Bustillo and
Ruiz-Ortiz, 1981, 1987; Ruiz-Ortiz et al., 1989), sili-
cification in the Vélez Blanco area is different in
appearance. This, along with the existence of sig-
nificant stratigraphic discontinuities related to large

Fig. 2. Geological sketch of study area showing different outcrops in which the oolitic limestones of the Camarena Formation are
silicified.
88 M.A. Bustillo et al. / Sedimentary Geology 119 (1998) 85–102
emergence episodes of pelagic swells (Jiménez de
Cisneros et al., 1993; Rey, 1993; Molina et al., 1995;
Martı́n-Algarra and Vera, 1995), could point towards
an origin related to subaerial exposure.
Using stratigraphic, petrological, and geochemi-
cal data, this study aims to analyse the chertified
oolitic limestones of the Camarena Formation and
to differentiate them from other types of chert in
the area. A second goal is to draw conclusions on
the diagenetic environments of these rocks and place
them in a palaeogeographic model for the Subbetic
basin. In this context, the possible relationship of
the silicifications with meteoric phreatic waters is
discussed based on isotopic data.
2. Sampling and methodology
Rock samples for the study of cherts from the
Camarena Formation were collected from five local-
ities (a, a0 , b, c and d, in Fig. 2). Additional sections
were studied to investigate the presence of rede-
posited chert clasts from the Camarena Formation in
Cretaceous or Tertiary rocks (e, f, g, m, in Fig. 2).
Radiolarites, marls and marly limestones bearing ra-
diolarians that could have been a local source of
silica were sampled at localities n, i and j in Fig. 2.
Chert associated with Jurassic host rocks, but differ-
ent from the Camarena Formation, were sampled at
localities k, l and n in Fig. 2 for comparison with
the mineralogy and textural features of the Camarena
Formation.
The mineralogy of the samples was determined
by X-ray diffraction using a Philips PV1710 diffrac-
tometer. The petrographic observations were made
by transmitted light microscopy. Major element ox-
ides (Table 1) were determined using atomic absorp-
tion spectrometry and X-ray fluorescence, depending
on the elements concerned.
Isotope measurements (Table 2) were carried out
in the Stable Isotope Laboratory at the Estación
Experimental del Zaidı́n (CSIC, Granada). Carbon
dioxide was evolved from the carbonates using 100%
phosphoric acid for 12 h in a thermostatic bath at
25ºC (McCrea, 1950). All samples were treated with
cold 1 : 5 HCl to remove carbonates. Oxygen was
extracted from the cherts by reaction with ClF3 , us-
ing the method described by Borthwick and Harmon
(1982). It was then purified and converted to CO2
using a vacuum line similar to that described by
Clayton and Mayeda (1963). Isotopic ratios were
measured in a Finnigan MAT 251 mass spectrome-
ter. The experimental error for carbonates (δ13 C and
δ18 O) was < š0.05‰, using Carrara and EEZ-1
as internal standards that were previously compared
with NBS-18 and NBS-19. For silicates, commercial
CO2 , that was previously calibrated vs. V-SMOW,
SLAP and GIPS water was used as internal standard.
It yielded δ18 O D C5:15 š 0:2‰ (V-SMOW) for
NBS-30 (biotite) and a value of δ18 O D C9:7 š 1 for
NBS-28 (quartz).
3. Stratigraphy and sedimentological
interpretation
Three stratigraphic columns (Fig. 3) show the
main features of the Jurassic and Lower Cretaceous
stratigraphic units in different parts of the studied
area. The lower Lias is represented by platform
limestones and dolostones of the Gavilán Formation
(Lias; pre-Domerian p.p.), followed by the Camarena
Formation (Bajocian–Bathonian p.p.). The first im-
portant discontinuity (R.1, Fig. 3) appears at the
contact of these two formations. The associated hia-
tus spans at least the upper Lias, represented by
pelagic deposits in the nearby sectors (Rey, 1993).
The overlying Camarena Formation consists
mainly of about 300 m of shallow platform oolitic
limestones, deposited on a ‘pelagic swell’ (Garcı́a-
Hernández et al., 1988; Rey, 1993). Texturally, the
rocks are oolitic=peloidal grainstones=packstones.
The stratigraphic differences among the sections start
at the top of the Camarena Formation. The sedimen-
tary record is continuous in the southwestern sectors,
such as the Gabar, Rambla Seca, Piedras Berme-
jas, Cerro Gordo and Torre Charcón (Fig. 2) (see
Rambla Seca–Piedras Bermejas column, in Fig. 3).
Peloid-rich layers containing organisms of pelagic
affinity (abundant ‘filaments’, thin-shelled bivalves,
and belemnites) are intercalated with oolitic lime-
stones in the upper part of the Camarena Formation.
These facies have been recently assigned to the
early-middle Bathonian (Aguado and Rey, 1996). It
is in the oolitic grainstone layers from the upper part
of the Camarena Formation that the cherts studied
in this paper occur. The Camarena Formation in the
southwestern sector is topped by the next sedimen-
 M.A. Bustillo et al. / Sedimentary Geology 119 (1998) 85–102 89

Fig. 3. Stratigraphy columns showing regional facies changes.

tary break (R.2, Fig. 3), followed by 15 to 30 m of
rhythmically alternating layers of marls and marly
limestones rich in thin-shelled bivalves (‘filaments’)
and radiolarians. Aguado and Rey (1996) have at-
tributed these rocks to the early-middle Bathonian.
Intercalated with these rhythmites are calcarenite
layers with oolites in their lower part and oriented
‘filaments’ in their upper part. They have been inter-
preted as turbidites (Rey, 1993). The rhythmites are
followed by another sedimentary break (R.3, Fig. 3)
and by radiolarian-rich marls and marly limestones
(Charco Formation). The R.3 can probably be cor-
related with the break at the end of the Bathonian:
one of the most important sedimentary breaks in the
Betic External Zones (e.g. Vera et al., 1988; Garcı́a-
Hernández et al., 1989). The radiolarian facies of the
Charco Formation were most likely deposited during
the early Callovian (Aguado and Rey, 1996), and are
overlain by marly nodular limestones of Tithonian
age (Fig. 3).
90 M.A. Bustillo et al. / Sedimentary Geology 119 (1998) 85–102
The chert appears only in this type of sections, in
the highest part or at the top of the oolitic limestones,
just below the R.2 break, partially replacing the
carbonate and always occurring in oolitic grainstone
layers. It forms brownish and wine-red lens-shaped
bodies that tend to follow the bedding, preserving
the original structure of the rock (bedding, parallel
and cross-lamination, etc.). The chert bodies may
reach up to 3 m in thickness and are generally less
than 10 m long. Their surface is frequently vertically
grooved, giving the lenses a columnar appearance.
In the Gigante sector (Fig. 3), the oolitic lime-
stones of the Camarena Formation are capped by
an erosive surface (R.2) and overlain unconformably
by packstones with hummocky bedding rich in ‘fila-
ments’ and peloids. These facies are coeval with the
aforementioned rhythmites (with turbidite intercala-
tions) and are interpreted as possible storm deposits.
In fact, the microfacies of the beds interpreted as
tempestites in this sector are similar to the turbidite
microfacies in the Rambla Seca–Piedras Bermejas
sector. These lithologies are capped again by break
at the end of the Bathonian (R.3, Fig. 3), overlain by
a breccia with nodular limestone clasts of probable
Tithonian age.
In the Almirez sector (Figs. 2 and 3), the up-
per part of the Camarena Formation consists of
cross-bedded crinoidal limestones, which overlie
oolitic limestones. The top of the formation shows
an irregular morphology of karstic appearance, fos-
silized by a laterally discontinuous bed of pro-
toglobigerinid-rich pelagic limestones, Callovian–
Oxfordian in age. Therefore, a stratigraphic disconti-
nuity is placed at the top of the Camarena Formation,
and the hiatus includes the Bathonian and Callovian
pro parte (R.2 C R.3). Overlaying the bed of pelagic
limestones, or directly on the Camarena Formation,
nodular limestones of Ammonı́tico Rosso facies (Up-
per Ammonı́tico Rosso Formation), lower Tithonian
in age, occur. The presence of faults, N-100-E and
N-10-E in strike, in the Camarena Formation which
do not affect the Ammonı́tico Rosso Formation, in-
dicates faulting episodes during the late Bathonian–
earliest Tithonian.
The differences in the stratigraphic record in the
studied sectors have been interpreted by Rey (1993,
1995) as a result of synsedimentary tilting. This
would have given rise to shallowing, and possible
emergences in the Almirez sector, and simultaneous
deepening in the Rambla Seca–Piedras Bermejas.
The Gigante, and other intermediate sectors, were
likely places of shallow-marine sedimentation, pri-
marily shaped by storms.
At the beginning of the Cretaceous, mainly in the
late Berriasian, the entire region was characterized
by deposition of alternating pelagic marls and marly
limestones (Carretero Formation). These lithologies
are highly folded and badly exposed, making an ex-
act calculation of thickness difficult, but they never
seem to be more than 100 m thick. From the end
of the Barremian until the early Cenomanian, the
dark-greenish marls of the Fardes Formation were
deposited. Their thickness is variable, but never more
than 300 m. Associated with these facies, and along a
fault escarpment (Aguado et al., 1991), are turbidite
intercalations, consisting of breccia and calcarenite
beds made up of Camarena Formation debris. Com-
mencing with the top of the Aptian, these deposits
contain chert clasts of silicified limestones studied
in this work (Fig. 3). The abundance of silicification
in the Cretaceous turbidites has led to development
of criteria that enable us to recognize breccia clasts
that originated from erosion of silicified Camarena
oolitic limestones. These criteria are: (1) the sim-
ilarity in appearance between breccia chert clasts
and chert lenses in the Camarena Formation; (2) the
morphology of the clasts that have sharp boundaries
and are not rounded (Fig. 4); (3) the orientation of
chert clasts parallel to cross-bedding (Fig. 4); (4)
the divergence in bedding between silicified lime-
Fig. 4. Chert clast oriented parallel to the cross-bedding which is
marked by the holes (moulds of probable marly chips) and other
breccia limestone clasts.
 M.A. Bustillo et al. / Sedimentary Geology 119 (1998) 85–102 91

stone boulders and the breccia; and (5) petrographic
differences.
4. Petrology
Although the petrological study is focussed on
the cherts formed in the oolitic limestone of the
Camarena Formation, other types of chert found
in the area are briefly described. The purpose of
these descriptions is to show that the cherts of the
Camarena Formation are different from other cherts
of the area, and therefore easily distinguishable from
other chert clasts in Cretaceous turbidites.
4.1. Description
X-ray diffraction patterns of the cherts from the
Camarena Formation indicate that they are com-
posed of quartz and variable amounts of low Mg
calcite corresponding to relicts of the host rock. The
crystallinity index of the quartz (Murata and Nor-
man, 1976) falls in the range of 7 to 8.5. The bulk
chemical composition of the cherts (Table 1) cor-
roborates the mineralogical data. Clays are absent,
and despite the reddish-brown colour of the chert the
total Fe2 O3 is not high in most samples (Table 1).
The host rock is an oolitic grainstone (Fig. 5a). The
allochems are mainly ooids but there are also echi-
noidal fragments, oncoids, pelloids, coated grains,
coral fragments and some benthonic foraminifera and
bivalves. The different types of calcite cement are:
acicular drusy cement, syntaxial overgrowth on echi-
noidal fragments and mosaic cements. The calcite
crystals in the mosaic are variable in shape and size
(up to 800 µm), and in some cases have marked cleav-
age. The contacts between the allochems are point,
tangential and sometimes concavo-convex, depend-
ing on the samples. Some ooids display spalled cor-
tices that are healed with mosaic cements. Therefore,
mosaic cements are formed after the physical com-
paction (Choquette and James, 1987).
The most common form of quartz in the chert
is megaquartz (crystal size from 20 to 220 µm)
(Fig. 5b,c) that occurs as mosaics or forms pal-
isades around the allochems (palisadic quartz). In
some places the megaquartz is zoned, with succes-
sive idiomorphic growth stages (Fig. 5d). Locally,
and in very small amounts, there is fibrous quartz
(length-fast chalcedony) and microcrystalline quartz
(<20 µm in size). The samples with fibrous and
microcrystalline quartz are those that have the low-
est crystallinity index values. There are iron oxides
on the surface of all the allochems and when the
amounts of these oxides are high (>1%), they are
also found between the quartz crystals.
The part of the host rock which is most affected
by the silicification corresponds to what was for-
merly the cement (Fig. 5b). Where fibrous quartz
is found, it comprises the first layers around the
allochems, followed by the palisadic megaquartz
and finally by the mosaic megaquartz which oc-
curs farthest away from the allochems. The ooids
and other allochems, when affected by silicification,
show signs of replacement in their outer layers and
sometimes towards the interior (called ‘islands of
advance’, Grigor’ev, 1965) (Fig. 5c).

Table 1
Maxima and minima values (‰) for major elements in cherts from the Camarena Formation

Section a, 5 samples Section a0 , 2 samples Section b, 3 samples Section c, 4 samples Section d, 7 samples
max. min. max. min. max. min. max. min. max. min.
SiO2 49.23 36.57 38.71 34.74 88.90 53.20 61.92 38.07 70.00 32.91
Al2 O3 0.14 0.00 0.06 0.00 0.62 0.00 0.16 0.00 0.16 0.01
Fe2 O3 0.11 0.00 1.06 0.07 2.43 0.10 0.49 0.06 0.29 0.02
(total)
MnO 0.01 0.00 0.03 0.00 0.05 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01
MgO 0.22 0.19 0.17 0.01 0.23 0.00 0.24 0.14 0.38 0.11
CaO 36.50 27.89 36.50 34.00 24.80 4.07 35.80 22.87 45.50 17.44
Na2 O 1.21 0.09 0.08 0.06 0.54 0.08 0.42 0.02 0.17 0.02
K2 O 0.01 0.00 0.07 0.01 0.06 0.01 0.01 0.00 0.01 0.01
P2 O5 0.02 0.00 0.01 0.00 0.03 0.00 0.03 0.01 0.03 0.01
92 M.A. Bustillo et al. / Sedimentary Geology 119 (1998) 85–102
 M.A. Bustillo et al. / Sedimentary Geology 119 (1998) 85–102 93

In some samples from sites b (Almoyas), c (Torre
Charcón) and d (NE Cerro Gordo) (Fig. 2), there is
a different type of chert that is the result of silicifi-
cation of a different host rock (Fig. 5e,f). This host
rock is a detrital calcarenite that fills centimetre-sized
cracks and pockets within the oolitic limestone. The
clasts are fragments of the oolitic limestone itself,
ooids and other allochems from the oolitic lime-
stones, and pieces of large calcite crystals (up to 350
µm in size) (Fig. 5e). The matrix comprises micrite
and smaller fragments of the aforementioned clasts.
The detrital calcarenite was formed by the disag-
gregation of the oolitic limestone. The occurrence
of clasts of large calcite crystals indicates that this
disaggregation took place after the later cementation
of the oolitic limestone.
In this new type of chert, the silicified oolitic
limestone clasts have the same quartz textures as the
original silicified oolitic limestone, and these tex-
tures are conditioned by the allochems and cements
contained in the fragment. The calcite crystal clasts
are silicified as individual quartz crystals, main-
taining their outlines, and therefore the megaquartz
acquires a detrital appearance varying greatly in
size. Micrite tends to be unaffected, remaining as a
residue.
Most cherts in the Bathonian to Aptian marine
limestones consist of microcrystalline mosaic quartz,
sometimes with minor amounts of opal-CT iden-
tified by XRD. Radiolarians and, in some cases,
sponge spicules are observed. In the Aptian oolitic
turbidites (Rambla Seca–Piedras Bermejas section;
Fig. 3), the in situ silicification is different and
length-slow chalcedony appears (Fig. 6a). On the
other hand, the radiolarites of the Charco Formation
are comprised of microcrystalline quartz with many
radiolarian ghosts, and in many places opal-CT ap-
pears as the major mineral. These petrological and
mineralogical characteristics make these cherts and
radiolarites easy to distinguish from the cherts in-
cluded in the oolitic limestones of the Camarena
Formation. Finally, the chert clasts from the Ca-
marena Formation are also distinguished from the in
situ silicification of the Cretaceous oolitic turbidites
because: (1) the ooids do not continue across the
chert–limestone boundary (Fig. 6b); and (2) there are
significant differences in the framework and contacts
between the ooids in the chert clast and those in the
oolitic turbidite. The contacts are point or tangential
in the chert clast, whereas they are interpenetrating
in the turbidite (Fig. 6b).
4.2. Interpretation
The most frequent fabric between the allochems
is palisadic megaquartz followed by mosaic quartz.
This fabric is common when silica fills voids, but
may also occur in replacement of limestones by
quartz (Wilson, 1966). In the chert studied, the fol-
lowing points indicate that the textures were pro-
duced as a result of replacement.
(1) Direct observation of the replacement of cal-
cite megacrystals by megaquartz in partially replaced
areas of the limestone (Fig. 5b).
(2) The existence of small calcite crystal ghosts
within some of the megaquartz crystals (Fig. 6c).
(3) In a cementation process, crystal size com-
monly increases towards the centre of the void. In
the samples studied there is no such increase in the
size of the megaquartz crystals away from the al-
lochems (Fig. 6d), although without other evidence
this feature alone would not prove a replacement
origin.
Therefore, although in certain areas there is ev-
idence of local cementation processes, replacement
is the general mechanism invoked for the genesis
of these cherts which enclose many relicts of the
host rock. Most of the relicts are allochems, but in

Fig. 5. (a) General view of an oolitic grainstone of the Camarena Formation. In the central part, a ooid with spalled cortex healed
with mosaic cement is observed (arrow). Crossed nicols. (b) Chert from Camarena Formation. The megaquartz replaces the mosaic
cement of the host rock (S D sparite). Crossed nicols. (c) The megaquartz occurs as mosaic or forming palisades around the allochems.
The allochems are replaced in their outer layers and in places (islands of advance) in the interior. Crossed nicols. (d) Close-up view
of megaquartz displaying successive idiomorphic growth stages. Plane-polarized light. (e) Contact between the oolitic limestone of the
Camarena Formation (lower part) and the detrital calcarenite (upper part) formed by disaggregation of the oolitic limestones. Some
clasts are fragments of the large calcite crystals derived from cements. Micrite occurs between the clasts. Plane-polarized light. (f) Chert
formed by the silicification of a piece of rock similar to that described in Fig. 6e. Plane-polarized light.
94 M.A. Bustillo et al. / Sedimentary Geology 119 (1998) 85–102
 M.A. Bustillo et al. / Sedimentary Geology 119 (1998) 85–102 95

some places large calcite crystals (sparite) (Fig. 5b)
and acicular drusy calcite (Fig. 6d) are also found.
In the process of silicification, quartz could have
been formed directly without an opaline precursor.
This would be indicated by the lack of lepisphere
ghosts and the coarse quartz crystal size (Maliva and
Siever, 1988). This has led us to denote the process
as chertification.
The general fabric of the chert resulted from
the allochems of the host rock being much more
difficult to replace than the large calcite crystals
of the cement (sparite). A probable explanation of
this is that the silica solutions moved preferentially
along the contacts between these calcite crystals or
through their structural defects. At the beginning
of the silicification process, ooids and allochems
appear to resist the penetration by silica solutions
forming a framework from which the silicification
continues. The quartz textures were influenced in
part by the textures of the calcite cements that have
been replaced. As a result, the acicular drusy calcite
cement around the allochems could have favoured
the formation of palisadic quartz, and less commonly
length-fast chalcedony, while the sparite favoured the
formation of mosaics of megaquartz. When the sili-
cification advanced, the ooids were also marginally
replaced. At first, the outer lamellae of the ooid
cortex were replaced by quartz. Later, as the silici-
fication progressed inwards, ‘islands’ of advancing
megaquartz were formed. As silicification continued,
coalescing ‘islands of advance’ gave rise to a frame
of megaquartz crystals in the oolite. According to
Hesse (1987), the inward replacement prevails when
the ooids have nuclei other than siliciclastic grains
(quartz and feldspar).
The fact that most of the chert consists of
megaquartz and that it occasionally has stages of
idiomorphic growth indicates slow replacement by
solutions low in silica and cation concentration (Mil-
lot, 1970). According to Knauth (1992), groundwater
moving through a carbonate unit, may dissolve opa-
line tests until the dissolved silica rises above 6 mg=l.
At that point, quartz can nucleate and grow directly.
In places where microcrystalline quartz and length-
fast chalcedony where found, the silica concentration
of the solution may have been higher.
Finally, silicification is not an early process. Com-
paring the textures and structures of the cherts and
their host rocks, and all the features of the host rock
affected by chertification, it can be deduced that the
silicification process was subsequent to:
(1) The physical compaction of the host rock.
There are no important differences between the
shape and type of contact of the ooids included
in the chert and in the host rocks. Concavo-convex
contacts and spalled ooid cortices (Fig. 6e) are also
found in the chert.
(2) Complete cementation of the oolitic limestone.
This is deduced from the presence of acicular drusy
cement around the allochems, syntaxial overgrowth
on echinoid fragments, and large sparite crystals in
the chert. In addition, sparite found in the tectonic
fractures has also been replaced indicating that the
silicification was later (Fig. 6f).
(3) Disaggregation processes of the oolitic lime-
stones by fracturing and=or dissolution, that pro-
duces fill-in of detrital calcarenites in cracks and
pockets. The detrital calcarenites were also replaced
by quartz (Fig. 5e,f).
5. Isotopic composition
Quartz in the oolitic limestones of the Camarena
Formation has a wide range of isotopic values, from
C29.1‰ to C35.6‰ (V-SMOW). The δ18 O cal-
cite values range between -1.59‰ and C0.99‰
(PDB), and the δ13 C varies between C0.99‰ and
C1.19‰. The chert clasts of the Camarena For-
mation redeposited in the Cretaceous show δ18 O
values for quartz ranging from C31.3‰ to C34.0‰
(V-SMOW), values similar to those of the Camarena
Formation. The δ18 O and δ13 C values of calcite are

Fig. 6. (a) Aptian turbidite. Large clast in the lower part at right is a radiolarian-rich clast and the oolitic matrix is silicified in situ mainly
by chalcedony. Crossed nicols. (b) Right part is a chert clast from Camarena Formation. Left part is matrix of Aptian turbidite. The ooids
do not cross the chert–limestone boundary. The type of contact among the ooids differs in the clast and the matrix. Plane-polarized light.
(c) Crystal ghosts of calcite (arrow) in megaquartz crystals. Plane-polarized light. (d) Acicular drusy calcite around ooids included in
the chert. Crossed nicols. (e) Ooids with spalled cortices occur in the chert. Crossed nicols. (f) Tectonic fracture filled with sparite and
replaced by megaquartz at the same time as the cement of the host rock. Crossed nicols.
96 M.A. Bustillo et al. / Sedimentary Geology 119 (1998) 85–102

Table 2
Oxygen and carbon isotopic compositions of silica and coexisting carbonates

Samples Code Section Mineralogy Calcite Silica

δ18 O (V-SMOW)‰
δ13 C (PDB)‰ δ18 O (PDB)‰
1 VCA-1 a Ca 55, Q 45 C1.71 0.52 C31.7
2 VCA-2 a Ca 55, Q 45 C1.19 0.55 C29.1
3 VCA-3 a Ca 65, Q 35 C1.15 1.36 C32.3
4 VCA-5 a Ca 60, Q 40 C1.74 0.67 C31.1
5 VCA-8 a Ca 65, Q 35 C1.58 0.19 C31.9
6 VCA-9 a0 Ca 60, Q 30 C1.38 0.05 C32.6
7 VCA-10 a0 Ca 95, Q 5 C1.85 0.03 C33.8
8 VCA-11 a0 Ca 100 C1.29 C0.11 –
9 VAL-6 b Ca 35, Q 65 C2.37 1.30 C33.9
10 VAL-7 b Ca 50, Q 50 C1.46 1.45 C35.2
11 VAL-8 b Ca 15, Q 85 C2.44 0.74 C35.6
12 VTC-1a c Ca 100 C2.10 0.77 –
13 VTC-1b c Ca 40, Q 60 C2.32 0.74 C33.0
14 VTC-2a c Ca 100 C1.83 1.16 –
15 VTC-2b c Ca 100 C2.08 0.71 –
16 VTC-2c c Ca 100 C1.98 0.82 –
17 VTC-3 c Ca 50, Q 50 C1.97 0.45 C30.1
18 VG-1 d Ca 55, Q 45 C1.41 1.49 C33.1
19 VG-2 d Ca 60, Q 40 C1.41 1.18 C29.9
20 VG-3 d Ca 70, Q 30 C2.34 C0.38 C30.8
21 VG-5 d Ca 100, Q Tr C1.98 0.30 –
22 VG-6 d Ca 30, Q 70 C1.19 1.59 C30.2
23 VG-7 d Ca 45, Q 55 C2.53 C0.99 C34.1
24 VB-3 j Q 100, Ca Tr C1.46 0.34 C33.3
25 VB-5 j Q 100, Ca Tr C1.35 0.26 C32.9

26 R-21 a Ca 20, Op CT 40, Q 40 C1.74 1.39 C37.2

27 R-10 i 40 C0.36 4.07 C36.4
28 R-11b i Q 100 C0.35 3.75 C37.0
29 R-25 j Ca 5, Q 95 C1.83 1.10 C36.3
30 R-26 j Op CT 65, Q 15, Ca 20 C2.14 0.68 C35.7
Op CT 80, Q 15, Ca 5
31 VVA-1 f Ca 25, Q 75 C1.79 0.09 C32.9
32 R-18 m Ca 30, Q 70 C2.19 0.20 C32.2
33 R-14 m Ca 25, Q 75 C0.71 1.55 C31.3
34 R-15 m Q 100 – – C34.0

Samples: 1 to 25, cherts and host rocks of the Camarena Formation; 26 to 30, radiolarian bearing limestones and radiolarites of the
Charco Formation; 31 to 34, chert clasts from the Camarena Formation in the Cretaceous turbidites. Ca D calcite, Q D quartz, Op D
opal CT, Tr D traces.

the same as those of the Camarena Formation (Ta-
ble 2; Figs. 7 and 8).
In the Charco Formation, the siliceous phases
have high δ18 O values (C35.7‰ to C37.2‰;
V-SMOW); the δ18 O of the calcite ranging from
-0.68‰ to -4.07‰ (PDB) and the δ13 C values rang-
ing between C0.36‰ and C2.14‰.
The interpretation of the data has been carried
out using the Clayton et al. (1972) equation for
the silica–water system with a temperature range of
200–500ºC. Its extrapolation to lower temperatures
seems to be justified, as its yields similar values
to those of Kita et al. (1985) for amorphous silica
and Labeyrie (1974) for biogenic silica for the 34–
93ºC and 0–30ºC, respectively. For the calcite–water
system we have used the equation proposed by An-
derson and Arthur (1983) on the basis of known
isotopic fractionation factors (Epstein et al., 1953;
 M.A. Bustillo et al. / Sedimentary Geology 119 (1998) 85–102
Fig. 7. Silica δ18 O values vs. the δ18 O of calcite in samples
of silicified limestones (cherts) of the Camarena Formation,
radiolarian-rich facies of the Charco Formation and clasts of sili-
cified limestones (cherts) of the Camarena Formation, including
breccias that were redeposited in the Cretaceous. The shaded
rectangle indicates the theoretical isotopic compositions of sam-
ples containing calcite and quartz stabilized in equilibrium with
normal marine water at surface temperature. The horizontal and
vertical arrows represent the theoretical isotopic composition of
quartz and calcite, respectively, in equilibrium with meteoric wa-
ter (δ18 O of -8‰ to -4‰ vs. SMOW) at surface temperature
(25–15ºC). The temperatures and=or isotopic compositions of
the waters were calculated using the equations cited in the text.
Note that isotopic values of the quartz in the silicified samples
from the Camarena Formation are widely dispersed, with most
of them lying in the meteoric water field. In contrast, the δ18 O
values of the calcite, which correspond to host rock relics in the
chert, are more closely grouped and are located within the ma-
rine water field. In addition, the quartz from the radiolarian-rich
facies of the Charco Formation has more uniform values typical
of marine water.
Craig, 1965; O’Neil et al., 1969). We assume that the
δ18 O values for Jurassic seawater on a planet free of
polar ice caps would be close to -1.2‰ (Shackleton
and Kennett, 1975). However, during burial diagen-
esis of carbonate sediments, interstitial waters may
acquire considerably higher δ18 O values (Lawrence
et al., 1977; Lawrence, 1989; Moore, 1989). Mete-
oric water has a wide range of δ18 O values, from
positive values in low-latitude desert areas to val-
ues lower than -40‰ in polar regions (Craig, 1961).
During the Jurassic and the Cretaceous this area
could have been close to 20º to 30º latitude (Drewry
97
Fig. 8. Carbon and oxygen isotopic composition of analysed
calcite. The encircled points represent calcite precipitated in a
shallow-marine diagenetic environment.
et al., 1974; Price et al., 1995). For this study we
have considered meteoric water with a δ18 O value of
-4‰ to -8‰ (SMOW), which would be typical of
intermediate latitudes (Rozanski et al., 1993).
The quartz δ18 O values of the Camarena Forma-
tion are lower than those typical of marine silica that
formed under surface temperatures, which would be
close to C40‰ (Labeyrie, 1974; Kolodny and Ep-
stein, 1976; Matheney and Knauth, 1993). Lowering
of δ18 O values, due to the presence of clays or detrital
silicates, cannot be considered, since none of these
minerals have been detected. The δ18 O values of
the Camarena Formation resemble those for quartz
formed at relatively higher temperatures (Kolodny
and Epstein, 1976; Murata et al., 1977; Pisciotto,
1981) or from meteoric water (Gao and Land, 1991;
Knauth, 1994). The calcite δ18 O values are near
equilibrium values for marine water at surface (shelf
seafloor) temperatures of 7ºC to 16ºC. The δ18 O val-
ues for calcite and quartz of the silicified Camarena
Formation oolitic limestones (Fig. 7), indicate that
these two mineral phases formed under different
diagenetic conditions. The relatively heavy carbon
isotope values (C1.19 < δ13 C < C2.53‰) (Fig. 8)
are typical of marine bicarbonate and was likely in-
herited from precursor marine carbonates (Keith and
Weber, 1964; Anderson and Arthur, 1983; Budd and
Land, 1990; Holail, 1993).
The similarity of isotopic composition for cherts
from the Camarena Formation and for the chert
clasts from Cretaceous redeposits (Fig. 7), supports
98 M.A. Bustillo et al. / Sedimentary Geology 119 (1998) 85–102
our interpretation that these clasts originated from
the erosion of the Camarena Formation.
The δ18 O values of the siliceous phases from the
Charco Formation are typical of cherts from marine
environments that were subjected to shallow-burial
diagenesis (cf. Knauth, 1992) (Fig. 7), but the δ18 O
values of two analysed calcites are more negative,
indicating their diagenetic stabilization in meteoric
water or at higher temperatures. The δ13 C values, on
the other hand, are normal marine (Fig. 8), but mete-
oric diagenetic systems at high rock=water ratios also
retain the precursor δ13 C (Allen and Matthews, 1982;
Lohmann, 1988; Budd and Land, 1990; Holail, 1993).
6. Discussion
6.1. Silica source
No direct evidence was found for an intraforma-
tional silica source in the cherts or in the oolitic lime-
stones of the Camarena Formation. This is not the
case for the rocks of the same age and facies from
other zones of the Betic Cordillera (Bustillo and
Ruiz-Ortiz, 1981) nor for most Mesozoic platform
sedimentary rocks with cherts (Maliva and Siever,
1989). The close link between facies rich in siliceous
organisms (Charco Formation and the underlying
rhythmite) and the cherts in the same stratigraphic
sections (Fig. 3) indicates silica derivation from this
biogenic source.
6.2. Timing of chertification
The timing of the chertification process is de-
duced by: (1) the commencement of deposition of
silica-source facies in the Bathonian; (2) the ap-
pearance of chertified limestones as clasts in Aptian
redeposits; and (3) the timing of the emergence pe-
riod for this sector as Bathonian–earliest Tithonian.
This could produce the recharge areas for meteoric
water in the regional aquifer system. Thus, the most
likely timing of chertification is Bathonian–earliest
Tithonian.
6.3. Chertification environment
Isotopic data show that the quartz in the chert could
have precipitated at surface temperatures from waters
with a meteoric component, or from marine water at
temperatures between 20º and 45ºC (Fig. 7). The sec-
ond possibility is rejected for the following reasons.
(1) Temperatures as high as 45ºC, with a normal
geothermal gradient in a typical continental mar-
gin basin (20ºC=km; Suchecki and Hubert, 1984),
would require a minimum burial depth of 1500
m (Fig. 9). Even considering gradients as high as
35ºC=km (Choquette and James, 1987), a depth of
more than 1000 m would be required. Not even in
the case of the most complete and thickest sequences
studied would the sediments accumulated during the
Bathonian–Aptian have been buried to those depths.
In addition, based merely on a geothermal gradient, it
is impossible to explain the temperature differences
(derived from the isotopic composition) at which the
different samples of the same formation (Camarena
Formation) have been generated. Furthermore, con-
sidering that the Charco Formation would have been
buried to depths only 20–30 m less than the Ca-
marena Formation, such a small difference would not
be able to account for the observed δ18 O gradient.
(2) An alternative explanation for high tempera-
tures could be the presence of thermal water, rising
along faults. This is not likely because: (a) there are
no indications of hydrothermal activity in the area;
(b) the indicated temperature gradient (from 20ºC to
45ºC) is not reflected in quartz textures, the latter
being very homogeneous.
We conclude, therefore, that the most likely expla-
nations for the genesis of the cherts is that quartz was
precipitated from waters with a meteoric component
(Knauth and Epstein, 1976; Meyers and James, 1978;
Kolodny et al., 1980), and such a scenario could also
explain the great dispersion of the δ18 O values in
the cherts of the Camarena Formation. This propo-
sition is similar to that of Whittle and Alsharnhan
(1994), with the silicification of platform limestones
by meteoric water and after intermediate burial.
6.4. Palaeogeographic model
The stratigraphic sections presented in this paper
(Fig. 3) represent sedimentary records of different
tectonic blocks and different bathymetry, particu-
larly visible for the interval between breaks R.2 and
R.3. The profiles of emerged blocks (Almirez-type)
pass laterally to profiles typical of storm-dominated
 M.A. Bustillo et al. / Sedimentary Geology 119 (1998) 85–102 99

Fig. 9. Theoretical burial depths for precipitation of silica and calcite based on the δ18 O composition that assumes a geothermal gradient
of 20ºC=km, typical of an average continental margin basin (Suchecki and Hubert, 1984). The burial depths are calculated by assuming
starting temperatures at the Jurassic shelf seafloor of 7ºC and a value of δ18 O of -1.2‰ (SMOW) for water. Shifts in the δ18 O of pore
water in sediment composed of calcium carbonate of 2‰ to 3‰ are possible with increasing depth (Lawrence, 1989), making the dotted
line more probable for depths >1000 m.

platform environments (Gigante-type) and finally to
profiles with turbidite facies, such as Rambla Seca–
Piedras Bermejas. The subaerial exposure would
have essentially affected the Almirez-type blocks,
although during the R.2 break, the emergence of
the Gigante-type blocks cannot be ruled out. The
episodes of block emergence coincided with the
deposition of the rhythmite and the radiolarite fa-
cies (Charco Formation) in the most sunken fault
blocks. The emerged sectors could have thus acted
as recharge areas for meteoric water that was then
laterally fed into a confined aquifer of the lowermost
blocks, the aquifer being sealed by impermeable fa-
cies above the oolitic limestones (Fig. 10). Confined
aquifers can act as efficient conductors for the dis-
tribution of meteoric water at depth and under the
continental platform (Moore, 1989; Knauth, 1994),
aided in this case by the existence of fractures that
increased rock porosity and facilitated communica-
tion (Fig. 10). The zone where the waters mixed,
at the contact between the meteoric phreatic and
the marine phreatic, is also a preferential zone for
silicification since it is an apt geochemical environ-
ment for calcite dissolution and the simultaneous
precipitation of quartz (Knauth, 1979).
7. Conclusions
(1) Dogger oolitic limestones of the Camarena
Formation, Internal Subbetic, eastern sector of the
Betic Cordillera, were replaced by quartz, giving rise
to chert bodies in the upper part or at the top of the
formation.
(2) Silicification was a slow process produced
by solutions low in silica and cation concentration,
which directly precipitated megaquartz, without an
opaline precursor.
(3) The δ18 O values of quartz in the cherts of
the Camarena Formation, suggest a contribution of
meteoric water during chertification.
(4) We propose a chertification environment with
a confined aquifer under submerged marine areas,
100 M.A. Bustillo et al. / Sedimentary Geology 119 (1998) 85–102

Fig. 10. Sketch of the proposed genetic model. Not to scale. Tilted blocks were related to listric faults. The position and names of the
three stratigraphic type-sections are indicated. The Almirez area acted as a recharge zone of meteoric water which fed a continental
phreatic zone and a mixing water zone. Sunken fault blocks (Gigante) overlain by tempestites could also have been temporarily emerged.
In the lowermost sunken fault blocks (R. Seca–P. Bermejas), more continuous sedimentation occurred, with turbidites followed by
radiolarite facies. R2 and R3 refer to the sedimentary breaks noted in Fig. 2 and in the text.

that received meteoric water from the emerged parts
of tilted fault blocks. Faults and fractures facilitated
water circulation.
(5) Both the biosiliceous facies of the Charco For-
mation and the underlying radiolarian-bearing marls
and rhythmites were the source of silica. These sed-
iments accumulated on the lowermost sunken fault
blocks.
(6) Silicification took place between the Bathonian
and the earliest Tithonian, coincident with platform
sedimentation at higher fault blocks and=or with a
phase or phases of their subaerial exposure. Chert
clasts from erosion of chert lenses in the Camarena
Formation are included in the Aptian breccia thus
setting an upper limit on the timing of silicification.
(7) The involvement of meteoric waters in the sili-
cification process and their connection with subaerial
exposure comprise a new argument in favour of the
existence of phases of emergence during the Jurassic
of specific areas of the continental margin located in
the pelagic realm.
Acknowledgements
This work was carried out with the support of re-
search projects PB93-1150-C02-02 of the DGICYT,
PB95-0106-C02-01 of the DGES, and the Research
Group RNM-200 of the Junta de Andalucı́a. We spe-
cially thank the Sedimentary Geology reviewers R.
Hesse and J. Veizer and editor, B. Sellwood, for their
helpful suggestions and comments. We are grate-
ful to M. Castillejo, A. Viloria and M.C. Sendra of
the administrative and technical staff of the Museo
Nacional de Ciencias Naturales for their help with
various aspects of this work. Thanks to Matthew
Harffy for his help in correcting the English version
of the manuscript.
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