Pedro M.

Rosario Barbosa

La Filosofa de Karl Popper

Introduccin

La filosofa de Karl Popper: Introduccin (v. 0.1)

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4ndice

Captulo 1 Biografa de Karl Popper ....................................................................................1 Captulo 2 El Empirismo Lgico ..................................................................................................5 Recha/o 4ilos)&ico al Psicologis!o.............................................................................................................5 Bertrand Russell ,%obre el Denotar-...........................................................................................................< *l =oven 0ud6ig >ittgenstein$ el Tractatus............................................................................................? 0os 1o!ien/os del *!piris!o 0)gico.......................................................................................................@ 0a An&luencia de Russell >ittgenstein....................................................................................................B Rudol& 1arnap.................................................................................................................................................B 4racaso del *!piris!o 0)gico...................................................................................................................10 Captulo 3 La Propuesta de Popper: Conjeturas !efutaciones ....................1C *l Proble!a de la Anducci)n$ 0a *spina de Du!e................................................................................1C 1r+tica al Psicologis!o *piste!ol)gico...................................................................................................1E Psicolog+a del 1onoci!iento vs. 0)gica de Anvestigaci)n 1ient+&ica.................................................1? 3uevo 1riterio de De!arcaci)n$ %er 4alsable.......................................................................................1F G1u8l Debe ser la Me#or ;eor+a 1ient+&icaH............................................................................................C0 !eferencias ....................................................................................................................................................C1 4uentes Pri!arias.........................................................................................................................................C1 4uentes %ecundarias.....................................................................................................................................CC "p#ndice " Creati$e Commons "ttri%ution&'(are"li)e 3*+ ,nported License ..............................................................................................................................................................CE "p#ndice B -., /ree 0ocumentation License 1*3 .......................................................CF "p#ndice C -., -eneral Pu%lic License 3 ........................................................................55

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!aptulo 1 Bio3rafa de Karl Popper

Iarl Rai!und Popper naci) en 9iena, la capital de Austria en 1B0C de &a!ilia #ud+a 'ue se hab+a convertido al cristianis!o. %e educ) ba#o la religi)n luterana se educ) en la Universidad gradual!ente de 9iena. *n 1B1B, se volvi) !ar7ista, se uni) a la Asociaci)n de *studiantes de *scuela %ocialista al Partido de :breros %ocialJDe!)cratas. M8s tarde abandon) el ideal !ar7ista e!pe/) a adoptar los ideales de liberalis!o social. %u desilusi)n con el ideal !ar7ista &ue el !otivo principal por el 'ue Popper escribi) su obra La sociedad abierta y sus enemigos. Popper se doctor) en &iloso&+a en 1BCF, &ilos)&icas en el 1+rculo de 9iena trat) de integrarse a algunas discusiones

grupos 'ue ad!iraban a 0ud6ig >ittgenstein. De 1B50 a 1B55 publicar en 1B5E

co!o reacci)n al e!piris!o l)gico, escribi) una obra 'ue no se public) hasta 1B@B, titulada Los dos problemas fundamentales de la teora de conocimiento , la 'ue lleg) a editar de su carrera, ba#o el t+tulo$ La lgica de la investigacin cientfica. Ksta ser+a la obra &ilos)&ica !8s i!portante la 'ue estableci) los &unda!entos para el resto de su carrera &ilos)&ica. *n dicha la corriente obra .l critic) varias corrientes de la .poca, especial!ente el psicologis!o la posici)n inductivista del !.todo cient+&ico. M8s adelante, con el surgi!iento del nacionalJsocialis!o en Ale!ania, Popper e!igr) a 3ueva Lelanda donde enseM) por algunos aMos. 0uego se !ud) a 2ran BretaMa en la *scuela de *cono!+a de 0ondres. M8s adelante, en 1BEB, se volvi) pro&esor de l)gica !ie!bro de la %ociedad Real en 1B@<. Durante su carrera acad.!ica, a"n despu.s de 'ue se retir) en 1B?B, Popper se !antuvo de !.todo cient+&ico &ue en la Universidad de 0ondres. %e le otorg) el t+tulo de ,%ir- por la Reina Asabel AA en 1B?<,

inductivista pro!ovida por el e!piris!o l)gico. *sa obra propuso la &alsaci)n co!o alternativa a

activo elaborando su &iloso&+a hasta su !uerte en 1BBE. De a'u+ algunas de sus otras obras !8s i!portantes$

C La pobreza del historicismo (1B5E) La teora de los cuantos y el cisma en la fsica (1B<?J<@) El universo abierto: un argumento para el indeterminismo (1B<?J<@) El realismo y la meta de la ciencia (1B<?J<@) on!eturas y refutaciones (1B?5) onocimiento ob!etivo: un acercamiento evolucionista (1B@C) El "yo# y su cerebro: un argumento por el interaccionismo (escrito #unto a =ohn *ccles) (1B@@) El mito del marco: en defensa de las ciencias y la racionalidad (1BBE) El conocimiento y el problema mente$cuerpo: en defensa de la interaccin (1BBE)

!aptulo 20 5l 5#piris#o L3ico

Rec'a6o Filosfico al Psicolo3is#o
0a obra !aestra de Iant, La crtica de la razn pura (1@F@), in&lu ) signi&icativa!ente en el pensa!iento de la &iloso&+a del siglo NAN. Dubo dos tendencias &ilos)&icas 'ue predo!inaron en el panora!a &ilos)&ico del !o!ento. *l pri!ero era una tendencia 'ue elaboraba una !eta&+sica especulativa 'ue pretend+a superar la distinci)n Oantiana entre &en)!eno n)!eno seg"n planteada por Iant. A esta corriente se le conoci) co!o ,idealis!o ale!8n-, cu a &igura cu!bre &ue 2. >. 4. Degel. 0a segunda, segu+a la parte !8s cient+&ica de La crtica, en la 'ue se investigaban las &acultades !entales 'ue hac+an posible el conoci!iento del !undo e7terno, ade!8s del conoci!iento l)gico !ate!8tico.

*sta segunda corriente consider) a La crtica co!o una respuesta a los lla!ados e!piristas ingleses. =ohn 0ocOe, 2orge BerOele David Du!e hicieron una investigaci)n psicol)gica del conoci!iento hu!ano, !u en l+nea con algo de esp+ritu cartesiano, pero en contra de Ren. Descartes. 0ocOe en particular, a&ir!) 'ue todo conocimiento del mundo era fundamentalmente conocimiento de ideas (en el sentido psicol)gico). 1on ese plantea!iento surge el ,psicologismo-. Por ,psicologis!o- se entiende toda una variedad de doctrinas =ohn %tuart Mill &ue el &il)so&o !8s destacado entre los la l)gica a un e7tre!o. &ilos)&icas 'ue tienen en co!"n la reducci)n de varios ca!pos del saber a operaciones o representaciones psicol)gicas. psicologistas por llevar su concepci)n de las !ate!8ticas

A'u+ distinguir. tres tipos de psicologis!os, dependiendo del ca!po al 'ue se reduce a la psicolog+a$ 1. Psicolo3is#o l3ico$ *ste psicologis!o considera a la l)gica co!o le es del ,recto pensar-. Por ende, la l)gica debe considerarse co!o una ra!a de la psicolog+a.

E 2. Psicolo3is#o #ate#7tico$ Kste considera a los n"!eros sensible. ). Psicolo3is#o episte#ol3ico$ Kste considera el conoci!iento del !undo en "lti!a instancia co!o conoci!iento de las ideas psicol)gicas abstra+das a partir de la e7periencia sensible. A &inales del siglo NAN principios del NN, los pri!eros dos psicologis!os &ueron blancos *d!und Dusserl. a otros ob#etos !ate!8ticos

co!o constructos o representaciones psicol)gicos o abstracciones de la e7periencia

de ata'ue de dos &il)so&os$ 2ottlob 4rege

De los dos &il)so&os, la re&utaci)n o&recida por Dusserl en sus Investigacions lgicas &ue la !8s contundente poderosa. Algunos consideraron su re&utaci)n co!o ,!e!orable-. Para los a7io!as l)gicos no pueden de las !ate!8ticas constitu en 4rege co!o para Dusserl, la valide/ de los principios &unda!entarse en la !ente hu!ana. 0as verdades de la l)gica

lo 'ue lla!aba David Du!e ,relacionesJdeJideas- ( relations$of$ideas), es decir, verdades cu a negaci)n i!plica necesaria!ente una contradicci)n, o #uicios anal+ticos seg"n de&inida por 4rege Dusserl respectiva!ente. Kstas verdades son a priori e i!plican necesidad l)gica. %in e!bargo, la psicolog+a es una ciencia e!p+rica, pertenece al 8!bito de los hechos ( matters$of$fact), cu a las !ate!8ticas son co!pleta!ente las !ate!8ticas son negaci)n no necesaria!ente i!plica una contradicci)n. ;odos nuestros conoci!ientos sobre hechos son s)lo probables, !ientras 'ue los de la l)gica certeros. Por esto, &unda!entar la l)gica por otras ra/ones, la psicolog+a, una ciencia vaga e i!precisa, no puede las !ate!8ticas. 0o 'ue s+ ocurre es 'ue la l)gica

&unda!ento a priori, no s)lo de la psicolog+a co!o ciencia, sino de todas las ciencias e!p+ricas. *sta cr+tica devastadora &ue ignorada por unos, pero llev) a otros a ca!biar de parecer en torno al curso de acci)n de varios &il)so&os de este tie!po. 4rege propuso utili/ar una especie de l)gica si!b)lica 'ue llevara a la &iloso&+a a ver los argu!entos !8s clara!ente, sin intrusi)n alguna de la psicolog+a. %in e!bargo, la conceptogra&+a (la si!bolog+a elaborada por 4rege) no era ideal para ese prop)sito. Dubo otros &il)so&os 'ue elaboraron una si!bolog+a !8s adecuada, tal co!o la propuesta de Boole o la de Bertrand Russell. *stas cr+ticas al psicologis!o llevaron a varios &il)so&os a co!prender algunas de las &la'ue/as de la &iloso&+a Oantiana, a"n ba#o la versi)n !odi&icada$ el neokantismo. 4rege Dusserl, 'uienes siguieron la l+nea de 0eibni/, Bernard Bol/ano Der!ann 0ot/e, re&utaron la

< tesis de 'ue las !ate!8ticas en general se consideran sint.ticas a priori, ale#8ndolas as+ de la l)gica. Ade!8s, los avances de la geo!etr+a noJeuclideana la geo!etr+a anal+tica hicieron 'ue 4inal!ente, los los noJeuclideana, el punto de vista Oantiano de la geo!etr+a ca era en la obsolecencia. plantea!ientos de Denri Poincar. con respecto a las geo!etr+as euclideana avances de las ciencias debido a la &or!ulaci)n de las teor+as especial

general de la relatividad

planteadas por *instein, hicieron 'ue la episte!olog+a de Iant ca era en crisis. Algunos &il)so&os pensaron 'ue era hora de volver a crear los &unda!entos &ilos)&icos para una verdadera teor+a del conoci!iento.

Bertrand Russell Sobre el Denotar

4rege tuvo su i!pacto en la &iloso&+a del lengua#e, especial!ente gracias a su ensa o ,%obre sentido re&erente-. %in e!bargo, dicho ensa o de#) en !uchos un !al sabor debido al realis!o lingP+stico por el 'ue abogaba, al concebir a los sentidos (signi&icados) co!o entidades abstractas, pero reales. Bertrand Russell recha/aba este platonis!o &regeano, a 'ue sostuvo un punto de vista &isicalista, aun'ue ta!bi.n antipsicologista. *n 1B0<, Russell escribi) un ensa o 'ue in&luir+a la &iloso&+a del lengua#e hasta ho d+a titulado ,%obre el denotar- (%n &enoting). 0a ra/)n de ser de esta obra era buscar la !anera de darle la vuelta a los sentidos de tal !anera 'ue las &rases denotantes (,la estrella de la !aMana-, ,el derrotado en >aterloo-) se re&ierieran de !anera directa a los ob#eto 'ue denotan, sin 'ue los sentidos o los signi&icados #ueguen un rol en la l)gica ni la se!8ntica. Aun'ue su l+nea de argu!entaci)n es un tanto con&usa, debido a 'ue con&unde a los plantea!ientos de 4rege de Meinong, Russell consigue en su ensa o un triun&o parcial. 3o discutire!os el ensa o con lu#o de detalles, sino a'uello 'ue es pertinente para nuestro te!a. Para Russell, ha dos clases de conoci!iento$ Conocimieto por familiaridad ('no(ledge$by$ac)uaintance)$ consiste en a'u.l 'ue proviene de la e7periencia directa del !undo. Conocimiento por descripcin ('no(ledge$by$description)$ conoci!iento por &a!iliaridad. .ste consiste en a'uel este conoci!iento a los

conoci!iento 'ue proviene de descripciones a partir de lo 'ue conoce!os !ediante

? 1ontrario al conoci!iento por &a!iliaridad, el conoci!iento por descripci)n es conoci!iento indirecto, para co!prenderse tiene 'ue hacer re&erencia al conoci!iento directo. Por e#e!plo, si alguien nos dice 'ue tiene un dolor de cabe/a, no podre!os percibir de !anera directa su dolor de cabe/a, pero pode!os asociar su descripci)n del dolor de cabe/a con otras instancias 'ue la he!os tenido. Para esa persona, su e7periencia de dolor de cabe/a ser+a conoci!iento por &a!iliaridad, !ientras 'ue para nosotros ser+a conoci!iento por descripci)n. Ahora bien, !uchas de las &rases 'ue 4rege considera no!bres propios, Russell las considera &rases denotantes, o !8s bien descripciones definidas$ ,el re de 4rancia actual-, ,la estrella de la !aMana-, ,el vencedor en =ena-, ,el autor de *averley-. Uno de los argu!entos presentados por Russell en ,%obre el denotar- es 'ue estas descripciones de&inidas deben considerarse co!o una suerte de predicados necesitados de saturaci)n. ;odas las descripciones de&inidas son ,s+!bolos inco!pletos-, por as+ decirlo. De esta !anera, ,el autor de *averley- no e7presar+a un sentido o un signi&icado, sino !8s bien ser+a un signo (un s+!bolo) 'ue describe a un ob#eto particular$ %ir >alter %cott. ;o!e!os la &rase ,el autor de *averley- co!o un s+!bolo inco!pleto necesitado de saturaci)n de esta !anera$ ( ) es el autor de *averley. %i se rellenara el vac+o con %ir >alter %cott de esta !anera (%cott) es el autor de *averley. entonces dicha oraci)n ser+a verdadera. %i se rellenara el vac+o de esta !anera (BaracO :ba!a) es el autor de *averley. entonces ser+a &alsa. De esta !anera se pueden utili/ar descripciones 'ue son de por s+ signi&icativas, pero no per!itir+an ser sentidos o signi&icados por s+ solos, cosa 'ue .l repudiaba del platonis!o.

El Joven Lud ig !ittgenstein" el 8ractatus

0ud6ig =oseph =ohan >ittgenstein, un #oven &il)so&o austriaco relativa!ente desconocido, &ue disc+pulo tanto de 4rege co!o de Russell, su &iloso&+a inclu e aspectos de la &iloso&+a de a!bos, aun'ue tuvo sus !arcadas di&erencias. >ittgenstein adopt) de 4rege el principio de conte#to$ nunca considerar el signi&icado aislado de una palabra sino seg"n se in&iere a partir del

@ conte7to en 'ue aparece. %u pri!era obra era el Tractatus Logico$Philosophicus, en la 'ue .l hac+a un alegato !u !odesto$ con el Tractatus se resuelven todos los proble!as de la &iloso&+a. Acto seguido procede a organi/ar toda una serie de a&oris!os$ 1. *l !undo es todo lo 'ue es el caso. 1.1 *l !undo es la totalidad de los hechos, no de las cosas. 1.11 hechos. 1.1C 0a totalidad de los hechos deter!ina lo 'ue es el caso, ta!bi.n lo *l !undo est8 deter!inado por los hechos, por su ser todos los

'ue no es el caso. 1.15 1.C C. 0os hechos en el espacio l)gico son el !undo

*l !undo se divide en hechos.

0o 'ue es el caso Qun hechoQ es la e7istencia de estadosJdeJcosas. C.01 Un estadoJdeJcosas es una co!binaci)n de ob#etos.

... Ahora bien, en este escrito co!puesto de a&oris!os, algunos de ellos cr+pticos, >ittgenstein argu!enta 'ue ha proble!as &ilos)&icos genuinos, pseudoJproble!as. 0os proble!as &ilos)&icos genuinos son a'u.llos 'ue tienen 'ue ver con los estadosJdeJcosas actuales en el !undo. *stos proble!as tienen sentido, !ientras 'ue los otros son un sin$sentido. De acuerdo con >ittgenstein, el proble!a de la &iloso&+a es 'ue &recuente!ente se ha de#ado do!inar por pseudoJproble!as, proble!as !eta&+sicos, proble!as sinJsentido. 0as ciencias son las 'ue se ocupan de los hechos del !undo. *l proceder correcto de la &iloso&+a es el no hablar e7cepto de lo 'ue se puede decir algo (las proposiciones de las cienciass naturales). ;odos los de!8s proble!as, co!o los de la !eta&+sica deber+a!os hablar de ellos. de la .tica, son pseudoJproble!as, no

Los Comien$os del Empirismo Lgico

1o!o he!os seMalado, debido a los grandes ca!bios en la &iloso&+a las ciencias, !uchos &il)so&os vieron la necesidad de reconstruir las bases &ilos)&icas para una teor+a de conoci!iento

F viable. 0os escritos de 4rege de Russell in&lu eron para 'ue se sentaran las bases l)gicas la

se!8nticas de una episte!olog+a de las ciencias naturales 'ue sustitu era la &iloso&+a Oantiana

neoOantiana. Al !is!o tie!po, dicha episte!olog+a deb+a erradicar los ele!entos !eta&+sicos especulativos en los 'ue ca ) gran parte de la &iloso&+a gracias al idealis!o ale!8n, particular!ente a Degel. *l pri!er libro en torno a dicho pro ecto &ue Teora general del conocimiento de Morit/ %chlicO (1B1F). A pesar de no estar bien &or!ado en l)gica, .l a&ir!aba en el libro 'ue hab+a necesidad de establecer una distinci)n entre una &iloso&+a genuina 'ue &uera base del conoci!iento l)gica las pseudoJ&iloso&+as. *n gran !edida, en un esp+ritu noJplatonista pero antipsicologista, e in&luido por la &iloso&+a del !ate!8tico Denri Poincar., .l a&ir!aba 'ue la las !ate!8ticas deb+an ser convenciones 'ue deb+an sentar las bases de las ciencias 0as aserciones de las ciencias naturales deb+an ser l)gica Ah+ 'ueda descartada toda &iloso&+a !eta&+sica !ate!8tica!ente naturales. del !undo. conoci!iento. :tro &il)so&o 'ue ta!bi.n traba#) e7tensa!ente en torno a este !is!o proble!a &ue Dans Reichenbach en su libro La teora de la relatividad y el conocimiento a priori (1BC0). All+ critic) e7tensa!ente la &iloso&+a Oantiana postul) la necesidad de crear unas nuevas bases del general de la conoci!iento cient+&ico a la lu/ de los nuevos descubri!ientos de la teor+a especial

consistentes, !ientras 'ue todo lo re&erente a los hechos deb+a ser contrastado con la e7periencia se garanti/ar+a el verdadero

relatividad de *instein. Para Reichenbach, s)lo pueden e7istir las proposiciones anal+ticas a priori o sint.ticas a posteriori, pero se descarta la clasi&icaci)n Oantiana de proposiciones sint.ticas a priori. Reichenbach estableci) una distinci)n entre$ $9io#as de !oordinacin$ Reglas generales adoptadas convencional!ente por las 'ue se &unda!entan las le es !ate!8ticas, las teor+as cient+&icas. Kstas inclu en las reglas l)gicas los conceptos !8s &unda!entales de las ciencias.

$9io#as de !one9in$ *stas reglas utili/an los a7io!as de coordinaci)n para ,conectarunas variables con otras, cosa 'ue ocurre tanto con la &+sica ne6toniana con las teor+as de la relatividad de *instein. 1on el prop)sito de establecer una labor &ilos)&ica e!pirista, Morit/ %chlicO cre) el

1+rculo de 9iena, !ientras 'ue Dans Reichenbach estableci) la *scuela de Berl+n. *l !ovi!iento

B &ilos)&ico 'ue caracteri/) a!bas organi/aciones se conoci) con los no!bres , positivismo lgicoo ,empirismo lgico-.

La %nfluencia de Russell & !ittgenstein

*n la .poca te!prana, el e!piris!o l)gico recibi) la in&luencia de Bertrand Russell, especial!ente de su ensa o ,%obre el denotarAde!8s, A. 3. >hitehead obras se!e#antes 'ue .l escribi) durante su vida. Bertrand Russell hab+an desarrollado una notaci)n l)gica !ucho !8s

viable 'ue la de 4rege, e intentaron utili/arla para un pro ecto logicista !8s a!bicioso. *llos dos publicaron una obra titulada Principia +athematica (1B10J1B15, segunda edici)n 1BCF) en la 'ue 'uisieron de!ostrar 'ue todas las !ate!8ticas pueden derivarse de la l)gica de pri!er orden. *l e!piris!o l)gico tuvo en cuenta tanto la se!8ntica russelliana en la 'ue se descartaban los signi&icados co!o entes aislados, investigaciones l)gicas. %in e!bargo, &ue el Tractatus de >ittgenstein, el 'ue in&lu ) !8s en torno a dicho !ovi!iento. Uno de los proble!as del e!piris!o l)gico era el del lla!ado problema de demarcacin$ Gc)!o se puede deter!inar 'u. es !eta&+sica o pseudoJciencia 0a obra de >ittgenstein estableci) el criterio. &iloso&+a de >ittgenstein el resto de su vida. religiosa!ente 6ittgensteiniano una ve/ le ) el Tractatus, 'u. es cienciaH %chlicO, para todos los e&ectos, se volvi) para todos los e&ectos respald) la a la !is!a ve/ adoptaron esta nueva notaci)n para sus

Rudolf Carnap
:tra &igura 'ue in&lu ) en el positivis!o l)gico &ue Rudol& 1arnap. *n sus pri!eras obras &ilos)&icas estuvo &uerte!ente in&luido por la &iloso&+a husserliana, aun'ue tradicional!ente se le ha asociado con el neoOantis!o. %in e!bargo, en su obra El espacio .l utili/a la &eno!enolog+a la ter!inolog+a de Dusserl e7tensa!ente para &or#ar su &iloso&+a sobre los espacios !ate!8ticos el &+sico para &unda!entar episte!ol)gica!ente la teor+a general de la relatividad. M8s adelante, en La estructura lgica del mundo, .l utili/) la &eno!enolog+a de Dusserl #unto a la l)gica &or!al seg"n desarrollada por >hitehead episte!ol)gica del !undo. Russell para &or#ar su propia teor+a de otras Pode!os ver clara!ente 'ue us) el concepto de constituci)n

#er8r'uica, la reducci)n &eno!enol)gica ( epo!,), la noci)n de constituci)n del , o-

10 conciencias. *l 1arnap te!prano ten+a poco de neoOantis!o !ucho de &eno!enolog+a

husserliana. Ancluso, en una obra posterior, cuando abandon) casi toda su &iloso&+a anterior (inclu endo la in&luencia husserliana), aparece la distinci)n carnapiana entre le es de &or!aci)n le es de trans&or!aci)n en la l)gica &or!al, 'ue son esencial!ente la distinci)n husserliana entre reglas para evitar el sinJsentido las reglas para evitar el contraJsentido. debido a la rivalidad 'ue hab+a entre

A"n as+, 1arnap se uni) al 1+rculo de 9iena, %chlicO neoOantis!o.

Dusserl, 1arnap escondi) la in&luencia de Dusserl en su obra, la dis&ra/) de

Kl ta!bi.n &ue in&luido por la &iloso&+a de >ittgenstein, se ale#) del ideal de la &eno!enolog+a co!o ciencia e7acta

en gran !edida la adopt). %u

est+!ulo para recha/ar ta#ante!ente la !eta&+sica provino de la obra de Martin Deidegger, 'uien ca ) en la !eta&+sica especulativa. Deidegger es 'ue abusan del con sentido son *n su ensa o ,0a eli!inaci)n de la !eta&+sica !ediante un an8lisis l)gico del lengua#e-, 1arnap a&ir!) 'ue el proble!a de &il)so&os especulativos tales co!o Degel lengua#e, especial!ente !ediante el uso de palabras 'ue no tienen signi&icado o sentido alguno. %iguiendo el ra/ona!iento de >ittgenstein, los "nicos proble!as genuinos de signi&icado. a'u.llos planteados por las ciencias naturales. 0os plantea!ientos !eta&+sicos son todos carentes

'racaso del Empirismo Lgico

Dubo varios &actores 'ue contribu eron a 'ue &inali/ara el e!piris!o l)gico. Uno de ellos &ue sociol)gico. *l incre!ento del poder del nacionalJsocialis!o en Ale!ania llev) a los !ie!bros del e!piris!o l)gico al e7ilio, por'ue la !a or parte de ellos eran #ud+os. De hecho, algunos de los e!piristas l)gicos estaban !otivados por un esp+ritu antiJ3a/i, por'ue cre+an &ir!e!ente 'ue una vida intelectual 'ue aspirara a la claridad de pensa!iento pod+a ser resistencia a cual'uier gobierno opresor basado en la de!agogia. *sto no &ue algo 'ue le gust) !ucho al gobierno 3a/i. 0os ata'ues de 1arnap a Deidegger tienen algo 'ue ver con este asunto, a 'ue Deidegger se asoci) con el ;ercer Reich. A"n as+, este &actor no lo &ue todo. >ittgenstein se dio cuenta de 'ue, contrario a lo 'ue a&ir!) en el Tractatus, los proble!as de la &iloso&+a todav+a continuaban. ;a!bi.n hab+a ca!biado de posici)n &ilos)&ica a una en la 'ue los proble!as genuinos de la &iloso&+a son los del lengua#e. %in e!bargo, >ittgenstein

11 continuaba pensando 'ue los proble!as !eta&+sicos son esencial!ente pseudoproble!as. Kl segu+a concibiendo a los signi&icados de !anera noJplat)nica, ellos s)lo tienen valide/ (#unto a la l)gica !antuvo su convicci)n de 'ue a las !ate!8ticas) si .stos son se!8ntica!ente "tiles.

Desa&ortunada!ente, entre los lla!ados ,pseudoproble!as- segu+an encontr8ndose los proble!as .ticos, los proble!as en cuanto a proble!as de las !ate!8ticas, entre otros. Una ve/ recha/a!os la !eta&+sica desde el principio, he!os de preguntarnos por 'u. deber+a!os todos adoptar la posici)n e!pirista l)gica recha/ar la !eta&+sica. *sta !is!a pregunta s)lo la puede contestar la !eta&+sica. As+ 'ue el e!piris!o l)gico 'ueda en "lti!a instancia in#usti&icado. Kste no es capa/ de #usti&icarse a s+ !is!o, por'ue cual'uier #usti&icaci)n &ilos)&ica ser+a por de&inici)n !eta&+sica.. *ste recha/o ta#ante a la !eta&+sica, a cual)uier !eta&+sica, lleva al e!piris!o l)gico a un calle#)n sin salida, a 'ue se le hace i!posible #usti&icar su posici)n. Morit/ %chlicO, por e#e!plo, reconoci) 'ue ba#o el e!piris!o l)gico es i!posible #usti&icar a&ir!aciones universales sobre la realidad, por lo tanto las le&es naturales (uedan irremediablemente rec)a$adas . As+ 'ue !eta&+sica a la e!piris!o l)gico har+a 'ue las le es el criterio de de!arcaci)n entre ciencia 'u+!ica

naturales 'ueden e7cluidas de la ciencia, , por ende, ser+a costosa para la &+sica, la biolog+a, la todas las de!8s ciencias. Dabr+a 'ue ,destruir la villa para salvarla-.

*sto se debe en parte a 'ue la induccin deter!ina el criterio de de!arcaci)n. 0a inducci)n consiste en partir de diversos eventos de la e7periencia para abstraer de ellos llegar a le es generales. *l proble!a con la inducci)n es 'ue nuestra e7periencia es sola!ente parcial, nunca universal. *s decir, nosotros pode!os ver 'ue dos ob#etos son a&ectados por la &uer/a gravitacional, pero no pode!os e7peri!entar universalmente las le es universales de gravitaci)n. Por ende, es sencilla!ente i!posible #usti&icar le es universales a partir de e7periencias particulares. 4inal!ente, Dans Reichenbach !encion) un proble!a serio con la dependencia en la inducci)n$ es i!posible proveer una teor+a del conoci!iento &undada en la inducci)n !ientras los argu!entos de David Du!e contra la inducci)n no &ueran superados. Kste &ue uno de los blancos utili/ados por Iarl Popper, 'uien &ue uno de los &il)so&os 'ue contribu ) a &inali/ar ese pro ecto.

1C

!aptulo ) La Propuesta de Popper0 !on/eturas . Refutaciones

El *roblema de la %nduccin" La Espina de +ume
Iarl Popper estaba !u &a!iliari/ado con la obra de David Du!e, !u especial!ente Investigaciones concernientes al entendimiento humano donde .l discute el proble!a de la inducci)n a &ondo. Du!e establece la di&erencia entre relacionesJdeJideas proposiciones anal+ticas hechos ( matters$of$fact), 'ue s)lo se pueden s)lo pueden

ser+an para Popper los !is!os criterios para establecer su distinci)n se!8ntica entre sint.ticas. 0as pri!eras son l)gica!ente necesarias descubrirse por v+a racional ( a priori), !ientras 'ue las segundas son contingentes

descubrirse por la e7periencia ( a posteriori). %i se negara una verdad del 8!bito de relaci)nesJdeJ ideas, se obtendr+a auto!8tica!ente una contradicci)n, no es as+ con respecto a las verdades de hechos. Ahora bien, la inducci)n es esencial!ente una generali/aci)n a partir de e7periencias particulares, ,predice- 'ue el &uturo ser8 co!o el pasado. Por e#e!plo, si he tenido un cierto n"!ero de e7periencias en las 'ue el pan !e nutre, in&iero 'ue en &uturas ocasiones en 'ue co!er. pan, .ste !e nutrir8. %i he tenido un n"!ero de e7periencias en las 'ue sale el sol por la !aMana, as+ ser8 sie!pre en el &uturo. :bvia!ente, ha algo !al en estas in&erencias. ;oda e7periencia pertenece al 8!bito de los hechos (matters$of$fact), lo 'ue 'uiere decir 'ue su negaci)n no necesaria!ente i!plica una contradicci)n. %i esto es as+, la in&erencia de 'ue el &uturo ser8 sie!pre co!o el pasado es un non$se)uitur. G1u8l ser+a pues la #usti&icaci)n l)gica para este tipo de creenciaH %i se

15 argu!entara 'ue esto es as+ por'ue cuando uno ve eventos se!e#antes en el pasado sie!pre ha sido as+ !8s tarde, entonces se cae en un c+rculo vicioso. *sta cr+tica &ue un golpe para la episte!olog+a ne6toniana, 'ue valoraba la inducci)n co!o el !ecanis!o para descubrir las le es de la &+sica, ,pro!eten- 'ue el &uturo sie!pre ser8 co!o el pasado. Popper valoraba esta cr+tica, pero 'uiso ir !8s all8. 1o!o he!os visto, el basar las ciencias en la inducci)n har+a 'ue las le es universales de las ciencias naturales de#en de tener valide/, 'ue a &in de cuentas ellas pertenecen al 8!bito hechos ( matters$of$fact) #usti&icaci)n l)gica alguna. De!arcar la !eta&+sica !8s preciado de las ciencias$ las le es cient+&icas. %in e!bargo, ha una &alacia !8s pro&unda involucrada en la lla!ada ,inducci)n'ue 'ue e7isten sin las ciencias de esta !anera ser+a sacri&icar lo para &or!ular las teor+as 'ue

Du!e nunca se percat) de ella. 0a inducci)n parte de la pre!isa de 'ue el pensa!iento cient+&ico co!ien/a con la observaci)n, para despu.s generali/ar. Popper nos da un e#e!plo para de!ostrar 'ue esta &or!a de concebir las ciencias es absurda$ Dace veinticinco aMos trat. de e7plicar esto a un grupo de estudiantes de &+sica en 9iena co!en/ando una clase con las siguientes instrucciones$ ,to!en papel l8pi/, observen cuidadosa!ente escriban lo 'ue han observado.Me preguntaron, por supuesto, )u, es lo 'ue o 'uer+a 'ue observaran.

*vidente!ente, la indicaci)n ,RobservenS- es absurda . . . 0a observaci)n sie!pre es selectiva. 3ecesita un ob#eto elegido, una tarea de&inida, un inter.s, un punto de vista o un proble!a.1 *n otras palabras, la observacin presupone un marco terico para poder ser posible . Por lo tanto, nunca se co!ien/a por la observaci)n, sino se empie$a por la teor,a . *s la teor+a la 'ue deter!ina lo 'ue debe!os observar, no es la observaci)n por s+ sola la 'ue nos per!ite &or!ular teor+as. Ancluso, a"n si 'uisi.ra!os a&ir!ar 'ue las le es cient+&icas son productos de la repetici)n constante de ciertos eventos, esta aseveraci)n se basa en la creencia de 'ue psicol)gica!ente pode!os inducir ciertos patrones. %in e!bargo, esta detecci)n de patrones supone una ,teor+a !ental- de 'ue estos patrones e7isten 0as repeticiones 'ue debe!os estar a la e7pectativa de dicha detecci)n. los patrones sie!pre lo son desde un cierto punto de vista, pero este punto de

vista presupone antes de 'ue pueda haber para nosotros alguna repetici)n o patr)n.

1E De a'u+ una de las !8s grandes contribuciones de la &iloso&+a de Popper$ no puede haber inducci)n, ni l)gica ni psicol)gica. Dice Popper$ 0a teor+a de las ideas innatas es absurda, creo( pero todo organis!o tiene reacciones o respuestas innatas, in!inentes. , entre .stas, respuestas adaptadas a sucesos Pode!os lla!ar a estas respuestas ,e7pectativas-, sin 'ue esto

i!pli'ue 'ue tales ,e7pectativas- sean conscientes. *l niMo reci.n nacido ,espera-, en ese sentido, ser ali!entado . . . Dada la estrecha relaci)n entre e7pectaci)n conoci!iento, hasta pode!os hablar, en un sentido todal!ente ra/onable, de ,conoci!iento innato-. *ste ,conoci!iento- no es, sin e!bargo v-lido a priori( una e7pectativa innata, por &uerte espec+&ica 'ue sea, puede ser e'uivocada. (*l !orir de ha!bre.) niMo reci.n nacido puede ser abandonado

As+,, nace!os con e7pectativas, con un ,conoci!iento- 'ue, aun'ue no es v-lido a priori, es psicolgica o gen,ticamente a priori, es decir, anterior a toda e7periencia observacional. Una de las !8s i!portantes de estas e7pectativas es la de hallar una regularidad. *st8 vinculada a una propensi)n innata a buscar regularidades o una necesidad de hallar regularidades, co!o pode!os verlo en el placer del niMo 'ue satis&ace esta necesidad.C *n otras palabras, el acerca!iento a las ciencias v+a la inducci)n es uno si!plista. %i la inducci)n es un !ito (en el sentido pe orativo de la palabra), entonces no puede ser &unda!ento para una l)gica de la investigaci)n cient+&ica.

Cr,tica al *sicologismo Epistemolgico

*n La lgica de la investigacin cientfica, Popper atac) el ,psicologis!o- al 'ue .l de&ini) de la siguiente !anera$ la doctrina de 'ue las a&ir!aciones pueden #usti&icarse no s)lo por otras a&ir!aciones sino ta!bi.n por la e7periencia perceptual. 5 *sto aparenta estar desasociado con la de&inici)n de ,psicologis!o episte!ol)gico- 'ue o&reci!os anterior!ente, pero no es as+. Al contrario, .l lo ve co!o una herencia del pensa!iento de los e!piristas ingleses. Popper ilustra el psicologis!o episte!ol)gico co!o una doctrina asociada a lo 'ue .l lla!a la doctrina cubo de la mente$

1<

Teora ubo de la +ente

%uponga!os 'ue la !ente es co!o un cubo 'ue se ,llena- o se ,acu!ula- a partir de sensaciones 'ue percibi!os gracias a los cinco sentidos representados en la ilustraci)n. Al recibir los datos sensoriales, descubri!os ciertas se!e#an/as en lo 'ue percibi!os, nos percata!os de la repetici)n de eventos, descubri!os ciertas reglas o le es. *s esta costu!bre la 'ue nos conduce a esperar regularidades. Una ve/ las encontra!os, esto #usti&ica nuestra creencia en le es regulares. As+ 'ue el conoci!iento contiene ideas 'ue son &or#adas a partir de las sensaciones. %in e!bargo, Popper no si!pati/a con este punto de vista de la !ente. De hecho, al igual 'ue 4rege Dusserl, .l desarrolla una teor+a antipsicologista de los signi&icados. Russell 'uiso del signo. eli!inar la concepci)n aut)no!a de los signi&icados, en 'ue se distinguen del ob#eto Popper los recupera. Aun'ue no sigue &iel!ente a 4rege, se inspira en .l. Kl establece la distinci)n entre signo, sentido re&erente. 3o est8 claro en Popper si un no!bre propio (Arist)teles, 3apole)n) tiene sentido o signi&icado, pero Popper parece i!plicar 'ue s+. Ahora bien, descripciones de&inidas co!o ,la estrella de la !aMana- o ,el derrotado en >aterloo- no se consideran no!bres propios en Popper. *l sentido de las descripciones de&inidas depende del signi&icado de cada una de las palabras en ellas. Ahora bien Popper tiene di&erencias con 4rege en cuanto al sentido Popper, el concepto es el sentido de un no!bre universal, concepto. 4inal!ente, Popper coincide con 4rege en decir 'ue el sentido de una oraci)n declarativa es un pensa!iento o una proposici)n, pero di&iere de .l en cuanto al re&erente. Para Popper, el re&erente de una oraci)n declarativa es un )ec)o. Un hecho, para .l, es se!e#ante a la noci)n de re&erente Para de no!bres universales (lo 'ue ser+a e'uivalente a las ,palabras conceptuales- de 4rege).

su re&erente es la e7tensi)n de

1? situaci)nJdeJcosas en Dusserl. Para .l, las proposiciones e7presadas por las oraciones ,Pedro es !a or 'ue Mar+a,Mar+a es !enor 'ue Pedro- se re&ieren a uno el !is!o hecho.

Pode!os resu!ir as+ la teor+a de sentido Signo Sentido Referente

:en sentido estricto;

re&erente en Popper$ ,o# re *ni"ersal 1oncepto *7tensi)n de 1oncepto <raciones -eclarati"as Pensa!iento, A&ir!aci)n o Proposici)n Decho

,o# re Propio

%entido de 3o!bre Propio :b#eto

4inal!ente, ha 'ue seMalar,, 'ue Popper se inspira en los traba#os de Al&red ;arsOi, e integra su de&inici)n de verdad a su se!8ntica. De acuerdo con la de&inici)n in&or!al de ;arsOi, una oraci)n es verdadera si .sta corresponde a un hecho. Por e#e!plo$ 0a proposici)n ,la nieve es blanca- es verdadera si entre una proposici)n si no es as+, entonces es &alsa. s)lo si la nieve es blanca. Para Popper, la verdad es una relaci)n un hecho. %i la proposici)n corresponde a un hecho, .sta es verdadera,

*sicolog,a del Conocimiento vs- Lgica de %nvestigacin Cient,fica

GPor 'u. este .n&asis en los sentidos o signi&icadosH Popper cree 'ue una de las grandes &allas del e!piris!o l)gico es la subesti!aci)n de los signi&icados, cuanto a la co!prensi)n de las ciencias. psicologis!o recordar a 4rege el e!piris!o l)gico. esto ha llevado a errores en Kste &ue uno de los errores 'ue co!parten el Una ve/ !8s, nos parece

*l .n&asis no deber+a ser en una ,psicolog+a del lo l)gico co!o principio para recuperar la

conoci!iento- sino en una lgica de la investigaci)n cient+&ica. su distinci)n entre lo psicol)gico ob#etividad de las verdades.

Un e#e!plo de c)!o el .n&asis en los signi&icados es !8s &ruct+&ero lo halla!os en toda la discusi)n en cuanto al psicologis!o la inducci)n. Desde la perspectiva de la psicolog+a del .sta a su ve/ se basa en la teor,a conoci!iento, la inducci)n es el !edio indispensable, veri&ican !8s las teor+as cient+&icas 'ue dan cuenta de .ste.

frecuencial de la probabilidad$ !ientras !8s veces ocurre un &en)!eno o un evento, se

1@ 0a lgica de la investigaci)n cient+&ica se centra !8s bien en una lgica de probabilidades (o c8lculo de probabilidades)$ una teor+a es me!or cuando es menos probable. *ste alegato parece descabellado si se !ira super&icial!ente, pero en realidad no. Por e#e!plo, va!os a to!ar estas variables para co!prender lo 'ue pasa$ a T la proposici)n ,el viernes llover8b T la proposici)n ,el s8bado har8 buen tie!poab T la proposici)n ,el viernes llover8 el s8bado har8 buen tie!po-

t T contenido (las consecuencias e!p+ricas, su signi&icado) p T probabilidad Pues, para Popper, una teor+a es !e#or si sus consecuencias e!p+ricas son !a ores, llevando a nivel de c8lculo a una !enor probabilidad$ t (a) U t(ab) V t(b) W p(a) V p(ab) U p(b) 0a probabilidad de 'ue a ocurra tiene un porcenta#e en principio, tiene un porcenta#e. Ahora bien, la teor+a ab, 'ue dice ,el viernes llover8 tie!po- tiene un !a or contenido (signi&icado) 'ue a 'ue ambas ocurran es menor. GPor 'u. este detalle es i!portanteH ;o!e!os, por e#e!plo, la teor+a &recuencial de las probabilidades apli'u.!osla a la gravedad. %i suelto un l8pi/ en !edio del aire, .ste deber+a esto es lo 'ue ocurre. ;rato una segunda, una ocurre e7acta!ente lo !is!o. Desde el punto de vista &recuencialista, Una teor+a !overse hacia el suelo. ;rato una pri!era ve/, tercera, una cuarta ve/, la probabilidad de 'ue por s+ !is!a el s8bado har8 buen

b ocurra tendr8 otro porciento. 1ada una de estas proposiciones considerada sola

b solas. %in e!bargo, la probabilidad de

!ientras !8s ocurre un evento, !8s se veri&ica la teor+a gravitacional de 3e6ton. %in e!bargo, ese procedi!iento ta!bi.n veri&ica la teor+a aristot.lica de la gravedad. X de 3e6ton.
X Para Arist)teles, un ob#eto se !ueve a su ,estado natural-. Por e#e!plo, los ob#etos s)lidos, co!o el l8pi/, se !ueven a su estado natural 'ue es el suelo.

&recuencialista no !e a udar+a en absoluto a decidir cu8l teor+a es !e#or, si la de Arist)teles o la

1F %i nos &i#a!os en el contenido l)gico (cone7i)n de signi&icados) de la teor+a (el n"!ero de consecuencias e!p+ricas), !e#or. nos acerca!os desde una perspectiva l)gica, s+ podre!os decidir Por e#e!plo, utili/a!os la nava#a de :cca!, X nos da!os cuenta de 'ue la teor+a

gravitacional de 3e6ton puede e7plicar todos los &en)!enos 'ue la teor+a aristot.lica da cuenta, !ucho !8s$ el !ovi!iento de las !areas, las )rbitas de los planetas, la )rbita de la luna, la presi)n gravitacional, la cine!8tica, entre otros. A su ve/, la teor+a de *instein puede e7plicar !e#or 'ue la de 3e6ton, a 'ue da cuenta de todos los &en)!enos e7plica 3e6ton, de ob#etos !asivos, as+ por el estilo. un poco !8s$ el ca!bio Doppler, la segunda parado#a de los ge!elos, la !anera 'ue la lu/ se a&ecta cerca

A'u+, pues, se le da la estocada &inal a la inducci)n co!o criterio para las ciencias$ 0a incucci)n generali/a, pero no e#plica. 0a inducci)n parte de la pre!isa 'ue lo pri!ero 'ue ocurre es sie!pre la observaci)n, 'ue la teor+a cient+&ica se &or#a despu.s. 0a realidad nos revela 'ue es a la inversa$ primero formamos unas teor,as acerca del mundo. & son ellas las (ue determinan lo (ue debemos observar. 0as teor,as son las 'ue establecen los proble!as cient+&icos, , bas8ndonos en ellas, lleva!os a cabo los e7peri!entos, !ediante los cuales lleva!os a cabo las observaciones para resolverlos.

/uevo Criterio de Demarcacin" Ser 'alsable

1o!o alternativa a la inducci)n, 'ue es de por s+ un !ito, Popper o&rece el !.todo de ,con#eturas,re&utaciones-. De acuerdo con .l, toda hip)tesis, teor+a o le cient+&ica es una con#etura postulada por un cient+&ico o la co!unidad cient+&ica. *l prop)sito de dichas con#eturas es e.plicar un &en)!eno, cosa 'ue nunca puede hacerse !ediante la inducci)n. Una ve/ se con#etura, esta hip)tesis, teor+a o le tiene 'ue ser puesta a prueba ( tested). G1)!o se pone a prueba una con#etura de este tipoH Mediante e7peri!entos. Por e#e!plo, cuando se e!pe/) a utili/ar la teor+a gravitacional de 3e6ton, los cient+&icos siguieron las le es postuladas por .sta para predecir el !ovi!ientos de los planetas descubiertos
X *l criterio de la nava#a de :cca! dice 'ue debe!os adoptar a'uella teor+a 'ue e7pli'ue el !a or n"!ero de consecuencias e!p+ricas con la teor+a !8s sencilla posible.

1B en esta .poca. %in e!bargo, ellos se dieron cuenta 'ue %aturno, el planeta !8s le#ano conocido entonces, se !ov+a de una !anera irregular con respecto a las le es de 3e6ton. 0os cient+&icos predi#eron 'ue esto se deb+a a la e7istencia de otro planeta 'ue todav+a no era detectable por los telescopios de la .poca. M8s adelante, tras escudriMar los &ir!a!entos con !e#ores telescopios, se dieron cuenta de 'ue s, e7iste ese planeta$ Urano. 0o !is!o ocurri) con Urano, su )rbita no se con&or!aba con las le es gravitacionales de 3e6ton, as+ 'ue postularon la e7istencia de otro planeta !asivo !8s le#ano del sol. *sto se corrobor) en el siglo NAN con el descubri!iento de 3eptuno. 1ada e7peri!ento, tanto !ediante la observaci)n del &ir!a!ento con un telescopio, co!o a'uel 'ue se lleva a cabo en el laboratorio, son intentos de re&utar o falsar una hip)tesis, teor+a o le cient+&ica, o un siste!a teor.tico. %i el e7peri!ento re&uta la con#etura en cuesti)n, entonces se dice 'ue la teor+a es falsada. %i la con#etura ,sobrevive- a !"ltiples intentos de &alsaci)n o re&utaci)n, se dice 'ue esa con#etura ha sido corroborada. Para Popper, ,corroborado- s)lo 'uiere decir 'ue la hip)tesis, teor+a o le sobrevivi) a intentos de &alsaci)n. Las teor,as 0am1s se verifican, no se pueden deter!inar de una ve/ &alsar. A veces se tienden a aMadir hip)tesis ad hoc para salvar una con#etura. *n tales casos, lo 'ue hace esa hip)tesis ad hoc es debilitar dicha con#etura en t.r!inos de la posibilidad de ser &alsada. %i se aMaden !uchas hip)tesis ad hoc a una teor+a, se corre el peligro de convertir dicha teor+a en una tesis metaf,sica, no una teor+a cient+&ica. %i una tesis !eta&+sica se presenta por alguien co!o una teor+a cient+&ica, entonces se considera pseudociencia. Ahora bien, sie!pre cabe la posibilidad de 'ue una tesis !eta&+sica se pueda convertir en una teor+a cient+&ica. 0a de!arcaci)n entre ciencia !eta&+sica no es ta#ante e in'uebrantable. Un e#e!plo de ello &ueron los 8to!os. Durante !8s de un !ilenio el ato!is!o no &ue otra cosa 'ue una teor+a !eta&+sica. %in e!bargo, =ohn Dalton &or!ul) su teor+a at)!ica co!o &or!a de resolver el proble!a de la calcinaci)n de !etales, &ue lo su&iciente!ente precisa co!o para llevar a cabo e7peri!entos en relaci)n con su e7istencia. :tros cient+&icos co!o Avogadro, 1anni/aro, ;ho!son, Bohr, entre otros, siguieron elaborando esta teor+a con alt+si!o nivel corroborativo. A pesar de todos los intentos genuinos de &alsaci)n, la teor+a at)!ica se sostiene ho &ir!e!ente. por todas si son verdaderas, s)lo se pueden

C0

2Cu1l Debe ser la 3e0or 4eor,a Cient,fica5

Para Popper, la !e#or teor+a cient+&ica sie!pre tendr8 las siguientes caracter+sticas$ 0a 'ue sea menos probable desde el punto de vista de la l)gica de las probabilidades. 0a 'ue sea !8s corroborada ha sido la 'ue !8s ha ,sobrevivido- a intentos de &alsaci)n.

0a 'ue tenga !a or valor predictivo. 0a 'ue se acer'ue !8s a la verdad debido a 'ue e7plica el !a or n"!ero de &en)!enos posible.

,otas Finales
1 Popper 1B?@, @CJ@5. C Popper 1B?@, @5J@E. 5 Popper 1B<B, B5.

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Referencias
Fuentes Pri#arias
Popper, Iarl. /ll Life is Problem 0olving1 1BBB. ;rad. PatricO 1a!iller. 0ondon$ Routledge, C000. . on!eturas y refutaciones: el desarrollo del conocimiento cientfico . ;rad.

3.stor M+gue/. 1B?@. Barcelona$ *diciones Paid)s, 1BBE. . El cuerpo y la mente. ;rad. :lga Do!+ngue/ %cheidereiter. Barcelona$ *diciones Paid)s, 1BB@. . The Logic of 0cientific &iscovery. 1B<B. 0ondon$ Routledge, 1BBB. . El mito del marco com2n: en defensa de la ciencia y la racionalidad . ;rad. Marco Aurelio 2al!arini. Barcelona$ Paid)s, 1BB@. . %b!ective Kno(ledge: an Evolutionary /pproach. 1B@C. :7&ord$

1larendon Press, 1B@B. . ,0a selecci)n natural el surgi!iento de la !ente.- Epistemologa

evolucionista. *ds. %ergio 4. Mart+ne/

0e)n :liv.. M.7ico$ Paid)s, 1BB@.

. La sociedad abierta y sus enemigos. ;rad. *duardo 0oedel. 1B<@. Barcelona$ *diciones Paid)s, 1BBF. . 3nended 4uest: an Intellectual /utobiography . 0ondon$ Routledge, C00C. Popper, Iarl =ohn 1. *ccles. The 0elf and its 5rain: an /rgument for Interactionism . 1BB0.

0ondon$ Routledge, C000. %chilpp, Paul Arthur (ed.). The Philosophy of Karl Popper. U%$ :pen 1ourt, 1B@E.

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Fuentes &ecundarias
A6ode , %teve 1arsten Ilein (eds.). arnap brought home: the 6ie( from 7ena . U%$ :pen 1ourt, C00E. 1arnap, Rudol&. ,;he *li!ination o& Metaph sics through 0ogical Anal sis o& 0anguage.-

Logical Positivism. *d. A. =. A er. 4ree Press, 1B<B$ ?0JF1. 1o&&a, =. Alberto. The 0emantic Tradition from Kant to arnap: to the 6ienna 0tation . 1BB1. UI$ 1a!bridge Universit Press, 1BBF. *instein, Albert. 0idelights on 8elativity. Dover, 1BF5. 4ernandes, %ergio 0. de 1. 9oundations of %b!ective Kno(ledge: the 8elations of Popper:s Theory of Kno(ledge to that of Kant. Dordreacht$ D. Reidel Publishing 1o!pan . 4ried!an, Michael. / Parting of the *ays: C000. . 8econsidering Logical Positivism. U%$ 1a!bridge Universit Press, 1BBB. 2illies, Donald. Philosophy of 0cience in the T(entieth entury: 9our entral Themes . :7&ord$ BlacO6ell, 1BB5. DintiOOa, =aaOOo. %n *ittgenstein. Australia$ >ads6orth, C000. Do6ard, Don. ,*instein, Iant, and the :rigins o& 0ogical *!piricis!-. Logic; Language and the 0tructure of 0cientific Theories. UniversitYtsverlag Inostan/ Du!e, David. En)uiries *d. >esle %al!on 2ereon >olters. 2er!an $ Universit o& Pittsburgh Press, 1BBE. oncerning the Principles of arnap; assirer; and <eidegger . U%$ :pen 1ourt,

oncerning <uman 3nderstanding and

+orals. :7&ord$ 1larendon Press, 1B@<. Dusserl, *d!und. Investigaciones lgicas. C vols. ;rads. Manuel 2arc+a Morente 1BFC. Madrid$ Alian/a *ditorial, 1BBB. Iant, A!!anuel. rtica de la razn pura. ;rad. Pedro Ribas. 1BBF. Madrid$ ;aurus, C00<. =os. 2aos.

Ire!er, Michael. ,;he Argu!ent o& Z:n DenotingZ.- The Philosophical 8evie(. 105. C. 1BBE$ CEBJ CB@. Miller, David. ritical 8ationalism: a 8estatement and &efence. U%$ :pen 1ourt, 1BBE.

C5 3otturno, MarO A!adeus. %b!ectivity; 8ationality and the Third 8ealm: 7ustification and the =rounds of Psychologism. Dordrecht$ Martinus 3i#ho&& Publishers, 1BF<. . 0cience and the %pen 0ociety: the 9uture of Karl Popper:s Philosophy . Dungar , U%$ 1entral *uropean Universit Press, C000. :ZDear, Anthon . Karl Popper. 0ondon$ Routledge [ Iegan Paul, 1BF0. :rti/ Dill, 1laire. *ord and %b!ect in <usserl; 9rege and 8ussell. U%$ :hio Universit Press, 1BB1. Poincar., Denri. 0cience and <ypothesis. Dover, 1B<C. Rosado DaddocO, 2uiller!o *. The >oung arnap:s 3n'no(n +aster: <usserl:s Influence on Der Rau! and Der logische Au&bau der >elt. U%$ Ashgate, C00F. Russell, Bertrand. ,:n Denoting.- +ind. 1E. <?. 1B0<$ E@BJEB5. %uppe, 4redericO (ed.). The 0tructure of 0cientific Theories. U%$ Universit o& Allinois Press, 1B@@. ;arsOi, Al&red. ,;he %e!antic 1onception o& ;ruth and the 4oundations o& %e!antics.-

Philosophy and Phenomenological 8esearch. E. 1BEE$ 5E1J@?. >ittgenstein, 0ud6ig. Philosophical Investigations. 1B<5. ;rad. 2. *. M. Ansco!be. U%$ BlacO6ell Publishers, 1B@@. . Tractatus Logico$Philosophicus. ;rad. =acobo MuMo/ e Asidoro Reguera. 1B@5. Madrid$ Alian/a *ditorial, 1BB@.

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;he above rights !a be e7ercised in all !edia and &or!ats 6hether no6 Ono6n or herea&ter devised. ;he above rights include the right to !aOe such !odi&ications as are technicall necessar to e7ercise the rights in other !edia and &or!ats. %ub#ect to %ection F(&), all rights not e7pressl granted b 0icensor are hereb reserved. E. Restrictions. ;he license granted in %ection 5 above is e7pressl !ade sub#ect to and li!ited b the &ollo6ing restrictions$ a. \ou !a Distribute or Publicl Per&or! the >orO onl under the ter!s o& this 0icense. \ou !ust include a cop o&, or the Uni&or! Resource Adenti&ier (URA) &or, this 0icense 6ith ever cop o& the >orO \ou Distribute or Publicl Per&or!. \ou !a not o&&er or i!pose an ter!s on the >orO that restrict the ter!s o& this 0icense or the abilit o& the recipient o& the >orO to e7ercise the rights granted to that recipient under the ter!s o& the 0icense. \ou !a not sublicense the >orO. \ou !ust Oeep intact all notices that re&er to this 0icense and to the disclai!er o& 6arranties 6ith ever cop o& the >orO \ou Distribute or Publicl Per&or!. >hen \ou Distribute or Publicl Per&or! the >orO, \ou !a not i!pose an e&&ective technological !easures on the >orO that restrict the abilit o& a recipient o& the >orO &ro! \ou to e7ercise the rights granted to that recipient under the ter!s o& the 0icense. ;his %ection E(a) applies to the >orO as incorporated in a 1ollection, but this does not re'uire the 1ollection apart &ro! the >orO itsel& to be !ade sub#ect to the ter!s o& this 0icense. A& \ou create a 1ollection, upon notice &ro! an 0icensor \ou !ust, to the e7tent practicable, re!ove &ro! the 1ollection an credit as re'uired b %ection E(c), as re'uested. A& \ou create an Adaptation, upon notice &ro! an 0icensor \ou !ust, to the e7tent practicable, re!ove &ro! the Adaptation an credit as re'uired b %ection E(c), as re'uested.

C?
b. \ou !a Distribute or Publicl Per&or! an Adaptation onl under the ter!s o&$ (i) this 0icense( (ii) a later version o& this 0icense 6ith the sa!e 0icense *le!ents as this 0icense( (iii) a 1reative 1o!!ons #urisdiction license (either this or a later license version) that contains the sa!e 0icense *le!ents as this 0icense (e.g., AttributionJ%hareAliOe 5.0 U%))( (iv) a 1reative 1o!!ons 1o!patible 0icense. A& ou license the Adaptation under one o& the licenses !entioned in (iv), ou !ust co!pl 6ith the ter!s o& that license. A& ou license the Adaptation under the ter!s o& an o& the licenses !entioned in (i), (ii) or (iii) (the ]Applicable 0icense]), ou !ust co!pl 6ith the ter!s o& the Applicable 0icense generall and the &ollo6ing provisions$ (A) \ou !ust include a cop o&, or the URA &or, the Applicable 0icense 6ith ever cop o& each Adaptation \ou Distribute or Publicl Per&or!( (AA) \ou !a not o&&er or i!pose an ter!s on the Adaptation that restrict the ter!s o& the Applicable 0icense or the abilit o& the recipient o& the Adaptation to e7ercise the rights granted to that recipient under the ter!s o& the Applicable 0icense( (AAA) \ou !ust Oeep intact all notices that re&er to the Applicable 0icense and to the disclai!er o& 6arranties 6ith ever cop o& the >orO as included in the Adaptation \ou Distribute or Publicl Per&or!( (A9) 6hen \ou Distribute or Publicl Per&or! the Adaptation, \ou !a not i!pose an e&&ective technological !easures on the Adaptation that restrict the abilit o& a recipient o& the Adaptation &ro! \ou to e7ercise the rights granted to that recipient under the ter!s o& the Applicable 0icense. ;his %ection E(b) applies to the Adaptation as incorporated in a 1ollection, but this does not re'uire the 1ollection apart &ro! the Adaptation itsel& to be !ade sub#ect to the ter!s o& the Applicable 0icense. A& \ou Distribute, or Publicl Per&or! the >orO or an Adaptations or 1ollections, \ou !ust, unless a re'uest has been !ade pursuant to %ection E(a), Oeep intact all cop right notices &or the >orO and provide, reasonable to the !ediu! or !eans \ou are utili/ing$ (i) the na!e o& the :riginal Author (or pseudon !, i& applicable) i& supplied, and^or i& the :riginal Author and^or 0icensor designate another part or parties (e.g., a sponsor institute, publishing entit , #ournal) &or attribution (]Attribution Parties]) in 0icensorZs cop right notice, ter!s o& service or b other reasonable !eans, the na!e o& such part or parties( (ii) the title o& the >orO i& supplied( (iii) to the e7tent reasonabl practicable, the URA, i& an , that 0icensor speci&ies to be associated 6ith the >orO, unless such URA does not re&er to the cop right notice or licensing in&or!ation &or the >orO( and (iv) , consistent 6ith %section 5(b), in the case o& an Adaptation, a credit identi& ing the use o& the >orO in the Adaptation (e.g., ]4rench translation o& the >orO b :riginal Author,] or ]%creenpla based on original >orO b :riginal Author]). ;he credit re'uired b this %ection E(c) !a be i!ple!ented in an reasonable !anner( provided, ho6ever, that in the case o& a Adaptation or 1ollection, at a !ini!u! such credit 6ill appear, i& a credit &or all contributing authors o& the Adaptation or 1ollection appears, then as part o& these credits and in a !anner at least as pro!inent as the credits &or the other contributing authors. 4or the avoidance o& doubt, \ou !a onl use the credit re'uired b this %ection &or the purpose o& attribution in the !anner set out above and, b e7ercising \our rights under this 0icense, \ou !a not i!plicitl or e7plicitl assert or i!pl an connection 6ith, sponsorship or endorse!ent b the :riginal Author, 0icensor and^or Attribution Parties, as appropriate, o& \ou or \our use o& the >orO, 6ithout the separate, e7press prior 6ritten per!ission o& the :riginal Author, 0icensor and^or Attribution Parties. *7cept as other6ise agreed in 6riting b the 0icensor or as !a be other6ise per!itted b applicable la6, i& \ou Reproduce, Distribute or Publicl Per&or! the >orO either b itsel& or as part o& an Adaptations or 1ollections, \ou !ust not distort, !utilate, !odi& or taOe other derogator action in relation to the >orO 6hich 6ould be pre#udicial to the :riginal AuthorZs honor or reputation. 0icensor agrees that in those #urisdictions (e.g. =apan), in 6hich an e7ercise o& the right granted in %ection 5(b) o& this 0icense (the right to !aOe Adaptations) 6ould be dee!ed to be a distortion, !utilation, !odi&ication or other derogator action pre#udicial to the :riginal AuthorZs honor and reputation, the 0icensor 6ill 6aive or not assert, as appropriate, this %ection, to the &ullest e7tent per!itted b the applicable national la6, to enable \ou to reasonabl e7ercise \our right under %ection 5(b) o& this 0icense (right to !aOe Adaptations) but not other6ise.

c.

d.

A.

Representations, ?arranties and -isclai#er U30*%% :;D*R>A%* MU;UA00\ A2R**D ;: B\ ;D* PAR;A*% A3 >RA;A32, 0A1*3%:R :44*R% ;D* >:RI A%JA% A3D MAI*% 3: R*PR*%*3;A;A:3% :R >ARRA3;A*% :4 A3\ IA3D 1:31*R3A32 ;D* >:RI, *NPR*%%, AMP0A*D, %;A;U;:R\ :R :;D*R>A%*, A310UDA32, >A;D:U; 0AMA;A;A:3, >ARRA3;A*% :4 ;A;0*, M*R1DA3;ABA0A;\, 4A;3*%% 4:R A PAR;A1U0AR PURP:%*, 3:3A34RA32*M*3;, :R ;D* AB%*31* :4 0A;*3; :R :;D*R D*4*1;%, A11URA1\, :R ;D* PR*%*31* :4 AB%*31* :4 *RR:R%, >D*;D*R :R 3:; DA%1:9*RAB0*. %:M* =URA%DA1;A:3% D: 3:; A00:> ;D* *N10U%A:3 :4 AMP0A*D >ARRA3;A*%, %: %U1D *N10U%A:3 MA\ 3:; APP0\ ;: \:U.

?.

Li#itation on Lia ilit.. *N1*P; ;: ;D* *N;*3; R*_UAR*D B\ APP0A1AB0* 0A>, A3 3: *9*3; >A00 0A1*3%:R B* 0AAB0* ;: \:U :3 A3\ 0*2A0 ;D*:R\ 4:R A3\ %P*1AA0, A31AD*3;A0, 1:3%*_U*3;AA0, PU3A;A9* :R *N*MP0AR\ DAMA2*% ARA%A32 :U; :4 ;DA% 0A1*3%* :R ;D* U%* :4 ;D* >:RI, *9*3 A4 0A1*3%:R DA% B**3 AD9A%*D :4 ;D* P:%%ABA0A;\ :4 %U1D DAMA2*%. 8er#ination a. ;his 0icense and the rights granted hereunder 6ill ter!inate auto!aticall upon an breach b \ou o& the ter!s o& this 0icense. Andividuals or entities 6ho have received Adaptations or 1ollections &ro! \ou under this 0icense, ho6ever, 6ill not have their licenses ter!inated provided such individuals or entities re!ain in &ull co!pliance 6ith those licenses. %ections 1, C, <, ?, @, and F 6ill survive an ter!ination o& this 0icense. %ub#ect to the above ter!s and conditions, the license granted here is perpetual (&or the duration o& the applicable cop right in the >orO). 3ot6ithstanding the above, 0icensor reserves the right to release the >orO under di&&erent license ter!s or to stop distributing the >orO at an ti!e( provided, ho6ever that an such election 6ill not serve to 6ithdra6 this 0icense (or an other license that has been, or is re'uired to be, granted under the ter!s o& this 0icense), and this 0icense 6ill continue in &ull &orce and e&&ect unless ter!inated as stated above.

B.

b.

C.

Miscellaneous a. b. *ach ti!e \ou Distribute or Publicl Per&or! the >orO or a 1ollection, the 0icensor o&&ers to the recipient a license to the >orO on the sa!e ter!s and conditions as the license granted to \ou under this 0icense. *ach ti!e \ou Distribute or Publicl Per&or! an Adaptation, 0icensor o&&ers to the recipient a license to the original >orO on the sa!e ter!s and conditions as the license granted to \ou under this 0icense.

C@
c. A& an provision o& this 0icense is invalid or unen&orceable under applicable la6, it shall not a&&ect the validit or en&orceabilit o& the re!ainder o& the ter!s o& this 0icense, and 6ithout &urther action b the parties to this agree!ent, such provision shall be re&or!ed to the !ini!u! e7tent necessar to !aOe such provision valid and en&orceable. 3o ter! or provision o& this 0icense shall be dee!ed 6aived and no breach consented to unless such 6aiver or consent shall be in 6riting and signed b the part to be charged 6ith such 6aiver or consent. ;his 0icense constitutes the entire agree!ent bet6een the parties 6ith respect to the >orO licensed here. ;here are no understandings, agree!ents or representations 6ith respect to the >orO not speci&ied here. 0icensor shall not be bound b an additional provisions that !a appear in an co!!unication &ro! \ou. ;his 0icense !a not be !odi&ied 6ithout the !utual 6ritten agree!ent o& the 0icensor and \ou. ;he rights granted under, and the sub#ect !atter re&erenced, in this 0icense 6ere dra&ted utili/ing the ter!inolog o& the Berne 1onvention &or the Protection o& 0iterar and Artistic >orOs (as a!ended on %epte!ber CF, 1B@B), the Ro!e 1onvention o& 1B?1, the >AP: 1op right ;reat o& 1BB?, the >AP: Per&or!ances and Phonogra!s ;reat o& 1BB? and the Universal 1op right 1onvention (as revised on =ul CE, 1B@1). ;hese rights and sub#ect !atter taOe e&&ect in the relevant #urisdiction in 6hich the 0icense ter!s are sought to be en&orced according to the corresponding provisions o& the i!ple!entation o& those treat provisions in the applicable national la6. A& the standard suite o& rights granted under applicable cop right la6 includes additional rights not granted under this 0icense, such additional rights are dee!ed to be included in the 0icense( this 0icense is not intended to restrict the license o& an rights under applicable la6.

d. e.

&.

!reati"e !o##ons ,otice 1reative 1o!!ons is not a part to this 0icense, and !aOes no 6arrant 6hatsoever in connection 6ith the >orO. 1reative 1o!!ons 6ill not be liable to \ou or an part on an legal theor &or an da!ages 6hatsoever, including 6ithout li!itation an general, special, incidental or conse'uential da!ages arising in connection to this license. 3ot6ithstanding the &oregoing t6o (C) sentences, i& 1reative 1o!!ons has e7pressl identi&ied itsel& as the 0icensor hereunder, it shall have all rights and obligations o& 0icensor. *7cept &or the li!ited purpose o& indicating to the public that the >orO is licensed under the 11P0, 1reative 1o!!ons does not authori/e the use b either part o& the trade!arO ]1reative 1o!!ons] or an related trade!arO or logo o& 1reative 1o!!ons 6ithout the prior 6ritten consent o& 1reative 1o!!ons. An per!itted use 6ill be in co!pliance 6ith 1reative 1o!!onsZ thenJcurrent trade!arO usage guidelines, as !a be published on its 6ebsite or other6ise !ade available upon re'uest &ro! ti!e to ti!e. 4or the avoidance o& doubt, this trade!arO restriction does not &or! part o& the 0icense. 1reative 1o!!ons !a be contacted at http$^^creativeco!!ons.org^.

CF

$p=ndice B

+,* Free -ocu#entation License 9ersion 1.5, 5 3ove!ber C00F 1op right ` C000, C001, C00C, C00@, C00F 4ree %o&t6are 4oundation, Anc. ahttp$^^&s&.org^b *ver one is per!itted to cop and distribute verbati! copies o& this license docu!ent, but changing it is not allo6ed. 0. PR5$MBL5
;he purpose o& this 0icense is to !aOe a !anual, te7tbooO, or other &unctional and use&ul docu!ent ]&ree] in the sense o& &reedo!$ to assure ever one the e&&ective &reedo! to cop and redistribute it, 6ith or 6ithout !odi& ing it, either co!!erciall or nonco!!erciall . %econdaril , this 0icense preserves &or the author and publisher a 6a to get credit &or their 6orO, 6hile not being considered responsible &or !odi&ications !ade b others. ;his 0icense is a Oind o& ]cop le&t], 6hich !eans that derivative 6orOs o& the docu!ent !ust the!selves be &ree in the sa!e sense. At co!ple!ents the 23U 2eneral Public 0icense, 6hich is a cop le&t license designed &or &ree so&t6are. >e have designed this 0icense in order to use it &or !anuals &or &ree so&t6are, because &ree so&t6are needs &ree docu!entation$ a &ree progra! should co!e 6ith !anuals providing the sa!e &reedo!s that the so&t6are does. But this 0icense is not li!ited to so&t6are !anuals( it can be used &or an te7tual 6orO, regardless o& sub#ect !atter or 6hether it is published as a printed booO. >e reco!!end this 0icense principall &or 6orOs 6hose purpose is instruction or re&erence.

1. $PPLI!$BILI8@ $,- -5FI,I8I<,&

;his 0icense applies to an !anual or other 6orO, in an !ediu!, that contains a notice placed b the cop right holder sa ing it can be distributed under the ter!s o& this 0icense. %uch a notice grants a 6orldJ6ide, ro alt J&ree license, unli!ited in duration, to use that 6orO under the conditions stated herein. ;he ]Docu!ent], belo6, re&ers to an such !anual or 6orO. An !e!ber o& the public is a licensee, and is addressed as ] ou]. \ou accept the license i& ou cop , !odi& or distribute the 6orO in a 6a re'uiring per!ission under cop right la6. A ]Modi&ied 9ersion] o& the Docu!ent !eans an 6orO containing the Docu!ent or a portion o& it, either copied verbati!, or 6ith !odi&ications and^or translated into another language. A ]%econdar %ection] is a na!ed appendi7 or a &rontJ!atter section o& the Docu!ent that deals e7clusivel 6ith the relationship o& the publishers or authors o& the Docu!ent to the Docu!entZs overall sub#ect (or to related !atters) and contains nothing that could &all directl 6ithin that overall sub#ect. (;hus, i& the Docu!ent is in part a te7tbooO o& !athe!atics, a %econdar %ection !a not e7plain an !athe!atics.) ;he relationship could be a !atter o& historical connection 6ith the sub#ect or 6ith related !atters, or o& legal, co!!ercial, philosophical, ethical or political position regarding the!. ;he ]Anvariant %ections] are certain %econdar %ections 6hose titles are designated, as being those o& Anvariant %ections, in the notice that sa s that the Docu!ent is released under this 0icense. A& a section does not &it the above de&inition o& %econdar then it is not allo6ed to be designated as Anvariant. ;he Docu!ent !a contain /ero Anvariant %ections. A& the Docu!ent does not identi& an Anvariant %ections then there are none. ;he ]1over ;e7ts] are certain short passages o& te7t that are listed, as 4rontJ1over ;e7ts or BacOJ1over ;e7ts, in the notice that sa s that the Docu!ent is released under this 0icense. A 4rontJ1over ;e7t !a be at !ost < 6ords, and a BacOJ1over ;e7t !a be at !ost C< 6ords. A ];ransparent] cop o& the Docu!ent !eans a !achineJreadable cop , represented in a &or!at 6hose speci&ication is available to the general public, that is suitable &or revising the docu!ent straight&or6ardl 6ith generic te7t editors or (&or i!ages co!posed o& pi7els) generic paint progra!s or (&or dra6ings) so!e 6idel available dra6ing editor, and that is suitable &or input to te7t &or!atters or &or auto!atic translation to a variet o& &or!ats suitable &or input to te7t &or!atters. A cop !ade in an other6ise ;ransparent &ile &or!at 6hose !arOup, or absence o& !arOup,

CB
has been arranged to th6art or discourage subse'uent !odi&ication b readers is not ;ransparent. An i!age &or!at is not ;ransparent i& used &or an substantial a!ount o& te7t. A cop that is not ];ransparent] is called ]:pa'ue]. *7a!ples o& suitable &or!ats &or ;ransparent copies include plain A%1AA 6ithout !arOup, ;e7in&o input &or!at, 0a;eN input &or!at, %2M0 or NM0 using a publicl available D;D, and standardJcon&or!ing si!ple D;M0, Post%cript or PD4 designed &or hu!an !odi&ication. *7a!ples o& transparent i!age &or!ats include P32, N14 and =P2. :pa'ue &or!ats include proprietar &or!ats that can be read and edited onl b proprietar 6ord processors, %2M0 or NM0 &or 6hich the D;D and^or processing tools are not generall available, and the !achineJgenerated D;M0, Post%cript or PD4 produced b so!e 6ord processors &or output purposes onl . ;he ];itle Page] !eans, &or a printed booO, the title page itsel&, plus such &ollo6ing pages as are needed to hold, legibl , the !aterial this 0icense re'uires to appear in the title page. 4or 6orOs in &or!ats 6hich do not have an title page as such, ];itle Page] !eans the te7t near the !ost pro!inent appearance o& the 6orOZs title, preceding the beginning o& the bod o& the te7t. ;he ]publisher] !eans an person or entit that distributes copies o& the Docu!ent to the public. A section ]*ntitled N\L] !eans a na!ed subunit o& the Docu!ent 6hose title either is precisel N\L or contains N\L in parentheses &ollo6ing te7t that translates N\L in another language. (Dere N\L stands &or a speci&ic section na!e !entioned belo6, such as ]AcOno6ledge!ents], ]Dedications], ]*ndorse!ents], or ]Distor ].) ;o ]Preserve the ;itle] o& such a section 6hen ou !odi& the Docu!ent !eans that it re!ains a section ]*ntitled N\L] according to this de&inition. ;he Docu!ent !a include >arrant Disclai!ers ne7t to the notice 6hich states that this 0icense applies to the Docu!ent. ;hese >arrant Disclai!ers are considered to be included b re&erence in this 0icense, but onl as regards disclai!ing 6arranties$ an other i!plication that these >arrant Disclai!ers !a have is void and has no e&&ect on the !eaning o& this 0icense.

2. D5RB$8IM !<P@I,+
\ou !a cop and distribute the Docu!ent in an !ediu!, either co!!erciall or nonco!!erciall , provided that this 0icense, the cop right notices, and the license notice sa ing this 0icense applies to the Docu!ent are reproduced in all copies, and that ou add no other conditions 6hatsoever to those o& this 0icense. \ou !a not use technical !easures to obstruct or control the reading or &urther cop ing o& the copies ou !aOe or distribute. Do6ever, ou !a accept co!pensation in e7change &or copies. A& ou distribute a large enough nu!ber o& copies ou !ust also &ollo6 the conditions in section 5. \ou !a also lend copies, under the sa!e conditions stated above, and ou !a publicl displa copies.

). !<P@I,+ I, E*$,8I8@
A& ou publish printed copies (or copies in !edia that co!!onl have printed covers) o& the Docu!ent, nu!bering !ore than 100, and the Docu!entZs license notice re'uires 1over ;e7ts, ou !ust enclose the copies in covers that carr , clearl and legibl , all these 1over ;e7ts$ 4rontJ 1over ;e7ts on the &ront cover, and BacOJ1over ;e7ts on the bacO cover. Both covers !ust also clearl and legibl identi& ou as the publisher o& these copies. ;he &ront cover !ust present the &ull title 6ith all 6ords o& the title e'uall pro!inent and visible. \ou !a add other !aterial on the covers in addition. 1op ing 6ith changes li!ited to the covers, as long as the preserve the title o& the Docu!ent and satis& these conditions, can be treated as verbati! cop ing in other respects. A& the re'uired te7ts &or either cover are too volu!inous to &it legibl , ou should put the &irst ones listed (as !an as &it reasonabl ) on the actual cover, and continue the rest onto ad#acent pages. A& ou publish or distribute :pa'ue copies o& the Docu!ent nu!bering !ore than 100, ou !ust either include a !achineJreadable ;ransparent cop along 6ith each :pa'ue cop , or state in or 6ith each :pa'ue cop a co!puterJnet6orO location &ro! 6hich the general net6orOJusing public has access to do6nload using publicJstandard net6orO protocols a co!plete ;ransparent cop o& the Docu!ent, &ree o& added !aterial. A& ou use the latter option, ou !ust taOe reasonabl prudent steps, 6hen ou begin distribution o& :pa'ue copies in 'uantit , to ensure that this ;ransparent cop 6ill re!ain thus accessible at the stated location until at least one ear a&ter the last ti!e ou distribute an :pa'ue cop (directl or through our agents or retailers) o& that edition to the public. At is re'uested, but not re'uired, that ou contact the authors o& the Docu!ent 6ell be&ore redistributing an large nu!ber o& copies, to give the! a chance to provide ou 6ith an updated version o& the Docu!ent.

F. M<-IFI!$8I<,&
\ou !a cop and distribute a Modi&ied 9ersion o& the Docu!ent under the conditions o& sections C and 5 above, provided that ou release the Modi&ied 9ersion under precisel this 0icense, 6ith the Modi&ied 9ersion &illing the role o& the Docu!ent, thus licensing distribution and !odi&ication o& the Modi&ied 9ersion to 6hoever possesses a cop o& it. An addition, ou !ust do these things in the Modi&ied 9ersion$ A. Use in the ;itle Page (and on the covers, i& an ) a title distinct &ro! that o& the Docu!ent, and &ro! those o& previous versions (6hich should, i& there 6ere an , be listed in the Distor section o& the Docu!ent). \ou !a use the sa!e title as a previous version i& the original publisher o& that version gives per!ission. B. 0ist on the ;itle Page, as authors, one or !ore persons or entities responsible &or authorship o& the !odi&ications in the Modi&ied 9ersion, together 6ith at least &ive o& the principal authors o& the Docu!ent (all o& its principal authors, i& it has &e6er than &ive), unless the release ou &ro! this re'uire!ent. 1. %tate on the ;itle page the na!e o& the publisher o& the Modi&ied 9ersion, as the publisher. D. Preserve all the cop right notices o& the Docu!ent.

50
*. Add an appropriate cop right notice &or our !odi&ications ad#acent to the other cop right notices. 4. Anclude, i!!ediatel a&ter the cop right notices, a license notice giving the public per!ission to use the Modi&ied 9ersion under the ter!s o& this 0icense, in the &or! sho6n in the Addendu! belo6. 2. Preserve in that license notice the &ull lists o& Anvariant %ections and re'uired 1over ;e7ts given in the Docu!entZs license notice. D. Anclude an unaltered cop o& this 0icense. A. Preserve the section *ntitled ]Distor ], Preserve its ;itle, and add to it an ite! stating at least the title, ear, ne6 authors, and publisher o& the Modi&ied 9ersion as given on the ;itle Page. A& there is no section *ntitled ]Distor ] in the Docu!ent, create one stating the title, ear, authors, and publisher o& the Docu!ent as given on its ;itle Page, then add an ite! describing the Modi&ied 9ersion as stated in the previous sentence. =. Preserve the net6orO location, i& an , given in the Docu!ent &or public access to a ;ransparent cop o& the Docu!ent, and liOe6ise the net6orO locations given in the Docu!ent &or previous versions it 6as based on. ;hese !a be placed in the ]Distor ] section. \ou !a o!it a net6orO location &or a 6orO that 6as published at least &our ears be&ore the Docu!ent itsel&, or i& the original publisher o& the version it re&ers to gives per!ission. I. 4or an section *ntitled ]AcOno6ledge!ents] or ]Dedications], Preserve the ;itle o& the section, and preserve in the section all the substance and tone o& each o& the contributor acOno6ledge!ents and^or dedications given therein. 0. Preserve all the Anvariant %ections o& the Docu!ent, unaltered in their te7t and in their titles. %ection nu!bers or the e'uivalent are not considered part o& the section titles. M. Delete an section *ntitled ]*ndorse!ents]. %uch a section !a not be included in the Modi&ied 9ersion. 3. Do not retitle an e7isting section to be *ntitled ]*ndorse!ents] or to con&lict in title 6ith an Anvariant %ection. :. Preserve an >arrant Disclai!ers. A& the Modi&ied 9ersion includes ne6 &rontJ!atter sections or appendices that 'uali& as %econdar %ections and contain no !aterial copied &ro! the Docu!ent, ou !a at our option designate so!e or all o& these sections as invariant. ;o do this, add their titles to the list o& Anvariant %ections in the Modi&ied 9ersionZs license notice. ;hese titles !ust be distinct &ro! an other section titles. \ou !a add a section *ntitled ]*ndorse!ents], provided it contains nothing but endorse!ents o& our Modi&ied 9ersion b various partiesQ&or e7a!ple, state!ents o& peer revie6 or that the te7t has been approved b an organi/ation as the authoritative de&inition o& a standard. \ou !a add a passage o& up to &ive 6ords as a 4rontJ1over ;e7t, and a passage o& up to C< 6ords as a BacOJ1over ;e7t, to the end o& the list o& 1over ;e7ts in the Modi&ied 9ersion. :nl one passage o& 4rontJ1over ;e7t and one o& BacOJ1over ;e7t !a be added b (or through arrange!ents !ade b ) an one entit . A& the Docu!ent alread includes a cover te7t &or the sa!e cover, previousl added b ou or b arrange!ent !ade b the sa!e entit ou are acting on behal& o&, ou !a not add another( but ou !a replace the old one, on e7plicit per!ission &ro! the previous publisher that added the old one. ;he author(s) and publisher(s) o& the Docu!ent do not b this 0icense give per!ission to use their na!es &or publicit &or or to assert or i!pl endorse!ent o& an Modi&ied 9ersion.

A. !<MBI,I,+ -<!*M5,8&
\ou !a co!bine the Docu!ent 6ith other docu!ents released under this 0icense, under the ter!s de&ined in section E above &or !odi&ied versions, provided that ou include in the co!bination all o& the Anvariant %ections o& all o& the original docu!ents, un!odi&ied, and list the! all as Anvariant %ections o& our co!bined 6orO in its license notice, and that ou preserve all their >arrant Disclai!ers. ;he co!bined 6orO need onl contain one cop o& this 0icense, and !ultiple identical Anvariant %ections !a be replaced 6ith a single cop . A& there are !ultiple Anvariant %ections 6ith the sa!e na!e but di&&erent contents, !aOe the title o& each such section uni'ue b adding at the end o& it, in parentheses, the na!e o& the original author or publisher o& that section i& Ono6n, or else a uni'ue nu!ber. MaOe the sa!e ad#ust!ent to the section titles in the list o& Anvariant %ections in the license notice o& the co!bined 6orO. An the co!bination, ou !ust co!bine an sections *ntitled ]Distor ] in the various original docu!ents, &or!ing one section *ntitled ]Distor ]( liOe6ise co!bine an sections *ntitled ]AcOno6ledge!ents], and an sections *ntitled ]Dedications]. \ou !ust delete all sections *ntitled ]*ndorse!ents].

G. !<LL5!8I<,& <F -<!*M5,8&

\ou !a !aOe a collection consisting o& the Docu!ent and other docu!ents released under this 0icense, and replace the individual copies o& this 0icense in the various docu!ents 6ith a single cop that is included in the collection, provided that ou &ollo6 the rules o& this 0icense &or verbati! cop ing o& each o& the docu!ents in all other respects. \ou !a e7tract a single docu!ent &ro! such a collection, and distribute it individuall under this 0icense, provided ou insert a cop o& this 0icense into the e7tracted docu!ent, and &ollo6 this 0icense in all other respects regarding verbati! cop ing o& that docu!ent.

B. $++R5+$8I<, ?I8H I,-5P5,-5,8 ?<RK&

A co!pilation o& the Docu!ent or its derivatives 6ith other separate and independent docu!ents or 6orOs, in or on a volu!e o& a storage or distribution !ediu!, is called an ]aggregate] i& the cop right resulting &ro! the co!pilation is not used to li!it the legal rights o& the

51
co!pilationZs users be ond 6hat the individual 6orOs per!it. >hen the Docu!ent is included in an aggregate, this 0icense does not appl to the other 6orOs in the aggregate 6hich are not the!selves derivative 6orOs o& the Docu!ent. A& the 1over ;e7t re'uire!ent o& section 5 is applicable to these copies o& the Docu!ent, then i& the Docu!ent is less than one hal& o& the entire aggregate, the Docu!entZs 1over ;e7ts !a be placed on covers that bracOet the Docu!ent 6ithin the aggregate, or the electronic e'uivalent o& covers i& the Docu!ent is in electronic &or!. :ther6ise the !ust appear on printed covers that bracOet the 6hole aggregate.

C. 8R$,&L$8I<,
;ranslation is considered a Oind o& !odi&ication, so ou !a distribute translations o& the Docu!ent under the ter!s o& section E. Replacing Anvariant %ections 6ith translations re'uires special per!ission &ro! their cop right holders, but ou !a include translations o& so!e or all Anvariant %ections in addition to the original versions o& these Anvariant %ections. \ou !a include a translation o& this 0icense, and all the license notices in the Docu!ent, and an >arrant Disclai!ers, provided that ou also include the original *nglish version o& this 0icense and the original versions o& those notices and disclai!ers. An case o& a disagree!ent bet6een the translation and the original version o& this 0icense or a notice or disclai!er, the original version 6ill prevail. A& a section in the Docu!ent is *ntitled ]AcOno6ledge!ents], ]Dedications], or ]Distor ], the re'uire!ent (section E) to Preserve its ;itle (section 1) 6ill t picall re'uire changing the actual title.

I. 85RMI,$8I<,
\ou !a not cop , !odi& , sublicense, or distribute the Docu!ent e7cept as e7pressl provided under this 0icense. An atte!pt other6ise to cop , !odi& , sublicense, or distribute it is void, and 6ill auto!aticall ter!inate our rights under this 0icense. Do6ever, i& ou cease all violation o& this 0icense, then our license &ro! a particular cop right holder is reinstated (a) provisionall , unless and until the cop right holder e7plicitl and &inall ter!inates our license, and (b) per!anentl , i& the cop right holder &ails to noti& ou o& the violation b so!e reasonable !eans prior to ?0 da s a&ter the cessation. Moreover, our license &ro! a particular cop right holder is reinstated per!anentl i& the cop right holder noti&ies ou o& the violation b so!e reasonable !eans, this is the &irst ti!e ou have received notice o& violation o& this 0icense (&or an 6orO) &ro! that cop right holder, and ou cure the violation prior to 50 da s a&ter our receipt o& the notice. ;er!ination o& our rights under this section does not ter!inate the licenses o& parties 6ho have received copies or rights &ro! ou under this 0icense. A& our rights have been ter!inated and not per!anentl reinstated, receipt o& a cop o& so!e or all o& the sa!e !aterial does not give ou an rights to use it.

10. F*8*R5 R5DI&I<,& <F 8HI& LI!5,&5

;he 4ree %o&t6are 4oundation !a publish ne6, revised versions o& the 23U 4ree Docu!entation 0icense &ro! ti!e to ti!e. %uch ne6 versions 6ill be si!ilar in spirit to the present version, but !a di&&er in detail to address ne6 proble!s or concerns. %ee http$^^666.gnu.org^cop le&t^. *ach version o& the 0icense is given a distinguishing version nu!ber. A& the Docu!ent speci&ies that a particular nu!bered version o& this 0icense ]or an later version] applies to it, ou have the option o& &ollo6ing the ter!s and conditions either o& that speci&ied version or o& an later version that has been published (not as a dra&t) b the 4ree %o&t6are 4oundation. A& the Docu!ent does not speci& a version nu!ber o& this 0icense, ou !a choose an version ever published (not as a dra&t) b the 4ree %o&t6are 4oundation. A& the Docu!ent speci&ies that a pro7 can decide 6hich &uture versions o& this 0icense can be used, that pro7 Zs public state!ent o& acceptance o& a version per!anentl authori/es ou to choose that version &or the Docu!ent.

11. R5LI!5,&I,+
]Massive Multiauthor 1ollaboration %ite] (or ]MM1 %ite]) !eans an >orld >ide >eb server that publishes cop rightable 6orOs and also provides pro!inent &acilities &or an bod to edit those 6orOs. A public 6iOi that an bod can edit is an e7a!ple o& such a server. A ]Massive Multiauthor 1ollaboration] (or ]MM1]) contained in the site !eans an set o& cop rightable 6orOs thus published on the MM1 site. ]11JB\J%A] !eans the 1reative 1o!!ons AttributionJ%hare AliOe 5.0 license published b 1reative 1o!!ons 1orporation, a notJ&orJpro&it corporation 6ith a principal place o& business in %an 4rancisco, 1ali&ornia, as 6ell as &uture cop le&t versions o& that license published b that sa!e organi/ation. ]Ancorporate] !eans to publish or republish a Docu!ent, in 6hole or in part, as part o& another Docu!ent. An MM1 is ]eligible &or relicensing] i& it is licensed under this 0icense, and i& all 6orOs that 6ere &irst published under this 0icense so!e6here other than this MM1, and subse'uentl incorporated in 6hole or in part into the MM1, (1) had no cover te7ts or invariant sections, and (C) 6ere thus incorporated prior to 3ove!ber 1, C00F. ;he operator o& an MM1 %ite !a republish an MM1 contained in the site under 11JB\J%A on the sa!e site at an ti!e be&ore August 1, C00B, provided the MM1 is eligible &or relicensing.

5C
$--5,-*M0 Ho2 to use t'is License for .our docu#ents
;o use this 0icense in a docu!ent ou have 6ritten, include a cop o& the 0icense in the docu!ent and put the &ollo6ing cop right and license notices #ust a&ter the title page$ opyright ? @ >E/8 >%38 A/+E1 Permission is granted to copy; distribute andBor modify this document under the terms of the =A3 9ree &ocumentation License; 6ersion C1D or any later version published by the 9ree 0oft(are 9oundationE (ith no Invariant 0ections; no 9ront$ over Te.ts; and no 5ac'$ over Te.ts1 / copy of the license is included in the section entitled F=A3 9ree &ocumentation LicenseF1 A& ou have Anvariant %ections, 4rontJ1over ;e7ts and BacOJ1over ;e7ts, replace the ]6ith c ;e7ts.] line 6ith this$ (ith the Invariant 0ections being LI0T T<EI8 TITLE0; (ith the 9ront$ over Te.ts being LI0T; and (ith the 5ac'$ over Te.ts being LI0T1 A& ou have Anvariant %ections 6ithout 1over ;e7ts, or so!e other co!bination o& the three, !erge those t6o alternatives to suit the situation. A& our docu!ent contains nontrivial e7a!ples o& progra! code, 6e reco!!end releasing these e7a!ples in parallel under our choice o& &ree so&t6are license, such as the 23U 2eneral Public 0icense, to per!it their use in &ree so&t6are.

55

$p=ndice !

+,* +eneral Pu lic License 9ersion 5, CB =une C00@

1op right ` C00@ 4ree %o&t6are 4oundation, Anc. ahttp$^^&s&.org^b *ver one is per!itted to cop and distribute verbati! copies o& this license docu!ent, but changing it is not allo6ed.

*reamble
;he 23U 2eneral Public 0icense is a &ree, cop le&t license &or so&t6are and other Oinds o& 6orOs. ;he licenses &or !ost so&t6are and other practical 6orOs are designed to taOe a6a our &reedo! to share and change the 6orOs. B contrast, the 23U 2eneral Public 0icense is intended to guarantee our &reedo! to share and change all versions o& a progra!JJto !aOe sure it re!ains &ree so&t6are &or all its users. >e, the 4ree %o&t6are 4oundation, use the 23U 2eneral Public 0icense &or !ost o& our so&t6are( it applies also to an other 6orO released this 6a b its authors. \ou can appl it to our progra!s, too. >hen 6e speaO o& &ree so&t6are, 6e are re&erring to &reedo!, not price. :ur 2eneral Public 0icenses are designed to !aOe sure that ou have the &reedo! to distribute copies o& &ree so&t6are (and charge &or the! i& ou 6ish), that ou receive source code or can get it i& ou 6ant it, that ou can change the so&t6are or use pieces o& it in ne6 &ree progra!s, and that ou Ono6 ou can do these things. ;o protect our rights, 6e need to prevent others &ro! den ing ou these rights or asOing ou to surrender the rights. ;here&ore, ou have certain responsibilities i& ou distribute copies o& the so&t6are, or i& ou !odi& it$ responsibilities to respect the &reedo! o& others. 4or e7a!ple, i& ou distribute copies o& such a progra!, 6hether gratis or &or a &ee, ou !ust pass on to the recipients the sa!e &reedo!s that ou received. \ou !ust !aOe sure that the , too, receive or can get the source code. And ou !ust sho6 the! these ter!s so the Ono6 their rights. Developers that use the 23U 2P0 protect our rights 6ith t6o steps$ (1) assert cop right on the so&t6are, and (C) o&&er ou this 0icense giving ou legal per!ission to cop , distribute and^or !odi& it. 4or the developersZ and authorsZ protection, the 2P0 clearl e7plains that there is no 6arrant &or this &ree so&t6are. 4or both usersZ and authorsZ saOe, the 2P0 re'uires that !odi&ied versions be !arOed as changed, so that their proble!s 6ill not be attributed erroneousl to authors o& previous versions. %o!e devices are designed to den users access to install or run !odi&ied versions o& the so&t6are inside the!, although the !anu&acturer can do so. ;his is &unda!entall inco!patible 6ith the ai! o& protecting usersZ &reedo! to change the so&t6are. ;he s ste!atic pattern o& such abuse occurs in the area o& products &or individuals to use, 6hich is precisel 6here it is !ost unacceptable. ;here&ore, 6e have designed this version o& the 2P0 to prohibit the practice &or those products. A& such proble!s arise substantiall in other do!ains, 6e stand read to e7tend this provision to those do!ains in &uture versions o& the 2P0, as needed to protect the &reedo! o& users. 4inall , ever progra! is threatened constantl b so&t6are patents. %tates should not allo6 patents to restrict develop!ent and use o& so&t6are on generalJpurpose co!puters, but in those that do, 6e 6ish to avoid the special danger that patents applied to a &ree progra! could !aOe it e&&ectivel proprietar . ;o prevent this, the 2P0 assures that patents cannot be used to render the progra! nonJ&ree. ;he precise ter!s and conditions &or cop ing, distribution and !odi&ication &ollo6.

5E

85RM& $,- !<,-I8I<,&

0. -efinitions. ];his 0icense] re&ers to version 5 o& the 23U 2eneral Public 0icense. ]1op right] also !eans cop rightJliOe la6s that appl to other Oinds o& 6orOs, such as se!iconductor !asOs. ];he Progra!] re&ers to an cop rightable 6orO licensed under this 0icense. *ach licensee is addressed as ] ou]. ]0icensees] and ]recipients] !a be individuals or organi/ations. ;o ]!odi& ] a 6orO !eans to cop &ro! or adapt all or part o& the 6orO in a &ashion re'uiring cop right per!ission, other than the !aOing o& an e7act cop . ;he resulting 6orO is called a ]!odi&ied version] o& the earlier 6orO or a 6orO ]based on] the earlier 6orO. A ]covered 6orO] !eans either the un!odi&ied Progra! or a 6orO based on the Progra!. ;o ]propagate] a 6orO !eans to do an thing 6ith it that, 6ithout per!ission, 6ould !aOe ou directl or secondaril liable &or in&ringe!ent under applicable cop right la6, e7cept e7ecuting it on a co!puter or !odi& ing a private cop . Propagation includes cop ing, distribution (6ith or 6ithout !odi&ication), !aOing available to the public, and in so!e countries other activities as 6ell. ;o ]conve ] a 6orO !eans an Oind o& propagation that enables other parties to !aOe or receive copies. Mere interaction 6ith a user through a co!puter net6orO, 6ith no trans&er o& a cop , is not conve ing. An interactive user inter&ace displa s ]Appropriate 0egal 3otices] to the e7tent that it includes a convenient and pro!inentl visible &eature that (1) displa s an appropriate cop right notice, and (C) tells the user that there is no 6arrant &or the 6orO (e7cept to the e7tent that 6arranties are provided), that licensees !a conve the 6orO under this 0icense, and ho6 to vie6 a cop o& this 0icense. A& the inter&ace presents a list o& user co!!ands or options, such as a !enu, a pro!inent ite! in the list !eets this criterion. 1. &ource !ode. ;he ]source code] &or a 6orO !eans the pre&erred &or! o& the 6orO &or !aOing !odi&ications to it. ]:b#ect code] !eans an nonJsource &or! o& a 6orO. A ]%tandard Anter&ace] !eans an inter&ace that either is an o&&icial standard de&ined b a recogni/ed standards bod , or, in the case o& inter&aces speci&ied &or a particular progra!!ing language, one that is 6idel used a!ong developers 6orOing in that language. ;he ]% ste! 0ibraries] o& an e7ecutable 6orO include an thing, other than the 6orO as a 6hole, that (a) is included in the nor!al &or! o& pacOaging a Ma#or 1o!ponent, but 6hich is not part o& that Ma#or 1o!ponent, and (b) serves onl to enable use o& the 6orO 6ith that Ma#or 1o!ponent, or to i!ple!ent a %tandard Anter&ace &or 6hich an i!ple!entation is available to the public in source code &or!. A ]Ma#or 1o!ponent], in this conte7t, !eans a !a#or essential co!ponent (Oernel, 6indo6 s ste!, and so on) o& the speci&ic operating s ste! (i& an ) on 6hich the e7ecutable 6orO runs, or a co!piler used to produce the 6orO, or an ob#ect code interpreter used to run it. ;he ]1orresponding %ource] &or a 6orO in ob#ect code &or! !eans all the source code needed to generate, install, and (&or an e7ecutable 6orO) run the ob#ect code and to !odi& the 6orO, including scripts to control those activities. Do6ever, it does not include the 6orOZs % ste! 0ibraries, or generalJpurpose tools or generall available &ree progra!s 6hich are used un!odi&ied in per&or!ing those activities but 6hich are not part o& the 6orO. 4or e7a!ple, 1orresponding %ource includes inter&ace de&inition &iles associated 6ith source &iles &or the 6orO, and the source code &or shared libraries and d na!icall linOed subprogra!s that the 6orO is speci&icall designed to re'uire, such as b inti!ate data co!!unication or control &lo6 bet6een those subprogra!s and other parts o& the 6orO. ;he 1orresponding %ource need not include an thing that users can regenerate auto!aticall &ro! other parts o& the 1orresponding %ource. ;he 1orresponding %ource &or a 6orO in source code &or! is that sa!e 6orO. 2. Basic Per#issions. All rights granted under this 0icense are granted &or the ter! o& cop right on the Progra!, and are irrevocable provided the stated conditions are !et. ;his 0icense e7plicitl a&&ir!s our unli!ited per!ission to run the un!odi&ied Progra!. ;he output &ro! running a covered 6orO is covered b this 0icense onl i& the output, given its content, constitutes a covered 6orO. ;his 0icense acOno6ledges our rights o& &air use or other e'uivalent, as provided b cop right la6. \ou !a !aOe, run and propagate covered 6orOs that ou do not conve , 6ithout conditions so long as our license other6ise re!ains in &orce. \ou !a conve covered 6orOs to others &or the sole purpose o& having the! !aOe !odi&ications e7clusivel &or ou, or provide ou 6ith &acilities &or running those 6orOs, provided that ou co!pl 6ith the ter!s o& this 0icense in conve ing all !aterial &or 6hich ou do not control cop right. ;hose thus !aOing or running the covered 6orOs &or ou !ust do so e7clusivel on our behal&, under our direction and control, on ter!s that prohibit the! &ro! !aOing an copies o& our cop righted !aterial outside their relationship 6ith ou. 1onve ing under an other circu!stances is per!itted solel under the conditions stated belo6. %ublicensing is not allo6ed( section 10 !aOes it unnecessar .

5<
). Protectin3 *sersJ Le3al Ri3'ts Fro# $nti%!ircu#"ention La2. 3o covered 6orO shall be dee!ed part o& an e&&ective technological !easure under an applicable la6 &ul&illing obligations under article 11 o& the >AP: cop right treat adopted on C0 Dece!ber 1BB?, or si!ilar la6s prohibiting or restricting circu!vention o& such !easures. >hen ou conve a covered 6orO, ou 6aive an legal po6er to &orbid circu!vention o& technological !easures to the e7tent such circu!vention is e&&ected b e7ercising rights under this 0icense 6ith respect to the covered 6orO, and ou disclai! an intention to li!it operation or !odi&ication o& the 6orO as a !eans o& en&orcing, against the 6orOZs users, our or third partiesZ legal rights to &orbid circu!vention o& technological !easures. F. !on"e.in3 Der ati# !opies. \ou !a conve verbati! copies o& the Progra!Zs source code as ou receive it, in an !ediu!, provided that ou conspicuousl and appropriatel publish on each cop an appropriate cop right notice( Oeep intact all notices stating that this 0icense and an nonJper!issive ter!s added in accord 6ith section @ appl to the code( Oeep intact all notices o& the absence o& an 6arrant ( and give all recipients a cop o& this 0icense along 6ith the Progra!. \ou !a charge an price or no price &or each cop that ou conve , and ou !a o&&er support or 6arrant protection &or a &ee. A. !on"e.in3 Modified &ource Dersions. \ou !a conve a 6orO based on the Progra!, or the !odi&ications to produce it &ro! the Progra!, in the &or! o& source code under the ter!s o& section E, provided that ou also !eet all o& these conditions$ a) ;he 6orO !ust carr pro!inent notices stating that ou !odi&ied it, and giving a relevant date. b) ;he 6orO !ust carr pro!inent notices stating that it is released under this 0icense and an conditions added under section @. ;his re'uire!ent !odi&ies the re'uire!ent in section E to ]Oeep intact all notices]. c) \ou !ust license the entire 6orO, as a 6hole, under this 0icense to an one 6ho co!es into possession o& a cop . ;his 0icense 6ill there&ore appl , along 6ith an applicable section @ additional ter!s, to the 6hole o& the 6orO, and all its parts, regardless o& ho6 the are pacOaged. ;his 0icense gives no per!ission to license the 6orO in an other 6a , but it does not invalidate such per!ission i& ou have separatel received it. A& the 6orO has interactive user inter&aces, each !ust displa Appropriate 0egal 3otices( ho6ever, i& the Progra! has interactive inter&aces that do not displa Appropriate 0egal 3otices, our 6orO need not !aOe the! do so. A co!pilation o& a covered 6orO 6ith other separate and independent 6orOs, 6hich are not b their nature e7tensions o& the covered 6orO, and 6hich are not co!bined 6ith it such as to &or! a larger progra!, in or on a volu!e o& a storage or distribution !ediu!, is called an ]aggregate] i& the co!pilation and its resulting cop right are not used to li!it the access or legal rights o& the co!pilationZs users be ond 6hat the individual 6orOs per!it. Anclusion o& a covered 6orO in an aggregate does not cause this 0icense to appl to the other parts o& the aggregate. G. !on"e.in3 ,on%&ource For#s. \ou !a conve a covered 6orO in ob#ect code &or! under the ter!s o& sections E and <, provided that ou also conve the !achineJreadable 1orresponding %ource under the ter!s o& this 0icense, in one o& these 6a s$ a) 1onve the ob#ect code in, or e!bodied in, a ph sical product (including a ph sical distribution !ediu!), acco!panied b the 1orresponding %ource &i7ed on a durable ph sical !ediu! custo!aril used &or so&t6are interchange. b) 1onve the ob#ect code in, or e!bodied in, a ph sical product (including a ph sical distribution !ediu!), acco!panied b a 6ritten o&&er, valid &or at least three ears and valid &or as long as ou o&&er spare parts or custo!er support &or that product !odel, to give an one 6ho possesses the ob#ect code either (1) a cop o& the 1orresponding %ource &or all the so&t6are in the product that is covered b this 0icense, on a durable ph sical !ediu! custo!aril used &or so&t6are interchange, &or a price no !ore than our reasonable cost o& ph sicall per&or!ing this conve ing o& source, or (C) access to cop the 1orresponding %ource &ro! a net6orO server at no charge. c) 1onve individual copies o& the ob#ect code 6ith a cop o& the 6ritten o&&er to provide the 1orresponding %ource. ;his alternative is allo6ed onl occasionall and nonco!!erciall , and onl i& ou received the ob#ect code 6ith such an o&&er, in accord 6ith subsection ?b. d) 1onve the ob#ect code b o&&ering access &ro! a designated place (gratis or &or a charge), and o&&er e'uivalent access to the 1orresponding %ource in the sa!e 6a through the sa!e place at no &urther charge. \ou need not re'uire recipients to cop the 1orresponding %ource along 6ith the ob#ect code. A& the place to cop the ob#ect code is a net6orO server, the 1orresponding %ource !a be on a di&&erent server (operated b ou or a third part ) that supports e'uivalent cop ing &acilities, provided ou !aintain clear directions ne7t to the ob#ect code sa ing 6here to &ind the 1orresponding %ource. Regardless o& 6hat server hosts the 1orresponding %ource, ou re!ain obligated to ensure that it is available &or as long as needed to satis& these re'uire!ents. e) 1onve the ob#ect code using peerJtoJpeer trans!ission, provided ou in&or! other peers 6here the ob#ect code and 1orresponding %ource o& the 6orO are being o&&ered to the general public at no charge under subsection ?d. A separable portion o& the ob#ect code, 6hose source code is e7cluded &ro! the 1orresponding %ource as a % ste! 0ibrar , need not be included in conve ing the ob#ect code 6orO.

5?
A ]User Product] is either (1) a ]consu!er product], 6hich !eans an tangible personal propert 6hich is nor!all used &or personal, &a!il , or household purposes, or (C) an thing designed or sold &or incorporation into a d6elling. An deter!ining 6hether a product is a consu!er product, doubt&ul cases shall be resolved in &avor o& coverage. 4or a particular product received b a particular user, ]nor!all used] re&ers to a t pical or co!!on use o& that class o& product, regardless o& the status o& the particular user or o& the 6a in 6hich the particular user actuall uses, or e7pects or is e7pected to use, the product. A product is a consu!er product regardless o& 6hether the product has substantial co!!ercial, industrial or nonJconsu!er uses, unless such uses represent the onl signi&icant !ode o& use o& the product. ]Anstallation An&or!ation] &or a User Product !eans an !ethods, procedures, authori/ation Oe s, or other in&or!ation re'uired to install and e7ecute !odi&ied versions o& a covered 6orO in that User Product &ro! a !odi&ied version o& its 1orresponding %ource. ;he in&or!ation !ust su&&ice to ensure that the continued &unctioning o& the !odi&ied ob#ect code is in no case prevented or inter&ered 6ith solel because !odi&ication has been !ade. A& ou conve an ob#ect code 6orO under this section in, or 6ith, or speci&icall &or use in, a User Product, and the conve ing occurs as part o& a transaction in 6hich the right o& possession and use o& the User Product is trans&erred to the recipient in perpetuit or &or a &i7ed ter! (regardless o& ho6 the transaction is characteri/ed), the 1orresponding %ource conve ed under this section !ust be acco!panied b the Anstallation An&or!ation. But this re'uire!ent does not appl i& neither ou nor an third part retains the abilit to install !odi&ied ob#ect code on the User Product (&or e7a!ple, the 6orO has been installed in R:M). ;he re'uire!ent to provide Anstallation An&or!ation does not include a re'uire!ent to continue to provide support service, 6arrant , or updates &or a 6orO that has been !odi&ied or installed b the recipient, or &or the User Product in 6hich it has been !odi&ied or installed. Access to a net6orO !a be denied 6hen the !odi&ication itsel& !ateriall and adversel a&&ects the operation o& the net6orO or violates the rules and protocols &or co!!unication across the net6orO. 1orresponding %ource conve ed, and Anstallation An&or!ation provided, in accord 6ith this section !ust be in a &or!at that is publicl docu!ented (and 6ith an i!ple!entation available to the public in source code &or!), and !ust re'uire no special pass6ord or Oe &or unpacOing, reading or cop ing. B. $dditional 8er#s. ]Additional per!issions] are ter!s that supple!ent the ter!s o& this 0icense b !aOing e7ceptions &ro! one or !ore o& its conditions. Additional per!issions that are applicable to the entire Progra! shall be treated as though the 6ere included in this 0icense, to the e7tent that the are valid under applicable la6. A& additional per!issions appl onl to part o& the Progra!, that part !a be used separatel under those per!issions, but the entire Progra! re!ains governed b this 0icense 6ithout regard to the additional per!issions. >hen ou conve a cop o& a covered 6orO, ou !a at our option re!ove an additional per!issions &ro! that cop , or &ro! an part o& it. (Additional per!issions !a be 6ritten to re'uire their o6n re!oval in certain cases 6hen ou !odi& the 6orO.) \ou !a place additional per!issions on !aterial, added b ou to a covered 6orO, &or 6hich ou have or can give appropriate cop right per!ission. 3ot6ithstanding an other provision o& this 0icense, &or !aterial ou add to a covered 6orO, ou !a (i& authori/ed b the cop right holders o& that !aterial) supple!ent the ter!s o& this 0icense 6ith ter!s$ a) Disclai!ing 6arrant or li!iting liabilit di&&erentl &ro! the ter!s o& sections 1< and 1? o& this 0icense( or b) Re'uiring preservation o& speci&ied reasonable legal notices or author attributions in that !aterial or in the Appropriate 0egal 3otices displa ed b 6orOs containing it( or c) Prohibiting !isrepresentation o& the origin o& that !aterial, or re'uiring that !odi&ied versions o& such !aterial be !arOed in reasonable 6a s as di&&erent &ro! the original version( or d) 0i!iting the use &or publicit purposes o& na!es o& licensors or authors o& the !aterial( or e) Declining to grant rights under trade!arO la6 &or use o& so!e trade na!es, trade!arOs, or service !arOs( or &) Re'uiring inde!ni&ication o& licensors and authors o& that !aterial b an one 6ho conve s the !aterial (or !odi&ied versions o& it) 6ith contractual assu!ptions o& liabilit to the recipient, &or an liabilit that these contractual assu!ptions directl i!pose on those licensors and authors. All other nonJper!issive additional ter!s are considered ]&urther restrictions] 6ithin the !eaning o& section 10. A& the Progra! as ou received it, or an part o& it, contains a notice stating that it is governed b this 0icense along 6ith a ter! that is a &urther restriction, ou !a re!ove that ter!. A& a license docu!ent contains a &urther restriction but per!its relicensing or conve ing under this 0icense, ou !a add to a covered 6orO !aterial governed b the ter!s o& that license docu!ent, provided that the &urther restriction does not survive such relicensing or conve ing. A& ou add ter!s to a covered 6orO in accord 6ith this section, ou !ust place, in the relevant source &iles, a state!ent o& the additional ter!s that appl to those &iles, or a notice indicating 6here to &ind the applicable ter!s. Additional ter!s, per!issive or nonJper!issive, !a be stated in the &or! o& a separatel 6ritten license, or stated as e7ceptions( the above re'uire!ents appl either 6a . C. 8er#ination. \ou !a not propagate or !odi& a covered 6orO e7cept as e7pressl provided under this 0icense. An atte!pt other6ise to propagate or !odi& it is void, and 6ill auto!aticall ter!inate our rights under this 0icense (including an patent licenses granted under the third paragraph o& section 11).

5@
Do6ever, i& ou cease all violation o& this 0icense, then our license &ro! a particular cop right holder is reinstated (a) provisionall , unless and until the cop right holder e7plicitl and &inall ter!inates our license, and (b) per!anentl , i& the cop right holder &ails to noti& ou o& the violation b so!e reasonable !eans prior to ?0 da s a&ter the cessation. Moreover, our license &ro! a particular cop right holder is reinstated per!anentl i& the cop right holder noti&ies ou o& the violation b so!e reasonable !eans, this is the &irst ti!e ou have received notice o& violation o& this 0icense (&or an 6orO) &ro! that cop right holder, and ou cure the violation prior to 50 da s a&ter our receipt o& the notice. ;er!ination o& our rights under this section does not ter!inate the licenses o& parties 6ho have received copies or rights &ro! ou under this 0icense. A& our rights have been ter!inated and not per!anentl reinstated, ou do not 'uali& to receive ne6 licenses &or the sa!e !aterial under section 10. I. $cceptance ,ot ReKuired for Ha"in3 !opies. \ou are not re'uired to accept this 0icense in order to receive or run a cop o& the Progra!. Ancillar propagation o& a covered 6orO occurring solel as a conse'uence o& using peerJtoJpeer trans!ission to receive a cop liOe6ise does not re'uire acceptance. Do6ever, nothing other than this 0icense grants ou per!ission to propagate or !odi& an covered 6orO. ;hese actions in&ringe cop right i& ou do not accept this 0icense. ;here&ore, b !odi& ing or propagating a covered 6orO, ou indicate our acceptance o& this 0icense to do so. 10. $uto#atic Licensin3 of -o2nstrea# Recipients. *ach ti!e ou conve a covered 6orO, the recipient auto!aticall receives a license &ro! the original licensors, to run, !odi& and propagate that 6orO, sub#ect to this 0icense. \ou are not responsible &or en&orcing co!pliance b third parties 6ith this 0icense. An ]entit transaction] is a transaction trans&erring control o& an organi/ation, or substantiall all assets o& one, or subdividing an organi/ation, or !erging organi/ations. A& propagation o& a covered 6orO results &ro! an entit transaction, each part to that transaction 6ho receives a cop o& the 6orO also receives 6hatever licenses to the 6orO the part Zs predecessor in interest had or could give under the previous paragraph, plus a right to possession o& the 1orresponding %ource o& the 6orO &ro! the predecessor in interest, i& the predecessor has it or can get it 6ith reasonable e&&orts. \ou !a not i!pose an &urther restrictions on the e7ercise o& the rights granted or a&&ir!ed under this 0icense. 4or e7a!ple, ou !a not i!pose a license &ee, ro alt , or other charge &or e7ercise o& rights granted under this 0icense, and ou !a not initiate litigation (including a crossJclai! or counterclai! in a la6suit) alleging that an patent clai! is in&ringed b !aOing, using, selling, o&&ering &or sale, or i!porting the Progra! or an portion o& it. 11. Patents. A ]contributor] is a cop right holder 6ho authori/es use under this 0icense o& the Progra! or a 6orO on 6hich the Progra! is based. ;he 6orO thus licensed is called the contributorZs ]contributor version]. A contributorZs ]essential patent clai!s] are all patent clai!s o6ned or controlled b the contributor, 6hether alread ac'uired or herea&ter ac'uired, that 6ould be in&ringed b so!e !anner, per!itted b this 0icense, o& !aOing, using, or selling its contributor version, but do not include clai!s that 6ould be in&ringed onl as a conse'uence o& &urther !odi&ication o& the contributor version. 4or purposes o& this de&inition, ]control] includes the right to grant patent sublicenses in a !anner consistent 6ith the re'uire!ents o& this 0icense. *ach contributor grants ou a nonJe7clusive, 6orld6ide, ro alt J&ree patent license under the contributorZs essential patent clai!s, to !aOe, use, sell, o&&er &or sale, i!port and other6ise run, !odi& and propagate the contents o& its contributor version. An the &ollo6ing three paragraphs, a ]patent license] is an e7press agree!ent or co!!it!ent, ho6ever deno!inated, not to en&orce a patent (such as an e7press per!ission to practice a patent or covenant not to sue &or patent in&ringe!ent). ;o ]grant] such a patent license to a part !eans to !aOe such an agree!ent or co!!it!ent not to en&orce a patent against the part . A& ou conve a covered 6orO, Ono6ingl rel ing on a patent license, and the 1orresponding %ource o& the 6orO is not available &or an one to cop , &ree o& charge and under the ter!s o& this 0icense, through a publicl available net6orO server or other readil accessible !eans, then ou !ust either (1) cause the 1orresponding %ource to be so available, or (C) arrange to deprive oursel& o& the bene&it o& the patent license &or this particular 6orO, or (5) arrange, in a !anner consistent 6ith the re'uire!ents o& this 0icense, to e7tend the patent license to do6nstrea! recipients. ]Ino6ingl rel ing] !eans ou have actual Ono6ledge that, but &or the patent license, our conve ing the covered 6orO in a countr , or our recipientZs use o& the covered 6orO in a countr , 6ould in&ringe one or !ore identi&iable patents in that countr that ou have reason to believe are valid. A&, pursuant to or in connection 6ith a single transaction or arrange!ent, ou conve , or propagate b procuring conve ance o&, a covered 6orO, and grant a patent license to so!e o& the parties receiving the covered 6orO authori/ing the! to use, propagate, !odi& or conve a speci&ic cop o& the covered 6orO, then the patent license ou grant is auto!aticall e7tended to all recipients o& the covered 6orO and 6orOs based on it. A patent license is ]discri!inator ] i& it does not include 6ithin the scope o& its coverage, prohibits the e7ercise o&, or is conditioned on the nonJ e7ercise o& one or !ore o& the rights that are speci&icall granted under this 0icense. \ou !a not conve a covered 6orO i& ou are a part to an arrange!ent 6ith a third part that is in the business o& distributing so&t6are, under 6hich ou !aOe pa !ent to the third part based on the e7tent o& our activit o& conve ing the 6orO, and under 6hich the third part grants, to an o& the parties 6ho 6ould receive the covered 6orO &ro! ou, a discri!inator patent license (a) in connection 6ith copies o& the covered 6orO conve ed b ou (or copies !ade &ro! those copies), or (b) pri!aril &or and in connection 6ith speci&ic products or co!pilations that contain the covered 6orO, unless ou entered into that arrange!ent, or that patent license 6as granted, prior to CF March C00@.

5F
3othing in this 0icense shall be construed as e7cluding or li!iting an i!plied license or other de&enses to in&ringe!ent that !a other6ise be available to ou under applicable patent la6. 12. ,o &urrender of <t'ersJ Freedo#. A& conditions are i!posed on ou (6hether b court order, agree!ent or other6ise) that contradict the conditions o& this 0icense, the do not e7cuse ou &ro! the conditions o& this 0icense. A& ou cannot conve a covered 6orO so as to satis& si!ultaneousl our obligations under this 0icense and an other pertinent obligations, then as a conse'uence ou !a not conve it at all. 4or e7a!ple, i& ou agree to ter!s that obligate ou to collect a ro alt &or &urther conve ing &ro! those to 6ho! ou conve the Progra!, the onl 6a ou could satis& both those ter!s and this 0icense 6ould be to re&rain entirel &ro! conve ing the Progra!. 1). *se 2it' t'e +,* $ffero +eneral Pu lic License. 3ot6ithstanding an other provision o& this 0icense, ou have per!ission to linO or co!bine an covered 6orO 6ith a 6orO licensed under version 5 o& the 23U A&&ero 2eneral Public 0icense into a single co!bined 6orO, and to conve the resulting 6orO. ;he ter!s o& this 0icense 6ill continue to appl to the part 6hich is the covered 6orO, but the special re'uire!ents o& the 23U A&&ero 2eneral Public 0icense, section 15, concerning interaction through a net6orO 6ill appl to the co!bination as such. 1F. Re"ised Dersions of t'is License. ;he 4ree %o&t6are 4oundation !a publish revised and^or ne6 versions o& the 23U 2eneral Public 0icense &ro! ti!e to ti!e. %uch ne6 versions 6ill be si!ilar in spirit to the present version, but !a di&&er in detail to address ne6 proble!s or concerns. *ach version is given a distinguishing version nu!ber. A& the Progra! speci&ies that a certain nu!bered version o& the 23U 2eneral Public 0icense ]or an later version] applies to it, ou have the option o& &ollo6ing the ter!s and conditions either o& that nu!bered version or o& an later version published b the 4ree %o&t6are 4oundation. A& the Progra! does not speci& a version nu!ber o& the 23U 2eneral Public 0icense, ou !a choose an version ever published b the 4ree %o&t6are 4oundation. A& the Progra! speci&ies that a pro7 can decide 6hich &uture versions o& the 23U 2eneral Public 0icense can be used, that pro7 Zs public state!ent o& acceptance o& a version per!anentl authori/es ou to choose that version &or the Progra!. 0ater license versions !a give ou additional or di&&erent per!issions. Do6ever, no additional obligations are i!posed on an author or cop right holder as a result o& our choosing to &ollo6 a later version. 1A. -isclai#er of ?arrant.. ;D*R* A% 3: >ARRA3;\ 4:R ;D* PR:2RAM, ;: ;D* *N;*3; P*RMA;;*D B\ APP0A1AB0* 0A>. *N1*P; >D*3 :;D*R>A%* %;A;*D A3 >RA;A32 ;D* 1:P\RA2D; D:0D*R% A3D^:R :;D*R PAR;A*% PR:9AD* ;D* PR:2RAM ]A% A%] >A;D:U; >ARRA3;\ :4 A3\ IA3D, *A;D*R *NPR*%%*D :R AMP0A*D, A310UDA32, BU; 3:; 0AMA;*D ;:, ;D* AMP0A*D >ARRA3;A*% :4 M*R1DA3;ABA0A;\ A3D 4A;3*%% 4:R A PAR;A1U0AR PURP:%*. ;D* *3;AR* RA%I A% ;: ;D* _UA0A;\ A3D P*R4:RMA31* :4 ;D* PR:2RAM A% >A;D \:U. %D:U0D ;D* PR:2RAM PR:9* D*4*1;A9*, \:U A%%UM* ;D* 1:%; :4 A00 3*1*%%AR\ %*R9A1A32, R*PAAR :R 1:RR*1;A:3. 1G. Li#itation of Lia ilit.. A3 3: *9*3; U30*%% R*_UAR*D B\ APP0A1AB0* 0A> :R A2R**D ;: A3 >RA;A32 >A00 A3\ 1:P\RA2D; D:0D*R, :R A3\ :;D*R PAR;\ >D: M:DA4A*% A3D^:R 1:39*\% ;D* PR:2RAM A% P*RMA;;*D AB:9*, B* 0AAB0* ;: \:U 4:R DAMA2*%, A310UDA32 A3\ 2*3*RA0, %P*1AA0, A31AD*3;A0 :R 1:3%*_U*3;AA0 DAMA2*% ARA%A32 :U; :4 ;D* U%* :R A3ABA0A;\ ;: U%* ;D* PR:2RAM (A310UDA32 BU; 3:; 0AMA;*D ;: 0:%% :4 DA;A :R DA;A B*A32 R*3D*R*D A3A11URA;* :R 0:%%*% %U%;AA3*D B\ \:U :R ;DARD PAR;A*% :R A 4AA0UR* :4 ;D* PR:2RAM ;: :P*RA;* >A;D A3\ :;D*R PR:2RAM%), *9*3 A4 %U1D D:0D*R :R :;D*R PAR;\ DA% B**3 AD9A%*D :4 ;D* P:%%ABA0A;\ :4 %U1D DAMA2*%. 1B. Interpretation of &ections 1A and 1G. A& the disclai!er o& 6arrant and li!itation o& liabilit provided above cannot be given local legal e&&ect according to their ter!s, revie6ing courts shall appl local la6 that !ost closel appro7i!ates an absolute 6aiver o& all civil liabilit in connection 6ith the Progra!, unless a 6arrant or assu!ption o& liabilit acco!panies a cop o& the Progra! in return &or a &ee.

5,- <F 85RM& $,- !<,-I8I<,&

Ho2 to $ppl. 8'ese 8er#s to @our ,e2 Pro3ra#s A& ou develop a ne6 progra!, and ou 6ant it to be o& the greatest possible use to the public, the best 6a to achieve this is to !aOe it &ree so&t6are 6hich ever one can redistribute and change under these ter!s.

5B
;o do so, attach the &ollo6ing notices to the progra!. At is sa&est to attach the! to the start o& each source &ile to !ost e&&ectivel state the e7clusion o& 6arrant ( and each &ile should have at least the ]cop right] line and a pointer to 6here the &ull notice is &ound. Gone line to give the program:s name and a brief idea of (hat it does1H opyright ? @ GyearH Gname of authorH This program is free soft(are: you can redistribute it andBor modify it under the terms of the =A3 =eneral Public License as published by the 9ree 0oft(are 9oundation; either version D of the License; or ?at your option@ any later version1 This program is distributed in the hope that it (ill be useful; but *IT<%3T /A> */88/AT>E (ithout even the implied (arranty of +E8 </AT/5ILIT> or 9ITAE00 9%8 / P/8TI 3L/8 P38P%0E1 0ee the =A3 =eneral Public License for more details1 >ou should have received a copy of the =A3 =eneral Public License along (ith this program1 If not; see Ghttp:BB(((1gnu1orgBlicensesBH1 Also add in&or!ation on ho6 to contact ou b electronic and paper !ail. A& the progra! does ter!inal interaction, !aOe it output a short notice liOe this 6hen it starts in an interactive !ode$ GprogramH opyright ? @ GyearH Gname of authorH This program comes (ith /50%L3TEL> A% */88/AT>E for details type Isho( (:1 This is free soft(are; and you are (elcome to redistribute it under certain conditionsE type Isho( c: for details1 ;he h pothetical co!!ands dsho6 6Z and dsho6 cZ should sho6 the appropriate parts o& the 2eneral Public 0icense. :& course, our progra!Zs co!!ands !ight be di&&erent( &or a 2UA inter&ace, ou 6ould use an ]about bo7]. \ou should also get our e!plo er (i& ou 6orO as a progra!!er) or school, i& an , to sign a ]cop right disclai!er] &or the progra!, i& necessar . 4or !ore in&or!ation on this, and ho6 to appl and &ollo6 the 23U 2P0, see ahttp$^^666.gnu.org^licenses^b. ;he 23U 2eneral Public 0icense does not per!it incorporating our progra! into proprietar progra!s. A& our progra! is a subroutine librar , ou !a consider it !ore use&ul to per!it linOing proprietar applications 6ith the librar . A& this is 6hat ou 6ant to do, use the 23U 0esser 2eneral Public 0icense instead o& this 0icense. But &irst, please read ahttp$^^666.gnu.org^philosoph ^6h JnotJlgpl.ht!lb.

*ste docu!ento se cre) usando e7clusiva!ente programas libres, seg"n se de&ine por el Pro ecto 23U la 4ree %o&t6are 4oundation$ http$^^666.gnu.org^philosoph ^&reeJs6.es.ht!l *l siste!a operativo 'ue sirvi) de plata&or!a para este escrito es 23U^0inu7. 23U es desarrollado por el Pro ecto 23U, !ientras 'ue 0inu7 es un Oernel desarrollado por la 0inu7 4oundation$ http$^^666.gnu.org http$^^666.Oernel.org 0a letra utili/ada para crear este docu!ento es 0inu7 0ibertine, un sustituto libre de la letra propietaria de Microso&t, ;i!es 3e6 Ro!an$ http$^^linu7libertine.source&orge.net^ %e utili/) una !odi&icaci)n de :pen:&&ice.org co!o progra!a principal para crear el docu!ento. *ste progra!a est8 disponible ba#o licencias libres$ http$^^goJoo.org^

A!agen del 23U a color por =oseph >. Reiss, cu os derechos de autor trans&iri) a la 4ree %o&t6are 4oundation, est8 disponible ba#o la 4ree Art 0icense. 0a i!agen de ;u7 (pingPino) creada por 0arr *6ig (le6igeisc.ta!u,edu) .ste per!ite su uso libre.

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