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ec o.m o nt - Vo lu me 5 , N u mbe r 2 , De ce mber 2 0 1 3 ISSN 2 0 7 3 - 1 0 6 X pr int ver s io n ISSN 2 0 7 3 - 1 5 5 8 o nline ve r s io n: http: //epu b. o ea w. a c. a t/eco . m o n t

Protected areas in Northern Colombia on track to sustainable development?

Carla Marchant & Axel Borsdorf
Keywords: sustainable development, livelihood, tourism, subsistence, coffee, Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta, Colombia

A b s t ra c t
On the way to more peace, Colombian biosphere reserves, national parks and privately owned protected areas have changed their main objective from conservation to becoming regions of sustainable development. On the basis of case studies in the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta, Northern Colombia, this paper evaluates the concepts, strategies and measures by using the livelihood approach. The aim is to analyse if tourism and the export of cash crops like coffee can reduce the vulnerability of ecosystems and people. The study makes it clear that only on a small scale may tourism (eco-tourism and farm tourism) be regarded as a sustainable solution. This is also true of organic farming if it respects the natural ecosystems and does not pollute soil and water.

Profile Protected area Colombian biosphere reserves Mountain range Andes Country Colombia

Introduction

Colombia is often associated with civil war, drug cartels and violence. Press coverage in the second half of the 20th century has painted a predominantly negative image of the North-Andean country. In recent years, however, Colombia has experienced a new departure: the security situation has improved greatly, the economy has grown strongly for some time and unemployment is going down. Colombia is a country undergoing change. This is not only true for its increasing integration in the global economy in the course of the neoliberal economic policy introduced in Colombia with the Uribe administration, but also in terms of climate change, which is making itself particularly felt in the Colombian mountain areas. Below we shall subsume the combination of climate change and globalization in the term global change. Any change also means a risk, and risks include dangers that may develop into disasters. Sttter & Monreal (2010: 92) call that a bad risk. At the same time, risks may also include options for a better future, what these authors call a good risk. In risky situations it is vital to look out for vulnerabilities, resilience and strategies of adaptation to the changing basic conditions in order to ensure sustainable development. Protected areas (PAs), especially UNESCO biosphere reserves (BRs), are often called model regions of sustainable development (Lange 2005; UNESCO 2008, 2013). They are better suited than most places for testing development strategies that aim for a sustainable permanent improvement of the living conditions of the Colombian population while conserving the natural resources, ecosystems and ecosystem services as much as possible. Not just in the BRs, but also in IUCN-certified national parks (NPs) and in the many privately owned PAs in Colombia, which are protected by legislation, sustainability has been declared an im-

plicit or explicit goal. In Colombia the various PA categories sometimes overlap. NPs may be part of larger BRs, and either may include private or corporate PAs of civil society. Below we shall examine and assess the different development paths of Colombian PAs in terms of how they are adapting to global change by taking up the possibilities and reducing the dangers, and inhowfar they are capable of initiating sustainable developments. The adaptation options are manifold, they can be leveraged to secure subsistence, to develop tourism or to strengthen exports. In this process, models of governance and participation play an important role. For our study we chose PAs of various formats (BRs, NPs and PAs of civil society), all of them in mountain regions, which are affected in different ways by climate change at different altitudes and which have chosen different paths of adapting to globalization. Our main research question is thus: Which challenges must be met to reduce vulnerability, encourage resilience and achieve sustainability? An important aspect of change, as a result of the stabilizing situation in the country, is the growth of tourism. The rising figures for recent years are proof that tourism has become established by now and can be expected to continue in a positive vein. Not only more national but also, and in spite of press coverage, more international tourists are travelling through Colombia (foreign incoming tourist arrivals doubled from 2004 to 2010 to 1.5 million; Baret 2011) and benefit at the same time from improvements in the infrastructure triggered by economic growth. Colombia is targeting ecological tourism in protected areas across the country. The subordinate question for this part of the study is therefore: Can tourism in Colombian PAs be pursued in a sustainable manner? What is the effect of farmers cooperations (Asofintur) offering ecotourism?

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Figure 1 Case study area. A further, sustainable, development of PAs is the orientation on a cash crop to ensure constant economic growth. We will look at the coffee sector. As a result of the coffee crisis and the added competition from Southeast Asia on the global market, the local Colombian coffee farmers must make special efforts to be able to export their produce at prices that will secure their livelihood. In our case study we analysed the effect of unit size on production and marketing and the opportunities for ecological products, taking into account the role of traditional (Coffea arabica) and new (hybrid) varieties (C. caturra, C. castilla, C. bourbon, C. colombia) as well as the policies of the national Federacin Cafetera. The subordinate questions for this part of the study are therefore: Can Colombian coffee plantations be run sustainably, given the national conditions and the challenges of the world market? What role does the unit size play in such efforts? The third survival strategy we studied was agriculture aimed at securing livelihood, at subsistence and at market orientation. We also analysed if uniting small farmers in Asociaciones has any positive effect. In this respect, global change climate change and global competition is opening up numerous problems for the local farmers to deal with. Climate change or the dependence on the market are forcing the farmers to change their strategies and to look for solutions to their problems if they want to safeguard their livelihood. The subordinate questions for this part of the study are therefore: Can organic farming and the formation of Asociaciones contribute to sustaining the livelihood and to stabilizing the ecosystems? What is the role of an additional income from tourism?
Study area

Within a project module of the Institute for Geography at the University of Innsbruck, a group of students carried out a number of case studies in 2012. Here we only talk about the case of Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta BR. The UNESCO BR stretches across 2.1 millionha, includes Tayrona NP (56 250ha) and Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta NP (675000ha) and with it the highest coastal cordillera in the world (the peaks Cristbal Coln and Simn Bolvar at 5 775m each). From the coast to the glaciers it runs through all altitudinal zones of the tropical climate and the tropical vegetation. The pramo and the mountain forests are home to 96 endemic plant species and 104 endemic animal species (Tribin et al. 1999: 14, 18). The PA is home to 211 000 people, of whom 26500 are from the native ethnies of the Mayo-Kogui, Arhuaco, Wiwa, Wayuu and Kankwama (Tribin et al.

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Livelihood assets
Vulnerability context: Shocks Trends Seasonality
Human capital Social c. Natural c.

Transforming structures & processes Structures

- Levels of government - Private - Laws sector - Polices - Culture - Instuons

Livelihood Outcommes
More income Increased well-being Reduced vulnerability Improved food security More sustainable use of natural resources base

Livelihood strategies
In order to achieve

Physical c.

Financial c.

Processes

Figure 2 Sustainable Livelihood Framework (after DFID 1999a, modified by the authors). 1999: 23f). The BR also includes various civil society PAs, of which we chose the protective corridor of Riotoribio as our case in point. It covers some 20000 ha and has been created to protect the habitat of rare and threatened birds (Pyrrhura viridicata; Strewe 2005) and the mountain landscape while providing sustainable development for the small farmers (Wst 2006). It runs from the catchment area of the river on the San Lorenzo ridge (3000m) to its estuary in the Caribbean Sea west of Santa Marta. The study focused on tourism and coffee growing to allow a comparison with a study from 2011 in Cinturn Andino BR in Southern Colombia, which looked at the survival strategies of small farmers and native ethnies pursuing a subsistence economy (Borsdorf et al. 2011; Borsdorf 2012). This time the emphasis was on analysing the opportunities held by an orientation on export and international tourism and their compatibility with the environment and with social issues.
Theoretical framework

The livelihood approach is an analytical framework that tries to make livelihood systems, esp. those of poorer sections of the population, more sustainable and less vulnerable. Chambers & Conway (1991) define livelihood as follows: A livelihood comprises the capabilities, assets (including both material and social resources) and activities required for a means of living. A livelihood is sustainable when it can cope with and recover from stresses and shocks and maintain or enhance its capabilities and assets both now and in the future, while not undermining the natural resource base. In this approach the scale starts with a person and encompasses his/her household or their wider family system. The small scale means that this approach does not claim to be universally applicable or to explain the emergence of diversified or precarious livelihood systems. As the definition makes clear, the approach aims more at planning and controlling aspects. Figure 2 presents the Livelihood Framework. It studies the impact of positive and negative factors and interdependences of structures and processes on peoples livelihood systems.

The framework aims to illustrate the connection between assets, framework conditions that may disintegrate into shocks that trigger vulnerability and into institutional/cultural structures, and the action strategies and meeting of needs (livelihood outcomes). Rauch (2009) describes the framework thus, The livelihood framework takes into account the interdependence between structure and action. Its logic assumes that humans use their assets and react with their action strategies to environmental conditions, while taking into account the framework conditions, to achieve secure living conditions. The vulnerability context includes environmental influences that are largely outside human control but may greatly affect livelihood security. Shocks might be natural disasters or famines, trends could be population growth or political developments and seasonality could be volatile prices or seasonal differences in employment options. The arrow from the institutional /cultural structures to the vulnerability context expresses the possibility of mitigating negative events (DFID 1999b). Central element is an analysis of the livelihood assets, illustrated in the livelihood asset pentagon. (Figure3). It consists of human capital (knowledge, skills, capabilities, health), social capital (social networks, social systems of security), physical capital (infrastructure, means of production, transport), financia capital (savings, access to credit) and natural capital (soil, climate, water; Ashley & Carney 1999) None of these capitals is sufficient on its own to achieve the diverse livelihood goals. The term capital must not be understood in the narrow economic sense but rather as resource on which to build a livelihood system. In the centre of the pentagon there is no access to the relevant capital or the resource is missing. On the left side of Figure3 all capitals are fully present. The example on the right illustrates an imbalance in the presence of the capitals. In the last step of the Sustainable Livelihood Framework, the aim is to attain the Livelihood Outcomes by employing Livelihood Strategies (see Figure2). Within the analytical framework of DFID, these Livelihood Strategies focus on the breadth and combination of human activities to secure a livelihood

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Human capital (HC) HC Social capital (SC) Natural capital (NC)

SC

NC

FC Physical capital (PC) Financial capital (FC) PC

Figure 3 Livelihood Asset Pentagon (DFID 1999b). Pfeile? (Bohle 2001: 136). These may deviate withn households and present great spatial, sectoral and temporal diversity (Krger 2003: 11). The greater the choice of livelihood strategies, the better the adaptation and handling strategy vis--vis the vulnerability context. The range of options to act is also greatly affected by the institutional and / or cultural structure. The Livelihood Outcomes represent a state of sustainably secured livelihood (Bohle 2001: 137). Outcomes to strive for are: improved earning situation, greater food safety, reduced vulnerability, increased wellbeing and increased sustainable use of natural resources. We applied the livelihood approach to all case studies in order to be able to present a comparison of strengths and vulnerabilities.
Methods

In this study we used observation, mapping, literature and document analysis, data analysis, expert interviews, standardized surveys and satellite image analysis. The obtained data were then triangulated to mitigate the weaknesses of one method by the strengths of another.
State of the art

PAs are often model regions of sustainable development. This is particularly true for UNESCO BRs (Lange 2005). The objectives of BRs have been modified in the Seville Strategy (1995) and the Madrid Plan (UNESCO 2008). In Seville demands were raised for zoning and concrete development measures, in Madrid it was decided to include urban regions. Colombia features a variety of PAs in addition to the BRs, most importantly the NPs, which fulfil the criteria of the IUCN category (Dudley 2008), and the PAs of the civil society, which are run by private individuals or NROs (McNeely 1999). In Colombia these PAs were the areas in which pacification of the population started. Militant activities of guerilla groups and paramilitaries (Steinmetz 2003), but also conflicts over land, triggered by differences in the legal system of indgenas (collective ownership) and campesinos (individual ownership), had cost many lives (Borsdorf 2011). Manshard (1968) was the first to give a comprehensive overview of issues of tropical agriculture. Sub-

sistence economy plays an important role in this context (Werlhof et al. 2003). In many Colombian PAs, campesinos and indgenas are still using this economic system with its orientation on self-sufficiency and little market participation (Borsdorf et al. 2013). In the BRs and in other PAs, however, strategies of developing tourism (Schunck 2011) and export of agricultural produce are also being pursued. This is particularly true for coffee. As a cash crop, coffee has undergone dramatic changes in recent decades (Borsdorf 2007), triggered by the development of new hybrid varieties as part of the Green Revolution (Borsdorf 2006) and by the entry of new producer countries, such as India, Indonesia and Vietnam, into the world market. These changes have been further fuelled by changed consumer behaviour and new marketing strategies of the coffee roasters in the industrial countries (high pressure coffee makers, coffee capsules). In an effort to stave off Asian competition, the Federacin Nacional de Cafeteros converted the Colombian coffee industry completely to the new hybrid varieties and no longer accepts classic Arabica coffee at all. Large plantations could easily cope, small producers, however, were put under severe pressure. Rappole et al. (2003) compare the pros and cons of shade-grown and sun-grown coffee, using examples from all over South America to explain different conservation methods (www.cenicafe.org). De la Hoz (1997) and Palacios (2002) provide an historic overview of coffee growing, including social, economic and political aspects.
Results Case study: Coffee, Hacienda La Victoria

Today, the Hacienda la Victoria (founded in 1892) covers an area of 800ha in the Tierra templada and Tierra fra (altitudinal zones between 800 and 2500m) of the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta, 400ha of which are protected forest (reserva forestal). The original extent of the farm was much bigger, but the precarious financial situation of the farm forced the owners to sell an area of 511ha, which became the bird reserve Reserva Natural de las Aves El Dorado in March 2006. To this day coffee growing is the only source of income at the hacienda. At altitudes between 800m and 1450m, Arabica and hybrid varieties, such as Castilla, Caturra and Colombia, are grown. Most of the coffee

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plants, even of the hybrid varieties, are shade-grown (Figure4). Today 178ha are planted up with coffee, however, 60ha had to be cut down because of an infection with coffee rust. The fungal disease causes crop failure lasting two years. Currently the hacienda produces some 100000kg of coffee on ca. 120ha, i.e. about 800kg of coffee per hectare. The hacienda aims to produce 140000kg per year under ecological growing conditions. The Sierra Nevada des Santa Marta offers all necessary natural conditions for coffee growing. The climate is tropical, with dry winters (Aw in Kppen/Geigers classification). The growing areas are all situated at the altitudinal zone of the tropical montane rain forest. Regionally the boundary with the Tierra templada is a bit lower, which means that coffee can be cultivated at relatively low altitudes of 800m because of the humid air coming in from the sea and ample water supply. The land boasts 23 springs. In the course of climate change, however, weather and climate are beginning to change. Despite the good conditions for growing coffee, it is not possible to do completely without fertilizer. The hybrid varieties grown as monoculture and without shading trees are particularly in need of regular feeds but the tropical soil cannot lock the nutrients in. Even in the Tierra templada it partly consists of two layer clay minerals with low exchange capacity. In shade-growing this deficit is mitigated by the high-volume leaf mould of the shading trees, which retains the nutrients in the upper soil, from where it is transferred to the coffee plants through mycorrhiza. The haciendas coffee carries the international green seal because it is grown in a wholly ecological manner without the use of pesticides or artificial fertilizer. The plants are sprayed with a concoction that contains microorganisms in high concentration to encourage the nutrient circulation and to combat disease. First the microorganisms are washed out of an organic carrier, then oxygen is added to the solution so that the microorganisms multiply exponentially. The microorganisms speed up the formation of humus and regenerate nutrients which are then available to the plant and make it grow faster. In addition, a mixture of earthworms and coffee cherry stone shells taken from coffee production are added to the soil. The earthworms loosen the soil and transform the stone shells into humus, thus returning the nutrients from the shells to the coffee plant. In this way a closed nutrient cycle is being achieved. The nutrients are taken up by the so-called mycorrhiza and made available to the plant. Mycorrhizae are root fungi that enable a symbiosis of plants and fungi. The mycorrhiza increase the contact area between plant and soil. This and the small diameter of the fungus hypha make more nutrients and water available to the plant (Blume et al. 2010: 98f). In this way the fungi prepare the nutrients for the plant, so there is no need to apply mineral fertilizers. As coffee is a permanent

Figure 4 Coffee grown in the shade of higher trees, Hacienda La Victoria. A. Borsdorf culture the natural mycorrhiza are not destroyed and do not have to be artificially cultivated. According to the law of declining growth of earnings, there is a logarithmic connection between the application of fertilizer and the growth of earnings. This means that as you approach highest yield additional application of fertilizer increases yield only very little and is not profitable (Gisi 1997: 261f). For La Victoria there is thus an economic as well as an ecological reason to forego artificial fertilizer. The third and last point is terrain and climate. The steep slopes on which the coffes is grown and the heavy rain during the wet season make for very unfavourable conditions for applying fertilizer on the surface. It would be washed away by the rains into the rivers and contribute to eutrophying them. Like many plantation plants, coffee is prone to various diseases and pests, the most important of which is coffee rust (Hemileia vastarix), a fungal disease. The affected areas turn red and the leaves drop off. Diseased plants experience crop failure for two years. The Castilla variety is largely resistent against this disease. The most common pest in all coffee-producing countries is the coffee berry borer (Hypothenemus hampei), a beetle measuring ca. 1.5mm. It bores into the coffee cherry, where it lays its eggs for the offspring to grow. The males never leave the fruit. The coffee berry borer causes considerable damage. Yield drops as the cherries fall off. The affected cherries lose about 55% of their weight and the end product is of much lower quality (Benavides 2012: 511f.). The hacienda employes 25 permanent staff who work in the fields and in the factory. With their wives and children, a total of some 120 people live on La Victoria from coffee growing. During harvest time, seasonal workers bump up that number to 180 people. Maintenance of the coffee plants requires regular pruning by experts (Schrder 1991: 40). People are also needed for applying the organic fertilizer. Coffee can be harvested by hand or by machine. In manual harvesting we distinguish two methods, i.e.

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Collecng staons separaon canons prell boxes drying drum 1 separaon staon pulp removal fermentaon basin compensaon inlet basin 1 washing basket 2 washing basket 1 ume 2 ume PC NC

1 SC 0,8 0,6 0,4 0,2 0 HC

Figure 5 Processing scheme by levels (Borsdorf & Marchant 2013: 71). picking and stripping. Picking means that only the ripe red cherries are harvested, leading to a higher quality end product. Stripping means stripping unripe, ripe and overripe coffee cherries as well as leaves and small branches off the plant, very similar to machine harvesting (Fischer 2005: 4). At La Victoria all harvesting is done by picking. The seasonal migrant workers are paid by performance, measured in garrafon, a receptacle that holds about 14kg of coffee cherries. On average a picker earns 50000 COP (ca. 21.50 EUR) per day. Harvesting is hard work in the steep terrain with coffee plants reaching more than 3m height sometimes. Not all cherries on a coffee plant ripen at the same time. Two to three rounds of harvesting are necessary to catch all cherries when they are ripe. The annual harvest lasts from mid-November into February, sometimes even March, and is largely identical with the dry season, in the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta lasting from December to March. Coffee processing is shown in Figure5. Currently all the coffee produced at the hacienda is exported to Europe directly via a bulk buyer without any marketing through the Federacin Nacional de Cafeteros de Colombia. Most of it goes to Europe, some of the coffee is exported to the USA and to Japan. It is high-quality coffee, which means it is too good or too expensive for the Colombian home market. Future marketing is to be done via e-commerce. The owner is currently negotiating with an importer in London, who will sell the coffee on to German roasters, among others. But before this scheme can start, sufficient demand must be generated. The necessary marketing is currently under way. It remains to be seen if this strategy is successful. In terms of the livelihood approach, Hacienda La Victoria is well endowed with natural capital and the methods used will not diminish it (Figure 6). Human capital must also be considered very good, given the expertise of the owners. This also holds for the social capital: the workers are well looked after and in good accommodation, conflicts with guerillas and paramilitaries have ceased. The physical capital is old but still works and is very well suited to producing high-quality coffee. The system and the people involved are only vulnerable from the lack of financial capital. The direct marketing strategy to Europe can be understood as a step in the right direction.

Figure 6 Livelihood pentagon of Hacienda La Victoria The Colombian region with the greatest potential for tourism is the Carribean. Visitor numbers in the NPs illustrate the value of tourism for the study areas. Tayrona NP reported 241 460 visitors in 2011, while Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta NP has as yet hardly been opened up for tourism. In 2011 just 325 people visited it (Ministerio de Ambiente y Desarollo Sostenibilidad 2011), which adds up to a total of nearly 242000 visitors in that year for the BR. Colombia focuses on ecotourism in an effort to encourage sustainable development. One such measure is uniting several farmers in a cooperative with a joint ecotourist offering. In the study area the Asocicin de Fincas Tursticas (ASOFINTUR) is one such association. Much effort is yet needed to raise awareness of the conservation aims and of sustainable tourism development with tourists and indigenous population alike. In a survey (n = 79) visitors were asked among other things how familiar they were with the aims of the PAs. A bit more than a quarter of interviewees were between the ages of 21 and 30, only 7% were of retirement age. 20% were foreigners and 80% were indiviual travellers. As expected, the average length of stay of the foreign tourists was, at 12.24 days, considerably longer than that of Colombian tourists, who only stayed for 6.41 days. The interviewees rated the things on offer for tourists on a scale from 1 (very bad) to 10 (excellent) and presented a very positive image. 74% rated tourist offerings as good or very good, only 5% are not or less satisfied with it. The survey was complemented by guided interviews with six tourism experts. It became clear that esp. in terms of information level there were great differences of perception. The experts thought that visitors in general were well informed, while the survey showed that a majority (65%) of visitors knew nothing about the PAs, with foreigners being considerably better informed (70% of international tourists knew something about the conservation aims). Awareness of BRs, however, is much lower. Only 17.7% of foreigners and 9.7% of Colombians (in total 11.4%) were able to name the aims of BRs. Of the PAs, only Tayrona NP has a stall with some superficial information on the peculiarities of the natural resources of the park. Neither Sierra Nevada NP nor the BR of the same name provide such information a clear sign that inCase study: Tourism

FC

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11 Tag ag ga ang n a 10 Bonda Bon ond da da Santa a Ma Marta

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Fincas of ASOFINTUR Villa Myriam Los Cocos Aluna Seynekun Astrum El Limoncillo 7 8 9 10 11 Ecoturismo Los Mangos Caminos Inguna Villa Margarita Turcol Expotur settlement area road track

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Map design: K. Heinrich, IGF, 2013 Data base: SRTM Digital Terrain Model; IUCN and UNEP. 2012. The World Database on Protected Areas (WDPA). UNEP-WCMC. Cambridge, UK.

Figure 7 Location of the ASOFINTUR fincas (Bosdorf & Marchant 2013: 56). formation flow must be much improved to meet the education tasks of the park. Some such efforts are under way in the 11 fincas united as ASOFINTUR (Figure 7). In addition to accommodation they offer activities that are easy on the environment, such as horse-riding, walking or mountain-biking. These additional earnings increase the financial capital of the fincas. The mostly foreign guests usually stay between two weeks and a month. The physical and financial capital of the BR is not sufficiently strengthened by tourism due to the low visitor numbers, esp. in the mountains. Nor does it respect the valuable natural assets, except on the ASOFINTUR fincas, rather it is oriented on exploitation, which is not yet a problem, given the low visitor numbers. The human capital with the existing comprehensive and thorough local expertise is not being leveraged and the social capital is only strengthened inside ASOFINTUR (Figure8). Tourism can only be called sustainable if information is improved, cooperation of the people involved tourism and the population strengthened and tourist infrastructure updated in an environmentally sensitive manner. In the Riotoribio protective corridor, i. e. the hydrographical basin of the Ro Toribio, tourism only plays a minor role. In our study we took the Finca La Cumbre as case in point. It covers an area of 62.5ha, of which 30.5ha are pasture, the rest is natural forest. Woodland areas near the nesting grounds of the parrots are reserved for bird protection. The operational areas of the Finca La Cumbre start at 1850m and reach elevations of nearly 2 600m, i. e. most of the area falls into the altitudinal zone of the Tierra fra
Case study: Riotoribio protective corridor

(from 2000m). Dairy cattle farming and cheese production is suitable for such conditions. A little below this finca is the Finca Vega, owned by the parents-inlaw of the owner of Finca La Cumbre. Finca Vega consists of a triangular farmstead at just below 1600m and a small, 2.5ha coffee plantation at 1700m, in the altitudinal zone of the Tierra templada, a favourable climate for growing coffee. Currently (2012) it is planted up with the Caturra variety, a hybrid variety of Arabica. Harvesting started in 2008. In the coming years the coffee production is to be changed completely to organic farming. To this end shading trees have already been planted to protect the vulnerable coffee plants. To date there have been several attacks of coffee rust. A demucilaging and washing system has been installed. The beans are dried on the paved inner courtyard of the finca. The problem for small producers is the fact that powerful actors dictate selling conditions for the beans, which shrinks the expected profit of the producers. The Federacin Nacional de Cafeteros de Colombia is particularly keen to impose its monopoly in exporting coffee to the world market. Many small producers would prefer marketing their coffee in the way the German organization Kaffee K.U.L.T. had planned to do it, where their product retains its high quality all the way to the end consumer, which would make the additional effort needed for ecological growing methods feasible. This finca is linked by a track in bad repair to Minca and Santa Marta. In contrast, the Finca La Cumbre, near the spring of the Ro Toribio, has no direct access to a track and can only be reached on foot or on horseback. The river drains the area to the west and flows into the Carribean Sea some five kilometres north-east

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SC

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0,8 NC 0,6 0,4 0,2 0 HC NC

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Figure 9 Livelihood pentagons in tourism at Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta, left: coast, right: ASOFINTUR .
1 SC 1 SC 0,8 NC 0,6 0,4 0,2 0 HC NC 0,8 0,6 0,4 0,2 0 HC

PC

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138). Education in the locality is part of the project and carried out at the association meetings as well as in schools. Here too we arrive at a mixed assessment in livelihood terms. The natural capital is now adequately protected and reforestation actually improves it further. Physical and financial capitals are week, making the livelihood of the valley inhabitants vulnerable. However, they have high human capital and in their Asociacin also high social capital (Figure 10).
Discussion

PC

FC

PC

FC

Figure 10 Livelihood pentagons of ASOTORIBIO fincas. Left: Finca Vega, right: Finca La Cumbre. of the town of Cinaga. The V-shaped valley created by fluvial processes has steep sides and hardly any good-sized flatter areas. The first proper settlement with central functions, such as primary school, shops and workshops, is Minca. By car it takes about 1.5hours to drive the 20km distance. After 37kilometres and about 2.5hours by car, the road reaches the coastal plain with the town of Santa Marta. The spectacular mountain landscape and the fascinating tropical vegetation and diversity of species could attract many adventure tourists and bird watchers to the valley, but today there is little trace of them. The tourist infrastructure is currently being created and is mostly basic. At the Finca La Cumbre a guesthouse has been built in the hope for future visitors. At first many groups of students came but by now there are only few visitors. This makes the finca, likea all the others within the protective corridor, dependent on earnings from agriculture and particularly from dairy farming. At three litres per cow per day, this is not very profitable and as the milk is only processed into a not very tasty kind of soft cheese (somewhere between feta und mozzarella), earnings remain low. Therefore the small farmers also produce honey and jam for an additional income. If they succeeded in producing a hard cheese instead of the soft cheese, which does not keep and is therefore not suitable for being sent to the markets in the cities, the earning situation would improve. Special attention needs to be paid to the microbial composition of the bacteria in culturing (Wst 2006: 135). The members of ASOTORIBIO also engage in reforestation with indigenous varieties of trees. By now 38 nurseries have been established and by August 2005 some 28000 trees had been planted (Wst 2006:

The three examples present different situations. In conservation terms, the efforts at both the export-oriented plantation La Victoria and the Asociacin Riotoribio must be seen positively. While the hacienda also has high physical capital, the Asociacin Riotoribio lacks physical capital, and both suffer from low financial capital. At the same time, both boast high human and social capital. The outlook for tourist development is not so good. In these cases neither the education requirements of PAs are being met nor even the simplest control mechanisms implemented. This makes the flora and fauna more vulnerable than the humans. A responsible attitude towards the vulnerable, and in places already damaged, environment is missing, as are joint efforts and the use of participatory approaches in tourism, except for the members of ASOFINTUR, who combine business sense with idealism. A positive contrast is the love of nature and environmental awareness of the Weber family on La Victoria and the families in the Riotoribio protective corridor. Overall, the balance is mixed. Unlike in the study on Ro Piedras in Cinturn Andino BR (Borsdorf et al. 2011), tourism in the unchained version practised in Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta and on the adjoining coast cannot be seen as sustainable development. Coffee, if grown organically under shading trees, however, can count as sustainable. It emulates the natural ecosystem and is profitable if it can be marketed directly to European distributors.
Conclusion

The answer to our initial question is thus: to reduce vulnerability, encourage resilience and achieve sustainable regional development, it is necessary to expand organic farming and direct exports, given the difficult national marketing channels for coffee. Vulnerability can be reduced and sustainability achieved if the idea of conservation, which currently focuses on the habitats of rare birds, can be expanded to include conservation of the entire ecosystems and if the economic basis is strengthened through improving quality and export. Tourism may be a main or an additional source of income, but it can only meet sustainability criteria if

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information on environmental protection and natural assets is improved, infrastructure is updated and visitor flows are channeled. Small-scale visitor management, for instance in the Asociaciones of the small farmers, is easier on the environment than mass tourism on the beaches. Colombian coffee, if produced organically, has a market niche, particularly by offering the traditional Arabica variety, which has all but disappeared from the world market. Coffee growing is ecologically sound if it emulates the natural ecosystem of the montane rain forest with mixed planting and shading trees, regardless of plantation size. Campesino associations strengthen the economic base as well as human and social capital. They reduce the vulnerability of individual small farmers and can contribute to ecosystem conservation if they are oriented on PA criteria. Individual and eco-tourism can add to the economic base.
Acknowledgements

The authors wish to thank all students involved in the fieldwork for their cooperation and their texts and visuals, some of which have been integrated in this paper. They were Michael Brger, Benedikt Hora, Christoph Huber, Anika Maltzkait, Aaron Rabensteiner Ulrike Rdig, Elisabeth Schaber and Sina Starmans. Thanks are also due to the families who were such kind hosts and to the interviewed experts, as well as to Prof. Dr. Luis Alfonso Ortega of the Fundacin Ecohabitats, who advised and helped us in situ.
References

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Bohle, H. 2001. Neue Anstze der geographischen Risikoforschung. Ein Analyserahmen zur Bestimmung nachhaltiger Lebenssicherung von Armutsgruppen. Die Erde 132 (2): 119140. Borsdorf, A. 1997. Dritte Welt und Weltwirtschaft. Kurswissen Geographie. 4th ed. Stuttgart. Borsdorf, A. 2006: Espresso und Kokain. In: Borsdorf, A. & W. Hdl (ed.): Naturraum Lateinamerika. Geographische und biologische Grundlagen: 357372. Wien. Borsdorf, A. 2007. Kaffee und Kokain. Globaler Markt und Konsumverhalten als Einflussfaktoren auf lateinamerikanische kosysteme und Kulturlandschaften. GW-Unterricht 106: 514. Borsdorf, A. 2011. Peace through climate change adaptation innovative paths in the Biosphere Reserve Cinturn Andino, Colombia. In: Borsdorf, A., J. Sttter & E. Veulliet (eds.), Managing Alpine Future II. International Conference 2123 November 2011, Congress Innsbruck. Abstracts: 78. Innsbruck. Borsdorf, A., F. Borsdorf & L.A. Ortega 2011. Towards climate change adaptation, sustainable development and conflict resolution the Cinturn Andino Biosphere Reserve in Southern Colombia. eco.mont Journal on Protected Mountain Areas Research and Management 3 (2): 4348. Borsdorf, A. & M. Mergili (eds.) 2011. Kolumbien im Wandel. Erkenntnisse und Eindrcke einer dreiwchigen Studienexkursion durch Zentral- und Sdkolumbien. inngeo Innsbrucker Materialien zur Geographie 14. Innsbruck. Borsdorf, A. & C. Marchant (eds.) 2013. Kolumbien: Ein Land zwischen neoliberaler ffnung und Nachhaltigkeit. Strategien der Regionalentwicklung im Zuge des Globalen Wandels anhand ausgewhlter Beispiele an der Karibikkste. inngeo Innsbrucker Materialien zur Geographie 15. Innsbruck. Borsdorf, A., C. Marchant & M. Mergili (eds.) 2013. Agricultura ecolgicay estrategias de adaptacin al cambio climtico en la cuenca del Ro Piedras. Popayn. Chambers, R. & G. Conway 1992. Sustainable rural livelihoods: Practical concepts for the 21st century. IDS Discussion Paper 296. Brighton. De la Hoz, V.J. 1997. Caf Caribe: La economa cafetera en laSierra Nevada de Santa Marta. Cartagena. DFID (Department For International Development) 1999a: Sustainable Livelihoods Guidance Sheets (Section 1). Available at http://www.eldis.org/vfile/ upload/1/document/0901/section1.pdf (accessed 22/02/2013) DFID (Department For International Development) 1999b: Sustainable Livelihoods Guidance Sheets (Section 2). Available at: http://www.eldis.org/vfile/ upload/1/document/0901/section2.pdf (accessed 22/02/2013) Dudley, N. 2008. Guidelines for Applying Protected Area Management Categories. Gland. Fischer, C. 2005. Kaffee nderung physikalischchemischer Parameter beim Rosten, Quenchen und Mahlen. Gottingen.

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Gisi, U. 1997: Bodenokologie. Stuttgart. Krger, F. 2003. Handlungsorientierte Entwicklungsforschung: Trends, Perspektiven, Defizite. Petermanns Geographische Mitteilungen 147 (1): 614. Lange, S. 2005. Inspired by Diversity. The Austrian Contribution to UNESCOs MAB programme. Created at the Institute for Urban and Regional Research. Vienna. Manshard, W. 1968. Agrargeographie in der Tropen: eine Einfhrung. Mannheim. McNeely, J.A. 1999. Mobilizing Broader support for Asias Biodiversity: How Civil Society can Contribute to Protected Area Management. Nolte, B. 2003. Die internationalen Richtlinien fr nachhaltigen Tourismus und biologische Vielfalt im Rahmen der Biodiversittskonvention. Greifswalder Beitrge zur Regional-, Freizeit- und Tourismusforschung 14: 205212. Ojeda, D. 2011. Whose Paradise? Conservation, Tourism and Land Grabbing in Tayrona Natural Park, Colombia. University of Sussex. Brighton. Palacios, M. 2002. Coffee in Colombia, 18501970: An economic, social, and political history. Cambridge. Rappole, J.H., D. King & V. Rivera Vega 2003. Coffee and Conservation. Conservation Biology 17 (1): 334336. Rauch, T. 2009. Entwicklungspolitik Theorien, Strategien, Instrumente. Das Geographische Seminar. Braunschweig. Schrder, R. 1991. Kaffee, Tee und Kardamon:. Tropische Genussmittel und Gewrze. Geschichte, Verbreitung, Anbau, Ernte, Aufbereitung. Stuttgart. Schunck, I. 2009. Armutsbekmpfung durch Tourismus bleibt fragwrdig. Ein Beispiel anhand der ST-EP-Initiative der Welttourismusorganisation (UNWTO) in Kolumbien (Providencie/Santa Catalina). Steinmetz, E. 2003. Naturschutz (Aus-)Lser von Konflikten? Bundesamt fr Naturschutz. Bonn. Sttter, J. & M. Monreal 2010. Mountains at risk. In: Borsdorf, A., G. Grabherr, K. Heinrich, B. Scott & J. Sttter (eds), Challenges for Mountain Regions. Tackling Complexity: 8693. Wien. Strewe, R. 2005. Aktuelle Situation des SantaMarta-Rotschwanzsittichs in Kolumbien. Papageien 18: 9497. Tribin, M., N. Rodriguez & M. Valderrama 1999. The biosphere reserve of the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta: a pioneer experience of a bioregion. UNESCO Working papers South South cooperation programme on environmentally sound socio-economic development in the humid tropics 30. Paris. Thiel, L. & D. Effler 2011. The Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta Biosphere Reserve, Colombia The Origin of Coffee K.U.L.T. In: Austrian MAB Committee (ed.), Biosphere Reserves in the Mountains of the World. Excellence in the Clouds? 8993. Wien. Tribin, M.C.D.G., G.E.N. Rodrguez & M. Valderrama 1999. The Biosphere Reserve of the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta: A Pioneer Experience of a Shared and Coordinated Management of a Bioregion. Paris.

UNESCO 2008. Madrid Action Plan for Biosphere Reserves 20082013. Paris. UNESCO 2013. Map of the World Network of Biosphere Reserves. Available at: http://www.unesco. org/new/en/natural-sciences/environment/ecological-sciences/ (assessed 15/01/2013) Werlhof, C. v., V. Bennholt-Thomsen & N. Faraclas 2003. Subsistenz und Widerstand. Alternativen zur Globalisierung. Wien. Wst, R. 2006. Kse kontra Kahlschlag Arten schutz in Kolumbien. Papageien 4: 124128.
Authors Carla Marchant

Axel Borsdorf

R e search ec o.m o nt - Vo lu me 5 , N u mbe r 2 , De ce mber 2 0 1 3 ISSN 2 0 7 3 - 1 0 6 X pr int ver s io n ISSN 2 0 7 3 - 1 5 5 8 o nline ve r s io n: http: //epu b. o ea w. a c. a t/eco . m o n t

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The art of omission: BRIMNockberge design of a Biosphere Reserve Integrated Monitoring for the Carinthian part of the Biosphere Reserve Salzburger Lungau & Krntner Nockberge
Michael Jungmeier, Tobias Kstl, Sigrun Lange & Markus Bliem
Keywords: biosphere reserves, integrated monitoring, UNESCO, protected area management

A b s t ra c t
This article provides an overview on BRIM , a research project dedicated to the development of an integrated monitoring system aimed at displaying the performance of the Carinthian part of the newly established Biosphere Reserve (BR) Salzburger Lungau & Krntner Nockberge. Special emphasis has been placed on compactness and slenderness in this approach. Twelve indicators have been identified that are best suited to represent the social, economic and ecological development of the region, as well as the managements performance. The whole process of developing indicators has been implemented in close collaboration and communication with local stakeholders and experts to achieve maximum public acceptance and effectiveness of the monitoring approach. A specific online database has been designed to store the collected data. It allows an easy and stringent presentation of the results. A test run was carried out within the project. Over the years, the annual collection of data will allow detecting relevant trends in the region.
Nockberge

Profile Protected area Biosphere Reserve Salzburger Lungau & Krntner Nockberge Mountain range Alps Country Austria

Introduction

According to Goldsmith (1991), monitoring is to detect change. It is a process of repeated collection and interpretation of relevant data. Disregarding the pioneer work in a few parks, such as the Swiss National Park, where scientific monitoring can be considered a constituent element of the parks history and identity (Kupper 2012), monitoring in the context of park management did not become relevant before the 1970s. At that time, international conventions (in particular the World Heritage Convention, the Ramsar Convention and the Convention on Biological Diversity with its Programme of Work on Protected Areas) and institutions such as the European Council started to request regular reports on the performance of their sites. More and more sophisticated monitoring schemes have been developed since then (cf. Alparc 2011; Buer et al. 2013; Fancy et al. 2007; Kowatsch et al. 2011; Nolte et al. 2010; Stoll-Kleemann et al. 2012). However, due to a lack of resources their application still remains a challenge in practice. Extensive assessments, as required for instance in Article 17 of Europes Habitats Directive from 1992, can surely be considered culmination points of monitoring requirements (Ellmauer 2005). Since BRs derive from UNESCOs Man and the Biosphere Programme (1970), right from the start they have been encouraged to host globally relevant research for the surveillance of environmental changes. Thus monitoring has always been an important component of the logistic function of BRs (Lange 2005). In 1995, the Seville Strategy, re-launching BRs as model regions

Figure 1 Towards a sustainable future? Traditional mowing of steep Alpine meadows. A. Gruber. A typical view in the Nockberge region. e.c.o. Austria

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Sa alz lzbu burg rg g

St S tyr yria a

Salzburger Lungau BR
!

Tamsweg

St. Michael im Lungau ! Krntner Nockberge BR Salzburger Lungau BR Border of the BR Border of the federal state
Source: BEV 2013 (Hillshade)

Innerkrems ms s Gmnd
!

Cari Ca rint ri nt nthi thi ha

Krntner Nockberge BR

Graphics: E.C.O. 2013

Reichenau

16 km

Bad Kleinkirchheim !

Figure 2 Geographic location of the Biosphere Reserve (BR) Salzburger Lungau & Krntner Nockberge. for sustainable development, re-emphasized the importance of a systematic monitoring scheme and periodic reviews. Step by step this has been put in place in many BRs across the world (e.g. Heinze 2004). In Austria, Fischer-Kowalski et al. (2008) conceptualized an integrated monitoring approach for BRs. The experts argued that due to the manifold functions of BRs, a great range of variables has to be covered in the natural as well as in the social and economic spheres. However, experiences from practice show that for a monitoring tool to be applied successfully long-term it is crucial to avoid high costs and labour input.
The study area and its particular requirements

and easy to understand, with cost-efficiency another major issue. The expenditures for the monitoring should not exceed the costs of the annual financial statement of the parks administration. Given these requirements, an integrated monitoring scheme, the BRIMNockberge, was developed as a pilot study for the Carinthian part of the BR. Based on the findings and experiences from this study, the present monitoring approach is going to be extended to the Lungau part of the BR. The project was financially supported by the Austrian Man and the Biosphere programme.
Research question

After an exhausting participatory planning process of almost one decade (Jungmeier et al. 2009), the Biosphere Reserve Salzburger Lungau & Krntner Nockberge was recognized by the UNESCO in July 2012. Covering some 149 599 hectares in two federal states it is the largest BR in the Eastern Alps. It encompasses a mosaic of ecological systems, representative for the Alpine region. The BR is separately administrated by two entities, the management team of the former National Park Nockberge (Carinthia), and the team of the regional association of Lungau (Salzburg). Both entities have signed a cooperation agreement to attune common aims and strategies. Prior to its designation, it was claimed by stakeholders in the former National Park Nockberge, and promised by decision-makers in Carinthia, that an integrated monitoring scheme should already be in place before the BR would be launched. The idea was simply to have a number of key figures to measure the success of the park management. According to the regional discussion, the monitoring system should be very slim

The study focused on the following research question: which simple set of indicators is appropriate to cover the various functions of a BR while being resource- and cost-efficient, and accepted by the relevant local stakeholder groups?
Methods

In the context of the research project, the surveyed indicators have been assigned to four dimensions: the ecological, the economic, the socio-cultural, and the management dimension. These dimensions are related to the three basic functions of BRs. The indicators of the ecological dimension relate to the conservation function of the BR; those of the economic and social dimensions reflect the development function; the indicators subsumed under the management performance are indicating efforts related to the logistic function for research, monitoring and educational activities. In a first step, more than one hundred indicators have been pre-selected from existing monitoring approaches and literature. Subsequently, each indicator had to comply with the following criteria: relevance,

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availability, sensitivity and consistency. By this process four indicators have been determined for each dimension, summing up to a total of only twelve indicators. After intensive discussions and consultative processes with experts and local decision-makers (represented in the former National Park Committee) over a period of ten months, some minor adoptions were made. This process is shown in the following scheme (Figure 3). Generally, an indicator is considered to be relevant if it is related to the agreed management objectives of the BR in question. However, in case of the young Krntner Nockberge BR a management plan does not yet exist. In accordance with the national criteria for Austrian BRs, a management plan has to be developed within a period of three years from its designation. As the monitoring tool should be available before the BR is recognised, the indicators have been related to the management objectives indicated by the staff and the BR Committee, the decision-making body of the park. Generally the significance of the results is expected to increase in proportion to the regularity of the data collection. The Carinthian management of the BR will collect data once a year. In order to buffer irregularities, all figures are being calculated as rolling mean values of the annual figures for the last five years (Figure4). This means that the performance of the last year is subtracted from the performance of the current year and related to the mean value of the last five years, excluding the current year. Nevertheless, the isolated annual data are also to be considered in the interpretation process to avoid an essential loss of information. The analysis of the monitoring results is one of the critical issues. A specific online-database has been designed to store the collected data. It allows for an easy interpretation of the collected data and the assessment of relevant trends in the development of the BR. Subsequently, the processed data have to be interpreted with regard to the management objectives and thus can be used for adapting and improving management performance. Once the indicators had been selected and the database installed, a first test-run was carried out. The data of some indicators were compared with data from a neighbouring region outside the BR. Equivalent to the four communities forming the Carinthian part of the BR (Bad Kleinkirchheim, Krems in Carinthia, Radenthein and Reichenau), four reference communities have been selected (Albeck, Friesach, Gloednitz, Metnitz). They are comparable in geomorphology, size and number of inhabitants but differ with respect to the conservation status and the touristic value. This comparative approach has been applied whenever the monetary and labour costs stayed within reasonable limits.
Results

Figure 3 Scheme showing the process of identifying the indicators. The National Park Committee has been transformed into the BR Committee. Chart created by the authors.
(performance of the current year) - (performance of the last year) mean value of the last five years, excluding the current year

Prel ... Pn+1 ... Pn ... n ...

relative performance indicator of the actual year indicator of the previous year number of values (five)

Figure 4 Calculation of relative performance by rolling mean values. Chart created by the authors. -- development of a set of twelve indicators, appropriate to monitor the performance of the Carinthian part of the BR; -- development of an online database to systematically store and interpret the collected data; -- implementation of a test-run of the monitoring system (partly also implemented in the reference region). As a result of the participatory process, a set of twelve indicators has been chosen to assess the performance of the BR. Several indicators seemed to be appropriate but finally had to be dropped in the course of the discussions with the BR Committee. Either they did not meet the criteria of being relevant, availSet of indicators

In the course of the project, three different results have been achieved:

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able, sensitive and consistent, or they were refused by specific stakeholder groups. The indicator gender mainstreaming (which means equal opportunities for everybody), for example, was suggested to be included in the monitoring scheme as it is considered to be very important for social justice, a key issue of sustainable development. However, this indicator was dropped as it was considered to be too difficult to assess. For each of the four dimensions defined by the project, three indicators have been identified, which are illustrated in Table 1. The present choice of indicators constitutes the basic set of the monitoring tool. The management body will carry out additional thematic analyses, the screenshots, which allow a more thorough examination of specific issues, such as gender equity, dissemination of best practice with respect to sustainable land use, or education. In this way, specific issues can be covered which are not currently represented by the set of indicators. By analysis on short-term demand the management is able to react very quickly to upcoming questions and requirements. Below the selected indicators and the reasoning behind them are briefly outlined.
Indicators dimension: representing the ecological

The population development of Nigritella rhellicani, an Alpine orchid species sensitive to intensive grazing,

is being monitored by yearly counting of individuals on fixed plots. Five of these plots are located in each of the core areas and in the buffer zones of the BR. The sampling plots have been allocated randomly at elevations of 1 900metres and beyond. In the long run, a balanced grazing management will be indicated by a stable number of individuals. According to Achtziger et al. (2004) and Fischer et al. (2008), the presence of orchid populations indicates low-nutrient habitats, which are known to host a great variety of different species with similar site requirements. The population trend of Tetrao urogallus shall be indicated by the number of displaying roosters. Due to the fact that capercaillies serve as umbrella species, a stable population indicates a rich habitat also suited for numerous other bird species (Borgo et al. 2009). The high sensitivity of the animal and the enormous efforts needed in surveying these animals made the local hunting community the ideal partner for investigation. Data on capercaillies are regularly surveyed by the local hunting community by observing strict standards in sampling design. The additional benefit of this indicator is the integration of this relevant stakeholder group. Historically, the capercaillie has become the emblematic animal of the Carinthian part of the BR. The amount of coarse woody debris in the forests of the BR is one of the most important ecological parameters. The indicator represents the attitude of land owners and forest managers towards a close-to-

Table 1 Overview of indicators: Complete list showing all indicators, related data, survey interval, data source and reference data.
Nr 1 Indicator Related data Survey interval Source of data Reference data Indicators displaying the social dimension Personal perception of the potential Mean value of the perception as a for active participation in political and number between 1 and 10 social decision processes Personal satisfaction with the Biosphere Reserve (BR) Migration balance Mean value of the perception as a number between 1 and 10 Ratio between in-migrating and out-migrating people annual annual annual questionnaire questionnaire STAT for reference region

2 3

Indicators displaying the economic dimension 4 5 6 Development of the visitor tax in the BR Amount of visitor tax in euros Development of the local tax in the four municipalities of the BR Development of the agricultural landuse forms in the BR Amount of local tax in the four municipalities of the BR in euros - Number of agricultural holdings - Total amount of agricultural areas in use with and without Alpine pastures - Number of mowing areas on steep slopes Number of displaying roosters found in the BR Number of flowering Nigritella rhellicani found in ten observation plots annual annual STAT STAT for reference region for reference region

annual

INVEKOS

for reference region

Indicators displaying the ecologic dimension 7 8 9 Population trend of Tetrao urogallus in the BR Population trend of Nigritella rhellicani in the BR Development of the coarse woody debris share in the forests Development of visitor numbers every second year every second year Field mapping (by hunters) Field mapping WI for reference region

Volume of coarse woody debris per annual hectare forest in sample plots Amount of people participating in events officially organized or certified by the BR management Number of press reports in print media Number of research projects carried out

Indicators displaying the management performance 10 annual annual annual Data collected by the authors Data collected by the authors Data collected by the authors -

11 12

Development of media presence Development of research activities within the BR

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nature forestry practice. It is assumed that a higher amount of coarse woody debris increases the value of the forest for biodiversity conservation. The volume of coarse woody debris is surveyed regularly by the Austrian Forest Inventory by collecting data on a grid of sample plots. The level of tourism levy in a region allows a reliable inference of any increasing added value of tourism and a lowered susceptibility towards external factors. Increased visitor taxes are closely related to increasing quality and rising price levels and therefore the positive development of the touristic sector. In a similar way, increased revenues from local taxes indicate a higher economic activity, which is directly related to more jobs and a higher added value. In the long term, a positive trend compared to communities outside the BR is intended. Agriculture is one of the most important economic sectors in the BR region. Giuliani & Flury (2009) underline the importance of agriculture as the basis for a multitude of value-added chains, especially in marginalized rural areas. The indicator is subdivided into four key figures, i.e. the number of agricultural holdings, the total amount of agricultural areas in use with and without alpine pastures, and the number of mowing areas on steep slopes. These four parameters are aggregated to a data cluster and have to be separately interpreted. In addition to its economic importance, the type and intensity of agricultural land-use is closely related to nature conservation issues (Holzner 2007; Anzengruber 2010). The social dimension is represented by the personal perception of the potential for active participation in political and social decision processes. This and the following indicator are being assessed by questionnaires (Figure 5), which are sent once a year to every household within the four communities in the BR. To promote participation in the survey, every returned questionnaire takes part in a lottery. The rewards range from regional products to touristic offers. A high degree of participation indicates the success of the BR in meeting one of its core principles: true bottom-up development and an active participation of all stakeholder groups in the ongoing management. These principles are rooted in the Seville Strategy of UNESCOs Biosphere Reserves (UNESCO 1996). The personal satisfaction with the ongoing activities is a key benchmark for the acceptance of the BR. A positive attitude of the inhabitants, across all age groups and social strata, is considered a key factor for the long-term success. These data are also assessed by the questionnaire. A positive migration balance points to a successful development of the peripheral region in terms of good infrastructure, job security and long-term perIndicators representing the social dimension: Indicators representing the economic dimension:

Figure 5 Schematic diagram of the questionnaire for investigating regional perception, which has been sent to all registered households in all four communities of the Carinthian part of the BR. Figure created by the authors.

Figure 6 Spontaneous connotations with the BR. Worlde-figure created by an open-source online-tool by displaying the most frequent connotations with the BR. Source: www.wordle.net spectives in cultural and social life. It is expected that the migration balance of the BR region (compared with the reference region) will significantly increase within the next decades. The popularity of the visitor services shall be indicated by the number of people visiting events which are officially organized or certified by the BR management. With an increase in the quality and quantity of the services, the number of participants is supposed to increase. These events are very important for improving peoples identification with the protected area. Self-induced media presence is a very powerful tool for improving the good reputation of the protected area in public. Even if negative headlines are produced from time to time, they at least attest to a high public interest. Thus, the number of press reports in print
Indicators of management performance:

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Figure 7 Adaptive cycle of the BRIMNockberge approach. Scheme showing the causal loop representing the integrated approach of the monitoring tool. Graphic design created by the authors. media has been chosen as indicator for the success of public relation activities. The number of research projects and scientific activities are a relevant indicator for UNESCO BRs. All research projects that have been either officially recognized, or at least co-financed or authorized by the park management are recorded. According to the Seville Strategy (UNESCO 1996) science and education are substantial pillars of BRs. Choosing the right set of indicators is critical, but sound data management is equally important. Thus an online database has been customized to meet the criterion of comparability. The management has access to the input form as well as to the database which is the basis for any further interpretational work. The rigid input form requires a certain data format, a fact that enforces a consistent and sound data survey. In some cases data have to be pre-processed before being entered into the database. The indicator tourism levy, for example, requires a mean value of all four communities per capita. Once all annual data are fed into the database, the process of evaluation and interpretation will be carried out by an external institution and presented to the management. After reflecting on positive and negative trends, the actions and strategies may be adapted to improve performance. Figure 7 shows the causal loop representing the integrated approach of the monitoring tool.
Data management Test run

Once the set of indicators and the facility for sound data management had been developed, a test-run of the monitoring was carried out to present first results before the BR was officially recognized by UNESCO in September 2012. Data have been collected for every indicator except for the ecological indicator Population trend of Tetrao urogallus. For the indicators Share of coarse woody debris, tourism levy, local tax, agricultural land-use forms, and migration balance, additional data were collected in the reference communities (Figure 8). It became clear that the forests in the BR present a higher share of coarse woody debris than the reference forests. This had been expected as the area was a national park before being designated as BR. Nevertheless, more efforts will be needed in the future to ensure a natural development of the forest. The WWF, for example, recommends aiming for a volume of 30m coarse woody debris per hectare by 2030 (Sauberer et al. 2007). With respect to the economic situation of the BR, the data reflect the weak economy in a peripheral rural area. Fewer full-time farmers remain In the BR communities, compared to the reference area. In addition, more people are leaving the area than moving into the BR region. The results of the test-run constitute an essential baseline for the management. The subsequent annual monitoring will allow for tracking any change in the region since the launch of the BR. This information will be presented and discussed within the relevant

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stakeholder groups of the BR with a view to adapting the management measures if necessary. Significant trends are not expected to become visible before five years have passed.
Concluding remarks

Already UNESCOs 1995 Seville Strategy calls for extensive monitoring in BRs. However, the sites shall not only be used for making inventories on fauna and flora or recording meteorological data but also for collecting socio-economic data, reflecting the quality of life of its inhabitants and assessing the degree of sustainability of the regional development (Goal III, Objective 2). Although this request dates back almost 20 years, the implementation of an integrative monitoring scheme in practice remains difficult to this day. In recent years several attempts have been made to develop integrative monitoring schemes that reflect the performance of protected areas, such as BRs or national parks (e.g. ALPARC 2011; Fischer-Kowalski et al. 2008; Kowatsch et al. 2011; Stoll-Kleemann et al. 2011; Buer et al. 2013). The indicator sets developed for Alpine parks (ALPARC 2011: 25 indicators) and German protected areas (Kowatsch et al. 2011: 27 indicators) are currently being tested, but so far it cannot be assessed if they will be applicable and accepted in practice. In Austria, Great Walsertal BR (designated in 2000) implemented a comprehensive socio-economic survey and acceptance study in 2005 (Coy & Weixlbaumer 2006). However, so far there have not been sufficient resources available to carry out regular repeat surveys. To date, Wienerwald BR (designated in 2005) only implements ecological monitoring schemes, such as forest inventories in core areas and soil assessments. It can therefore be assumed that at present the indicator set established for the Carinthian part of the BR Salzburger Lungau and Krntner Nockberge is the most functional monitoring scheme for BRs in Austria. It covers the different functions, is slim enough to be repeated annually and has been accepted in the region during an intensive participative process. However, the monitoring scheme will have to be applied for several years before it can be assessed if it really succeeds in displaying the relevant ecological and socio-economic trends in the BR region and proves to be an appropriate tool for adaptive management. The concept of screen shots described above allows covering changing issues once the management plan has been agreed on. Additional efforts may be necessary if more comprehensive acceptance surveys are to be carried out. The experiences of Great Walsertal BR may be useful in this respect.
References

Figure 8 Two figures showing sample results from the first test run. Graphics created by the authors. Deutschland. Angewandte Landschaftskologie 63. Bundesamt fr Naturschutz, Bonn Bad Godesberg. ALPARC 2011. Katalog der Indikatoren zur Messung der Effektivitt von Managementmanahmen. CIME_1. 1. Fassung. Im Auftrag des schweizerischen Bundesamtes fr Umwelt (BAFU). Anzengruber, M. 2010. Almwirtschaft im Bundesland Salzburg. Eine Analyse agrarpolitischer Manahmen und deren Auswirkungen auf die Almlandschaft mit besonderer Bercksichtigung der Nrdlichen Kalkalpen, Salzburg. Landschaft und Nachhaltige Entwicklung 3. Borgo, A., M. Cassol, S. Mattedi, M. Favalli, F. Genero & Fintel Engineering srl. 2009. Entwicklung von gemeinsamen Konzepten fr das Monitoring in Natura 2000 Schutzgebieten. Biodiversitts-Indikatoren, Soziokonomische Indikatoren und Monitoring-Protokolle fr SCI/SPA in den Ostalpen. Buer, C., F. Solbrig & S. Stoll-Kleemann (Hrsg.) 2013. Soziokonomisches Monitoring in deutschen UNESCO-Biosphrenreservaten und anderen Groschutzgebieten. BfN-Skripten 329. Coy, M. & N. Weixlbaumer 2006. Zuknftige Entwicklungsstrategien fr den Biosphrenpark Groes Walsertal. Eine regionalwirtschaftliche und perzeptionsgeographische Analyse. Projektendbericht, sterreichische Akademie der Wissenschaften, Wien. Ellmauer, T. (ed.) 2005. Entwicklung von Kriterien, Indikatoren und Schwellenwerten zur Beurteilung des Erhaltungszustandes der Natura 2000-Schutzgter. Band 1: Vogelarten des Anhangs I der Vogelschutz-Richtlinie. Im Auftrag der neun sterreichischen Bundeslnder, des Bundesministerium fr Land- und Forstwirtschaft,

Achtziger, R., H. Stickroth & R. Zieschank 2004. Nachhaltigkeitsindikator fr die Artenvielfalt. Ein Indikator fr den Zustand von Natur & Landschaft in

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Umwelt und Wasserwirtschaft & der Umweltbundesamt GmbH. Fancy, S.G., J.E. Gross & S.L. Carter 2009. Monitoring the condition of natural resources in US National Parks. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment 151: 161174. Fischer, M., W. Adler & K. Oswald 2008. Exkursionsflora von sterreich, Liechtenstein und Sdtirol. 3. verbesserte Auflage. Fischer-Kowalski, M., K.-H. Erb & S.J. Singh 2008. Extending BRIM to BRIA: Social monitoring and integrated sustainability assessment. In: Lee, C. & T. Schaaf (eds.), Proceedings of the 1st International Thematic Workshop held in Vienna, Austria 9-11 May 2004, Global Environmental Social Monitoring. 138148. Giuliani, G. & C. Flury 2009. Regionalwirtschaftlicher Beitrag der Landwirtschaft in benachteiligten Regionen der Schweiz. Goldsmith, B. 1991. Monitoring for Conservation and Ecology. London. Heinze, B. 2004. Forschung und Monitoring in deutschen Biosphrenreservaten: Ein berblick. In: Deutsches MAB-Nationalkomitee (Hrsg.), Voller Leben. 220224. Holzner, W., D. Bogner, T. Geburek, M. Tiefenbach & S. Zech 2006. MOBI-e Entwicklung eines Konzeptes fr ein Biodiversitts-Monitoring in sterreich. Jungmeier, M., I. Paul-Horn, D. Zollner, F. Borsdorf, S. Lange, B. Reutz-Hornsteiner, K. Grasenick, D. Rossmann, R. Moser & C. Diry 2009. Part_b: Partizipationsprozesse in Biosphrenparks Interventionstheorie, Strategieanalyse und Prozessethik am Beispiel vom Biosphrenpark Wienerwald, Groes Walsertal und Nationalpark Nockberge Band I: Zentrale Ergebnisse. Studie im Auftrag von: sterreichisches MAB-Nationalkomitee, sterreichische Akademie der Wissenschaften, Klagenfurt. Kowatsch, A., U. Hampicke, L Kruse-Graumann & H. Plachter 2011: Indikatoren fr ein integratives Monitoring in deutschen Groschutzgebieten. Endbericht des gleichnamigen F+E-Vorhabens. BfNSkripten 302. Kupper, P. 2012: Wildnis schaffen. Eine transnationale Geschichte des Schweizerischen Nationalparks. Nationalpark-Forschung 97. Lange, S. 2005. Leben in Vielfalt. UNESCO-Biosphrenreservate als Modellregionen fr ein Miteinander von Mensch und Natur. Wien. Nolte, C., F. Leverington, A. Kettner, M. Marr, G. Nielsen, B. Bomhard, S. Stolton, S. Stoll-Kleemann & M. Hockings 2010. Protected Area Management Effectiveness Assessments in eurospe A review of application, methods and results. BfN-Skripten 271a. Sauberer, N., N. Milasowszky & L. Sachslehner 2007. Nachhaltiges Waldbiomassenmanagement im Biosphrenpark Wienerwald. UNESCO (Hrsg.) 1996. Biosphrenparke. Die SevillaStrategie und die Internationalen Leitlinien fr das Weltnetz. Bundesamt fr Naturschutz, Bonn.

Stoll-Kleemann, S., C. Buer & F. Solbrig 2012. Erprobung eines soziokonomischen Monitoringsystems in ausgewhlten deutschen Groschutzgebieten, In: Brickwedde, F., R. Stock & W. Wahmhoff (Hsg.), Das Nationale Naturerbe in der Praxis Impulse, Herausforderungen, Perspektiven. 17. Internationale Sommerakademie St. Marienthal. Initiativen zum Umweltschutz: 85. Berlin. 325332. Stoll-Kleemann, S., C. Buer & F. Solbrig 2011. Socio-economic monitoring in protected areas in Germany what do local people and their mayors think about their biosphere reserve? In: Wesemller, H., N. Kuschniok, J. Schnemann & V. Kreft (eds.), Progress Report 20092011. National Nature Landscapes. EUROPARC Germany. 3033.
Authors Michael Jungmeier (corresponding author)

The biologist and human geographer runs the MSc Programme Management of Protected Areas at the Department of Geography and Regional Studies at the University of Klagenfurt. He is CEO of E.C.O. Institute for Ecology in Klagenfurt, Austria, a consultancy specializing in protected areas. Contact: jungmeier@e-c-o.at. holds a degree in Natural Resources and Protected Area Management. He works for E.C.O. Institute for Ecology in Klagenfurt, Austria, as project manager in the field of applied ecology and research. Contact: koestl@e-c-o.at CEO of E.C.O. Germany in Munich, Germany. She holds a diploma in Biology and a Master degree in Protected Areas Management. Since 2003 she has focused particularly on the implementation of UNESCOs MAB Programme and contributed to the development of the national criteria for Austrian Biosphere Reserves in 2005. Contact: Lange@e-c-odeutschland.de Managing Director of the Institute for Advanced Studies Carinthia. His areas of research include Energy and Environmental Economics, with particular reference to environmental valuation of non-market goods and services. He holds a Master degree in Environmental Systems Sciences from the University of Graz and a PhD in Economics from the University of Klagenfurt. Contact: bliem@carinthia.ihs.ac.at
Markus Bliem Sigrun Lange Tobias Kstl

R e search ec o.m o nt - Vo lu me 5 , N u mbe r 2 , De ce mber 2 0 1 3 ISSN 2 0 7 3 - 1 0 6 X pr int ver s io n ISSN 2 0 7 3 - 1 5 5 8 o nline ve r s io n: http: //epu b. o ea w. a c. a t/eco . m o n t

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Administration and management effectiveness of protected areas: stakeholders views of Dadia National Park, Greece
Veronika Andrea, Stilianos Tampakis, Georgios Tsantopoulos & Garyfallos Arabatzis
Keywords: administration, management, stakeholders, Evros Prefecture, national parks, protected areas, environmental policy

A b s t ra c t
The management effectiveness of protected areas is linked to the type and form of administration structures applied in each country within the framework of its environmental policy implementation. The administration structure gives citizens the opportunity to take part in decision-making processes concerning the environment and includes partnerships with regional authorities, management bodies, competent ministries, academic institutions and non-governmental organizations. The main principles pertaining to the administration of protected areas are based on international conventions aimed at protecting biodiversity and the natural environment. The present study was conducted at Dadia National Park (NP), in the Evros Prefecture. The stakeholders involved in the administration and management of the NP , namely the park management, the municipality of Soufli and the regional authorities of Evros Prefecture, as well as locals and visitors, were asked their opinion about the effectiveness of administration and management of the park. The results of the study indicate that there are weaknesses affecting the collaboration of the administrative bodies, the locals are not satisfied with the local authorities operations, and the visitors are not adequately informed about the relevant bodies and type of administration and management of the NP .

Profile Protected area Dadia National Park Mountain range Rodopi Country Greece

Introduction

Protected areas constitute the pivotal cornerstones of biodiversity conservation. They are an important field of the planning and application of environmental policy. The main principles governing the administration of such areas are international conventions, such as the Convention of Biological Diversity (Wolfrum 2001; Siebenhner 2007; Zachrisson 2008), the Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals (also known as CMS or the Bonn Convention) (Koester 2002), and the European Council decision on biodiversity and natural habitats, also known as the Bern Convention (Bennett & Ligthart 2001). The main application mechanisms for this convention are the Directive on the Conservation of Wild Birds (79/409/EEC) and the Habitats Directive (92/43/EEC) within the framework of developing a Natura network of protected areas (Mauerhofer 2008; Zacrisson 2008; Morris 2011); the latter aims to ensure the protection of natural habitats and flora and fauna species of particular ecological interest (Tsantopoulos & Tsachalidis 2000). Due to the establishment of Natura 2000, far from preserving natural habitats and important flora and fauna species, also balancing sustainable development for socio-economic and cultural environment is still a prerequisite for effective management (PietrzykKaszyka et al. 2012). The establishment of a NP is combined with various socio-economic consequences for the surrounding areas, where rural development

Figure 1 The raptors trough in Dadia Forest. can be achieved (Lassen & Panagopoulos 2008; Grigoroudis et al. 2012). As Bryan (2012) notes, a new approach has been developed on the connection between natural environment and society. The administration of NPs and protected areas involves regional authorities, management bodies and the relevant ministries, as well as academic institutions or non-governmental environmental organizations (Thompson 2005; Lockwood 2010; Mauerhofer 2011). An understanding of the stakeholders circumstances and the promotion of programmes that will enhance stakeholders participation in decision-making procedures should be taken

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into account in order to address, as far as possible, their demands and interests and minimize any conflicts (Andrea et al. 2012a). According to Foucault (1991), a relationship needs to be established between the citizens, interest groups and administrative bodies, which will continuously evolve. The aim of creating such a relationship of trust is to develop collaborations between these actors through policy planning, structures and processes, aimed at controlling and equally distributing the relevant social benefits (Steward & Jones 2003). Planning an administrative system that will include participation of all stakeholders in environmental decision-making processes (Clarke 2004) is a new approach in dealing with environmental issues. In fact, this approach studies different viewpoints based on the expectations of the various stakeholders (Dawkins 2004) and offers alternative solutions (Skanavis et al. 2005; Andrea et al. 2012b). As Andrea et al. (2012c) highlight, it is particularly important to create a management model for each case. In 1986, the Greek Government, in an effort to harmonize Greek environmental policy with that of Europe, passed Law 1650/1986, which introduced changes to its policies on protected areas, including the characterization of new types of protected areas, as well as changes in the type of administration. Moreover, the management of protected areas was assigned to both the Ministry of Agriculture (especially at the Forest Service) and the Ministry of Environment, Planning and Public Works, which turned out to be problematic because of conflicting duties (Kassioumis 1994; Troumbis 1995; Tampakis 2009). Specifically, the Forest Service (Service of the Ministry of Agriculture) was responsible for supervising issues and the Services of the Ministry of Environment, Planning and Public Works were responsible for funding issues (mainly regarding the management of European funding programmes). The initial classification regarding the administrative care of protected areas led to the creation of independent agencies in each region, the Special Administration Authorities for Forest Service (Kassioumis 1994). Nevertheless, in practice, no responsibilities were ever assigned by law to these agencies, and thus the management of national woodland parks was passed on to the relevant forest service (Papageorgiou & Kassioumis 2005). In the early 1990s, the pressure to apply Council Directive 92/43/ EEC and the imperative need for the effective management of protected areas led to the passing of Law 2742/1999, within the context of Natura 2000 (Dimitrakopoulos et al. 2010), on establishing management bodies as independent management organizations that would be responsible for issues related to environmental protection, supervision, pilot programme application, environmental education, research and sustainable development in each region (Papageorgiou & Vogiatzakis 2006). The board of each management body would consist of 7 to 11 members/stakeholders

representing the local community, experts, competent bodies from the local and central administration and NGO representatives (Papageorgiou & Kassioumis 2005; Vokou 2012; Apostolopoulou & Pantis 2009). As Apostolopoulou et al. (2012) note, the establishment of management bodies constitutes a measure of political planning designed to evolve public participation in the management of protected areas. The aim of this paper is to use a multifaceted approach to present the problems faced by the various administrative bodies with a view to strengthening the effectiveness of the administration and management of Dadia NP by studying the views of all stakeholders.
Study area

The Eastern Rhodopes Mountains occupy 6000km shared between Bulgaria and Greece, characterized by continental-mediterranean climate, hilly and mountainous landscape, with altitudes ranging from 0 to 1483 metres (Beron & Popov 2004). The research area is the National Park of Dadia Lefkimi Soufli (Figure 1, Figure 2), situated in the Greek part of Eastern Rhodopes. It is a hilly area with altitudes ranging from 20 to 645 metres (Schindler et al. 2011). Dadia Forest was officially characterized by Joint Ministerial Decision (JMD) 35633 - 911/13-102006 as the National Park of Dadia Lefkimi Soufli Forest, and is one of the countrys areas that is managed in the most integrated manner (Arabatzis & Grigoroudis 2010). Dadia Forest is the only habitat in Greece that is a breeding ground for the Black Vulture (Aegypius monachus) (Vlachos et al. 1999; Skartsi 2002), which is a rare bird of prey globally identified as an endangered species (Collar et al. 1994; Poirazidis et al. 2004). The forest is also home to other rare birds of prey (Arabatzis & Grigoroudis 2010; Grigoroudis et al. 2012), such as the Griffon Vulture and the Egyptian Vulture. There are also 36 of the 38 diurnal raptors found there and it is the most important area for the breeding of the Black Stork in Greece. Its vegetation consists of a mixed oak (Quercus frainetto, Quercus cerris, Quercus pubescens) and pine (Pinus brutia, Pinus nigra) forest, which creates a unique ecosystem with rare types of flora and fauna (Poirazidis et al. 2004; Schindler et al. 2011). In addition, Dadia NP is included in the Greek Natura 2000 list. The total size of the area included in the Natura 2000 network is 43000 hectares, which, according to the JMD of 1980, covers two strictly protected areas (7290 hectares). Dadia Forest lies within the municipality of Soufli, which is home to 11000 people, who live mainly on animal husbandry, farming, logging and ecotourism. A management body has been established for the NP, the Management Body (MB) of the National Park of Dadia Lefkimi Soufli, while administratively the research area belongs to the region of Eastern Macedonia and Thrace (Arabatzis & Grigoroudis 2010).

Veroni k a Andrea, Sti l ia no s Ta mpa k is , G eo r g io s Ts a nto po u lo s & G a r yf a llo s A r a b a t z i s

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U
BULGARIA
EVROS PREF. Didymoteixo

Aristotle University of Thessaloniki School of Forestry & Natural Environment Design and copyright: Laboratory of Forest Management & Remote Sensing Source of background data: NASA USGS (http://gdex.cr.usgs.gov/gdex/) and Opengov.gr (http://geodata.gov.gr/geodata/) Data of map creation: 27/9/2013

DRAMA PREF.
XANTHI PREF. Dadia

KAVALA PREF.

RODOPI PREF. Alexandroupolis

TURKEY

Boundary of the peripheral zone (Dadia NP) Boundary of the core zone (Dadia NP) Boundary of Evros Delta NP Settlement Prefecture border State border River Altitude (in metres) high: 2 202 low: 0

THASSOS

THRACIAN SEA

GREECE

145 290

580

870

1160 kilometres

SAMOTHRACE

Figure 2 Map of the study area. http://geodata.gov.gr/geodata/, http://gdex.cr.usgs.gov/gdex/. Designdrawing: Laboratory of Forest Management and Remote Sensing, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki. Concerning the current institutional framework, the present structure of administration for Dadia NP is represented by the MB, the municipality of Soufli, the regional authorities of Eastern Macedonia and Thrace (RAMTH) and the Forest Service. The MBs responsibilities include running the Information Centre (environmental education), supervision, pilot programme application, field research and sustainable development in the Dadia area. Even though one main responsibility of the MB is to safeguard and patrol the area, the personnel of the MB does not have the right to independently intervene as an investigator in cases of illegal actions (i. e. they cannot arrest people who break the law and pursue them in court, etc.). This right is exclusive to the Forest Service, who is responsible for upholding the protection status (Forest Law implementation, powers of arrest in cases of violation). The municipality and the RAMTHs duties are focused on a supportive role mainly for the provision of infrastructure. These stakeholders, as well as representatives of the relevant ministries, local cooperations and non-governmental organizations, are members in the administrative council for the management of the NP. In Evros Prefecture there is another protected area, Evros Delta NP (Figure 2), situated only a few kilometres away from the Dadia NP. Evros Delta NP has been included in the list of protected areas under the International Ramsar Convention and has been characterized as a Special Protection Area, recommended as a Site of Community Interest in the Natura 2000 network.
Methodology

The present research was conducted using a structured questionnaire on locals and visitors of the Dadia NP. Simple random sampling was used for the locals because of its simplicity and the fact that it requires the least knowledge of the population compared to any other method (Damianou 1999; Kalamatianou 2000; Matis 2001); the municipal rolls were used as sampling frame. Estimates of the population proportion and the standard error (sp), are given by the simple random sampling. In order to calculate the size of the sample, pre-sampling was required on a sample size of 50 people. The sample size was estimated for each variable, based on simple random sampling (for probability (1)100=95%, e=0.05) and with the finite population correction, since n is high compared to the size of the population for the locals of Dadia (Pagano & Gauvreau 2000; Kalamatianou 2000; Matis 2001). In total 264 questionnaires were collected. As there was no existing framework for the visitors before beginning the sampling and we were unable to create on, we chose the cluster sampling method (Siardos 1999; Damianou 1999; Kalamatianou 2000; Matis 2001). In cluster sampling only one list of groups clusters is required, along with the data from the selected clusters (Filias et al. 2000; Benos 1991; Farmakis 1992; Tryfos 1996; Charissis & Kiochos 1997). The division of the population into clusters leads to reduced sampling costs (Farmakis 1992). The selected clusters were the weekends of the year 2010, when the

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Sased 26.4%
Less sased 37.1% Not sased 18.9% Fully sased 3.4% Sased 32.2%

Less sased 5.8% Not sased 1.5% No answer 11.1%

Very sased 29%

Very sased 8.3%

Fully sased 26.2%

Figure 3 Locals satisfaction with their quality of life, n=264. research was conducted (Matsiori 2001). In order to implement this method, the population is divided into N clusters (52 weekends), of which we take a random sample of n clusters. From these we collect observations from all units of the selected clusters. The estimate of the population proportion and the standard error sp, are given by the cluster sampling. Prior to the final sampling, pre-sampling was carried out on five selected clusters. The pre-sampling data were used to calculate the size of the final sample (no. of clusters), with d=0.07 for a probability (1-)=95% (therefore, a corresponding value z/2=z0,025=1.96). The maximum sample size was calculated as being 16 clusters (weekends) for visitors to Dadia. In this way, the most frequently changing variable is estimated to the desired accuracy, while the others are estimated with a greater accuracy than initially defined (Matis 2001). In total 397 questionnaires were collected. The MB, the municipality of Soufli and the regional authorities of Evros Prefecture, as well as the locals and visitors, were asked their opinion about the effectiveness of administration and management of the NP. The views of the MB, the local and regional authorities were examined in face-to-face interviews with a semi-structured questionnaire. More specifically, those interviewed were the Deputy Head of Evros Prefecture, representing the Regional Authorities of Eastern Macedonia and Thrace (RAMTH), the mayor of Soufli, representing the municipality, and the environmental management officer of the MB of Dadia, representing the latter. The data for the locals and visitors were collected in 2010 and the analysis was carried out using SPSS. The variables were measured in a nominal and an ordinal scale. The ones measured oin the nominal scale consisted of one theme: Locals: gender, age, educational level, marital status, occupation, opinions of the interaction between Dadia NP and Evros Delta NP, views regarding the utilization of subsidies. Visitors: gender, age, educational level, marital status, occupation, connection with the Evros area, permanent residence, willingness to encourage others to visit the NP of Dadia, intention to visit Evros Delta NP.

Figure 4 Visitors satisfaction with Dadia NP, n=397. In addition, there were variables of more than one theme multidisciplinary variables, measured on the nominal scale, where the interviewees were provided with the option to give more than one answer. The multidisciplinary variables were: Locals: views of who they consider responsible for the application of the protection status, satisfaction with the promotion of the NP. Visitors: reasons for their visit to the NP, main purpose of their visit to the NP, views of who they consider responsible for the application of the protection status, main reason for not visiting or not intending to visit Evros Delta NP. Finally, there were variables of one theme, measured in the ordinal scale, with interviewees being restricte to one answer. Locals: satisfaction with their quality of life, satisfaction with the level of information and participation regarding the NP, satisfaction with the application of the protection status, satisfaction with the promotion of the areas historical and cultural assets, satisfaction with the promotion of the NP, satisfaction with the utilization of the provided subsidies. Visitors: frequency of visits to the NP, duration of the trip, satisfaction with their visit to the NP. The data for the MB, the municipality and RAMTH were collected in 2011. The statistical methods used to interpret the results were descriptive statistics.
Results Socio-demographic profile of the locals and visitors of Dadia NP Locals

The interviewed locals of Dadia are mainly men (54.2%), over 50 years of age (31.1%), upper secondary school graduates (31.1%), married (53%), with no children (33.7%), mainly farmers, livestock farmers (14%), and pensioners (14%). As regards their satisfaction with their quality of life, six out of ten (56%) are less or not at all satisfied (Figure 3). Dadia visitors are mainly women (57.9%), over 50 years (50.6%), university (30.2%) or upper secondary school graduates (25.2%), married (70.8%), with two
Visitors

Veroni k a Andrea, Sti l ia no s Ta mpa k is , G eo r g io s Ts a nto po u lo s & G a r yf a llo s A r a b a t z i s

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children (35%), pensioners (30.7%) and civil servants (20.2%), who do not have any connection with Evros (76.1%), and come from other parts of Greece (75.3%). The majority are visiting Dadia for the first time (77.3%), on a trip lasting more than one day (45.6%) or only a few hours (33%). The results show that the visitors are content with their visit to Dadia NP (Figure 4). The visitors satisfaction with the NP is also obvious from their intention to encourage others to visit Dadia NP; in fact, 85.6% intend to do so. According to Arabatzis & Grigoroudis (2010), in a similar study conducted in Dadia, visitors seem to have been relatively satisfied with the NP since 88% of visitors stated that they were very satisfied or satisfied. Regarding the reason for their visit, most visitors were encouraged by friends or acquaintances to visit the region for the first time or by other factors (Figure 6). The main purpose of their visit was to observe wildlife or entertainment and recreation (Figure 7). Regarding the application of the protection status in the area, the majority of Dadia locals are less or not at all satisfied (Figure 8). The population of Dadia seems to consider mainly the local authorities as responsible for the application of the protection status, while 42.4% opted for the MB and 34.8% for the Forest Service (Figure 9). Visitors see the local authorities and the Forest Service as primarily responsible for applying the protection status, but 33.2% opted for the MB. They are potentially not aware of the latters duties regarding the management of the NP (Figure 9).
Promotion and development effectiveness of the area Effectiveness of the protection status application

Figure 5 The pathways in Dadia NP.

Other factors Press or books Internet Adversing leaets TV or radio Friends or acquaintances 10.3% 4.8% 6.3% 10.3% 45.1% 0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 26.2%

Figure 6 Visitors reasons for their visit to Dadia NP. Multiple answers possible, n=397.
Other purpose Photography video paint Observe wildlife Hiking Educaonal reasons Fishing or hunng Entertainment or recreaon 0% 10% 20% 30% 5.3% 1.0% 39.8% 40% 50% 60% 11.1% 5.8% 4.8% 50.6%

Regarding the locals views on the promotion of the NP by the municipality, only 7.6% state that they are fully or very satisfied. Furthermore, most of them are less satisfied by the promotion undertaken by the Prefecture (present-day deputy regional authorities), the Ministry of Tourism Development (Table 1). Regarding the administration bodies of the NP, the promotion of Dadia NP is inadequate. Specifically the MB agrees with the locals views. The municipality regards the lack of financial tools and political will as the main reasons for the almost non-existent promotion of the NP while suggesting business support by including entrepreneurs on the administration board. The municipality also mentions that there can be no protection of the area without development. According to the RAMTH, it is also important to enhance the joint promotion of the four NPs of Eastern Macedonia and Thrace. Regarding the RAMTH, there is a need for better organization in future, while regards that the construction of the museums of Alexandroupoli, Doxipara, Didymoteicho and the archaeological sites of Samo-

Figure 7 Visitors main purpose of their visit to Dadia NP. Multiple answers possible, n=397.

Less sased 40.5% Not stased 17.8% No answer 0.4% Fully sased 2.3% Sased 33.3% Very sased 5.7%

Figure 8 Locals satisfaction with the application of the protection status, n=264.

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Locals view

Some other body Volunteers Visitors Local residents Forest Service Central Administraon Local Authories Management Body 0% Some other body Volunteers

5.7% 6.1% 3.4% 29.9% 34.8% 17.0% 54.9% 42.4%

94.3% 93.9% 96.6% 70.1% 65.2% 83.0% 45.1% 57.6%

Less sased 42.0% Not at all sased 16.3% No answer 3.0% Sased 28% 100% Fully sased 1.9% Very sased 8.7%

20%
3.8% 21.9%

40%

60%
96.2% 78.1% 89.7% 79.8%

80%

Visitors view

Figure 10 Locals satisfaction with the promotion of their areas historical and cultural assets, n=264. of the area is also confirmed by their views on economic growth prospects. More specifically, almost six out of ten are not aware of subsidies provided by the state for tourism development in their region. Not to mention that over half regard the utilization of these assets as insufficient (Figure 12). Furthermore, the attitude of most locals towards investments in the region is more positive when it involves local villagers (Table 2). There is a consensus between the administrative bodies and the locals while the MB mentions bureaucratic hurdles impeding the development potential of the area. The municipality and the RAMTH believe that there is room for further development, thus the collaboration of all stakeholders is crucial if tourism development is to become a potential for economic growth. The locals express their dissatisfaction with the level of information provided on issues related to the NP (46.6% very low), which is directly related to their non-participation in the decision-making processes (Figure 13). According to the administrative bodies, the MBs attempts to approach the local community have been ineffective. The municipality and the RAMTH argue that locals are not directly involved in the decisionManagement problems

Visitors 10.3% Local residents Forest Service Central Administraon Local Authories Management Body 0%
19.6% 45.8% 33.2% 20.2% 44.3%

55.7% 80.4% 54.2% 66.8%

20%

40%

60%

80%

100%

Figure 9 Locals (top, n=264) and visitors (bottom, n=397) views of who they consider responsible for the application of the protection status. Agree and do not agree. thrace (Figure 2), will be a major step towards promoting the historical and cultural assets of the area. According to RAMTH this can be effectively achieved through international fairs and via the internet. As Petridis (2012) notes, it has submitted an application to UNESCO for Samothrace to be included in the World Network of Biosphere Reserves in order to preserve the natural and cultural heritage of the island within a framework of sustainable development. The locals are also dissatisfied with the promotion of their areas historical and cultural assets (Figure 10). The MB and the municipality share this opinion and especially mention that the lack of funding is also an important factor for the ineffective promotion. The locals assessment of the effective promotion Table 1 Locals satisfaction with the promotion of Dadia NP.

Fully satisfied Very satisfied Satisfied Less satisfied p, % Municipality Prefecture Ministry Tourism Development 1.5 2.7 0.8 6.1 7.2 5.7 28.8 31.8 26.9 44.7 46.2 42.8

Not at all satisfied 17 10.6 20.8

No answer 1.5 1.5 3

Table 2 Locals views on the investors origin.

Positive Local villagers Other residents of Evros region People from other parts of Greece Foreigners 51.9 50.8 47.3 41.7 Quite positive 40.9 34.1 29.9 26.9 Quite negative p, % 1.9 7.6 12.5 9.1 3.8 6.1 8.3 19.3 1.5 1.5 1.9 3 Negative No answer

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Figure 11 The raptors observation post in Dadia NP. making processes, but by representatives from the municipality or rural cooperations. Moreover, according to the municipality, the lack of communication between the MB and the stakeholders leads to conflicts that cannot be resolved. Finally there is a significant mistrust regarding the future of the MB and the management of Dadia NP, as EU funding programmes will cease in 2015. The MB considers that the fate of the NP after 2015 will depend on the decisions of the relevant ministry that may involve a transfer of the MBs duties to other services, such as the municipality or the Forest Service,
No answer Not at all Low Quite high High Very high 0% 1.1% 10% 20% 30% 40% 5.7% 17% 18.6% 23.9% 33.7%

Figure 14 Fire protection station in Dadia NP. or its inclusion in another funding programme. The mayor of Soufli argues that the various MBs will have to find means of self-financing by extending their activities. He argues that MBs have to find an alternative, not only covering their maintenance costs, but also strengthening the local economy. The RAMTH states that discussions of the funding challenges have already begun with the Ministry of the Environment and Climate Change and with the coordinating agency of the MBs. It also adds that due to the current financial situation in Greece, the MBs must also find their own means of funding their activities.
Interaction between the two NPs of Evros Prefecture

Figure 12 Locals views regarding the utilization of subsidies, n=264.

70% 60% 50% 40% 30% 20% 10% 0% 2.3% 1.9% Very high High Low Very low 7.2% 8.0% 30.3% 59.8%

Finally, most of the locals identify a positive interaction between Dadia NP and neighbouring Evros Delta NP, especially on regional development prospects (Figure 15). According to the MB, the municipality and the RAMTH, the existence of two NPs, Dadia and the Evros Delta, functions as a driver of the touristic development of the broader area, since both NPs can only affect each other in a positive way. They also think that through effective management there can be a transition from a network of protected areas to a network of development, since the diversity of the two types of habitats, the terrestrial one in Dadia and the wetlands at the Delta offer visitors an integrated
No answer Other impact No interacon Draws away visitors Helps the regional development 0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 15.2% 55.7% 60% 25.8% 3.4%

43.9%

46.6%

Figure 13 Locals satisfaction with the level of information and participation regarding Dadia NP. Information level (n=264) & participation level (n=264).

Figure 15 Locals opinion of the interaction between Dadia NP and Evros Delta NP, n=264.

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No answer In the future In the past In the same trip 0% 10% 12.8%

18.4% 39.8%

29% 20% 30% 40% 50%

Figure 16 Visitors intention to visit Evros Delta NP, n=397.

Other reasons Lack of interest Cost of trip Distance Insufficient information Lack of time 0% 2.8% 2.3% 4.3% 11.6% 8.3% 28.7% 20% 40% 71.3% 60% 80% 100% 97.2% 97.7% 95.7% 88.4% 91.7%

Figure 17 Visitors main reasons for not visiting or intending to visit Evros Delta NP, n=397. Agree and do not agree. view of the regional identity. Most visitors to Dadia (39.8%) intend to visit Evros Delta NP in the future (Figure 16). Moreover, the main reason mentioned by visitors to Dadia who did not visit or intend to visit Evros Delta NP was lack of time (Figure 17), while the MB also mentions its inadequate promotion.
Discussion & Conclusions

Management plans, in order to be effective, should incorporate the locals views, particularly those related to future local development (Tampakis et al. 2011). Many questions are raised by the locals dissatisfaction with their quality of life, but their lack of awareness of matters related to Dadia NP and their lack of participation in its decision-making processes were verified by the administrative authorities. In this respect the RAMTH and the municipality suggest that the MB should organize campaigns aimed at raising awareness and participation for the local population. Moreover, as Wallner and Wiesmann (2009) highlight, locals participation can ensure the protection status implementation. In Greece, the enactment of a large number of laws, provisions, presidential decrees and joint ministerial decisions concerning protected areas reveals the interest of the central administration in the protection of the environment but also creates problems in the application of the law provisions (due to overlapping responsibilities) (Tampakis 2009). This mainly occurs because their implementation involves a large number of administrative bodies with specific responsibilities, such as the Forest Service, the MB,

the Hellenic Police and others. For example, in the USA, although 375 protected areas are located in 49 different states, the existing administrative system includes an autonomous body, the National Park Service governing protected areas (Hamin 2001). Another example is the government of the Philippines that also adopted a decentralized administrative system giving gateway communities and NGOs the opportunity to manage protected areas (Dressler et al. 2006). However, in Greece, the establishment of MBs does not provide this kind of self-rule capability. Finland faces similar administrative problems to Greece as it has put into practice a model dependent on the local authorities and the government, which lacks participation of the local community (Selby et al. 2011). In the case of Dadia, locals as well as visitors are not well informed about the body which is responsible for the application of the protection status. In particular, they consider the local authorities instead of the MB as the protection body responsible. Thus the insufficient information regarding the application of the protection status reveals that the MB needs to improve its organization and approach via communication programmes aimed at raising awareness on protection issues; it should also ensure locals participation not only in the relevant decision-making processes, but also in the protection status implementation. Therefore, raising awareness among the stakeholders of the NP on environmental issues and participation in decision-making processes represents operational guidelines towards the adoption of best practices. If this approach is to be successful and to fulfil the aims of protection and sustainable development of the broader region of Evros, another essential step is the establishment of strong cooperation among the administrative bodies, such as the Forest Service, the MB, the municipality, the RAMTH and the relevant ministries. Such cooperation has unfortunately been hindered to date by problems of a bureaucratic nature, lack of coordination, undefined responsibilities and, in the case of the central administration, lack of political will and indifference. As regards the development of the area, few locals are aware of the existence of subsidies. Both locals and administrative bodies also realize that the valorization of subsidies to date has not led to the desired developmental results. Nonetheless, the current situation points to the imperative need for a change in focus by the administration, first, on a local level and second, nationally, on the inflow of investments. It is important for opportunities to arise for developing and strengthening local businesses, as well as for employment opportunities for the local population. Thus, with the help of subsidies, the necessary preconditions will be created to achieve this goal. Nevertheless, the establishment of Dadia NP has been a significant prerequisite for sustainable development, offering a comparative advantage for the broader tourism development, a fact also confirmed by the

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majority of visitors, who state wildlife observation as the main reason for their visit. Therefore, mapping development techniques entails organized and sustained promotional plans. However, in the stakeholders views the promotion of the NP and the historical and cultural assets of the area are inadequate. Moreover, the fact that the visitors main motivation for visiting the NP is the encouragement of friends or acquaintances reflects its ineffective promotion through the mass media. Management obstacles such as irregular funding and staff deficiencies in the MB, both in numbers and training, are operational controversies that impair the administrative and management effectiveness in running the NP. If effective management is to be implemented, protected areas need to have professional staff and funds on a regular basis with the support of both governments and society (Lange & Mller 2009), not to mention the indeterminate future of the NP after 2015 when EU funding will cease. According to the municipality and the RAMTH, should the MB be dissolved, the park management could be assigned to their services to ensure the necessary funding. This ambiguous argument does not hold up in practice. Although the RAMTH and the municipality promise to undertake funding of the NP in case of its dissolution, if this happens, they will claim lack of staff and lack of resources in order to justify ineffective management. It is common for public services in Greece to claim lack of staff to justify administrative ineffectiveness. However, as Hearne and Salinas (2002) note, government funding sources for protected areas tend to be reduced. The latter trend leads to the reformation of management strategies aimed at economic self-rule to ensure their future sustainability, an alternative that is also recommended by the municipality and the RAMTH in the case of Dadia. Although protected areas are eligible for a large number of national or community programmes they can also seek support from foreign capital investments (Tampakis 2009). The latter alternative solution could possibly have a chance in the case of Dadia. Via a promising perspective, the EU is deemed to be the main means to ensure their economic sustainability until 2020. Any potential bids, however, along with the implementation of such programmes, can only be handled by the MBs. Therefore the merger and dissolution of the MBs will create a gap in the absorption of the relevant funding. In the wake of economic measures imposed by the IMF and the Troika, the latest scenarios in Greece foresee a merger of 29 MBs into 14 MBs in line with the designated regional prefectures. This means that in the broader region of Eastern Macedonia and Thrace, where there are currently four MBs (one for each NP), these will be merged into one. The latest case planned by technocrats is mainly focused on balancing the national budget deficit. In the case of Evros Prefecture, the MB of the neighbouring Evros Delta NP could become the MB of Dadia and the

Delta, employing the same scientific personnel (without laying off employees) at lower costs. The function of a united MB would reduce operational costs such as infrastructure maintenance and fixed costs. Such a scenario would also help to create a network of development, since one park would send visitors to another through a coordinated promotional programme for the whole region. The potential that already exists for a positive interaction of the stakeholders between the two parks should be strengthened in such a way that we move from a network of protected areas to a network of sustainable development. Visitors satisfaction with the two NPs is apparent from their willingness to encourage others to visit both parks (Andrea et al. 2012a). Stakeholders also agree that the NPs existence in the same prefecture functions as an additional incentive for the development of the broader area. Creating such a strategic plan can be achieved through the effective promotion of both parks as a combined tourist destination. This initially means enhanced coordination, improved organization and cooperation between the administrative bodies of both parks. Another prerequisite is their joint cooperation with travel agencies, so that visitors will be informed in advance about the existence of a network of protected areas and the various facilities and activities available at both parks. Thus they would be convinced that visiting both of them will constitute a complete tourist package, offering an enriched experience and a full picture of the natural landscape of Evros. In a nutshell, adopting best practices entails both economic development and achieving the protection goals. Another suggestion is to increase visitors satisfaction as satisfied visitors can serve as advertisers for the NP. After all, visitors of the NP have mainly been encouraged by friends or acquaintances to visit the park. Finally, another suggestion is to balance an inflow of investments between ecotourism and protection measures. The first is closely affiliated with infrastructure improvement, especially concerning the road network, while the second is based on security staffing in the NP.
Acknowledgments

This research has been co-financed by the European Union (European Social Fund ESF) and Greek national funds through the operational Programme Education and Lifelong Learning of the National Strategic Reference Framework (NSRF) Research Funding Programme: Heracleitus II. Investing in knowledge society through the European Social Fund. We are grateful to Dr. Ioannis Gitas and Eleni Dragozi of the Laboratory of Forest Management and Remote Sensing, Aristotle University Thessaloniki for the construction of the study area map.

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References

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Authors Veronika Andrea

PhD at the Department of Forestry and Management of the Environment and Natural Resources at Democritus University of Thrace. Her main research interests are: forest and environmental policy, environmental policy issues and protected areas. is associate professor at the department of Forestry and Management of the Environment and Natural Resources at Democritus University of Thrace. His research interests are forest and environmental policy. He has published over 100 articles in international and Greek journals and proceedings. is an assistant professor at the Department of Forestry and Management of the Environment and
Georgios Tsantopoulos Stilianos Tampakis

Natural Resources, Democritus University of Thrace, Greece. He has published widely in various international journals, including the Environmental Politics, Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews. is associate professor (2013 present) at the Department of Forestry and Management of the Environment and Natural Resources at Democritus University of Thrace. His research interests are: natural resource economics and policy, forest valuation, regional development. Department of Forestry and Management of the Environment and Natural Resources Democritus University of Thrace, Pantazidou 193, 68200 Orestiada, Greece of all pictures: Andrea Veronika
Garyfallos Arabatzis

R e search ec o.m o nt - Vo lu me 5 , N u mbe r 2 , De ce mber 2 0 1 3 ISSN 2 0 7 3 - 1 0 6 X pr int ver s io n ISSN 2 0 7 3 - 1 5 5 8 o nline ve r s io n: http: //epu b. o ea w. a c. a t/eco . m o n t

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Exploring differences in mountain landscape preferences and perceptions between Austrian and United States protected area visitors
Franziska Rom, Arne Arnberger & Robert C. Burns
Keywords: landscape preferences, information-processing theory, mountains, protected area visitors

A b s t ra c t
Based on the assumption that history and cultural backgrounds form human perception, this study compared mountain landscape preferences and landscape perceptions between protected area visitors in Austria and in eastern Oregon, United States. On-site visitors to the Hells Canyon National Recreation Area in eastern Oregon (n=100) and the Gesuse National Park in Austria (n=100) were queried about their landscape preferences and perceptions. Perceptions were assessed through use of the information-processing theory (Kaplan & Kaplan 1989). The respondents rated the same set of eight images depicting mountain landscapes with various intensities of human impact. Differences in landscape preferences were found, with higher preferences of the eastern Oregon sample for more intensively used landscapes. The results demonstrated a strong explanatory power of the informational predictor variables, in particular for the Austrian sample. Mystery was a consistent predictor for preferences, while legibility was not. Thus, landscape preferences and perceptions are not homogenous between the samples, despite their similar cultural background. Management implications are included.

Profile Protected area Hells Canyon National Recreation Area & Gesuse National Park Mountain range The Seven Devils Mountains & the Alps Country U.S & Austria

Introduction

Through evolution humans have learned how to survive and interact with nature. However, depending on differing surroundings and cultures, they had to deal with different circumstances. Given the history of Central Europeans and people from eastern Oregon, United States, different approaches to nature might be assumed. The Europeans cultivated their land over hundreds or thousands of years, resulting in a diverse set of historic cultural landscapes throughout Europe. These landscapes include mountain pastures or terraced landscapes, with few natural areas left. When the early explorers arrived in the New World, they found an alien wilderness full of unknown and uncontrolled nature (Nash 2001). Apart from Native American impact on the landscapes, they did not encounter any domestication similar to what they had in Europe. Even today, natural areas cover a large part of the USA. Although Europe and North America the western hemisphere are assumed to be one civilization following the same values, convictions, institutions and even consumer goods (Huntington 1996), the question arises whether they have similar landscape preferences and perceptions. Several previous studies analysed whether and in what way the cultural background influences peoples landscape preferences and perception, and resulted in divergent findings (Herzog et al. 2000; Kaplan & Herbert 1987; Lewis 2010; Tips & Savasdisara 1986; Yang & Kaplan 1999; Yu 1995). While most of these studies explored cultural differences between Asian and North Americans (Yang & Brown 1992; Yu 1995) or between Australians and

North Americans (Herzog et al. 2000; Kaplan & Herbert 1987; Zube & Mills 1976, cited in Kaplan & Kaplan 1989), cultural comparisons between Central European states and the United States have not engaged many scientists so far. This study compared preferences for and perceptions of mountainous landscapes with varying degrees of human impact between Austrian and United States east Oregon protected area visitors. The visual impact of the area is the first impression for protected area visitors. Hence, Daniel & Boster (1976) see knowledge on landscape preferences as instrumental for public land management. However, area managers judgments on scenic beauty are often subjective. Knowledge on public landscape preferences may help managers to better justify their decisions, which in turn raises public acceptance because of this transparent decision-making process. Outcomes of preference studies can also be integrated in other economic fields of protected areas (e.g. tourism marketing, timber and water management) and are useful for visitor management. A cross-cultural comparison gives decision makers an insight on how cultures related or non-related perceive landscapes. Consequently, knowledge about landscape preferences of visiting nationalities and cultures can influence area planning and marketing decisions. Early research on landscape preferences (i. e. Appleton 1996; Orians & Heerwagen 1993) has developed several theories that describe the process of perceiving landscapes. Orians & Heerwagen (1980)
Landscape preference theories

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Figure 1 Area map of the Hells Canyon National Recreation area (modified from USDA s.a.). assumed that humans have a connate preference for savannah biotopes. This theory was grounded on the evolution of our ancestors who emerged from living in the woods to a life in savannah biotopes (Voland & Grammer 2003). Appleton (1996) argued his prospect-refuge theory on the evolutionary need of humans to survive and claims that aesthetic satisfaction derives from the capacity of a landscape to assure this basic biological need of survival. This evolutionary theory was deepened by Kaplan & Kaplan (1989) in their Information Processing Theory. They described the relationship between the observing person and the information provided by the landscapes as a predicting factor for preferences. A person immediately and subconsciously examines any given environment for subtle information that assures survival. To understand the environment, information is processed via four factors; coherence, complexity,

legibility and mystery. They depict the degree of conveyance of understanding and exploring the environment (Kaplan & Kaplan 1989). The Kaplans (1989) proposed that each of the four informational predictors correlates with preference. These informational factors have often been used in landscape assessment (Hagerhall 2000; Herzog & Bryce 2007; Herzog & Kropscott 2004; Kaplan & Kaplan 1989). The number of different features, the richness of a scene, and the degree of processes indicate complexity. These characteristics cause the observer to explore the circumstances and think about the content. Coherence points out an organized, neatly structured setting. The information in this setting is almost immediately available and there is no need for further exploration. Legibility predicts the ease of the observer in obtaining the information and transferring it into a coherent pattern. This factor also involves a certain degree of promise of the ability to comprehend a scene. Mystery promises hidden information. The information in the scene is not obvious and has to be explored. Regarding preference, the observer seeks both the immediate (coherence and complexity) and the inferred (legibility and mystery) availability of information (Kaplan & Kaplan 1989). Over the past 30 years researchers have scrutinized the relationship between the predictors and preference, with the most research focusing on mystery and the least on legibility (Herzog & Kropscott 2004). The assumed positive correlation of mystery and preference has been confirmed in many studies (Gifford 2002; Hagerhall 2000; Herzog & Bryce 2007; Kaplan & Kaplan 1989). However, several studies also showed a negative correlation (Herzog & Kirk 2005; Herzog & Kropscott 2004; Herzog & Kutzli 2002). Several authors reported a positive correlation between complexity, legibility, as well as coherence and preference (Herzog & Leverich 2003; Herzog & Kropscott 2004; Herzog & Shier 2000), while Akalin et al. (2009) found that rather complex settings were disfavoured. Stamps (2004) made an approach to a meta-analysis on the four informational predictors and found some relationships between the predictors and preference, yet stated that the range of the results was too wide to indicate a definite direction of the relation. Bourassa (1991) and Tveit et al. (2006), for example, argue that landscape preferences can be explained by evolutionary and cultural preference theories. Cultural preference theories assume that differences in landscape perceptions depend on the individual social and cultural background, motives and previous landscape experience (Arnberger & Eder 2011a; Hunziker 1995; Strumse 1996; Zube 1984). Thus, culture may play a role in explaining landscape preferences.
Cross-cultural preferences differences in landscape

Several studies have shown a high level of agreement on landscape preferences if cultures are similar

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Figure 2 Area map of Gesuse National Park (modified from Gesuse NP s.a.) (Zube 1984). For example, Zube & Mills (1976 cited in Kaplan & Kaplan 1989) noted high correlations of landscape preferences between Australian and American students. Kaplan & Herbert (1987) also conducted a study with Australian and American students. However, they reported that each group slightly favours its domestic landscape. Nonetheless, there were Australian scenes preferred by American observers. Those scenes closely resembled American scenes. Yu (1995) found in his cross-cultural analysis between western Harvard design graduate students and different Chinese groups (landscape architects, horticulturists, college and school students, workers and farmers) that landscape preferences were influenced by cultural backgrounds. The author assumed, however, that the living environment of respondents was probably the most powerful predictor for preference. Buijs et al. (2009) showed that immigrants from Arab and Mediterranean countries (e. g. Turkey and Morocco) have different perceptions of wilderness compared to the native Dutch population. Researchers have found that preference is higher for settings that show similarity with known places (Hammitt 1981; Kaplan 1977, cited in Kaplan & Kaplan 1989). Familiarity with a scene, for example, might influence legibility, which evokes a positive preference rating (Herzog & Kropscott 2004; Kaplan & Kaplan 1989). Strumse (1996) and Arnberger & Eder (2011a), however, documented a slightly negative correlation between preference and familiarity. This explorative study compared mountain landscape preferences and perceptions between Austrian and eastern Oregon, United States, visitors to mountainous protected areas. Previous research could not
Research hypotheses

provide a clear picture whether landscape preferences and perceptions differ between similar cultures. This study assessed landscape perceptions of landscapes with different degrees of human impact through use of the information-processing theory (Kaplan & Kaplan 1989). Many studies have shown that informational predictors can explain preferences (Akalin et al. 2009; Gifford 2002; Hagerhall 2000; Herzog & Bryce 2007; Herzog & Kropscott 2004; Kaplan & Kaplan 1989; Stamps 2004) and may therefore be useful in explaining possible differences in landscape preferences between the samples. Because previous studies resulted in divergent findings and Europeans and North Americans seem to have a similar cultural background (Huntington 1996), the null-hypothesis was used for the following research hypotheses: Hypothesis 1 assumed that Austrian and US respondents will show similar preferences for mountainous landscape scenes. Hypothesis 2 suggested there are no differences in the ratings of the informational predictors (i.e. coherence, legibility, complexity, and mystery) of the Information Processing Theory (Kaplan & Kaplan 1989) between the samples. It was further suggested that the influence of a predictor does not differ between the Austrian and US samples (Hypothesis 3).
Method Study areas

The eastern Oregon surveys were conducted in the Hells Canyon National Recreation Area (HC) on the Wallowa-Whitman National Forest, Oregon, USA (Figure1), and in Gesuse National Park (NP) in Styria, Austria (Figure2). The study sites were chosen because the landscapes are similar as both are protected

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mountainous forests with characteristic gorges. Their main valley is dominated by a larger river and they provide comparable recreation opportunities. Both are famous hiking and water sport areas, but motorized water activities are not allowed in Gesuse NP. The HC is located along the border of Oregon and Idaho, and managed by the U.S. Forest Service. The 16 km long canyon covers an area of 2 640km, of which are 870km designated as wilderness area. The Snake River carves its way through the canyon for several kilometres. The highest summit of the area is the He devil with an elevation of 2863m. The vegetation cover consists mainly of several tree species and sagebrush, with bunchgrass more prevalent deeper in the canyon (USDA, s.a.). Gesuse NP is located in the north-eastern Limestone Alps in central Austria and was founded in 2002 (Figure2). With an area of about 110km, Gesuse NP stretches about 10km along the River Enns and includes several mountain summits. The River Enns flows at about 600m, while the highest summit of the Gesuse, the Hochtor, reaches 2369m, resulting in a high relief ratio with steep and sharp ridges. Nearly 50% of Gesuse NP is woodland, 25% rocks, 16% dwarf pine scrub and the remainder alpine meadows, high mountain pastures, water bodies and traffic and recreational infrastructures. The woodlands are characterized by their rather unspoiled naturalness and their species variety (Gesuse NP, s.a.). A random sample of 100 face-to-face interviews was conducted at both sites. The HC surveys were conducted on eleven randomly selected weekends and work days between the end of June and early August of 2009 at the Hells Canyon Overlook and the Hells Canyon Dam. These two sites had the highest visitation numbers in the area. The Austrian surveys were conducted on eight days, randomly selected from Thursdays to Sundays in September 2009 at the visitor centre in Gstatterboden and in the Johnsbach valley, also two high-use sites. The samples include a small number of responses (100 each), thus are site-specific and the results cannot be adapted to Oregon and Austrian summer tourists in general. The surveys were conducted throughout various timeframes of each sample day from 08:00 am through approximately 08:00 pm. The visitors were approached when they were returning from their recreational activity to their vehicles, visitor centre or, in the case of Gesuse NP, at public transport stations. As there was no constantly high returning visitor flow, each returning group was asked to participate and screened for their nationality. Approximately one third of the HC and one fifth of the Austrian visitors refused to conduct the interview from lack of time or interest.
Sampling

Questionnaire Landscape preferences

Landscape preferences and informational predictors were asked using eight photographs that depicted mountainous European landscapes with different degrees of human impact as stimuli for both samples (Table1). The settings were selected to facilitate analysis of how various intensities of human influence and traditional cultivation were perceived by the respondents. The photographs were all wideangle exposures, taken during the vegetation period, and did not contain any dominating water elements. The photographs depicted settings with stronger anthropocentric impact, such as terraced landscapes that included some settlements (Pictures 1 and 2), mountain scenes with few settlements (Pictures 3 and 4), mountain landscapes without settlements (Pictures 5 and 6) and natural forests of protected areas (Pictures 7 and 8). The photographs were presented to the participants in a randomized order. The pretest showed that answering questions to all eight photographs was enlisting respondents for too long of time. Hence the questionnaire was reduced to six pictures which were randomly selected from the eight prior to each interview. Landscape preferences were measured using an answer-scale ranging from 1=do not like at all to 7=like the most. The four informational factors coherence, complexity, legibility, and mystery were sampled for each scene (Kaplan & Kaplan 1989). Two items derived from Herzog and Bryces scale (2007) were used to measure each informational factor (Table2), with a 7-point answer scale ranging from none at all (1) to very high (7). This scale has been frequently used in preference studies, mainly asking psychology students at the beginning of their study programme (e. g. Herzog et al. 2000; Herzog & Leverich 2003; Herzog & Kutzli 2002). The questionnaire queried respondents about socio-demographics, visitors recreational behaviours and environmental beliefs, relying on the New Ecological Paradigm (NEP) (Dunlap et al. 2000). This scale, which consists of 15 items, was included to test whether the samples differed in their beliefs, which might have implications for attitudes and landscape preferences (Kaltenborn & Bjerke 2002). Based on the Cronbachs alpha values of .823 (HC) and .747 (Gesuse NP), a composite NEP score was formed by summing up all 15 items. Statistical analysis was performed with SPSS version 13. Chi-square tests and unpaired t-tests compared demographics and recreational behaviour between the
Analyses Socio-demographics and environmental beliefs Informational predictors

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Table 1 The eight settings used in the survey

Photograph 1 Photograph 2

West Slovenian landscape with highest anthropogenic impact, depicting a traditional landscape with vineyards, roads and settlements. Photograph 3

Terraced landscape in Upper Austria. High anthropogenic human impact in terms of fields and meadows, rows of hedges, roads and settlements in the background. Photograph 4

Higher elevated scene of the Black Forest in Germany with few houses, hedges, meadows and forests. reises at fotalia.com Photograph 5

Swiss Alpine village in front of high peaks, higher in elevation. Anthropogenic impact in the foreground with hedges and meadows. Bergfee at fotalia.com Photograph 6

Drau valley in Carinthia, Austria, with slightly visible settlements. Anthropogenic impact through clear cuts and meadows. Photograph 7

Hochknig massif in Salzburg, Austria; low human impact except for pastures and a gravel road. hpa2avp at fotalia.com Photograph 8

Parco Nazionale delle Foreste Casentinesi in Campigna, Italy. Dense mixed forests with hardly any visible human impact.

Wilderness area Drrenstein in Lower Austria. Dense mixed forests with hardly any visible anthropogenic impact.

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Table 2 Standardized questions of the predictor variables (Herzog & Bryce 2007). Answer scale: 1=not at all; 7=very high.
Items Coherence Q1 Q2 Complexity Q3 Q4 Legibility Q5 Q6 Mystery Q7 Q8 How much does the setting promise more to be seen if you would walk deeper into it? Does the setting invite you to enter more deeply into it and thereby learn more? How easy would it be to find your way around in the setting? How easy would it be to figure out where you are at any given moment or to find your way back at any given moment? How much is going on in the scene? How much is there to look at? How well does the scene hang together? How easy is it to organize and structure the scene?

samples. Linear regression identified the informational factors predicting landscape preferences of both samples. A significance level of p<.05 was chosen.
Results Demographics, recreational behaviour and NEP

Differences between the samples were found for socio-demographic characteristics and recreational activities (Table3). While respondents of the HC sample were older, no differences between the samples were found for gender. All respondents were White-Caucasians except for one African-American respondent of the US citizen sample. Among the Austrian sample were six respondents from Germany. While 80% of the HC sample were highly educated, only 41% of the Gesuse NP sample had attended a college or university. No difference between the samples was found for the composite NEP score. Table 3 Demographic information. HC=Hells Canyon;
GNP=Gesuse NP; n.s.=not significant.
Items Gender (Females in %) Age (mean) Education High school Trade school College/University Profession Employed Self-employed Retired Residual (maternity break, housekeeper, student) Living environment in % Rural community Provincial town Medium-sized town Metropolis Overnight stay (yes in %) NEP composite scale; mean of 15 items 15% 22% 34% 29% 41% 3.66 36% 20% 10% 34% 61% .005 3.77 n.s. 64% 14% 20% 2% 71% 7% 8% 14% .000 16% 2% 80% 17% 28% 41% .001 HC sample GNP sample 47% 52.6 41% Sig n.s. .000

Both samples preferred settings with higher elevation-relief ratios and landscapes with moderate human impact (Table4). Settings with highest ratings depicted Alpine scenes, either with a village in front of high peaks (setting 4) or an alpine pasture at the timber line (setting 6), while more intensively cultivated landscapes (settings 1 and 2) as well as densely forested landscapes (settings 7 and 8) were less preferred. Differences in preferences between the samples were found for four of the eight settings, partly rejecting Hypothesis 1. The HC sample rated settings 2 and 4 higher, while the Gesuse NP sample scored higher on settings 6 and 8. The scores of the two questions per dimension of the information processing theory and per image were aggregated and their means were compared between the two samples (Table5). This comparison is partly limited because several Cronbachs alpha values were lower than the requested value of .60 per dimensions and image (Cortina 1993). Overall, both samples scored highest on coherence and lowest on complexity and legibility. The Gesuse NP sample rated legibility of the landscapes higher than the HC sample that scored higher on all other dimensions, in particular on complexity and mystery. Mystery was highest for settings 4 and 6 and lowest for settings 2 and 7. Complexity was highest for setting 4 and lowest for setting 7. Legibility was highest for settings 2 and 6, and lowest for setting 7. Similarly, coherence was rated highest for setting 6 and lowest for setting 7. Differences in informational predictors between the samples were identified for all settings, rejecting Hypothesis 2. Most differences were found for settings 2 and 4, and fewest for setting 7. Most differences were given for the predictors of complexity and mystery. The HC sample rated coherence, complexity and mystery, except setting 6, constantly higher, and lower on legibility except setting 2.
Preference predictors

Differences in landscape preferences

41.3 .000

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Stepwise linear regressions analysed the influence of the four informational predictors on preferences for each setting, and separately for the samples (Table6). Because of the low reliability of several dimensions of the Information Processing Theory, items were only aggregated into one predictor if the Cronbachs Alpha value was .60. For the other predictors not reaching this value, their single items were used as independent variables. The regressions explained between 39% and 73% of the total variance in landscape preferences of the Gesuse NP sample and between 26% and 46% of the HC sample, except for setting 3 of the HC sample, where no predictor influenced landscape preferences. The variance explanation of the Gesuse NP sample was higher for all eight landscape scenes. There was no setting where all four predictors influenced the preferences. All predictors showed a positive correlation with preference. For the Gesuse NP sample, mystery predicted preference for all settings. For the HC sample, mystery was a consistent predictor too, except for settings 2 to 4. Coherence was also a relatively strong preference predictor of both samples but was irrelevant for the settings 1, 5, 6 and 8. Complexity predicted preferences for four settings (2 to 4, 7). Legibility was irrelevant for the Gesuse NP sample except for setting 8, while for settings 1 and 6 it predicted the HC samples preferences. Summarizing, the relevance of the predictors on landscape preferences differed between the samples for several scenes, partly rejecting Hypothesis 3.
Discussion

Predicting landscape preferences

a Answer scale: 1 = do not like at all; 7 = like the most, HC = Hells Canyon; GNP=Gesuse NP; n.s.=not significant.

Table 4 Differences in preference ratings per setting between the samples.

Samples/Settings HC sample Meana GNP sample Meana Differences (t-test); p =

4.60 4.52 5.72 6.59 5.00 6.28 3.34 4.68 4.36 3.99 5.56 6.10 4.74 6.45 3.80 5.09 n.s. .000 n.s. .000 n.s .000 n.s. .001

Table 5 Mean scores for predictor variables per information processing theory dimension for the samples; Cronbachs alpha in brackets. Level of significance

between the samples for each dimension: *0.05,**0.01, ***0.001; Answer scale: 1=not at all, 7=very high.
Site Sample 1 HC GNP All HC GNP All HC GNP All HC GNP All HC GNP All HC GNP All HC GNP All HC GNP All HC SUM Coherence 5.12 (.407) 4.70 (.441) 4.91* 5.67 (.567) 5.04 (.600) 5.36*** 5.86 (.748) 5.49 (.617) 5.67* 5.95(.565) 5.60 (.380) 5.78* 5.29 (.756) 4.91 (.379) 5.10 6.17 (.772) 6.13 (.324) 6.15 4.98 (.685) 4.53 (.605) 4.76 5.16 (.801) 5.07 (.351) 5.11 44.20 Complexity Legibility 4.71 (.446) 4.47 (.567) 4.59 3.87 (.550) 2.95 (.702) 3.43*** 4.43 (.352) 3.92 (.569) 4.16** 5.41 (.488) 4.92 (.754) 5.18** 4.69 (.529) 3.39 (.842) 4.04*** 4.32 (.140) 4.01 (.763) 4.17 3.54 (.591) 2.90 (.739) 3.22** 4.65 (.610) 3.53 (.630) 4.08*** 35.62 30.09 Mystery Sum 4.10 (.813) 4.79 (.700) 18.69 4.48 (.680) 3.65 (.731) 17.29 4.29 4.21*** * 5.44 (.739) 4.46 (.819) 19.42 5.03 (.602) 3.05 (.863) 16.07 5.24* 3.79*** *** 4.88 (.795) 5.35 (.890) 20.51 5.27 (.798) 4.99 (.855) 19.66 5.08 5.16 5.17 (.732) 6.28 (.805) 22.81 5.27 (.823) 5.73 (.863) 21.52 6.02*** ** 5.22 3.51 (.857) 5.01 (.796) 18.49 3.74 (.892) 4.22 (.823) 16.26 3.63 4.61** *** 5.22 (.736) 5.42 (.809) 21.13 5.91 (.662) 5.88 (.896) 21.92 5.56*** 5.64* 3.03 (.857) 3.74 (.874) 15.33 2.89 (.788) 3.45 (.862) 13.77 2.96 3.60 * 3.39 (.856) 5.14 (.807) 18.32 4.06 (.773) 4.98 (.886) 17.64 3.73** 5.05 34.74 36.65 40.19 35.95

This study explored commonalities and differences in landscape preferences and perceptions of protected mountain area visitors, using the same set of mountain landscape scenes as stimuli. This study assumed that the similar cultural background of both samples results in similar landscape preferences and predictive reliability of coherence, complexity, legibility and mystery (Kaplan & Kaplan 1989). However, it found that landscape preferences and perceptions are not homogenous between the samples, despite their similar cultural backgrounds. Several researchers have found that protected area visitors seem to prefer more natural settings (Petrosillo et al. 2007; DeLucio & Mugica 1994). However, both samples preferred semi-open mountainous landscapes, while culturally dominated and areas with dense vegetation were disliked. Taking into account the results of previous landscape preference studies, respondents preferences seem to be roughly in line with many other investigated groups such as urban residents, tourists, local populations and professionals (Arnberger & Eder 2011a; Bradley & Kearne 2007; Gmez-Limn & de Luco Fernndez 1999; Hunziker
Landscape preferences and perceptions

GNP SUM 41.47

1995; Hunziker & Buchecker 1999, Karjalainen & Komulainen 1998; Rogge et al. 2007; Van den Berg & Koole 2006; Yu 1995). This indicates that these protected area visitors have similar landscape preferences as most other population groups in Western countries. The information processing theory (Kaplan & Kaplan 1989) assumes that landscapes allowing humans to process information rapidly to ease their use and navigate through them are more preferred. Settings 4 and 6, for example, were most preferred and also received high ratings on all four predictors. This means that these settings have been perceived to be well structured, easy to understand and offer exploration opportunities. Setting 7, depicting a densely forested landscape, received the lowest ratings of all predictors. This setting seems to be not well structured and difficult to understand and offers little exploration opportunities for the respondents. It appears that high ratings on all four predictors indicate higher preferences. However, not each predictor that was highly rated was also related to a highly preferred landscape. Setting 1, for example, was rated second on complexity,

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Table 6 Results of the linear regressions of informational predictor variables (Table 2) on landscape preferences as dependent variable. Answer scales: Informational predictors (Table 2): 1= not at all, 7= very high; Landscape preferences: 1= do not like at all; 7= like the most
Predictors per setting HC sample Standardized Beta Setting 1 Coherence Legibility Mystery Setting 2 Coherence Complexity Mystery Setting 3 Coherence Complexity Mystery Setting 4 Coherence Complexity Mystery Setting 5 Coherence Mystery Setting 6 Legibility Mystery Setting 7 Coherence Complexity Mystery Setting 8 Coherence Legibility Mystery .402*** .241* .189* .726*** .412*** (Q5) .341** .156* .206** .642*** 14.871***/.304 94.801***/.725 .241* .430*** .708*** 30.210***/.456 41.007***/.637 .225* .471*** .221* (Q1) .579*** 12.471***/.255 72.177***/.501 .553*** (Q5) .372*** (Q1) .169* .529*** 22.412***/.377 31.494***/.456 .397*** .241** (Q5) .465*** 34.380***/.306 34.292***/.581 .323*** (Q2) .466*** .505*** .288** 39.076***/.616 .305** (Q1) .249* .225* .357*** (Q1) .505*** 24.609***/.384 22.818***/.388 GNP sample HC sample F-value/R 7.707***/.257 29.761***/.456 GNP sample

while preference rating ranked it as number six. Similarly, setting 2 was less preferred but received high legibility scores. Consequently, not each landscape which is legible or complex is preferred. This finding seems to be in line with other studies (Akalin et al. 2009; Stamps 2004). Results of the linear regression analyses showed a high explanatory power of the predictors, which confirms their value in explaining preferences for mountainous landscapes of protected area visitors. Kaplan and Kaplans theory of preference predictors (1989) stresses that all four predictors should predict and correlate positively with preferences. While several researchers have found a negative relationship with some of the predictors (Herzog & Kirk 2005; Herzog & Kropscott 2004; Herzog & Kutzli 2002), this research found only positive ones. However, not each predictor was significant for each setting. Therefore, the question arises why specific predictors do or do not predict landscape preferences of specific mountainous settings. Mystery evokes the desire in the observer to enter more deeply into a landscape to obtain further information of it that is not apparent at an immediate level (Kaplan & Kaplan 1989). In this study, mystery positively predicted preferences for every setting, with

some differences between the samples. This finding is in line with many studies (Hagerhall 2000; Herzog & Bryce 2007; Gifford 2002; Kaplan & Kaplan 1989) but contradicts others (Herzog & Kirk 2005; Herzog & Kropscott 2004; Herzog & Kutzli 2002). The saliency of mystery is not only noted in its many significant relationships with preference, but also as a strong preference predictor for both samples. Study results showed that the mystery ratings of the entire sample are highest for settings offering semi-open land with greater spatial definitions and a moderate human influence. These landscapes seem to have specifically drawn the respondents into the setting and had let them enjoy the possibility to observe a diversified landscape. Kaplan & Kaplan (1989) define legibility as easy to remember, with identifiable landmarks (Herzog 1984). In this study, legibility predicted preferences in only 3 of 16 settings. The question arises of whether this factor is less relevant for mountainous landscapes preferences. In congruence with previous research (Kaplan & Kaplan 1989), these few relationships were positive. Settings which scored low for that predictor were natural areas. Remarkable and understandable landscapes seem to be moderately or even more intensely used landscapes, with a characteristic mountain summit or terraced hedgerow landscapes.

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The number of different features and the richness of a scene indicate complexity (Kaplan & Kaplan 1989). In this study, the identified positive relationships between complexity and preference confirm findings of Herzog & Kropscott (2004) and Herzog & Shier (2000), while partly contradicting those of Akalin et al. (2009). It seems that larger forest covers and a hedgerow landscape provide less complexity, in contrast to the more diverse cultural landscapes of this study. Coherence points out an organized, neat setting. The information in such a setting is almost immediately available and there seems to be less need for further exploration (Kaplan & Kaplan 1989). Coherence was a relevant predictor in this study, supporting results gained by Herzog & Kropscott (2004) and Herzog & Leverich (2003). Referring to the eight settings, its ratings seem to be u-shaped, with highest ratings on settings with moderate human impact. Their pattern of meadows, forests and settlements or rocks seems to have provided a harmonious and understandable impression of a mountainous landscape and its uses for respondents.
Differences in perceptions landscape preferences and

This research assumed that there are no differences in mountain landscape preferences between the samples, primarily because of similar cultural backgrounds (Huntington 1996). However, it identified differences in preferences, landscape predictors and their relationships, although these differences are not given for each landscape and predictor. It seems that one factor explaining why specific predictors do or do not predict landscape preferences of specific mountainous settings might be attributed to the origin of the samples. The HC sample expressed a higher preference for cultural landscapes, while the Gesuse NP sample scored higher on more natural settings. In addition, several of the informational predictors were not equally relevant for both samples. Consequently, the samples seem to have obtained different information from the landscapes, have a different understanding (coherence, legibility) of them and perceived different exploration opportunities (complexity, mystery). The question arises of whether the degree of familiarity of the Austrian sample with European landscapes has influenced the ratings because of potentially higher understanding. If this is the case, the Gesuse NP sample should have scored higher on the understanding dimension, while the HC sample should have scored higher on the exploration dimension. In line with the assumptions the HC sample scored higher on exploration opportunities. However, the Austrian sample scored lower on coherence and higher on legibility. It appears that the Austrian visitors identified more strongly with the settings and recognized landmarks more quickly but did perceive the settings as less coherent despite their assumed higher familiarity.

The fact that the Austrian visitors perceived the landscapes as less complex and confusing and with little variety could be argued with familiarity. The HC sample may not have known the landscapes and because of the lack of familiar landmarks may have had more difficulties to orient themselves. Certainly more empirical evidence is needed to draw a definite conclusion. The results demonstrate a strong explanatory power of the predictor variables. It seems that the predictors were more suitable to explain landscape preferences of the Gesuse NP visitors. For example, informational factors could not predict the HC samples preferences for setting 3, while coherence, complexity and mystery predicted the preferences for this setting of the Gesuse NP sample. The study also found that the informational factors were most suitable in predicting preferences for natural settings of the Gesuse NP sample, while such a pattern was not observed for the HC sample. While mystery was a salient variable for both samples, legibility did predict preference for the Austrian sample in one setting and for the HC sample in two settings only. Consequently, although the predictors were useful in explaining landscape preferences, few commonalities regarding significant predictors for both samples were identified. In only three settings, two common predictors were found; in most of these cases only mystery was relevant for both samples. This finding may also hint of differences in landscape preferences based on the samples origin.
Conclusions

This study found that landscape preferences are not homogenous among Austrian and eastern Oregon protected area visitors, despite their similar cultural background. There might be some cross-cultural influences on landscape preferences because of different historical influences on the human-nature relationship on both continents and the different environmental surroundings. Following Bourassas (1990) framework of the aesthetic assessment of landscapes, individual factors such as education can influence landscape preferences. Therefore future research may include sociodemographic factors such as education to control for their influence on landscape preferences, something that these low sample sizes did not allow. This study also shows that the informational factors are predictors of mountain landscape preferences in most cases and that the exploration predictors particularly mystery were more relevant for both samples in predicting preferences than those of the understanding dimension. Nevertheless, there is an additional need to investigate why specific predictors did or did not predict preferences for specific landscape types. Maybe different images of nature play a role (Buijs et al. 2009). This study entailed several limitations that might have influenced the results. The quality of the pho-

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tographs was not absolutely the same throughout all eight settings, such as weather conditions, the presence of lush vegetation, the observer standpoint and the scale of the landscapes. It would be useful to apply computer manipulated, digitally calibrated images which have been used in several recent studies (Arnberger & Eder 2011a, b). It would also be useful to take settings from both countries for each degree of hemeroby and it would be of additional interest to conduct the same survey with other samples, such as urban tourists. In addition, further research might explore any u-shaped relationships between complexity and preference. This study found that protected area visitors prefer semi-open mountainous landscapes with low or moderate human influence. However, national parks and protected areas aim to protect ecological processes without human influences. Without human influence, many mountainous protected parks below the natural timber line would be wooded, at least in their core zones. Without any open spaces such as pastures their visual attractiveness can be reduced. Protected area managers need to explain further why natural landscapes look like this to raise public acceptance. At the same time, national park buffer zones with often less intensive human land uses such as grazing may be more attractive even for protected area visitors, probably some US citizens will find such areas specifically attractive. Consequently, integrating buffer zones into (international) national park tourism offers could be useful.
Acknowledgements

This research was supported by West Virginia University within the US Forest Service National Visitor Use Monitoring (NVUM) project.
References

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Herzog, T.R. & L.S. Kropscott 2004. Legibility, mystery, and visual access as predictors of preference and perceived danger in forest settings without pathways. Environment and Behavior 36 (5): 659677. Herzog, T.R. & G.L. Kutzli 2002. Preference and perceived danger in field/forest settings. Environment and Behavior 34 (6): 858874. Herzog, T.R, E.J. Herbert, R. Kaplan & C.L. Crooks 2000. Cultural and developmental comparisons of landscape perceptions and preferences. Environment and Behavior 32 (3): 323346. Herzog, T.R. & R.L. Shier 2000. Complexity, age, and building preference. Environment and Behavior 32(4): 557575. Huntington, S.P. 1996. The Clash of Civilizations. New York. Hunziker, M. 1995. The spontaneous reafforestation in abandoned agricultural lands: perception and aesthetic assessment by locals and tourists. Landscape and Urban Planning 31 (1-3): 399410. Hunziker, M. & M. Buchecker 1999. Bedrfnis orientierte Landschaftsentwicklung im Gebirgsraum Ergebnisse sozialwissenschaftlicher Untersuchungen. Forum fr Wissen 2: 18. Kaltenborn, B.P. & T. Bjerke 2002. Associations between environmental value orientations and landscape preferences. Landscape and Urban Planning 59 (1): 111. Kaplan, R. & S. Kaplan 1989. The Experience of Nature: A Psychological Perspective. New York. Kaplan, R. & E.J. Herbert 1987. Cultural and subcultural comparisons in preference for natural settings. Landscape and Urban Planning 14: 281293. Karjalainen, E. & M. Komulainen 1998. Field afforestation preferences: A case study in northeastern Finland. Landscape and Urban Planning 43 (1-3): 7990. Lewis, J.L. 2010. Interethnic preferences for landscape change: A comparison of first nations and EuroCanadian residents. Landscape Journal 29 (2): 215231. Nash, R.F. 2001. Wilderness & the American Mind New Haven. Orians, G.H. & J.H. Heerwagen 1993. Humans, Habitats and Aesthetics. In: Kellert, S.R. & E.O. Wilson (eds.), The Biophilia Hypothesis. Washington, DC. Petrosillo, I., M.E. Corliano, N. Zaccarelli & N. Dadamo 2007. Tourist perception of recreational environment and management in a marine protected area, Landscape and Urban Planning 79 (1): 2937. Rogge, E., F. Nevens & H. Gulinck 2007. Perception of rural landscapes in Flanders: Looking beyond aesthetics. Landscape and Urban Planning 82 (4): 159174. Stamps, A.E. 2004. Mystery, complexity, legibility, and coherence: A meta analysis. Journal of Environmental Psychology 24 (1): 116. Strumse, E. 1996. Demographic differences in the visual preferences for agrarian landscapes in western Norway. Journal of Environmental Psychology 16 (1): 1731. Tips, W.E.J. & T. Savasdisara 1986. The influence of social-economic background of subjects on their

landscape preference evaluation. Landscape and Urban Planning 13: 125133. Tveit, M., A. Ode & G. Fry 2006. Key concepts in a framework for analysing visual landscape character. Landscape Research 31 (3): 229255. USDA Hells Canyon National Recreation Area (s.a.). Available at: www.fs.fed.us/hellscanyon (accessed on 24/10/2011) Van Den Berg, A.E. & S.L. Koole 2006. New wilderness in the Netherlands: An investigation of visual preferences for nature development landscapes. Landscape and Urban Planning 78 (4): 362372. Voland, E. & K. Grammer 2003. Evolutionary Aesthetics. Berlin. Wellman, J.D. & G.J. Buhyoff 1980. Effects of regional familiarity on landscape preferences. Journal of Environmental Management 11 (2): 105110. Yang, B. & R. Kaplan 1990. The perception of landscape style: A cross-cultural comparison. Landscape and Urban Planning 19 (3): 251262. Yang, B. & Brown, T.J. (1992) A cross-cultural comparison of preferences for landscape styles and landscape elements, Environment and Behavior 24 (4): 471507. Yu, K. 1995. Cultural variations in landscape preference: comparisons among Chinese sub-groups and western design experts. Landscape and Urban Planning 32 (2): 107126. Zube, E.H. 1984. Themes in landscape assessment theory. Landscape Journal 3 (2): 104110.
Author Franziska Rom 1

Peter-Jordan-Strae 82 1190 Vienna, Austria. Corresponding author, contact: arne.arnberger@boku. ac.at West Virginia University, 125 Percival Hall, Morgantown, WV26506-6125, USA. Contact: Robert. Burns@mail.wvu.edu Institute of Landscape Development, Recreation and Conservation Planning. Department of Spatial, Landscape and Infrastructure Sciences. University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences, Vienna
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Arne Arnberger 1

Robert C. Burns

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R esearch

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The Austrian Biosphere Reserves. A (connoisseurs) world beyond the cookery book
Gnter Kck, Martha Umhack & Christian Diry
Keywords: UNESCO, Man and the Biosphere Programme, biosphere reserves, sustainable development, school initiative

A b s t ra c t
In many instances the Austrian UNESCO Biosphere Reserves as model regions of sustainable development are outshone by other conservation categories, such as national parks or world heritage sites, and are largely unknown to the wider population. This shadowy existence is ill deserved. The modern concept of biosphere reserves (BRs) is more important today than it ever was if we want to maintain valuable cultural landscapes for later generations. The Austrian MAB National Committee therefore made it a priority to greatly increase the popularity of our BRs and to underline their significance for sustainability research. Moreover, efforts in this vein should involve young people. The project Vielfalt genieen (Enjoying diversity) has been conceived as a three-stage programme, starting with a schools competition during the International Year of Biodiversity 2010, followed by the publication of an award-winning cookery book (The Austrian Biosphere Reserves. A Connoisseurs World) and culminating in a BR training for students, lasting more than a year, carried out at the Landesberufsschule Waldegg (vocational college for the hotel and catering trades) and complemented with BR-related activities (BR recipes, information folder) in selected restaurants around Wienerwald BR.

Profile Protected area Wienerwald Biosphere Reserve Mountain range Alps Country Austria

Background

In 2011 the research programme Man and the Biosphere (MAB) celebrated its 40th anniversary, which makes it one of the longest-standing UNESCO programmes. A key component of the MAB programme is the global network of UNESCO BRs (currently 621 BRs in 117 countries, with 7 BRs in Austria), where models of sustainable development, combined with environmental protection, are developed, tried and tested, and then implemented in cooperation with the regional population. And yet, UNESCO BRs as model regions and educational sites for sustainable development, unlike other conservation categories such as national parks or world heritage sites, are often largely unknown to the wider population (Lange 2005; Schrader 2006; Coetzer et al. 2013). Why is this shadowy existence? Several reasons spring to mind: while the first ever national park, Yellowstone National Park in the USA, was founded in 1872, BRs have only been around for just under 40 years. Famous tourist destinations, such as Krger National Park in South Africa or Galapagos National Park in Ecuador, have contributed to turning the national park label into a world-famous brand. A similar development took place with UNESCO World Heritage Sites (WHS). Here, too, legendary destinations, strong advertising, as well as the significant political role of the WHS label combined to enhance its popularity, which greatly outstrips that of the in-house Biosphere Reserve brand. Added complications emerge when in certain regions, in Austria for instance in the Lake Neusiedl region, all three categories overlap. Advertising efforts usually focus on the best-known label

Figure 1 Deatail of the Vielfalt Geniessen Flyer (Enjoying diversity). and can often lead to contraproductive competition between champions of each conservation category. It is not surprising therefore that such a situation leads to confusion, misunderstandings and, in the worst cases, to indifference in the population. Let me quote an example from my own work: when I travelled to the 21st MAB-ICC 2009 on the South-Korean island of Jeju, the announcement on the plane just before landing pointed out that we were approaching the WHS Jeju. At the conference itself, many MAB representatives deplored the fact that the in-flight announcement had omitted the information that Jeju is also a BR. Here, too, the reason was probably the much higher popularity and status of the WHS label.

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decree from above instead of, as UNESCO recommends, in a bottom-up process over several years with numerous information events and comprehensive stakeholder negotiations. With the establishment of the new BR Salzburger Lungau und Krntner Nockberge, plus the existing Wienerwald BR and Groes Walsertal BR, Austria now has a critical mass of three modern BRs, whose existence and concept and whose status as competence centres for sustainability issues should now be promoted to the public at large. This is what the Austrian MAB National Committee set out do. Following the success of the book project Planet Austria (Kck et al. 2009b), which aimed at inspiring young people to engage with the natural sciences, the MAB National Committee was convinced that any BR promotion should also be directed at young people, not least because only by involving the younger generation can behaviours and conceptual frames be changed in the wider society in the longer term.
Vielfalt genieen (Enjoying diversity) has been devised as a three-stage programme First stage: schools competition Vielfalt zum Genieen (Sampling diversity)

Figure 2 Book covver of A Connoisseurs World. It may well be that the tasks and benefits of a national park are easier to communicate than those of a BR. There is an impressive list of expectations directed at BRs (Lange 2005; Kck et al. 2007): they are meant to maintain biodiversity, protect natural resources and support regional development towards becoming a model region for sustainable economic activity. In addition, BRs serve as internationally linked sites of research and education and should promote public awareness of and responsibility for the impact of human activities on the environment. At the same time they are charged with implementing the abstract principle of sustainability in practice in an exemplary way: using innovative approaches and the principle of involving the population and integrating traditional knowledge about using existing resources in ecological, economic and social development strategies. The participation of the population is vital for the successful implementation of the BR concept. In their study, Stoll-Kleemann und Welp (2008) demonstrated that the social acceptance of a BR grows in time with the degree of involvement of the population. To engage the population, however, plenty of well-presented and easily understandable information is needed. Such a campaign is costly, though, and a great burden for underfunded BR managements. Information gaps are mainly a problem for extensive BRs with large populations, such as Wienerwald BR, where on an area of 1050km2 some 750 000 people need to be addressed (Kck et al. 2009a). Paradoxically, many inhabitants are unaware of the status of their region, even though they have lived in a BR for years (Wittmann & Engel 2005; Arnberger et al. 2009). This is particularly true of BRs that have been installed by

For the International Year of Biodiversity 2010 the MAB National Committee funded a competition in the schools of Wienerwald and Groes Walsertal BRs. Pupils were asked to document the value of biodiversity in their immediate environment through the use of edible wild plants in cooking. First, experienced environmental experts took the young people on excursions and introduced them to the natural wealth of the cultural landscape and the diversity of plants in their neighbourhood and pointed out the role and use of these plants. The actual competition that followed challenged the young people to take the initiative. They were to find out from their parents and grandparents stories, experiences and recipes relating to edible wild plants in their neighbourhood and to combine this with the insights gained on the excursions into a presentation to a jury of experts on the Day for Biodiversity 2010. The best entries were awarded prizes by Wienerwald BR. All in all, young people from 21 school classes participated, submitting some 150 recipes.

Second stage: Austrian BRs cookery book A Connoisseurs World

Encouraged by this success, the MAB National Committee joined forces with award-winning photographic book publisher Edition Lammerhuber to devise a way of communicating the themes of biodiversity/sustainability in a popular-scientific manner. A cookery book would be used as a Trojan horse to present biodiversity and the Austrian BRs as competence centres for sustainability. The culinary highlights should pave the way for information to flow. The cookery book of the Austrian BRs, A Connoisseurs World, came out

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in 2011 (Kck et al. 2011). It contained typical dishes of a region, using regional produce and some rare or forgotten plants (herbs, vegetables, spices), combined with clear information on habitats, animals, plants and people, in an effort to visualize why biodiversity is a key theme for the future that affects the quality of life for everybody. At the same time the 34 recipes in the book entice people to find out more about BRs. The book also points its readers towards using sustainably produced food and to favour regional producers. In the long run this is the only way to ensure a supply of high-quality produce, to secure jobs, to maintain older production techniques, to safeguard the survival of old regional animal and plant species and with it the diversity of food and taste. Staying with the UNESCO idea of BRs as learning sites for sustainable development, the publishers decided not to use well-known chefs to realize the book but to work instead with catering students. The students at the Landesberufsschule (LBS) Waldegg in Lower Austria checked and reproduced the recipes with the help of their teachers. This direct involvement not only gave many young people a hands-on experience of the BR idea, the unusual photographic concept clearly demonstrated the great enthusiasm of the young people for the project, thus attracting younger readers to the book. With added texts in English (The Austrian Biosphere Reserves. A Connoisseurs World) the book is also fit for international use, making Austrian BRs known abroad while introducing non-German speaking BR visitors in Austria to the concept. A large part of the total edition produced was made available to the Austrian BRs for free to support their promotional efforts.
Third stage: school and restaurant initiative Vielfalt genieen Mehr als ein Kochbuch (Enjoying diversity More than a cookery book)

Trained in this way, the students can then pass on what they know to the guests of the restaurants they will work in, thus reaching many more people. In parallel with the initiative at the college, the restaurants in Wienerwald BR were encouraged to put special dishes from Austrian BRs on their menus and label them as such to get their diners interested in BRs. Graduates of the catering college can then supply additional information on BR themes. A special information leaflet on the BR concept, with a BR recipe, was distributed in great numbers and for free to the restaurants for their guests to take away. The initiative aims to make people more aware of the fact that they are living in or visiting a BR and that their active participation and ideas are not just desirable but essential for the successful implementation of the BR concept and for maintaining an environment fit to live in.
Additional initiatives

The resonance in the press, triggered by the cookery book winning an award at the worlds largest cookery book competition (XVII Gourmand Awards 2011), engendered interest even in regions far away from the BR. This allowed the book A Connoisseurs World to be used elsewhere for further BR promotions. One such culinary and musical event took place in the Lower Austrian town of Hollabrunn in cooperation with local culture club Kulturm, LBS Waldegg and Vienna Court theatre actor Robert Reinagl, entitled What can a BR do for your wellbeing? LBS Waldegg regularly provides the catering for numerous popular events which draw large crowds. For more than a year now they have served BR menus almost every time.
Obstacles, benefits, added value

It was clear from the start that the book publication should not be the end of the project and that a sustained impact was needed. This is the key task of the follow-on initiative Vielfalt genieen Mehr als ein Kochbuch (Enjoying diversity More than a cookery book). The successful cooperation with LBS Waldegg provided an ideal base for disseminating the BR concept to the population. During work on the cookery book the great interest of the students in the BR idea became very obvious, which makes them ideal ambassadors and multiplicators of the concept. The project involves training initiatives at LBS Waldegg for students and teaching staff alike. For more than a year, members of the MAB National Committee, together with managers from Wienerwald BR, have been holding training sessions at LBS Waldegg, introducing the final year students (some 300 people) to the BR concept. They focus on key themes, such as species conservation, sustainability and education, in an interactive format, taking Wienerwald BR as a case in point. The students then get further involved by producing a BR leaflet, BR-related menus and similar activities.

Normally it is quite difficult to set such initiatives in a school. Many schools have quite tight curricula and the education authorities rarely look kindly at proposed changes. The successful cooperation on the cookery book, however, encouraged the head of school and the education authorities to agree to the follow-up project, which provided added value on top of the regular curriculum for the college and its students. The students training at LBS Waldegg to become catering specialists (chefs, service personnel) thus got to know, in addition to their regular curriculum, how important sustainable use is for maintaining the environment for future generations and learned to recognize their local flora and fauna. In line with the UNESCO definition of BRs as model regions for sustainable development, all three dimensions of sustainability, i.e. economy, ecology and society, were being addressed and best practice examples from the BRs, which combine all three dimensions, presented to the students. The students, like the readers of the cookery book, are drawn to using sustainably produced food and en-

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couraged to buy from regional producers. By getting closely involved with themes of sustainability, species diversity and species protection in a number of ways (species lists, recipes, designing a leaflet, creating BR menus), the young people internalize the significance of sustainability for the future of us all. By acting in their work placements (usually restaurants) in the BR region as multiplicators of the BR concept they contribute to maintaining the supply of high-quality produce, jobs, traditional production techniques, old regional species of flora and fauna and with it a diversity of foods and tastes. In principle it would be good to involve as many restaurants as possible in the initiative. Given the limited funds, the project concentrated on enthusiastic key businesses with a positive attitude to the BR. Many of them send their apprentices to train at LBS Waldegg, which facilitated the connection with the BR-related sessions at the college. The restaurants, who joined the project on a voluntary basis, benefitted from the opportunity of using their location in the BR and their menus of typical dishes of the region, created from locally grown produce to promote their businesses. They were supported in their efforts by the PR undertaken as part of the project.
Feedback from the people involved

From the start of the schools competition the students did not just receive information in the form of talks but were encouraged to become actively involved in the BR under the guidance of BR experts. Practically all entries to the competition showed ample creativity and enthusiasm for the theme. During the production of the cookery book, the students were closely involved in creating the recipes, testing them and in the photo shoot itself. The training sessions of the third project stage were also designed as interactive events, resulting in concrete project work such as creating an advertising leaflet for the BR or a BR-related menu. The insights from the project have been regularly debated by the project team and acted upon to improve the project performance. The great success of the schools project, for instance, inspired the team to work with trainee chefs rather than famous established chefs for the cookery book. The young peoples suggestions for interactive sessions were also integrated to ensure their continued interest in the project. Everything learned in this project will of course be fed into future extensions of the current project and/or transfers to other BRs.
An unqualified success

2011 are further proof of the validity of the concept. With a print run of 8 000 copies and its distribution through book shops as well, the BR concept has been disseminated to a great many people. All in all some 900 students were addressed directly in this project. The regular catering activities of LBS Waldegg using BR produce and recipes will bring further students indirectly in contact with the concept and make thousands of visitors aware of the BR idea. In sum, the Vielfalt genieen initiative reached large parts of the population at comparatively little cost and made them familiar with the BR concept. The project is also presented on the homepage of the Austrian Academie of Sciences under Science Education (http://www.oeaw.ac.at/english/aktuell/scienceeducation/themen/nachhaltige-entwicklung.html). In addition the project has been entered into the Austrian education map (Platform for Education for Sustainable Development). This tool helps to find Austrian organizations that offer learning opportunities for sustainable development. With regard to quality control, a set of criteria for ESD has been developed for www.bildungslandkarte.at that enables potential candidates to evaluate their own ESD performance. Institutions that register and chart one of their projects can also enter it for the award Official Austrian Project of the UN Decade Education for Sustainable Development (20052014) assigned by the Austrian UNESCO Commission.
Summary

The great response in the media (over 70 reports) and the book reviews signify that the concept of the book is a perfect fit with what the market wants and fills a distinct information gap. The excellent results of A Connoisseurs World at the XVII Gourmand Awards

The BR concept is ideally suited to maintaining valuable landscapes, cultivated by humans for centuries, for future generation. What is needed for a successful implementation, however, is the involvement and cooperation of the local population. In large areas with high population density it is more difficult to disseminate the relevant information. The Vielfalt genieen (Enjoying diversity) initiative made a significant contribution here by harnessing the enthusiasm of young people in an effort to affect a rethinking in the longer term. It was not confined to addressing young people, though. The catering campaign reached the wider population in all age groups with the BR idea. The cookery book leveraged the continued popularity of the genre and the increased interest of people in regional produce to get the inhabitants of the BR interested in their environment and in doing their bit for its protection. An ideal way of working towards the UNESCO objective of realizing the abstract principle of sustainability with innovative approaches and by involving as many regional partners as possible. Especially in Austria, which has been experiencing a boom in BR projects in recent years, an information campaign that reaches the wider population beyond the immediate BR area may pave the way for the establishment of more BRs which would otherwise suffer from underinformed potential stakeholders.

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References

Authors Gnter Kck

Arnberger, A., F. Frey-Roos, R. Eder, G. Muralt, U. Nopp-Mayr, H. Tomek & M. Zohmann 2009. kologische und soziale Tragfhigkeiten als Managementherausforderungen fr suburbane Biosphrenparke am Beispiel Untere Lobau. Projektbericht im Rahmen des Man & Biosphere-Programms der Akademie der Wissenschaften. doi: 10.1553/MAB-OEST. Available at: http://epub. oeaw.ac.at/6781-5inhalt Coetzer, K.L., E.T.F. Witkowski & B.F.N. Erasmus 2013. Reviewing Biosphere Reserves globally: effective conservation action or bureaucratic label? Biological Reviews. doi:10.1111/brv.12044. Kck, G. & S. Lange 2007. UNESCO biosphere parks in Austria model regions for sustainable development. Perspektiven 7: 1418. Kck, G., G. Koch & C. Diry 2009a. The UNESCO Biosphere Reserve Biosphrenpark Wienerwald (Vienna Woods) a Long History of Conservation. eco.mont 1 (1): 5156. Kck, G., L. Lammerhuber & W.E. Piller 2009b. Planet Austria: Stein Wasser Leben. Baden, Wien. Kck, G., L. Lammerhuber & M. Umhack 2011. Vielfalt genieen Das Kochbuch der sterreichischen Biosphrenparks (A Connoisseurs World The Austrian Biosphere Reserves). Lange, S. 2005. Inspired by diversity. Available at: http://epub.oeaw.ac.at/3596-3inhalt Schrader, N. 2006. German biosphere reserves put to the test! Evaluation of existing biosphere reserves with reference to the UNESCO guidelines, the requirements of the national biosphere reserve criteria and the newly developed assessment procedures. Dissertation Universitt Trier. Stoll-Kleemann, S. & M. Welp 2008. Participatory and Integrated Management of Biosphere Reserves Lessons from Case Studies and a Global Survey. GAIA 17/S1: 161168. Wittmann, D. & S. Engel 2005. Zum Gutachten Biosphrenreservat Rhn: Bekanntheit und Anziehungskraft im Vergleich zu anderen Biosphrenreservaten in Deutschland. Zusammenfassung und Kommentierung. In: Ott, E. (Hrsg.), Beitrge Region und Nachhaltigkeit: 8491.

studied biology at the University of Innsbruck, Austria. His extensive research focuses on biomonitoring studies of aquatic ecosystems. Since 1997 he has led projects of the Austro-Canadian research cooperation High-Arctic. In the year 2000 he was awarded the Canada Prize of the University of Innsbruck. In 2004 he became coordinator of the national and international research programmes of the Austrian Academy of Sciences. He is Secretary-General of the Austrian MAB National Committee, Vice-Chair of the UNESCO MAB Programme, and the Austrian delegate to the European Alliance of Global Change Research Committees, member of the Scientific Board of Hohe Tauern National Park, as well as one of the Austrian delegates to the International Scientific Committee for Alpine Research. In 2009 he became co-editor of eco.mont. In 2010 the Canadian Government recognized his exceptional contributions to Canadian-Austrian relations by awarding him the Canadian Go for Gold honorary medal. He is author of the award-winning books Planet Austria and The Austrian Biosphere Reserves A Connoisseurs World. Born in 1964. She teaches business and English for specific purposes at vocational schools. In 2013 she became principal of the Waldegg vocational school for tourism in Lower Austria. In addition, she teaches at the Lower Austrian College of Education and works as a consultant on textbooks for the Austrian Federal Ministry for Education, the Arts and Culture. Born 1962 in Vienna. Studied biology (zoology / botany) at the University of Vienna; Master Programme Management of Protected Areas University of Klagenfurt, 20092011; tour guide, environmental education, Natural History Museum Vienna; national park ranger, Donauauen NP; since 2004 BR Wienerwald management, responsible for education and sustainability. cd@bpww.at

Martha Umhack

Christian Diry

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How to set up a dynamic residual flow regime: the example of the river Spl (Swiss National Park)
Thomas Scheurer
Keywords: hydropower, artificial floods, Spl

A b s t ra c t
Since the year 2000 the artificial floods on the river Spl have been considered a model of an ecologically optimized residual flow regime. It had not been possible to carry out the necessary transformation of residual flow within the permits effective at the time. The Federal Energy Office and the Governing Council of Grisons canton had to issue non-permanent exceptions. Recently these were replaced by a definitive regulation, which makes periodic floods a regular feature in the flow regime of the river Spl.

Profile Protected area Swiss National Park Mountain range Alps Country Switzerland

Residual water degrades the ecological integrity of rivers

The hydropower of the river Spl the largest running water in the Swiss National Park (SNP) has been harnessed for electricity production since 1970. To this end, the river Spl (Figure 1) has been dammed directly outside the SNP in the Livigno reservoir and in the compensating reservoir Ova Spin (Figure 2). The residual water measured 1m/s in annual avgerage and within just 20 years led to a situation where the river Spl turned into a shallow body of water in the ravine between the two dams, interspersed in many places with transverse obstructions to form still water areas where mud and algae collected.
More dynamics through artificial floods

In 1990 the research council of the SNP was able to demonstrate in a national project (Gerster & Rey 1994) that the ecological conditions can be greatly improved by floods. Thereafter the research council, in cooperation with power station operator Engadiner Kraftwerke (EKW), developed a proposal for a new residual flow regime with annual floods (Scheurer & Molinari 2003). It started in 2000 and within just a few years has shown very promising results (Jakob et al 2003; Mannes et al. 2008; Mrle et al. 2003; Robinson et al. 2003; Robinson & Uehlinger 2003; Robinson et al. 2004; Robinson & Uehlinger 2008).
Transformation of the residual flow regime

Figure 1 View into the deep Spl valley from the Punt dal Gall dam. Photograph by Hydra. P. Rey use of hydropower by the EKW between S-chanf and Martina regulates the water outtake down to the last litre, not least because it forms the basis on which water interest due to the canton and the municipalities is calculated. For the artificial floods to be implemented, the agreement of all affected parties was needed, which took about five years to obtain. From the year 2000, artificial floods were generated in the upper Spl river, from the Punt dal Gall dam (Figure 3) and in the lower Spl river from the Ova Spin compensation reservoir.

Prior to the transformation of the residual flow regime, extended negotiations with the power station operator and the regulating authorities (Swiss federation and Gris canton) took place. The permit for the

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Switzerland
Inn

Pradella power station

Zernez

Spl

Ova Spin reservoir

S-chanf Swiss National Park

Inn

Wa te r

tu nn el

Punt dal Gall dam

Switzerland
NP border river water tunnel state border dam reservoir
designed by Scheurer & Molinari 2003, adapted by Kati Heinrich 2013 Data base: SRTM DEM

Livigno reservoir

5 km

Italy

Figure 2 Map of the project area.

New water balance

The prerequisite for releasing artificial floods was the agreement of operator EKW. In order to actually carry out such artificial flooding, it was necessary to save up water in the reservoirs throughout the summer (15 May 15 September), which automatically meant decreasing the residual flow. This also meant that less electricity was produced because of the reduced amount of water for the residual flow turbines in the dams of Punt dal Gall and in Ova Spin. To compensate for this loss of production, some of the residual water kept in the Livigno dam and the Ova Spin reservoir was given over to the EKW for electricity production. By using this water via the next-higher power station level with bigger differential, the EKW were able to produce the same amount of electricity as before with less water. This production-neutral way of carrying out the floods was an essential prerequisite for obtaining the agreement of the EKW to the new residual flow regime.
Impact on the permit

the permit to use the lower Spl; and, third, the affected municipalities. Consent to the new residual flow regime was given initially for a period of three years (2000 2002). Thereafter an extension had to be applied for.
Remediation order

Changing the distribution of the water outtake meant a deviation from the terms of the permit. This required the written consent of, first, the Federal Energy Office, responsible for the permit to use the upper Spl, because it also involves using water from Italy for electricity production; second, the Governing Council of Grisons canton, which is responsible for

Paragraph 80 of the Swiss Water Protection Act, amended in 2008, requires an ecological check and, if necessary, remediation of residual flow stretches. For the upper Spl, the Federal Energy Office demanded such a check. The check brought to light that the flooding regime had considerably improved the ecological conditions in the river Spl and must be continued. It also included proposals of further measures, which were, however, not in the interests of research (removal of the flow measuring station) or the SNP (removing tree seedlings from the river bed). In 2011 the Federal Energy Office issued a remediation order on the upper Spl to make artificial floods a permanent feature. In this way, artificial floods could be legally integrated in the energy generation permit without the need to amend the permit itself. To date no similar order for the lower Spl (Ova Spin confluence with the river Inn) has been issued by the canton.
More flexibility

One important aim of the new residual flow regime backed by the remediation order is to achieve greater

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flexibility in the residual water outflow. In an agreement, signed in 2012 by EKW, SNP and Research Council, such flexibility was formally agreed. In future, both floods and basic outflow can be altered as needed by the ecological state of the river. Water that is not needed for flooding the Spl can moreover be used sporadically in other running waters in the region that are affected by residual water or for larger rinses of Spl and Inn. In this way the newly gained flexibility benefits other waters in the region as well. The agreement also includes a provision for monitoring the state of the water in the river Spl (Robinson et al. 2011), a prerequisite for customized planning of the residual flow regime and the artificial floods.
Mud flow event 2013

For some thirteen years now, the dynamic residual water regime in the river Spl has regularly mobilized fine sediment and rubble, renewed and improved habitats for water fauna. A running water trained by such stresses is also in a better position to cope with unusual events, such as the mudflow event at the end of March 2013, which was caused by a technical fault (Figure 4). Thanks to the regular mobilization of the fine sediment, there was relatively little fine sediment near the basic outflow and in the river. Based on several years of experience with artificial floods, experts were able to react in a targeted manner to the mud inflow. In this sense the dynamic residual flow management also minimizes the ecological risks in the case of technical accidents.
A global perspective

Figure 3 Punt dal Gall dam and Livigno reservoir. The Punt dal gall dam is half in Switzerland and half in Italy. SNP, H. Lozza

Since hydro-electric power stations must be regularly checked for functionality, rinses are carried out occasionally when the dams are emptied. Such technically required floods are however nowhere near enough for an ecological improvement of the waters affected by residual flow. What is needed to improve the ecological integrity are floods specifically designed for the benefit of the ecology of the waters in question as these are applied across the world since some years (Konrad et al. 2011). Usually these are one-off measures, sometimes spectacular ones, which are repeated as needed. Experiences with the floods in the Spl have shown that for the water dynamics to be fundamentally improved, annual floods are needed. To date and as far as we know, the river Spl is the only residual flow river with annual artificial flooding. It is hoped that the positive effects of the floods on the water ecology will encourage power station operators everywhere to change their residual flow management to a dynamic residual flow regime.

Figure 4 River Spl below the Punt dal Gall dam after a mudflow event at the end of March 2013 as a result of a technical fault with the regulation of the residual water outlet. SNP, H. Lozza
References

Gerster, S. & P. Rey 1994. kologische Folgen von Stauraumsplungen. Schriftenreihe Umweltschutz 219. BUWAL, Bern, Switzerland. Jakob, C., C.T. Robinson & U. Uehlinger 2003. Longitudinal effects of experimental floods on stream benthos downstream from a large dam. Aquatic Sciences 65: 223231. Konrad C.P., J.D. Olden, D.A. Lytle, T. Melis, J.C. Schmidt, E. Bray, M. Freemann, K. Keith Gido, N. Hemphill, M. Kennard, L. McMullen, M.C. Mims, M. Pyron, C.T. Robinson, J.G. Williams 2011. Large-scale flow experiments for managing river systems. BioScience 61 (12): 948959. Mannes, S., C.T. Robinson, U. Uehlinger, T. Scheurer, J. Ortlepp, U. Mrle & P. Molinari 2008. Ecological

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effects of a long-term flood program in a flow-regulated river. Journal of Alpine Research 96, 1: 113134. Mrle, U., J. Ortlepp & M. Zahner 2003. Effects of experimental flooding on riverine morphology, structure an riparian vegetation: The River Spl, Swiss National Park. Aquatic Sciences 65: 191198. Robinson, C.T. & U. Uehlinger 2003. Using artificial floos for restoring river integrity. Aquatic Sciences 65: 181182. Robinson, C.T., U. Uehlinger, M.T. Monaghan 2003. Effects of multi-year experimental floods regime on macro-invertebrates downstream of a reservoir. Aquatic Sciences 65: 210222. Robinson, C.T., P. Molinari, U. Mrle, J. Ortlepp, T. Scheurer, U. Uehlinger & M. Zahner 2004. Experimental floods to improve the integrity of regulated rivers. GAIA 13 (3): 186190. Robinson, C.T. & U. Uehlinger 2008. Experimental floods cause ecosystem regime shift in a regulated river. Ecological Applications 18 (2): 511526.

Robinson, C.T., M. Doering & L. Seelen 2011. Importance of protected areas for freshwater biomonitoring Case studies in Switzerland. eco.mont 3 (2): 1322. Scheurer, T. & P. Molinari 2003. Experimental floods in the River Spl, Swiss National Park: Framework, objectives, design. Aquatic Sciences 65: 183190.
Author Thomas Scheurer

Dr. phil. nat, 1953. Studied Geography, Geology and Anthopology at the University of Berne. Currently managing director of the Swiss National Park Research Council, the Swiss Interacademic Commission for Alpine Studies, and the International Scientific Committee for Alpine Research.

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A multi-zone biomonitoring buffer concept for protected areas to conserve biological diversity and prevent adverse effects of anthropogenic pollution
Samuel J. Biondo
Keywords: biomonitoring; buffer zones; protected areas; biological diversity; habitat protection

A b s t ra c t
This paper describes a concept for combining the biomonitoring ability of plants with their capacity to block the transport of pollutants before they can contribute to habitat degradation. Biomonitoring and buffer zones have not yet been combined to create an effective biological system for detecting, monitoring and limiting the transport of pollution from anthropogenic sources to conserve biological diversity and prevent adverse effects. This paper presents a multi-zone biomonitoring buffer concept to achieve those goals.

Biomonitoring

Biomonitoring has been practiced for over 100 years (Nylander 1886). Biomonitoring can be used to detect and monitor the temporal, spatial and cumulative effects of different pollutants in the ecosystem and to determine the potential for long-term harmful effects (De Temmerman et al. 2005). A very wide range of species and plant types have been studied as potential monitoring agents. Lichens, fungi, tree bark and leaves of higher plants are commonly used to detect the deposition, accumulation and distribution of pollutants in the environment. Sensitive plants may show visible effects of pollution long before their effects can be observed on animals or materials. Plants have been used to establish field monitoring networks in Europe, Canada and the United States. One example is the assessment of the effects of ozone and atmospheric heavy metal deposition conducted through the pan-European biomonitoring programme operating according to a common protocol, viz., in the framework of the International Cooperative Programme on Effects of Air Pollution on Natural Vegetation and Crops under the Convention on Long-Range Transboundary Air Pollution (ICP Vegetation 2013). Biomonitoring has many advantages but it requires sophisticated applications. Cape (2012 & 2009) discusses when and when not to use plants as bioindicators, and illustrates some of the precautions required if meaningful conclusions are to be inferred. He notes that the sound interpretation of measurement data relies on a clear understanding of what such biomonitors can and cannot demonstrate, and the limitations of each approach. De Temmerman et al. (2004) report that lack of standardization is probably one of the major reasons why biomonitoring techniques are less used in legislation than methods based on physico-chemical monitoring. They noted, however, that both techniques are complementary because physico-chemical monitors measure pollutant concentrations or deposition fluxes, whereas biomonitors reflect effects.

The use of indicator plants may obviate the necessity for expensive equipment but successful applications require tailored analytical plant studies compared to using commercially available physico-chemical monitoring instruments that are applied routinely in a cookbook fashion.
Buffer zones

Various types of buffer zones have been implemented for protective areas for several decades. The term buffer zone first appears to have become widely used with the Man and Biosphere programme, and the biosphere reserves in the 1970s, which aimed to set a scientific basis for the improvement of the relationships between people and their environment globally (Martino 2001). Buffer zones are often created to enhance the protection of a conservation area. Buffers are commonly used in a variety of social functions, in addition to attempting to control air or water quality (Benthrup 2008). Protected areas are supposed to be safe havens. However, at the present time protected areas are generally not considered islands safe from negative external effects, which can have serious impacts on species and habitats within them (Pan-European Ecological Networks 2013). Shafer (1999) prophetically noted that the science of buffer zones is very immature and deserves more attention and stated that a comprehensive, overall protected area strategy must include more than just buffer zones. Some authors (Shafer 1999; Bentrup 2008; Mehring & Stoll-Kleemann 2011) have already pointed out that buffer zones can remedy some impacts but not others and social obstacles can further limit their effectiveness. Although there is a substantial literature base, there are no manuals for designing buffers. A large body of scientific knowledge exists to help guide the planning and designing of buffers. This information is widely dispersed throughout the vast research literature and is not easily accessible or usable for most planners (Bentrup 2008). Clearly, buffer zones have not been designed to guarantee the same level of protection

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Origin of polluon

Polluon resistant plant zone (oponal) Indigenous vegetaon plant zone

Polluon detecon plant zone

Figure 1 Multi-zone biomonitoring buffer concept. expected of buffers used in chemistry laboratories, where buffers are expected to maintain the original condition (pH). However, buffer zones could be designed to take better advantage of the natural ability of certain plants to bioaccumulate, degrade or render harmless contaminants in the air, water or soil.
Multi-zone biomonitoring buffer concept

Figure 1 introduces a multi-zone concept combining biomonitoring with buffering and expanding the function of buffer zones to block the transport of pollution from external sources. The origin of pollution from point sources is represented in the centre of concentric ellipses and pollution from non-point sources, including, for instance, transportation corridors, originates at the inside edge of the linear/curvilinear strips. An optional pollution resistant plant zone could serve as the first protective barrier, depending upon trade-offs between the benefits of pollution resistance and possibly undesirable characteristics of tolerant varieties or some non-native plants. Invasive plants would be excluded because they can alter habitats and reduce biodiversity by choking out other plant life, putting pressure on native plants and animals, including threatened species that may succumb. The pollution detection plant zone can be a series of subzones, including, say, two layers, each of which might be comprised of sublayers of different types of vegetation. Legal permits for anthropogenic activities could possibly allow pollution excursions to penetrate the first layer of the pollution detection plant zone, which could be comprised of somewhat resistant plants, but not allow pollution to occur in the very sensitive plants comprising the next sublayer within this zone. Hence, the first two zones would serve to protect the indigenous vegetation zone from pollution damage. Carefully designed plant studies will be required to set up the pollution detection plant zone. In addition to forests and urban forests, bodies of water, such as bays, canals, channels, falls, gulfs, lakes, rivers and straits that are not sources of pollution could possibly benefit from the first two zones. Multi-tier buffer concepts are not new. For example, multi-tier buffers are used for riparian management (Parkyn 2004) with vegetated buffer zones, but the strips of land that separate upland or hillslope areas

from streams, lakes or wetlands (riparian buffers) are managed for the purpose of removing pollutants from runoff or groundwater and they are not designed with provisions for biomonitoring. The multi-zone concept should enhance the ecological network concept that was developed in Europe to counteract physical fragmentation, which jeopardizes the viability of ecosystems and species populations (Bennett & Mulongoy 2006). Although the ecological network concept was primarily created for rural areas, it has also been studied for application in urbanized areas. A diagram of the ecological network concept is shown in Figure 2. The exploded view at the top left shows the modification of the traditional buffer zone with the addition of pollution resistant and pollution detection layers. The core areas are the protected areas, which are connected by corridors that allow the movement of animal and plant species between the core areas, and both are surrounded by buffer zones. The corridors can include long, uninterrupted strips of vegetation, which are termed linear corridors; stepping stone corridors, which are small, non-connected habitats used to find shelter, food or for rest; and landscape corridors which are strips of habitat that connect isolated patches of habitat. Substituting the multi-layer buffer zones for the weaker buffer zones in the ecological network model could stop negative external effects, such as air or water pollution, on protected areas, which can have serious impacts on species and habitats within them. The multi-zone concept should also enhance the greenways concept (White 1959) that was developed in the United States. The term greenways refers to a system of interconnected linear territories that are protected, managed and developed so as to obtain ecological, recreational, historical and cultural benefits, or a system of routes dedicated to non-motorized traffic connecting people with landscape resources (natural, agricultural, historical-cultural) and the centres of life (public offices, sport and recreational facilities, etc.) both in the urban areas and in the countryside (Toccoloni et al. 2006). Greenways are frequently corridors within an urban, suburban or rural context, slotted into an artificial landscape. Greenways generally develop along linear structures or elements already present in the surrounding landscape, such as natural corridors (rivers, valleys and ridges), disused railways, canals and embankments, and panoramic roads or minor rural roads (Little 1990). Therefore they offer the advantage of being easily established even in areas that are critical in terms of competition for space. Both ecological networks and greenways are linear structures crossing the landscape, both perform a connecting function in that they are elements created for migration and movement (in one case of flora and fauna and in the other of humans) and both generally contain vegetation (Fumagalli & Toccolini 2012).

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Discussion

The multi-zone biomonitoring buffer concept is essentially a biological filtering system with inherent pollution detection and monitoring capabilities. Its applications are not limited to ecological networks. It can also enhance the numerous other conventional vegetative buffer concepts, e. g. riparian buffers. It can permit easy sampling and long-term monitoring without the need for expensive equipment. It does not require new technology or exotic materials to be developed to test its implementation. It is a novel concept, combining proven elements, that has not been discussed or reported in the literature. There are several possible reasons why this concept has not yet been engineered effectively into a useful system. The most likely include: -- Resistance to creating or expanding buffers for protected areas due to the politics of land use in buffer zone communities. Bennett & Mulongoy (2006) concluded that although the concept of a buffer zone may be straightforward, its design and its functioning in practice can raise many challenges. Adequately understanding the interaction between human activities and species populations and the resulting dynamics is a complex issue; determining appropriate land uses is therefore far from easy. Decisions to restrict human activities in buffer zones will also impose costs on the landowners and users, raising the question of compensation. -- Historically ineffective permitting systems for siting and operating industrial facilities or regulating effluents from human activities; Permit systems for siting and operating point source facilities and for (non-point source) diffuse sources of pollution are known to be frequently ineffective due to loopholes, enforcement failures and other flaws (Collins 2010). -- The sophisticated nature of plant studies. It has been said that biomonitoring could appear to some observers to be the domain of do-it-yourself Ph.D. scientists who spent years studying its intricacies. Choosing the plants for the pollution resistant and pollution detection zones multi-zone biomonitoring buffer concept will require carefully designed pilot studies but no new technology is required.
Future directions

Polluon resistat plant zone Polluon detecon plant zone

Landscape corridor

Buer zone

Core area

Stepping stone corridor

Linear corridor

Sustainable-use areas

Figure 2 Diagrammatic representation of the spatial arrangement for an ecological network (after Bennett & Mulongoy 2006). The exploded view at the top left shows the modification of the traditional buffer zone with the addition of pollution resistant and pollution detection layers. term study to continue to validate and refine the concept.
Conclusion

Testing the multi-zone biomonitoring buffer concept could occur through pilot studies conducted at various sites and scales. Laboratory and/or additional field investigations may be necessary to determine the role of individual pollutants, the synergistic effects of pollutant mixtures, biological responses and tolerances. These studies can be used to establish parameters of biological monitoring programmes conducted under natural conditions. The pilot study initiated here could be considered a jumping off point for a long-

Human activities have increasingly contributed to habitat destruction, degradation and fragmentation. Effective habitat management and maintenance measures are needed to reverse this trend, including inter alia coherent and comprehensive environmental control and management systems, sufficient financial and technological support, transparent effective permitting systems, and effective enforcement. This paper describes a concept for combining the biomonitoring ability of plants with their capacity to block the transport of pollutants before they can contribute to habitat degradation. This multi-zone biomonitoring buffer concept, when implemented through an effective permit system, can contribute to preventing damage and providing stability to protected areas.
References

Bennett, G. & K.J. Mulongoy 2006. Review of Experience with Ecological Networks, Corridors, and Buffer Zones. CBD Technical Series No. 23. Secretariat of the Convention on Biological Diversity. Bentrup, G. 2008. Conservation Buffers-Design Guidelines for Buffers, Corridors, and Greenways. U. S. Depart-

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ment of Agriculture, Forest Service, Southern Research Station. Ashville, N.C. Cape, J.N. 2009. Plants as Accumulators of Atmospheric Emissions. In: Legge, A.H. (ed.), Relating Atmospheric Source Apportionment to Vegetation Effects: Establishing Cause and Effect Relationships. Developments in Environmental Science 9: 6197. Cape, J.N. 2012. Plants as accumulating biomonitors. In: Samson, R. et al., Biomonitoring of air quality with plants, animals and humans. BIOMAQ Conference November 1214 2012, Antwerp, Belgium. Book of abstracts: 56. Collins, C. 2010. Toxic Loopholes: Failures and Future Prospects for Environmental Law. Cambridge. De Temmerman, L., J.N.B. Bell, J.P. Garrec, A. Klumpp, G.H.M. Krause & A.E.G. Tonneijck 2004. Biomonitoring of air pollutants with plants considerations for the future. In: Klumpp, A., W. Ansel & G. Klumpp, Urban Air Pollution, Bioindication and Environmental Awareness. EuroBionet 2002 Conference on Urban Air Pollution, Bioindication and Environmental Awareness in Hohenheim 05.11.2002. 337373. De Temmerman, L., J.N.B. Bell, J.P. Garrec, A. Klumpp, G.H.M. Krause & A.E.G. Tonneijck 2005. Biomonitoring of Air Pollutants with Plants. EnviroNews 11 (2). Fumagalli, N. & A. Toccolini 2012. Relationship Between Greenways and Ecological Network: A Case Study in Italy. International Journal of Environmental Research 6 (4): 903916 ICP Vegetation 2013. Available at: http://icpvegetation.ceh.ac.uk/ (accessed on: 01/06/2013) Little, C.E. 1990. Greenways for America. Baltimore. Martino, D. 2001. Buffer Zones Around Protected Areas: A brief Literature Review. Electronic Green Journal 1 (15).

Mehring, M., & S. Stoll-Kleemann 2011. How effective is the buffer zone? Linking institutional processes with satellite images from a case study in the Lore Lindu Forest Biosphere Reserve, Indonesia. Ecology and Society 16 (4): 3. Nylander, W. 1886. Les lichens du Jardin du Luxembourg. Bulletin de la Societ Botanique de France 13: 364372. Pan-European Ecological Networks 2013. IUCN Countdown 2010. Available at: http://www.countdown2010.net/archive/paneuropean.html (accessed on: 01/06/2013) Parkyn, S. 2004. Review of Riparian Buffer Zone Effectiveness. MAF Technical Paper No: 2004/05: 2 Shafer, C.L. 1999. U S National Park Buffer Zones: Historical, Scientific, Social, and Legal Aspects. Environmental Management 23 (1): 4973. Toccolini, A., N. Fumagalli & G. Senes 2006. Greenways planning in Italy: the Lambro River Valley Greenways System. Landscape and Urban Planning 76: 98111. White, W.H. 1959. Securing Open Space for Urban America: Conservation Easements. Urban Land Institute Technical Bulletin 36. Washington.
Author Samuel J. Biondo

is an independent consultant with a business practice focused on energy and environmental technology. He advises county, state, and federal government agencies on energy, air, and water quality issues. He earned undergraduate degrees from The Pennsylvania State University and Johns Hopkins University and graduate degrees from George Washington University. He can be reached at 1-301-602-4655. Email: sjbiondo@verizon.net

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Impressions from the 2013 EURUFU Summer School Lungau

Heidi Humer-Gruber
Keywords: summer school, Salzburger Lungau Biosphere Reserve, regional development, interdisciplinarity

A b s t ra c t
Who says only cities offer the infrastructure to provide professional training? The Salzburger Lungau Biosphere Reserve took the challenge and brought the university to the country by hosting 37 students for three weeks. A team of experts from four universities and various disciplines related to regional development and architecture supervised the motivated crowd. External speakers gave the students an understanding of their field of expertise in a very practical way, while the afternoons were dedicated to group work on the various projects. After explaining the background and how the summer university came to be established, this article gives an idea of what the students worked on and the experiences they gained during these intense three weeks. One project is explained in more detail to provide an example. Personal impressions complement the report, together with a look at the unintended effects of the teaching efforts.

Profile Protected area Salzburger Lungau BR Mountain range Alps Country Austria

P. Vesely
Introduction How the Summer School evolved Background of the Summer School bringing Heidi back

The Salzburger Lungau Biosphere Reserve is a very young biosphere reserve (BR), established in 2012. For the period 2011 to 2014, the Lungau has been chosen as a model region for the transnational EU project EURUFU (European Rural Futures). One of the sponsored projects is the EURUFU Summer University 2013, which was held in Tamsweg from 523 August 2013. It was attended by 37 students from the University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences (BOKU Wien), the University of Innsbruck, the Vienna University of Technology (TU Wien), the University of Salzburg and the University of Art and Design Linz (Kunstuniversitt Linz), drawn from the disciplines of architecture, landscape planning, landscape architecture, regional planning, political science, geography and other related disciplines. They spent three weeks in Tamsweg to listen to a variety of lectures and to work in small interdisciplinary groups on predetermined projects. The solution-oriented concepts and outcomes of the projects, based on sustainable development as defined by the BR, were shown to the local public, stakeholders and decision makers in a final presentation.

The Summer School was designed under the title EURUFU is bringing Heidi back, referring to a study which took place in Lungau in 2001, which was entitled Heidi wohnt hier nicht mehr on the emigration of the autochthonous creative and innovative potential from the rural regions. (Fuchshofer et al. 2001). Heidi doesnt live here anymore is a synonym for the lack of opportunity to use this innovative and creative potential, the knowledge and skills in the area of origin, to establish a livelihood and to contribute to the development or at least to the preservation of the region (Fuchshofer et al. 2001).

Brain drain is a major problem in many rural areas

An indirect goal of the summer school was demonstrating to the students that there is a need for their knowledge, creativity and expertise, and that there probably are jobs for them at their places of origin. The students were warmly welcomed by various mayors in Lungau, who explained the objects to be resurrected in the concepts developed during the summer school. In nearly every community beautiful central buildings, some of them under preservation orders, are close to collapse as they havent been used

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for decades. Village centres with their old buildings are at risk of dying while at the edge sprawling developments are setting in. Though these buildings are formative for the appearance of the villages, they may have been empty for decades. Everything points to a demographic change and young people are needed in the rural areas as they are the future generations who keep the area alive. The strengths of rural areas are the scenery with its calmness and the high quality of living, which is not comparable to urban areas characterized by pressure and noise, especially for young families with children. However, there are many constraints for young academics trying to move back to their places of origin. One major constraint is probably the absence of job opportunities in their field of expertise. A vicious circle sets in when young people move to more attractive urban areas: then there are not enough children to finance proper education and daycare facilities for children, which are important criteria for young families when deciding to settle in the area.
Assignments for the students

Aims and outcomes of the Summer School and its relation to the BR

The overall requirements were using regional resources in terms of construction material as well as regional products and handicrafts. The spirit of the BR should be invoked by including the needs of local stakeholders in the S. Matscher planning processes and strengthening the regional economy. The assignments were planned in cooperation with the mayors and community representatives. Students could work on eleven very practical projects covering a wide spectrum of themes: a BR centre is needed for the offices of the BR management, for raising awareness among the local community and as portal for the visitors to the BR. Mobility is a problematic topic in Lungau as the main means of transport is the private car. A sustainable, efficient public transport system is needed, therefore one group tried to find solutions for improving the current mobility situation. Another group worked on the concept how empty mountain huts might be used, while a third group tried to find a way to educate people on the uniqueness and special features of the Natura 2000 area Seetaler See, which includes Austrias biggest quaking bog. Additional topics included the renaturation of the Thomatalerbach by implementing a local recreation area and an Ornithological Research Centre planned in Lungau. New life in old walls was the theme for five groups in different communities who were looking for new ways of utilizing old, beautiful but empty buildings with great significance for the relevant community.

Some of the presented projects were realizable, at least in part, while others covered very visionary concepts way beyond the community budget. The students dealt with the topics during very intense three weeks and offered their ideas to the local communities and their mayors. These ideas can be seen as a starting point for discussions, further visions and for raising awareness in the community that it is their turn to change and construct places and meeting spaces. The students had not been to Lungau before and valued the calm area, its scenic beauty, intact refugium and undisturbed privacy, which are often no longer noticed by the local people. They tried to involve as many local opinions as possible in their projects within their short period of information gathering. Students entered the BR with the view of outsiders and were able to obtain answers on sensitive questions that insiders would never have dared to ask. This innocent approach was probably new to the inhabitants, but it might encourage them to get involved and trigger a more do-it-yourself mentality in regional development. Over decades inhabitants were meant to leave all tasks to the local authority, but a new paradigm needs to be evolved. Power structures are changing, which is welcomed by the local authorities. Communities dont have the money to care for everything and rely more and more on active, dedicated inhabitants. This helps to strengthen the local communities and their social capital. In 1995 the landscape conservation area Seetaler See in Tamsweg was designated a Natura 2000 area following the FFH directive. As one of the most demanding conservation sites in Austria, Seetaler See is part of the core zone in Salzburger Lungau BR. The moor lake and its 500m shore area hosts a unique flora and fauna. It is especially valuable as Austrias biggest quaking bog and includes significant ecosystems in good conditions, like creeping pine peat bogs and extensively mowed calcareous grasslands. In the European and international context, the lake and its moor are an extraordinary place for discovering rare plants and microflora, though in the regional context only few people know about its existence and importance. In order to protect the area for the future the students task was to design a concept for using this invaluable area: A SWOT analysis made clear that the requirements of the Natura 2000 area are inalienable and rising awareness is a major issue in their project. They came up with an interactive nature trail for children between six and twelve years. Blackboards communicate an appreciation of these unique ecosystems. In a playful manner with interactive nature games children are given an understanding of the characteristics of the
Project Seetaler See

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area. The trail might be used for guided tours, individual visitors or by local schools as a green classroom.The information boards tell an exciting story about Ricki the sheep who is bored of its life in the countryside and goes on an adventure trip. Along the way C. Stretz it passes various stations where it meets desmids and the Northern Emerald, who tell Ricki about the treasure of the Seetaler See. Its the natures treasure children should become aware of in a cheerful way. The architectural approach provides a barrier-free trail with bridges, overhead crossings and viewing platforms which invite the visitors to linger in the natural scenery without harming the sensitive ecosystem. With this interactive nature trail the beauty and the value of the area might be actively experienced and it offers an opportunity for knowledge transfer within the BR while ensuring the protection of the sensitive ecosystem.
Personal impressions and what the students took home

P. Vesely with very frank mayors on the one hand, while discovering the hidden agenda of some scientists on the other. These were lessons with great significance for our future lives as professionals, which cannot be taught within the safe theoretical context of the universities. Another very important lesson was working in interdisciplinary small groups. This created problems nobody had thought about beforehand, for example appreciating the work spent on architectural construction programmes. Someone who has never worked on it cannot imagine how many hours you may spend on it. Nevertheless, every student tried to give his/her best and bring in their field of expertise. It was amazing to experience the process of understanding within the small groups, which were very heterogeneous in terms of disciplines. Unfortunately working interdisciplinarily seems to be easier for students than for researchers and scientists. Some behaved like top dogs and left no space for any other opinion or approach, while the students managed to give their most feasible input to be used for a positive outcome of their projects. Some advisors, who spent the whole three weeks with the students, had the challenging task of keeping them motivated and combating various frustration levels. The students greatly appreciated this kind of support and assistance. What interdisciplinary work needs is a group of people who are open to new ideas and who allow other opinions than those of their known field. It needs humanity, respect on a personal level and openness for other disciplines. Its necessary to appreciate a persons knowledge and work in this other discipline. The students had to find out in the small groups what their strengths were and how they might plan their project in a way that employed all their skills as a team. And all this to be achieved within three weeks!!! The excellent sessions in the mornings, conducted by external lecturers, gave students an insight into other fields and various practical and unconventional ways of implementation in their own disciplines.

Three weeks are nowhere near enough time to become a regional expert and come up with final cost calculations of restoration plans for vacant historic build S. Matscher ings, this would be quite unrealistic. Nevertheless, some students tried to do just that, worked through nights and ended up with signs of exhaustion. The Summer University was an outstanding opportunity for students to work on real-life items and issues in great contrast to the theoretical approaches common at the universities. Their enthusiasm was fed by the possibility of their projects actually being realized. Even so, three weeks are enough to get an idea of the problems faced in the region. The students coming from other places than Lungau had a very openminded approach to the problems and tasks offered by the summer school, which was seen as a huge advantage. Many students managed the way to Tamsweg via public transport and experienced first-hand the deficits of the present mobility system. They had a healthy disregard for political allegencies and developed quite unbiased concepts. They offered ideas and its up to the local communities to pick out the parts they want to work on. Yet students are not immune to being influenced and I would critically question the interests of some advisors. Nevertheless, the students operated critically enough. For them it was a golden opportunity to experience the structures of regional politics in conversation

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Overall impression and outlook

Author Heidi Humer-Gruber

The students were welcomed by the mayors with great expectations and overwhelming excitement about having the graduates in town. With this enthusiasm and motivation, I hope the Summer School in Lungau will be held again in years to come. Students gained a practical insight into regional politics and regional development. They learned lessons which are not taught at universities but essential in working lives. They also took home great impressions from the BR and will spread the word about the beauty of the area and the welcoming people they met there. What happens with their projects remains to be seen, but some might be realized and this would be a great honour for the students.
References

Institut for Interdisciplinary Mountain Research, Austrian Academy of Sciences, Technikerstr. 21a, 6020 Innsbruck. Contact: heidihg@gmx.at

Fuchshofer, R., K. Eckstein & M. Wullner 2001. Heidi wohnt hier nicht mehr. Zur Abwanderung des autochthonen kreativen und innovativen Potentials aus dem lndlichen Raum. Eine sozialwissenschaftliche Analyse zur Situation im EU Ziel 2 Gebiet Lungau und Lsungsanstze zur Aktivierung des internen Innovationspotentials. Projekt des Jubilumsfonds der sterreichischen Nationalbank Nr. 8347. Projektbericht. Available at: http://www.stadtlandberg.at/heidi/index.htm (accessed 27/08/2013)