OHIEHTAL RESEARCH INSTITUTE LIBRARY

ACCESSION No.

CALL No.
SRI

VENKATESWARA UNIVERSITY
TIRUPATI

SAMBODHI
1
OL.

XX

""sr*^

*.*P-ATI.
,

AV
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\gpfJ[TORS
J.

B.

N.

M.

SHAH KANSAEA

L. D.

INSTITUTE OK*

SAMBODHI
VOL. XX 1996
Editors
J.
:

B.

Shah

N. M. Kansara

Published by
J.

B.

Shah
380 009
(India)

L.

D.

Institute of Indology
-

Ahmedabad
Price

Rs.

Computer type

setting

Sharadaben Chimanbhai Educational Research Centre, 'Darshan' Opp. Ranakpur Society, Shahibag, Ahmedabad-380 004 (India)
Printer
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CONTENTS
1.

Natyasastra, Sanskrit

Drama And
Transmission

Its

Theatre

R. V. Tripathi

2.

Some Notes On The

The Aydrahgasutta
Middle Indie
tuvatta

On
Colette Caillat

12

3.

Herman Tieken
:

16

4.

5.

PustimargI Poetry in Gujarati The Lord of Braj Travelled to Gujarat Twice Self-Luminosity of Consciousness in Advaita

Mallison

24

Vedanta As Explained
6.

in the

Nyayamakaranda

Rabindra Kumar

'Niravasita'

Pandya M. Srimannarayana
Murti
:

32 43 62

A Discovery of Candraleldiavijaya Prakarana an Island of Dramatic Excellence

Heretical Conception of Universe

Vijay Pandya

And

Jain

Critique as Depicted in the Sutrakrtanga Commentary of Silaiika

Kalinjar Fort
:

Ch. Lalitha

67
73

The Time Winner AncientDinesh Chandra

10.

11.

most Fort of India Variants From Venisamhara and The Kavyaprakasa of Mamrnata Alamkara - Dappana
fit

Jagriti

Pandya

H. C. Bhayani

12.
13.

*P?T

"ff

14.

15.

16.

sfaUH HldHM. [Vt-HtdHMl

17. 18.
oftH&q.

it. illrd.ClLC-1

5HR.

HldL
19.
l6

145

147 167
191

20.
21.

Reviews

N. M. Kansara

NATYASASTRA, SANSKRIT

DRAMA AND

ITS

THEATRE

R. V. Tripathi

drama, there is hardly any author who is unacquainted with the Natyasastra of Bharata. It is presumed that Bhasa, being anterior, does not exhibit the influence of the tradition of NS, and the structure
In the classical tradition of Sanskrit

of the so-called Bhasa-plays,

as wellj as several motifs utilised therein violate

Bharata's maxims. Bhasa presents scenes of death and combats

is

on the

stage;

he

supposed to have composed two tragedies

the
so-called Bhasa-plays present

Urubhangam and Karnabhdram.

Besides,

several difficulties

when we

try to

them on the basis of the principles of Sanskrit dramaturgy spelt out by Bharata in his magnum opus. What type of play
assess or evaluate

as
is

Prati}fiayaugandharayana (which at least is one of the two or three genuine Bhasa-plays) ? Is it a Prakarana, a Ndtaka or an flmmrga ? It does follow the
characteristics of an

designates

it

a Prafcarana

Ihamrga to a certain extent, but then the author himself There are difficulties in defining the phalaprdpti (the
1
.

resolution) of this play and the

protagonist of this play in terms of NS.

The following features of the the dicta of Bharata's NS

:

so-called Bhasa-plays particularly go contrary to

1.

Introduction by the sutradhdra;

2.

Death scenes

in Abhiseka

and Pratimd;
B/icuta-va/cya
in

3.

The absence

of

regular

Madhyamavydyoga and

Dutaghatotkaca;
4.

3.18 which has

5.

Use of rare grammatical phrases like 'cekndita' etc. as found in Avimdraka and strictly been prohibited by Bharata;
as blue in Abhiseka,
in NS.

Bhasa has described the colour of Varuna

whereas the

gods are described as having bright or white complexion

Even Svapnavdsavadattam of Bhasa, unanimously upheld as one of the greatest classical Sanskrit plays and supposed to be a Ndtaka in our tradition and cited
as a

Ndtaka by a number of

rhetoricians.,
is

does not conform to the definitions

of a dhlralalita type of hero (instead

of a Ndtaka in toto.

Udayana here

more

of a Dhlroddtta type as required) and instead of one, there are two heroines; and curiously enough, the hero goes on loving the senior heroine (jyesthd

R.

V.

TRIPATHI

SAMBODHI

innermost feelings of his heart. Four of Bhisa's plays Madhyamavydyoga (a vyoyoga), Pancardrra (a Samavakdra'), Karnabhdra and Umbhanga (both Utsrstikaiikas) can be classified under the Das'arupaka (ten major types of drama); but they do not fully or categorically agree with
Bharata's definitions of Vydyoga, Samavakdra and Utsrstikdnka, respectively. It is also to be noted that these forms have become very rare in the later tradition of Sanskrit drama.

nqyifco) only with the

And
out.

yet, Bhasa's

acquiantance with the Ndtyasdstra cannot altogether be ruled

mouth of Vidusaka in his Avimdraka. Boasting of his scholarship, the buffoon claims to have studied a Ndtyas'dsfra, called Rdmdyana. Bhasa was thus aware of a discipline like Ndtyasdstra, which might not have been the NS of Bharata in the strict sense. Most probably, Bhasa, if he really came before the author or the authors of NS, was aware of
fell out of vogue after the inception of recognise a parallel tradition by providing options to his injunctions, prohibitions or codes. Even the strict ruling against

He

puts a curious sentence in the

some

sastric^

tradition of Ndtya

which

Bharata's

MS.

Bharata seems

to

representing sleep, whether alone or with a companion has been provided with

an amendment

ft

(NS XXII. 296)

(or else, the actor
if this

may

represent sleep alone, or with a companion on the stage

serves

some

specific purpose).

This

has done in Act V of his exactly Svapnavdsavadattam - in the is unique in Sanskrit drama charged with the creative imagination of a master dramatist and bringing out the most subtle and tender emotions and intrigues of human nature. and Udayaiia Vasavadatta, yearning to see each other, are brought together and are
is

what Bhasa

dream-scene which

made to share incidentally same bed most innocently. Either Bharata has supplemented his rule with above amendment to justify what Bhasa has done in Svapna, and to indicate

the

the
his

appreciation of a unique dramatic sequence designed by the dramatist; or, the author of NS has simply recorded and accommodated an alternate tradition, which Bhasa has followed.

Bhasa had a
practice.

fully

During

his

'Nataka'

on any occasion

developed system of theatre before himself both in theory and times, the King maintained a repertoire for presenting at a very short notice. In Pratima, the troupe

Vol.

XX,

1996

NATYASASTRA, SANSKRIT DRAMA...

is

maintained by the King Dasaratha

troupe
the

ordered

evening suitable to the occasion of the

has a lady in charge
-

present a 'Nataka' the same coronation ceremony of Rama. This

to

'nepathyapalini'. Apart

'Bhasa

plays,

it

of costumes and properties, and she is called from the controversy about the period and authorship of cannot be denied that some sort of corelation exists
MS'.

between them and the

The

last

verse of

NS XXVII. echoes some

;

of the

dialogues and phrases of Bharatavdkyas in Bhasa-plays

t% ^i-q^ <H^U[[

"R^J

ci^Hdl

H<HRl:

TRJ

The specimen of Nan di -verses

as given in the

NS

(V.

104-109) are

also

worthy

of consideration in the context of Bhasa's Bharata-vakyas.

In a sharp contrast with Bhasa's, Kalidasa's position with respect to, the

NS

is

altogether different. Bhasa perhaps did not know of Bharatamuni, the mythical author of the NS, and might not have been familiar with the concepts and the systems of this NS, but Kalidasa evinces great regard for Bharata as the

exponent par' excellence of the art of theatre. In his Vikram. Urvasi is called back to heaven as Indra wants to witness a performance for which Bharata had
trained the apsaras
ljflT
:

(Vifc.

II.

17)
as astarasasraya (based

The prayoga given by Bharata has been described

eight rasas) by Kalidasa here.
It is
is

on the

also said to be

lalitdbhinaya
of the

(with graceful

enactment).

Evidently Kalidasa

aware of the myth

apsaras

being

associated with theatrical performances organised

as described in the
I

by the

great savant, Bharata,

chap, of NS. Indra's active interest in Bharata's debut

in NS' also. Thus, Kalidas

on

theatre

is

very

much emphasised

seems

to

up I and the

the context of Bharata's performance in heaven (as referred in

last

have picked Vifc.) from the

(XXXVII) chapters of NS. Secondly, he

is

aware of the existence

of eight rasas only in the context of dramatic performances.

familiar,

therefore, with the recension of

He might have been NS which deals with the eight rasas

only and the portion accepting Santa as the ninth rasa interpolated perhaps at a later stage which found a great supporter and exponent in Abhinavagupta, did

R.

V.

TRIPATHI

SAMBODHI

knowledge. May be that he was aware of a discussion and controversy between the supporters and opponents of Santa and he rather to be repudiating the appears theory of Santa as a rasa in Vik. itself where he that suggests beauty cannot be created through detachment from worldly
j

not

come

to

Kalidasa's

objects

Abhinavagupta has taken up this view as piwapaksa in establishing his theory of Santarosa or Santa as the mdliarasa.
Kalidas

concepts

witness a performance
vrtfts,

very well aware of the whole gamut of technical terms and various and systems propounded in the NS. In Kumara. S'iva and Parvati by the apsaras, which is said to be having sandhis and rasas and ragas as well as
is

graceful ahgaharas also

(Kumara.
Kalidas has not only picked up terms captured the very spirit of NS in the

VII.

91)

and phrases from the NS, but has also

praise of Natya
:

(Malavika.

I.

4)

Natya as a cdfcsusa yajfia,

representation of lokacarita
pleasing people

biforcation into two forms of taandava and lasya (deeds of the people) in it, and 'its capability of of different tastes all these ideas as Kalidas expressed

its

through Natyacaiya Ganadasa here remind us of the treatment of Natya in the 1 Chap, of the NS, which Kalidas appears to have thoroughly studied.
This apart, even the themetic contents of Vik. and their treatment been mspired by NS, which speaks of descent of from

by

seem

to

have

Urvaas downfall
stand-still.

Natya

heaven with

Afterwards, because of the disappearance of UrvasI the theatric activities of the royal harem came to a Therefore, Nahusa, the grandson of Pururavas rightly requested Bharata to arrange for a revival of Nd^a in his on
territory

to join

the

harem of Pururavas.

earth

Vol.

XX,

1996

NATYASASTRA, SANSKRIT DRAMA...

HHIM! Rnci^

II

(NS, XXXVII.
Kalidas
is

9-11)

have conceived the theme of Vik. by the Rgvedic hymn on the dialogue of Purfiravas and Urvasi and the section of the Brdhmana explaining the legend in detail. But we find Kalidasa introducing a completely supposed
to

new element
curse

that of a curse

into the Vedic legend;

and

interestingly, this
raises a

comes from Bharatamuni

himself. In his NS,

Bharatamuni himself
celestial

question
(apsaras*)

possible in a dramatic piece ? The apsaras are above and being divine, are immune to love. NS suggests that playful love between an apsara and a human being can be represented in various ways

how can can be made

the

union between a mortal and a

nymph

human

passions,

by showing her

invisible

and trying

to

tempt the hero by appearing

for a

again disappearing or by sending some cloth, ornament, garland or An apsara by all these sportive activities (upacdras) can lead the mortal hero to the state of madness (unrndda) 2 This is exactly what Urvasi does a love-letter.
.

moment and

in Kalidasa's play. This portion of NS.

therefore,

was

either interpolated

on

the

basis

of Vik. of Kalidas or

if

it

is

really

anterior to

the great poet, he has

definitely

made

a very creative use of the references in

NS

describing the love

between a mortal and an apsardh.

The
upacdra-vidln
to

for

hero

is

performed by three types

(prafcrris)
i.e.

of

heroines
(external),

belonging

three

different

categories

bdhyd

dbhyantard (internal) and bdhydbhyantard (external-cum -internal). A heroine coming from an aristrocratic family is dbhyantard prakiti, a courtesan is that of
the bdhyd type. Bharat rules out any intercourse of the Dhiroddtta hero with the bdhyd type in a Ndtaka bringing out the scene of the royal harem. But the contact with a celestial nymph is permitted 3 This is exactly what Kalidas has
.

done in
former
to

Vik.

and

S'afc.

Abhinava has rightly picked up the example of the

illustrate Bharata's
is

maxim

here.

Evidently there

a corelation between the creative process of Vik.

and the

treatment of love in NS as referred above.

dealing with the theme of

knowledge of the

The chap. XXII of NS also, therefore, triple prakiti of the heroines might have been in the dramatist. Malavika. also reveals some of the great poet

R.

V.

TRIPATHI

SAMBODHI

dramatic tenets contained in the NS. Here Kalidas has depicted the abhyantara
type of upacara.

The

tussle

between the king and queen

desperate attempts to please her with the dicta of NS

:

Iravati

and Agnimitra's

all

such scenes in Mai. are in accordance

Tier

TIT

fcirHJTlH>u|

(NS

XXII. 280-294)

The

represented in Bhasa's plays too. But the idea of extramarital love love in camouflage has not crept in there. It is only with Kilidasthat the hero of Sanskrit drama (Nataka and Natika) starts hunting for the company of a beloved outside the circle of the royal harem. This tendency of the hero is defined as pracchannakamita (love in disguise) in NS with reference to the dramas dealing with royal harem and the theme of love. The theory of p/'acc/iannafcamitd as treated in ATS is to all

royal

harem

is

fully applicable

the three

plays of Kalidas.

cff

'W
(NS
-

"tfcf:

||

205-207)

(Owing to the respect for the senior queens and fear for the desirable queens the king tries for secret love-affairs towards the other ladies of the harem There are numerous for the ways love-sports of the but
kings,

please

them

the secret love-affairs

the

most. The inclination towards the other

exciting,

prohibited

becomes

woman which
is

is

because

that

which

is

unattainable

very

Vol.

XX,

1996

NATYASASTRA, SANSKRIT DRAMA...

attractive.)

Kalidas has realised this very concept, i.e. the hero treading on the prohibited track in search for something unique and unattainable. He has, however,

brought

his

heroes in two of his

(later ?)
falls

plays, out of the

narrow

circle of the

royal harem. But then, this also

in line with the

dicta of the

NS.

Apart from this application of various concepts of the

Kalidas has, in fact assimilated and practised the most essential fundamentals of Bharata's aesthetic

NS

dramatic principles. Sativa (concentration of the actor within his own psyche to enter the texture of the character to be represented) is the basic of Bharata's philosophy of abhinaya. Kalidas was aware of it. Ganadasa reminds Malavika in the II act of Mai before her performance of chalita ndtya
:

and

While sddhvasa (nervousness before the entry on the stage) is a disqualification for a performing artist, being free from it is a quality called pragalbhata
:

y^hPiHfiseracTF

wr?f 'y^i^
(NS
-

XXII. 31)

Kalidas

was aware of both

the concepts of sattva

and sddhvasa. He has very

summed up the principles of theatrical representation in his description of Malavika's chalita. Retaining the technical terms, he has expressed the essence of Bharata's theory of abhinaya
beautifully
:

(Mai.

II.

8) (physical gesticulation)
is

In the XXII chap, of the MS, Sdrira abhinaya

said to

be of
chap.

six types

vdkya, sued, ankura, sdkhd, ndtydyita and nivittyankura. In VIII

:

Bharata defines three subjects of angika abhinaya sdkhd, nrtta and ankura. Kalidas has grasped the meaning of these concepts and terms and has presented them in the above verse.
Sausthava (beauty of physical posture resulting out of balance of each and every is a desideratum for part of the body) physical gesticulation (angika abhinaya) according to the NS. Parivrajika in Mai rightly lays on the sausthava

emphasis

of the danseuses

R.

V.

TRIPATHI

SAMBODHI

t:

WTt:

Bharata stands for maintaining

dharmi

(modus operand^

a subtle balance between the two types of lokadharml and of prayoga or performance
natyena, sucayitva, rupayitvd, nirupya mode of performance in his plays,

ndtyadhannl. Kalidas has also maintained a balance between these two dharmis
in his dramatic writings.
etc.

The directions and

indicate highly suggestive

stylised

while in a number

directed to perform realistically. For descending from the heaven, the mountain, or the terrace of a palace; ascending on or descending from the chariot; worship, decorating the body, plucking the
of situations the actor
is

flowers,

suggested.

showing love-scenes or similar sequences the stylised postures are a celestial nymph, in act VI of Sdk. is shown The exit of Sanumati
to

by udbhrdntaka karana, which according

the
flight

Raghavabhatta
is

is

used for showing

for

Upwards in the

sky.

Kapota-hasta

indicated

salutation

to
is

Kdmadeva
in

in the worship by the two accordance with MS. Sakuntala's torture by the bee

cetis in act VI of the

same play which

is

to

be delineated

through bhramara hasta (NS' IX. 98) and bhramara angahdra, although K. has not specified them, but the postures or movements of Sakuntala as described by

Dusyanta suggest the use of such an angahdra and hasta

fact,

in this situation. to

In

Kalidas

has even

amended and added something more

,

Bharata's

definition of

vigorously

(karau

Bhramara hasta by describing Sakuntala as As'okamalla vyddhunvatydli)

if

as shaking both the in

his
is

hands

suggested that hands should be shaken vigorously

the bee

Nrtyddhydya has also to be shown

to

hovering above the

artiste in the

performance of Bhramara hasta. This seems

be a Kalidasa-effect on
Sanskrit

later tradition of the theory of abhinaya.

drama

enters a

new phase with Bhavabhuti, who

did not associate

himself with the royal court theatre. Instead, he wrote for the temple theatre, which has been described in the Visnudhannottarapurdna and his plays were

produced on the occasion of the ydtrd festival of a temple Kala-priyandt/m. Even though Bhavabhuti had studied Bharata's NS in depth and details, his dramatic
pieces require a different type of theatre

The view of
selected

theatre has influenced the structure

and a different mode of presentation. and design of his plays. The

dramatist has in his

few

for

mind, the large number of spectators, instead of the which the dramatists attached to the royal court theatre wrote.

Very big crowds assembled, on the occasion of Yatra festivals to see the performances of dramas or dances which went on for a number of days during the period of the festival. Bhavabhuti himself has given a graphic pictures of the

Vol.

XX, 1996

NATYASASTRA, SANSKRIT DRAMA...

to

masses which have come

see the performance of his play

pT3Rf:

(Mdlatimadhava; prologue)
It
is

in

be noted here that the protagonist of this play meets his beloved the gathering of a yatra-festival of some Kamadeva-temple. Several other
also to

incidents take place here within the precincts of a Siva-temple.

We

thus find the

this play.

atmosphere of the ydrrd -festival pervading the texture of the plot of

Bhavabhuti does not adhere
very
strictly.

to

the

norms and precepts

the temple-theatre.

laid

down

in the

NS

This

is

because of his attachment with a different school of our

theatrical tradition.

He belongs

to

We

can understand the

verbosity

and loud-thinking of the characters; the vigorous movements and

requirement of a larger stage-space in the plays of Bhavabhuti in the light of the

theatre he

was writing

for.

Through the temple-theatre, we find the Sanskrit drama reaching and as a result there is increasing interaction with folk-motifs and
The
sastric tradition

the masses,
folk-theatre.

had

already started standardising the minor forms of

!

drama,

termed as the 'uparupakas

of folk-theatre.

These minor forms of drama were

in fact, varieties

The

tradition of the

period. Bharata, in his

minor forms of drama was continuing from pre-Bharata NS concentrated on the major forms and left the task of

evaluation, classification and standardization of the minor forms of

drama

to his

worthy student Kohala

(NS. XXXVII. 18)

The work
to his

of Kohala,

which Bharata had termed

as the

'Uttaratanfra'

sequel

NS, and which is referred to sometimes as the 'Kohallya-Natyasastra' by later rhetoricians, is no more extant. But Kohala was definitely held as an Hema. quote his authority on the so-called uparupakas*. Abhinava. and
definitions of a

own

dozen of such uparupakas,

calling

them nrtyaprabandhas.

Even

in the present texture of the NS, a sizable portion appears to have been 5 Kohala became the exponent of a Kohala and his colleaugues contributed

by

tradition of
to

our theatre which, with Bharata's tradition, and side by

all

its

side with Bharata.

vigour and potentiality ran parallel Kohala exercised great

10

R- V.

TRIPATHI

SAMBODHI

influence

and dramatists. No wonder that Rajasekhara in his Balaramdyana presents Kohala as the Sutradhdra of the play within the play named as Sltasvayamvara to be performed in the court of Ravana, even it was Bharata who had sponsored this though and had also its
later theorists

on the

play

provided

script, as

the Sufradhara Kohala himself informs. In Kalidasa,

authority.

we

find Bharata as

Here Kohala has also found a place side by side with Bharata. This leads us to understand the process of interaction between classical theatre and folk theatre, and the Sanskrit for the new forms
playwright going
of drama,
i.e.,

the

sole

the uparupakas,

which are standardised and

classified

forms of

folk-theatre.

Rajasekhara introduced a number of new features in Sanskrit drama, which were inspired perhaps from a parallel tradition of Ndtyasdstra or from folktheatre. He added dhruvds in his dramas. Employment of puppets, or use of motifs related to puppet theatre is another of speciality Rajasekhara. The central concept of Viddhasdlablianjikd
puppet.
In
is

based on the puppet motif. Sdlabhanjikd

is

Balaramdyana

the

puppet of

STta

is

brought on the stage for

entertaining Ravana.

Rajasekhara has introduced carcan in his Karpuramanjan, giving a lively account of its performance. Carcan has been mentioned and defined the minor

amongst

uparupakas. The carcan as described by Rajasekhara combines a number of group dances - (i) sprinkling of coloured water with lasya type of dance by blowing the pipes, (ii) the dandarasa by thirty-two danseuses in various combinations, (iii) cemetary dance with demon-like masks; (iv) pulinda-dance with feathers of peacocks; and (v) challi or calli dance in

forms of drama or the

accompaniment of hudukkd and mardala.

Several experimentations or designs of various situations in Rajasekhara's dramatic Bharata's norms. Vidusaka in his wears
(pratislrsaka),

a mask Karpuramanjan whereas only the minister, Kancukl and purohita should wear masks according to Bharata. After Bhasa and Bhavabhuti, Rajasekhara also presents a dream-scene on the stage (Viddha. Act III). In Balaramayana a scuffle between Ravana and Parasurama is presented. to the extent Rajasekhara even

pieces violate

showing
(Ibid) or

his heroine taking

svayamvara

of goes her bath (Karpura. ), or presenting marriage rituals scene (Balaramayana and Pracandapandava ) on the stage.

The above examples of Bhasa, Kalidasa, Bhavabhuti and Rajasekhara prove that Bharata has been by and large the mentor and a torch-bearer for
the Sanskrit

Vol.

XX,

1996

NATYASASTRA, SANSKRIT DRAMA...

11

dramatists, but he has not

come

in the

way

of

new

features or attempting innovations.

We

of their creativity and introduction can also understand the three

till

channels through which our theatre grew

after the period of the Epics

the the

medieval age. They are

Open-air Theatre.

the Royal Court Theatre, the

Temple Theatre and

REFERENCES
1.

dct'ildyyiftrt

cNHPn

"5l

cti< u

IHK'H[H^

(PraCijnayaugandharayana,
2.

Prologue)

(NS, XXII. 324-31)

3.

W^

ft^Hi^^i

'F^R ^diH,

^Rr

'ftra1

(Abh. on above);
t

NS
p.

XXII.

149-55)

4.

dTboMlte^l^

<il^dlRd(^ddl<i*'Hgoh'U'H'=hlRy^il^:

(Abh. part
p.

II,

407);

(Natyadarpana,
5.

23)

'T^f^4Bh'HiyTb:

=htaci*idH=iRl^:
I

(NS XXXVII. 24, 25)

SOME NOTES ON THE TRANSMISSION OF THE AYARANGASUTTA

Colette Caillat
(Text of the lecture delivered in the L.D.
Institute,

of Indology on 2nd March 1996)

Some

years ago, after the publication of Ayaranga-suttarii in the J(aina) A(gama) S(eries) (2.1, Bombay 1977}, Prof. D.D. Malvania drew my attention to the

many
Muni
this

critical

Sri Jambuvijaya-ji.

notes and pathantaras which are quoted by the learned editor, As is well known, Prof. Malvania himself had been

interested in this sacred book,

and has published some pages connected with

p. 3-6;
I

text (in Sramana 6.4 [1958], Ahmedabad 1991, p.43ff.). Until now,

also

see Jainagama

Svadhyaya,

did not have the possibility to go into

it

a detailed investigation, but

hope

to

be able to do
to

soon. In
Prof.

any case

am
1
.

glad that, on the occasion of

my

visit

Ahmedabad,
his

Malvania, spared

some hours
I

to read various

passages with me, in

of

kind and hospitable

home

shall here try to give

summary

my

personal observations and provisional

conclusions.
In the Foreward to his edition,

Muni Jambuvijaya emphasises

the essence

the importance of

Ayar(ariga), a treatise

which "contains

of the preachings of Lord

Mahavira". Nevertheless, curiously enough, the transmission of this sacred sutra a situation which had not appears to have suffered from many disruptions

escaped the attention of

the'

European scholars H. Jacobi and W. Schubring, and

which again

is

detailed by

Muni Jambuvijaya.
:

To make a long

story

short

as

it

is

now, the Avar

is

composed of 2

them, the Malidparinnd -(-parijna) was.completely lost in the days of Sllankacarya, and the Cunni already states that it is not perhaps even before studied,, na padhijjai. As for the second srutaskandha, it is in the nature of and
:

suyakkhandhas (sruta-skandhas). But, as a matter of fact, it is the first of these which is the real Acara, also known as Brahmacarya or Navabrahmacarya, because at first it had contained nine adhyayanas. As it happened, one of

"appendices"

forms the Acdrdgas, theoretically composed of five culas. But already the states that the fifth is the Nisilia-sutta, which "will be commented upon

Nijjutti

later",

bhanissami. In fact, this is because it had which had been included in the Clieya-suttas (i.e. the section of the Canon concerned with discipline), though many of its aphorisms are, so to say, the exact counterparts of the Ayar, as can be seen from the numerous references and parallels given in the JAS edition.
treatise

pancama become an independent

cula Nislham, tassa

ya uvarim

Vol.

XX, 1996

SOME NOTES ON
it

THE...

13

This being the historical situation,

can be concluded that the Jain acaryas have been, and are, accomplishing a considerable philological and critical work, a task for which the path has thus been traced since many centuries, and which

has to be continued, though with the respect due

This
is

to

all

sacred books.

how

came

to be highly interested in the considerable data

adduced by

Muni Jambuvijaya concerning

accepted by the authors of the Cunni on the one hand, and of the Vrtti on the other hand.
the
"traditions

of readings"

Curiously, though the text of the

follow,
is

first

srutaskandha

is

often very difficult to

words of Jacobi) "like a sermon made up of quotations...., fragments of verses and whole verses which are liberally interspersed in the prose text", the two versions differ only slightly. On the contrary, as Muni
(in

the

Jambuvijaya shows, "in the second Srutaskandha the versions differ widely... 2 "The especially from the tenth chapter onwards ". Muni Jambuvijaya adds tradition of readings followed by the author of the Cumi is much older and
:

better than the one followed

by

the author of the

V/tti.

The version which we

now

find in different mss. is mostly in consonance with the tradition of readings followed by the author of the V/tti.." Consequently, whatever their personal in preferences, the editors cannot but follow the tradition reflected
Silankacarya's Tika. This
is

what has been done,

rightly,

by Muni Jambuvijaya

himself3
It

seems

to

me

that the differences are of the following sort

variants,

which are not extremely numerous and do not alter the meaning of the teachings they need not be considered at this stage;
1)

some grammatical

2) differences in the length of various developments; 3) differences in the order of some of the developments.

The two

critical notes,

Muni Jambuvijaya's points will be considered here, following are based not which, as far as the Curni's tradition is concerned, and allusive text of the AyarC itself, but only on the difficult, sometimes obscure on the authoritative Avasyaka Cumi.
last

Differences in the

length

of various

developments

will

be considered
title

first.

Examples can be taken from

fact,

the third cula,

named Bhavana, a

which, in

the

'life

for the first part, it concerns refers to the second part of this lecture; as to his fundamental of Lord Mahavira, that serves as an introduction
viz.

teaching,
"clauses"

the 5

or reinforcing mahavratas, with their 5 times 5 bhavanas

(thus, altogether

25 bhavanas). Towards the end of the

first part, the,

14

COLETTE CAILLAT
summarizes the ascetic
:

SAMBODHI
led during twelve

text

life

which Lord Mahavlra had

years with these words divvd vd manussa vd tericchiyd yd,

andile

warn vd viharamdnassa je kei uvasaggd samuppajjanti samane te sawe uvasagge samuppanne sammam klmmai avvahie addma-mandse tiviha-mana-vayana-kdya-gutte
calamities
arising

tilikkhai ahiydsei, "Living thus

and he with equanimity bore, endured, sustained, with from divine powers, men and animals, and mind" 4 Such is undisturbed and unafflicted mind, careful of body, speech and in the TIka. But, at this the very sober description in the Ayar manuscripts influx (from the as a conclusion chinna-sote tti, "the point the AyarC adds, to illustrate this point, it introduces two stanzas,
suffered
all
.

indriyas)

was interrupted"; and, Mahavlra with a "full jar, a in fact 21 catch-words of varnakas comparing Lord
conch,

enlarged text

samkhe five gagane...). As it happens sky", etc. (kamse which to in the 9th chapter of Thananga, specifically referred thus "as in the Bhavana", i.e. the standard Ayar explicitly states /a/id bhavanae, to the well-known Kdpasutm third cula. Naturally Muni Jambuvijaya also refers
life,

this

the

is

developed, the same comparisons are adduced chapters 117-121, where Such being the situation, the question could be elaborately, in ornate style. ? Or were there not, is one version better than the other in such
raised
:

and

at a certain stage,

T and two possible versions, one simplicior (followed in the could have given rise to the current mss.), the other ornatior which, in turn,
still

cases,

longer developments

In the same

way

the wording of certain bhavanas (e.g. of the 1st

bhavana of

the

have been enlarged by an accumulation of whereas the mula text uses 6 synonyms and similar additions. For instance, sounds".... (soddehtm verbs to state that "one should not be attached to pleasant or the C makes use, more emphatically, of 14 synonyms na
1st

mahavrata)

appears to

sajjejjd...},

synonymous As

expressions. Here again,

it

would seem that some *basic statement

could have been formulated in shorter or longer sentences.

for differences in the order of

some developments, many examples could

fact,
it

also
that,

be adduced from the Bhavanas. As a matter of whereas the order of the 5 mahavratas is fixed ne
or the Curni (as well
as, e.g.

is

remarkable

varietur,

whether in the Tika

on

the contrary the order of

Bhavanas in

in the 4th chapter of the Dasaveyaliya-sutta, etc.), the Ayarahga on the one hand, in the

Avasyaka
interversions.

or Acaranga-Curnis

on

the other,

is

seen to be submitted to various

The reason
at
all

for these differences can

clear; nevertheless
it

sometimes be surmised, but

appears that each tradition, the TIka and mss. tradition and, on the other hand, the Curni tradition are firmly

sometimes are not

Vol.

XX,

1996

SOME NOTES ON

THE...

15

the order followed in the AcararigaC Avasyaka Curni.

established
:

is

exactly the same as in the

advises the
is

Other such examples could be adduced. For instance, Muni Jambiivijaya points to the interversion of 2 ajjhayanas in the 2nd ciila. In the surra, the 4th chapter monk to beware of pleasant sounds (sadtfas), while the 5th chapter
directed against pleasant

forms and colours (TWOS). In the

C, the

order

is

the

reverse.

Naturally it can, and it is, maintained that one should be guarded 5 against all senses alike Nevertheless, elsewhere in the Ayar itself the fivefold
.

"joys

and pleasures" are enumerated as consisting, successively, of sadda-pharisa.

6 rasa-ruva-gandha Similarly, the Bhavanas relating to the 5th mahavrata invite, first not to be attached to saddas, secondly not to be attached to mvas. Taking both the above passages into consideration, it would seem that there is some

reason to give preference, in the

the Vrtti

2nd cula, and the Ayaranga manuscripts.

:

to the

order of chapters retained

in

To sum up
Sri

the superb critical edition of the Ayarafiga-sutta procured

by Muni

Jambuvijayajl invites, and

into

makes

possible a further study of the entangled

tradition of this

fundamental sacred
transmission

insight

the

more, already provides some of the diffieidt scriptures which form the Jain
text.
is it

What

Siddhanta.

NOTE

More details are given in a forthcoming paper to be published in the Proceedings of the International Conference organized in Paris from 25th to 27th January 1996 as a commemoration of the birth centenary of the French

Indologist Louis Renou.

REFERENCES
1.

In the last
to Prof.

week of February 1996. Malvania and all his family

wish

to express

my

affectionate gratitude

for their generosity

and the

friendly hospitality
all

which they have extended to

I

me

since almost thirty years; and for

mat which

could learn thanks to their solicitude.

will

2.

It

be remembered that the culas are composed of 16 chapters.

full

3.

See a

discussion

on

this

and connected

topics
Pt.

in

JAS

1,

Nandisuttam and
Pt.

Anuogaddaraim, Editors Muni Punyavijaya, Mohanlal Bhojak, Bombay 1968, Introduction,

4.
5.

Dalsukh Malvania,

Amritlal

Editor's note, p. 77ff., especially 96ff.

JAS
Cf.

ed. the ed.

771; PTS ed.

p.

130.26. Translation by Jacobi, in SEE 22.

p.

Prasamarati-prakarana text quoted in the JAS ed.,

742; PTS ed.
p.

140

n.

1.

6.

JAS

193

14.

MIDDLE INDIG
Herman
Introduction

tuvaftas

Tielcen

The present study

tuvatta-. Before

is

not the

first

attempt

to

deal with the Middle Indie verb

to the

me, Alsdorf has drawn attention

.

occurrence of the word

in

the Asoka inscriptions 1

tvagvartqyatt
it

Alsdorf,

while rejecting the indigenous derivation

'

from

as

a comic folk etymology, refrains from suggesting one

was pointed out by Bollee that the word is not restricted to the Asoka inscriptions and the AMg. canon of the Svetambara Jains, but is also
himself. Next,

found in the

Pali

canon 2

f
i
';

Bollee began his study of tuvatta- by noting that, whilfe the meaning of this word is well established, its derivation still remains a problem 3 However, as far
.

as

see

it,

the situation

concerns
sources
:

its

exactly the reverse. The real problem of tuvattameaning, which shows a considerable latitude in the respective
is

besides "to
to

we have
from

this latter

lie down" in Pali and AMg. texts, for the Asoka inscriptions assume a meaning something like "to be active". Starting precisely meaning in the Asoka inscriptions the derivation of the word

would present
In

itself

almost automatically.

'-'

development of the meaning of tuvatta-, from the "etymological" meaning in the Asoka inscriptions, through a colloquial usage
follows,
I

what

will reveal a

in

AMg.

the Pali sources, to a case of semantic bleaching of this latter meaning in the sources. As such, the results of this study bear on the question of the

relative dating of the

Buddhist Pali canon, on the one hand, and the Jaina AMg.

canon, on the other.

Tuvatta- in the Asoka inscriptions

The word occurs but once, namely in the so-called separate edicts from Dhauli (Dh.) and Jaugada (J.) In Dh. the relevant passage reads, following Alsdorfs
reconstruction
e
:
,

kilarhte siyd

(ti)

tena ugaca sariicalitaviye tuvatitaviye etaviye vd

ist,

Wer etwa

schlaff

der muft sich aufraffend

(abs.

udgatya) sith in

Bewegung

setzen, sich riihren

(?)

und sich fortbewegen.

1

Alsdorf rightly assumes that tuvatitaviye, occurring side by side (vd)' with ugaca

Vol.

XX,

1996

MIDDLE INDIC
arid

tuvatta-

17

sariicalitaviye

etavtye,

should denote a kind of active

movement

here.

However, with
tried to

his rather

accommodate

at the

non-committal translation "sich riihren" he evidently same time the AMg. meaning "to lie down", or at
in the

least the gloss

texts
:

found for the word

commentaries on the Jaina canonical

rvagvartoyati "sich in Liegen umdrehen." Implicitly Alsdorf

seems

to leave

open
"to

the possibility that tuvatiraviye in the

affairs

be active [with the

Asoka passage denotes something like of the people] from the bed)". If so, this would

meanings for sariicalitaviye (or ugaca samcalitaviye') and which however, would have to be construed on the basis of this particular passage only. For, as far as I know, (ugaca) samcalitaviye tuvatitaviye etaviye represents ad ad hoc enumeration. This also means that we do not know
require very specific
etaviye as well,
if the absolutive ugaca is to be construed with samcalitaviye only, or with the following verbs as well, in which latter case the question whether tuvatta- means in particular "to be 'active in a lying position" could be ruled out more
5

definitely

So

much

is

clear
it

activity. As.

such,

could well

denote

from this passage that tuvatta- denotes a kind of bodily 'need not necessarily refer to some specific activity here, but an activity undertaken for its own sake, for instance, to

prevent one from giving in to one's exhaustion and falling asleep.

Starting

from such a meaning

tuvatta-

may

be derived from

Skt ati-vrt- "to

move

excessively",

to the preceding v-. As such tuvatta- shows an development to the one seen in AMg. tiutta-, "to escape from, pass which back to ati-vrt- as well. In tiuttathe v- of vjt- has beyond", goes labialized the vowel which follows, and has subsequently been lost (at least in

the vowel representing

alternative

showing the -r- due

loss of the initial a- of ati-

and labialization of

writing)."

The meaning of
case be
"excessive,

ari-v/t-

required here,
limit"
It

"to

move

excessively"

which

may

in
:

any
ati

abstracted from meanings of the constituents of the

compound

beyond ^the
I

and

been attested for the verb.

(Astanga-Hrdaya
Tuvafta- in
12,

has apparently not has, however, been attested for the noun ativrtti
v/t- "to roll,

to

move"

40 7 .)

AMg.

texts
in

As already indicated,

the

Jaina canonical texts tuvatta-/tuyattais

seems

to

mean simply

"to

lie

down". This meaning

established

by the frequent
tuyatta^,

occurrence of the

word

in the enumeration cittha-, nislya-,

"standing,

18

HERMAN TIEKEN
:

SAMBODHI

sitting,

parakkamejja vd

se bhikkhu and lying down." One example is Aydra (JAS) I 8, 2/204 vd tuyattejja va susanamsi va "Ein Monch iibt citthejja. vd nislejja
steht,
sitzt
:

Andacht,

oder

liegt

vielleicht

auf einem Friedhof

duttarii

8
...

";

(JAS)

II

2/707

duttam gacchamdnassa

citthamdnassa

Suyagada duttam

nisiyamdnassa duttarh tuyattamdnassa..."

lies

who
13,

carefully walks,
4,

stands, sits
line

down,
thana-

down...". 9 Viyahapannatti

(JAS)

II

25

(p.

630,

18)

nisiyana-tuyattana-manassa" intent

upon
its

standing, sitting

and lying down".

Occasionally the
in

word

is

found on

own, as

a passage describing the

method

to

in Aydra (JAS) I 8, 8, 23/236, be followed in the fasting-to -death

:

andha.ro tuvattejjd puttho tattha hiydsae

native/am uvacare mdnussehim

vi

putthavam,

He should

lie

without food;
it.

when

affected [by discomfort] in that [position] he

set

should bear

himself], even

He should not go beyond the boundary [which he has when he has been affected by things human" 10
.

As these and other passages show, the word not only functions in the Jaina canon as an apparentiy regular word for lying down, but has also completely
lost its

supposed primary, etymological meaning of denoting a bodily activity, as

present in

the Asoka inscriptions. If anything, it seems to express the very opposite idea, namely that of lying at ease, as can be seen in Aydra (JAS) II
2, 13/725: se se paro amkamsi vd paliyariikarhsi vd tuyattdvettd pdydm dmajjejja vd pamajjejja vd "(One should neither be pleased nor prohibit it,) if one is made to
lie

down

in

someone's lap or on a couch one's feet are being wiped or

rubbed."
It is difficult to reconcile this meaning in the Jaina canon with the one in the Asoka passage. The problem may however be solved by incorporating the

instances in Pali in the discussion.

Tuvatta- in Pali texts

word tuvatta- is restricted to altogether three 11 passages (Vmqya[Oldenberg] I, pp. 9-10, II p. 124, and IV, pp. all 288-289), of which deal with monks and nuns who fail to abide by the rule of celibacy. To begin with the last mentioned passage, Vinoya IV, pp. 288-289: Tena
samayena buddho bhagavd Sdvatthiyam viharati Jetavane Andthapindikassa drdme. tena kho pana samayena bhikkliuniyo dve ekamafice tuvattenti. manussa vihdracarikam dhindantd passitva... vipdcenti : katham hi name bhikkuniyo dve

In Pali texts the occurrence of the

Vol.

XX,

1996

MIDDLE INDIC

tuvatta-

19

ekamance tuvattessanti seyyathdpi gihikdmabhoginiyoti. assosum kho bhikkhuniyo tesarii manussanam... vipdcentdnarh. yd td bhikkhuniyo appicchd... vipdcenti :
katharii

hi ndma bhikkhuniyo dve ekamance tuvattessantiti [pa], saccam kira bhikkhave bhikkhuniyo... tuvattejitlti. saccam bhagavd. vigarahi buddho bhagavd :

katharii

hi

ndma

bhikkhave

bhikkhuniyo. ..tuvattessanti.

n'etam

bhikkkave

appasanndnam... uddisantu.
yd pana bhikkhuniyo dve ekamance tuvatteyywh pdcittiyan ti. yd pand'ti yd yddisd [pa], bhikkhuniyo'ti upasampanndyo vuccanti. dve ekamance tuvatteyyun ti, ekdya

nipanndya apard
pdcittiyassa.

nipajjati,

dpatti pdcittiyassa.
nipajjanti,

ubho vd

nipajjanti,

dpatti

utthahitvd

punappunam
ubho vd

dpatti pdcittiyassa. andpatti

ekdya
ti.

nipanndya apard
"...

nisidati,

nisldanti,

ummattikdnam, ddikammikdnam

Grove in Anathapindika's monastery. Now at that time two nuns shared one couch. People, engaged in touring the dwelling-place., "How can two nuns share one seen ... (them) having spread it about, saying
at Savatthi in the Jeta
:

couch, like

women

householders

who

enjoy the pleasures of the senses ?" Nuns

about. Those

heard these people

spread
it

who
:

...

spread

it

who were modest

?"...

nuns...

about, saying
as is said,

How

can two nuns share one couch

"Is it true,
"It
is

monks, that two nuns shared one couch

?"

true, lord."

The enlightened one, the

lord,

rebuked them, saying

?
It

"How, monks, can two nuns share one couch

those

is

not,

monks, for pleasing

who

are not (yet) pleased

...

this rule of training:

is

Whatever two nuns should share one couch, there

Wliatever

an offence of expiation."

means
:

...

nun

is

to

be understood in

this case.

Nuns mean

they are called ordained.

share one couch

Two should not

down, there
is

means

if

one
if

is

lying

down and

the other lies

both are lying down, there is an offence of expiation. If having got up, they lie down again, there is an offence of expiation. There is no offence if one is lying down and the other sjts down,
an offence of expiation. Or
or
if

both are
I,

sitting

down;
:

if

they are mad,

if

they are the

first

wrong-doers

;2

."

Tena kho pana samayena Assajipunabbasiikd ndma Kitdgirismim dvdsikd honti alajjino pdpabhikkJiu. te evariipam andcdram dcdranti
Vinaya
pp.

9-10 reads

:...

te

20

HERMAN TIEKEN

SAMBODHI

kulitthihi kuladhltdhi

kulakumdrihi kulasunhdhi kuladdsihi saddhim ekabhajane pi

tuvattenti

bhunjand ekathalake pi pivanti ekasane pi nisldanti ekamance pi tuvattenti

ekattharandpi
tuvattenti...

tuvattenti

ekapdvurandpi

ekattharanapdvurandpi

"Now

at that time unscrupulous, depraved monks who were followers 'of Assaji and Punabbasu were in residence at Kitagiri. They indulged in the following kinds of bad habits ... These ate from one dish together with wives of
:

reputable families, with daughters of reputable families, with girls of reputable families, with daughters-in-law of reputable families, with women slaves of reputable families; and they drank from the same beaker; they sat

down on

the

same

they shared one couch, they shared 13 coverlet; they shared one mat and coverlet ."
seat;
Finally,

one mat; they shared one

Vinaya V,

p.

124

ekabhajane pi

bhunjanti
tuvattenti

Tena kho pana samayena chabbaggiyd bhikkhu ekathalake pi pivanti ekamance pi tuvattenti
:

ekattharandpi ekapdvurandpi tuvattenti ekattharanapdvurandpi tuvattenti. manussd ujjhdyanti...kdmabhogino'ti. bhagavato etam dttharh drocesum. na bhikkhave ekabhajane bhunjitabbam ... na ekamance tuvattitabbarh...yo
tuvatteyya, dpatti dukkatassd'ti.

"Now

at that time the group of six monks ate from one dish and drank from one beaker and shared one couch and shared one cloth and shared one

covering and shared one covering-cloth. People

'Like householders
the Lord.
couch....
:

who enjoy

.... spread it about, saying pleasures of the senses.' They told this matter to
:

He said "Monks, you should not eat from one dish.... nor share one Whoever should share (one), there is an offence of wrong doing 14
.'

translation

of

ruvattain

with "to

lie

down"

is

indicated

by the

gloss,

or

p. 288, quoted above, as well as by the and pdvuraiie 15 Note in this connection also the contrast between ekasane nisldanti and ekamance tuvattenti in Vinaya IV quoted above. It seems that Horner in her translation "to share" all too closely follows

paraphrase,
locatives

nipajjati

Vinaya IV,

mafice,

tharane

the

PTSD

(p.306a),

which has suggested a derivation from

dvandvayati.

Taken as such the Vinaya would stipulate that the mere fact that monks and nuns lie down with somebody else on one bed, on one matras and under one cover suffices to form a serious transgression, that is, if "one" is indeed to be
taken emphatically here.

something in the bed (note gihikdma

That the monks and nuns might have been doing bhoginiyo in Vinaya IV quoted above)

Vol.

XX,

1996

MIDDLE INDIC
or,

tuvatta-

21

would not have been relevant,

at least,

would have been

left unspecified.

On the other hand, we have evidently to do with that same verb tuvatta- here, which in the Asoka inscriptions denotes a bodily activity. How does this latter meaning fit in the Pali instances ? In this connection I wish to draw attention
Vinaya IV, in which tuvatta- figures in a quotation which is supposed to made by outsiders with regard to the laxity of the monks and the nuns. On the basis of this passage it may be argued that tuvattato

repeat or echo accusations

"to

show excessive
of an

activity"

has actually found

.

its

way

into

the canon as a

colloquial expression for

result

16 having sex

The

gloss nipajja-

may

be taken as the

attempt on the part of the Vinaya authors to bowdlerize this obscene colloquial expression or else, what may be even more likely, would

show

that these authors

of the word.
the time of
as

were no longer aware of the derivation and meaning was no longer in use at the composition of the Vinaya. All this would mark the verb tuvattoThe
latter possibility suggests that tuvatta-

back

a precious linguistic fossil from the spoken language probably even going to the time of the Buddha's preaching itself.

Concluding remarks
of the Vinaya we may accordingly distinguish between tuvatta- as an from the older spoken language meaning "to show excessive activity in sex", and the interpretation given to the word by the presumably later authors of the text, namely "to lie down". As such the Vinaya appears to provide the missing link between the Asoka inscription, in which tuvatta- means
In the case

intrusion

bed, to

have

"

to show (excessive) activity" and the Jaina canon, in which it means "to lie down". The use of the verb tuvatta- in the Jaina canon now appears to agree in particular

with that of the authors of the Vinaya.

In this connection the question arises

from what source or sources the authors

their

of the

Jaina canon
it

may have

derived
it

tuvatta-

"to

lie

down".

In

this

connection

should be noted that

borrowed the word

a living language a

highly unlikely that they had actually from the spoken language. For, it is difficult to see how In
is

common word,

after

it

has,

come

to

be used

in

a highly

pregnant sense in a specific idiomatic expression, could ever be used again flatly without any of its earlier connotations lingering on, whether of its original or
of
its

idiomatic use.
t

Instead, the

meaning

"to lie

down"

looks rather like the result of the learned

process of editorial interpretation of earlier fixed "texts" (oral or written), which

22

HERMAN TIEKEN
is

SAMBODHI

to result in the reduction to mere synonyms of words which had widely divergent connotations, if not completely different meanings. This would already suffice to mark the Jaina canon, including those parts of it which are generally regarded as old and authentic (Ayara), as a

process

known

originally

relatively recent, artificial,

of this process of semantic bleaching

trace the invention of tuvatta-

patchwork. But there may be more. For, the evidence is found in the Vinaya, in which we can
as

a synonym of

nipajja-.

We

cannot therefore

exclude the possibility that the authors of the Jaina canon have borrowed the

word
piece

tuvatta-

directly
to

from the

of evidence

suggesting that the Jaina

Pali canon itself. This would add a precious the ones collected by, for instance, O. von Hiniiber, 17 AMg. canon is later than the Buddhist Pali canon
.

NOTES
1.

L. Alsdorf,
17ff.

Asokas Separatedikte von Dliauli und Jaugada. Wiesbaden 1962, esp. pp.

2.

W.

B. Bollee,

108-122, esp. pp.

3.

"Notes on Middle Indoj-Aryan Vocabulary 112-114.

II",

JOIB XXXIII, 1983, pp.

Following Bollee,
Pali

Von

Hiniiber takes tuvatta- as a rare instance of a des'f-word in

(Das dltere Mittelindisch im Uberblick.

Wien

1986,

72).
is

4.

Note, however, that Alsdorf translates va "or" with "and". Vd

absent in

J.,

in

which the
mtiyarii.
5.

line

reads instead samcalitu uthaya sariicalitavya tuvatitaviya pi etaviye pi

Note that

J.

reads sariicalitu uthaya sarhcalita\ye tuvatitaviya pi etaviye pi mtiyarii

"having stood up in order to move, he should move...".

6.

For the derivation of

tiutta-,

see W.B.

Bollee,

Studien

zum Suyagada.
Nijjutti,

Die Jamas

und

die

anderen Weltanschauungen vor der ,Zeitwende.

-

Tetxtteile,

Ubersetzung

und Anmerkungen. Schriftenreihe des Siidasien

24,

Instituts

der Universitdt Heidelberg

Studies",

Wiesbaden 1977,
p.

p.

187

s.v.,

and

K.R.

Norman, "Suyagada

WZKSXXV,

1981,

201, with reference to K.R. Norman, ."Labialisation of vowels in Middle

II,

Indo-Aryan", StII

1976, pp. 41-58 (=Collected Papers Vol.

I,

Oxford 1990, pp.

246-261).

See

Palatalization

also K.R. Norman, "Middle Indo-Aryan Studies XVI. The and Labialization of Vowels in Middle Indo-Aryan", JOIB XXXII,
p.

1983, pp. 275-279, esp.

7.

278.
t

See
I.

Ail

Encyclopaedic Dictionary of Sanskrit! on Historical Principles. Vol. Two, Part

p.

Poona 1979,

1131.

Vol.

XX,

1996

MIDDLE INDIC

tuvatta-

23

8.

Translation
der Jaina.

W. Schubring, Worte Mahavlms.

Gottingen 1927,
p.

Kritische Ubersetzimgen aus

dem Kanon

106.
II.

9.

Translation H. Jacobi, Jaina Sutras. Part

SBE

45. Oxford

1985 (repr.

New

Delhi

1973),
10.

p.

364.
J.

Translation

Bronkhorst, The Two Traditions of Meditation

in

Ancient India. Delhi

1993, pp. 32-33. In his translation Bronkhorst follows the traditional interpretation as transmitted in the various commentaries. It will be clear, however, that the
for interpretation of ptt/iavam as sprstavan,

which the context requires a

passive

meaning here,
that
in

is

invented ad hoc. Earlier

"back"
line

have suggested that putthavam rather

represents prsthakam
putt/io

(WZKS

32,1987, pp. 200-201. The suggestion

made
of

the

first

might conformingly represent an archaic

Ndtivelarii uvacare... putthavam

locative

prsthi "back"
as
:

is

less compelling.)

may

be translated
for

"He should
is

treat his

back not too long". The meaning "to treat medically"

uvacara-

otherwise well attested. Admittedly,

I

manusschim

creates

a serious

should like to add that it is problem. In this connection of texts the passage as a whole has actually been pieced together from fragments be of which were no longer properly understood. Mdnussehim may the
,

quite well possible that

meanings

an

addition introduced at the stage of the composition of this hemistich

this

from such

an existing fragment. In
:

such passages as Jambuddivapannatti (Ladnun) 3, 82 tndnussae kdmabhoge bhurhjamdne saddapharisarasamvagamdhe pariicavihe (p. 428) and 4, 177). viharai may have stood muster (cp. also ibidem 3, 187, 218, 221,

11.
12.

Below

leave

out the subsequent repetitions of the same passages.

Translation

I.E.

Homer, The Book

London, 1942
The
p.

of the

Discipline

(Vinaya-

Pitaka),

Vol.

HI

(Suttavibhanga).
13.

304,
of the

Translation
.(Cullavagga).

I.B.Horner,

Book
p.

Discipline

(Vinaya-Pitaka)

Volume V

London, 1952,
I.B.

14.

14.

Translation by

Horner

[as in previous note],

p.171.
altere

15.

For the

sandhi

in

tharanapi

and

Das paVwandpi, see 0. von Hinuber,

26?.

Mittelindisch irn Uberblick,

Wien

1986,

16. 17.

Compare

e.g.

English "to

Tumble

in the hay",
Schrift

Dutch "wippen",

etc. in

See 0. von Hinuber, Der Beginn der Mainz 1989, esp. pp. 22, 35, and 50.

und

Friihe

Schriftlichkeit

Indien.

PUSTIMARGl POETRY IN GUJARATI THE LORD OF BRAJ TRAVELLED TO GUJARAT TWICE

:

MaHison
According to the slokas of the Bhagavata purana (X,50), Lord Krishna travelled from Mathura to Dwarka, fleeing die wrath of Jarasandha. He lived there with
his eight

Shrouded
reality as

queens and 16000 Gopis, and even died along with his fellow Yadavas. in the mystery of the myth all these events may have a historical

seem

to prove the archeological findings

coast of

Okhamandal, on
facts,

the

from under the sea along the most western part of Saurashtra. But, whatever the
is
still

historical

Krishna certainly

alive

in Gujarat,

somewhere between

poetry and music, mysticism and aesthetics, more or less consciously revered in the heart of thousands of Gujaratis.

Pustimarga and Gujarat

The

specific form of devotion to Krishna practised by the Pustimargi Sampradaya, one of the Vaisnava Bhakti reformist movements in Braj, founded by Vallabhacarya in the sixteenth century, met with an successful

extraordinarily

response in Gujarat.

Vallabhacarya (1478-1530), a brahmin hailing from Telengana, had "rediscovered" the localization of Krishna's mythological exploits in the Braj country 1 and Krishna himself revealed to him in a dream the existence of his idol
established the cult of Goyardhananathaji or Srmathaji through a refined and cosdy seva assumed by his Braj disciples The service of the god consists in treating him as if he were a living child, the son of a king and of a shepherd at the same time. He is decorated, fed and entertained (simgdra, bhoga, raga) with extraordinary luxury. Vallabha and his successors composed a corpus of holy texts both in Sanskrit and in Braja-bhasa the divine language of the young Krishna, which

mount Govardhan. Vallabha

svarupa

on

through

structure of the

new Sampradaya.
J
+"*-"->
i

they built up

the'

coo 11 1528, he uistalled the svarupa idol of Jagadlsa

i i
_

cum laming

nis last visit in

first

Ranacliodaraya in the

His

of the 252 devotee^.

Tha Va,,abhan miss ion had

Vol.

XX,

1996

PUSTIMARGI POETRY IN GUJARATI...

the merchant castes

25

cess

among

well defined social groups

and the wealthy

farmers (Bhatia, Luhana, Bania, MaravadI, Kanabl-Patela). They were attracted by the way of life as taught by Vallabhacarya, namely that of the householders

who remain embedded

entirely to Krishna, yet

in
still

samsdra while devoting their lives, and belongings, "Vallabh enjoying them. As Richard J. Cohen says
:

and his son Vitthalnath appear to 'have cultivated the Vaisnava tendencies in of Gujarat. There seems to have been a deliberate attempt, in the structuring
interests
to cater to the world view of the Vaisya or the merchant Moreover these castes occupy a high rank in Gujarat and their "Vallabhization" with the prestige of its vegetarianism and stricter purity rules,

the sect's praxis,

3

."

offered to the Kanabi-Patela, for instance, a certain

form of brahmanization.

The proselytizing zeal decreased during the seventeenth century but the number of the havelis increased (founded at Surat, Dakor, Junagadh, Madhavpur, nonPorbandar, Cambay, Jamnagar, Kapadvanj...) and it soon appears that the
sectarian Gujarati Vaisnava
titudes, his

behaves

like

a Vallabhan as far as his religious

the Pustimarga or has

at-

favourite forms of divine service or the tenets of his devotion are

concerned,
initiated

regardless of whether he belongs to

been

by a Maharaja.
encounter between Krishna and
?

Does

this

Pustimarg! preaching

As a matter of

fact the

Gujarat rely exclusively on the violent disappearance of the

divine hero as suggested

by the myth of Dwarka's being swallowed up by the by the Gujarati poetry anterior to the sixteenth century. It rather seems that Vallabha and social strucVitthalanatha, independently of the fact that they had met with a ture in favour of their conceptions, to a large extent took their inspiration from
sea never entailed the disappearance of his cult as proven
the tendencies of krishnite devotion as found in Gujarat before setting

absorb

all

the

aspects of Vishnuism

there 4

on The shape Krishnaism takes

towards the

to

in

Gujarat from

the

sixteenth

century and

its

evolution

so-called

Premalaksanabhakti results from a fusion between

ture
as to

the established religious cul-

and an imported sectarian form, which became remarkably harmonized so become a regional cultural pattern transcending the sectarian and religious
It is,

domain.
exist in

Gujarati.

therefore, not astonishing that a Pustimarg! religious poetry should It has remained little known, not having the sacred halo of

Sanskrit

and

Braj, not

having attained

with the exception of Dayarama

its

the

status of classical literature,

and being used only when

utilitarian function

requires

it.

26

MALLISON

SAMBODHI

Pustimdrgi Poetry
If

Gujarati

we

(like

accept the non-original works translated into Gujarati from the Braja-bhasa the Vartd, stories of Saints, and other texts of spiritual uplift, as the

Sanskrit subtilities of Vallabhan theology

Gujarati converts),

three groups

were not akin to the public of the the body of texts originally written in Gujarati belongs to the dholas, the Vallabhakliyana of Gopaladasa, and the works of

Dayarama.

The dholas

An
The

old folkloric form, belonging to the pada-bhajana genre, the dholas are for

the Vallabhan faithful a devotional

mode

of singing as

opposed

to the klrtanas.

learned lyrics, now called haveli samgita (a neologism denote Pustimarglya-kirtana), necessary for the liturgic service (seva) of the temple images and performed musicians by professional (kirtanakara).
klrtanas
to

are

coined

The ordinary followers cannot

d/io!as are accessible

participate in their performance.

By

contrast the

to

all;

a simple language and popular tunes render

accessible to
religious
life

all

levels of culture.

The

dholas are the

them means of expression of the

for the
translation

of Vallabhan devotees and

may

serve

of a

Sanskrit stud into Gujarati in order to make it singable for a villager, or for a long didactic text listing the names of the saints or the tenets of the faith or for hymn in praise of the beauty of Srinathaji. The dholas form the nucleus of

Vallabhan literature in Gujarati. The beauty of these texts lies mainly in the fervour and sincerity with which they are sung, the aesthetic quality of the actual performance being more important than the form and the content of the
text.
if

The Vallabhan dholas thus

retain the characteristics of oral literature,

.

even

nowadays printed

texts are available 5

Usually not quoted in the histories of Gujarati literature, the authors of the Vallabhan dholas are Haridasa (who lived at the end of the seventeenth century, born at Broach and disciple of Gokulanatha, Vallabhacarya's grandson)! Madhavadasa of Cambay, Vallabha, Vitthaladasa, Purusottamadasa, Gopaladasa', SobhabetijI and Yasodabetiji (belonging to the family of the Maharaja of the' sixth gaddl at Surat in the nineteenth century). The corpus of dholas seems to be frozen after the nineteenth century..

The dholas

may

Yamuna

river,

Janmastami

(the

be either in praise of the beauty and of the qualities of the of Sri Nathajl and of other svarupa idols; or in celebration of birthday of Krishna); or in praise of

Vallabhacarya

Vol.

XX,

1996

PUSTIMARGI POETRY IN GUJARATI...

his

27

Mahaprabhu, and of
(gaddt); they

descendents Vitthalanatha

Gosaimji, Gokulanatha (the

fourth son of Vitthala

may

and the last great dcaiya), and of the seven main seats describe the lUd of Krishna in the Braj country (rdsalUd'), of
Gokula; or they

his pastoral life

at the

may

viraha

imposed on the Gopis separated from Krishna,

list

be in praise of the virtues of the in praise of humility and

of good conduct in general, or in praise of the perfect Vaisnava.

dholas

the

the saints;
seals

Some very long 84 and 252 Vaisnnava saints, resuming in one line the story of some are in praise of the consecrated poets of the sect, the eight
.

(astac/iapa)

The dholas are sung mainly by women, though men are not formally excluded, at home and especially during domestic worship when they are alone. They may also be sung by groups of worshippers who gather at the haveli between the
darshana period when the sanctuary is curtained off. And they are sung and taught through the satsamga, regular gatherings of the Vallabhan faitha custom quite alive nowadays ful. The members of these pious associations
divinity's

meet at regular intervals during the week under the direction of a guru. An important part of each meeting is the repetition of the dholas towards the end. The guru chooses the texts and the singer who will start and lead the performance. The practice of the satsariiga. which has survived into modern times seems to ensure the perennity of the oral transmission of the dholas, a vivid
tradition

underthreatened

for the time

being by modernity.

The Vallabhakhyana or Navdkhydna by Gopaladasa (before 1577)

This text presents another aspect of the Vallabhan literature in Gujarati. The author according to legend met in his childhood Vitthala in the

Gopaladasa house of his father-in-law Bhalla Kothari, near Ahmedabad, in the village of Asarva. There Vitthalanatha is said to have given to him his betel leaf to chew,
in

later

order to purify him and to provide him with a vision of the rdsaind which Gopaladasa described in his as yet unpublished Bhakti-piyusa; Gopaladasa
is

became the bhakta of Vitthalanatha and

Vallabhakhyana
in praise
6 twenty-eighth vdrtd of the 252 saints
.

said

to

have
is

composed the
is

of the family of Vallabha. This

what

told in the

Later legends add that he was

mute and

that thanks to Vitthala's betel leaf, he recovered speech.

was a reincarnation of the not yet attained ultimate perfection according to the tury), whose Vishnuism had Vallabhans. Teliwala (in his introduction to the edition of the Vidvanmandanam)
that established the date of the meeting with Vitthala as being 1543, and states

They also add that he famous Vaisnava poet NarasT Mehta (fifteenth cen-

Vol.

XX,

1996

PUSTIMARGI POETRY IN GUJARATI...

29

childhood at Chandod on the bank of the Narmada. In his early adulthood he was converted to the religious life of the Vallabhan obedience. Although his
his
artistic

temper made

the time, he

was a

it difficult for him to adjust to the sectarian authority of sincere Vaisnava as his fervent krishnite poetry shows. This

poetry, dholas,

pada and

garabi,

all

superb

lyrics,

may be

claimed

in their

own
him

right to be Pustimargi but the personal gift of

Dayarama renovating

so subtly

the eternal

theme of

the love

between Krishna and the

literature,

Gopls, confers to

a place

apart

not only in
9
.

Gujarati

but in the classical devotional

poetry of the Subcontinent Vallabhan faithful such as

Yet some pada or dhola are more cherished by the

-Vaisnava

not/if

thayo turn

re,
re.

sidd ne

gumdnamdm ghume,

-Harijana nathl thayo turn

-Sri Ndthaji

vadanakamala joyum jene ekavdra,

-Sri Ndthajinwn

vadanakamala joyum.
avatdre,

-Jo kol prema

amsa

premarasa tend uramdm

thare.

And

another trend in the works of Dayarama, much less known but quite voluminous long didactic poems exposing the quintessence of the philosophic and theological doctrine of Vallabha. Best known among these is the
there
is
:

Rasika Vallabha, where in 108 pada, forming a dialogue between a guru and his disciples, Dayarama refutes the theory of Moydvdd and advocates
Suddhddvaita.
lines
It is

actually a catechism in verse. Bhaktiposana exposes in

the
Bliakti

400

the

development and growth of

according

to

Vallabha. The

other

poems are Pusti-patha-rahasya, Gum-sisya

sariwdd, Srt Hari-bhakti-candrikd,

Bhagavad- gita-mdhdtrnya.
This attempt to deal with the
theoretical

aspect of the Vallabhan

movement
at-

reminds of the Vallabhdkhyana of Gopaladasa. Yet these

receive
the
tracted the attention of

versified treaties do not

same appreciation among the Pustimargi Govardhanram Tripathi who, at

followers.

But they

the turn of this century,

devoted

to

them

his
de/ia

most important essay

11
.

of

literary

criticism

Kavi

Daydrdmano aksara
It

appears from the three facets of Vallabhan literature in Gujarati that the
are

dholas

appreciated
the

by the Vallabhan community

in

Gujarat,

that

the

Navdkhydna reached
relevant to

Vallabhan community as a whole whereas Dayarama is the entirety of the Gujarati public. This universalization of a current

28

MALLISON

SAMBODHI
.

the Vallabhakhyana

was composed before 1577 7

The nine chapters of the Vallabhakhyana are of unequal length, totalling in between 11 and 29 verses. They are written in an unusual style, concise, in the sutra manner and strongly sanskritized. The first dkhydna deals with the philosophical and the theological nature of Pumsottama. The second
tells

the

life

of
in

Vallabha upto
the

the birth of Vitthala. In the third

we

find the birth of Vitthala.

fourth

the

good

qualities

of Vitthala;

the

fifth

dkhydna

describes

the finn

implantation of the bhakti mdrga. The sixth exposes the lUd of Vitthala, the seventh the teaching of the sevd. The eighth contains the praise of Vitthala and
the ninth the praise of the family of Vitthala. Each dkhydna
is

sung according

to

a given rdga; each one

separately during a private sevd or together during a bhajana of the satsamga. ^There are several manuscripts of this text, the oldest of which is supposed to be kept at the Balakrsna Mandira of Bombay.

may be sung

There are

several sectarian editions

I.S.

and one
.

is

even included

in the

anthology

of the Brhat Kdvyadohana of

Desai 8

The Vallabhakhyana earned

faithful but
istic

among
:

all

itself a great renown not only among the Gujarati Vallabhans. This might be due to a remarkable character-

of the text

the extreme devotion

shown

to the

person of Vitthala and the

acknowledgement of him as an avatdra of Krishna. In fact Gopaladasa would have been the first to establish the divinity of the "Maharajas", the leaders of
the Pustimarga, descendants of Vallabha. It is not surprising that the poem was thus commented upon in Hindi and Braj, and even in Sanskrit, an extraordinary

development

Vrajarayaji Maharaja of

was commented in Sanskrit by Sri 300 pages in 1880, later on by Dixitjl Maharaja of Bombay and before 1880 by Jivanesaji Maharaja of Bombay
for

a Gujarati

text

It

Ahmedabad

in

equally.

Although generally not known outside the community, the Vallabhakhyana is, even now, quite popular among Vallabhans who love to sing, or listen to it (even

on

audio-cassettes).

of the Vallabhan

literary preoccupations

The capacity of the poem to focus in Gujarati the totality from the devotional lyrics to the learned
:

theological treatises,

may

explain

its .success,

in spite of

its

difficult style.
is

both these literary ranges famous with his countrymen at large than with his fellow Vallabhans.

Conversely Dayarama

who

also catered

to

more

Dayarama (1777-1852)
Dayarama,
the last of the medieval poets of Gujarat,

was an orphan and spent

30

MALLISON
premdaksanabhakti cultivated

SAMBODHI
not imported) by the Vallabhans in
12

known

as

(if

in the poetry of Raje Bhagata (circa Gujarat was already present, for instance,

A 1720) who was a Molesalam muslim and not a Pustimargl, apparently shared by Vallabhans became pan-Gujarati. But not only the realm used in delicate ornamental display of letters is concerned. Culinary refinements,
.

literary taste

the

Pustimargl sevd became

the

daily fare

of the

Gujarati

aesthetic

model was

so

compulsory

that, for instance,

way of life. The when Divana Ranachodajl

wanted to inAmaraji (1768-1851), minister of the Babi dynasty of Junagadh, stall the Saiva cult of a new ling-am, Budhesvara, he chose the same complicate
and abundant seva of the Pustimargl tradition to feed, clothe, put to sleep and entertain the miniature lingam Certainly with the Vallabhans, Krishna has trav!

elled a second time to Gujarat

and made

his

home

there for ever.

NOTES
1.

See

Charlotte

VAUDEVILLE,

"Braj,

Lost and

Found",

Indo-Iranian

Journal,

18

(1976), p.
2.

195-213.
Vaisriava
ki

Ed.

N.

SHARMA, Dosau bavana

in to

varta,

Mathura

Sri

Govardhana

granthamala karyalaya, VS
Vallabhism

2022 (1965). On the history of the diffusion of Gujarat during the sixteenth century, see the introduction of M.T.
his

TELIWALA
A.D.

edition of the

Vidvarimnndanam

(Bombay,

1926,

p.

(l)-(25),

again published in K.M. JHAVERI's edition of the Imperial Farmans (AD.

1577

to

1805)

Granted
at the

to

the Ancestors

of His

Holiness

the

Tikayat Maharaj

(Bombay.1928),
3.

end, without pagination.

:

"Sectarian Vaisnavism
A.

the Vallabhan
in

Sampradaya" in GAEFFKE Peter and David

UTZ, ed. Identity and Division

University of Pennsylvania,

Cults

and

Sects in South Asia,

Philadelphia

The
4.

1984, p.76.

See Francoise MALLISON, "Development of Early Krishnaism in Gujarat

Visnu

Ranchod
1979-1982,
Gujarat
:

Krsna", in
Berlin
:

Monika THIEL-HORSTMANN

ed.,

Bhakti in Current Research,

Dietrich Reimer, 1983, p. 245-255,

Gujarati Texts Recently
ed.,

and "Early Krsna Bhakti in

Brought to Light" in A.

The Evidence of Old

W.
d

ENTWISTLE and

MALLISON,

Studies in South Asian Devotional Literature,

:

Research Papers 1988-1991,

'Extreme-Orient,
5.

New

Delhi

Manohar, and Paris

Ecole Francaise

1994, p. 50-64.
collection is

The

best

known
in

padasathgraha

by Lallubhai Chaganlal DESAI Vivid/ia dhola. tathd two volumes published in 1916 at Ahmedabad, and regularly
:

Vol.

XX,

1996

PUSTIMARGI POETRY IN GUJARATI...

dholas see H.C.

31

reprinted since then. On. the

BHAYANI, "Dhavalas

in the

Prakrit,

Apabhramsa and post Apabhramsa

(1988),
la
p.

traditions" in Bulletin d'Etudes Indiennes, 6 93-103- F.MALLISON, "Les chants dhola au Gujarat et leur usage pour
in

devotion vallabhite",
p.

Bulletin

de

1'

Ecole

Francaise
:

d'

'Extreme-Orient,

75

(1986),
R.K.

79-103, and "From Folklore to Devotion

ed.,

Dhol Songs in Gujarat", in

Living
Texts

BARZ and M.THIEL-HORSTMANN,

:

Khoj 2

from

India,

(1989), Wiesbaden
6.

Otto Harrassowitz, p.87-101.

2,

Ed. N.

SHARMA,

op. at. note

p.

(3).

7.

Ed. M.T.

TELIWALA

op.

at. note 2, p. 76.

VIII,

8.

Ed. I.S. DESAI,

p.

Brhat kavyadohana,

Bombay

Gujarati Printing Press, 1913,

458-470.

9.

In contrast with other medieval poetry and certainly due to the late period, the abundant works of Dayarama (1777 1852), as well as the story of his life, are well recorded and published, even by the descendants of his disciples; see for

instance Dayaramakrta kdvyasangraha edited in two parts

Gujarati,

by the pioneer of modern

Narmadasankar (1833-1886)

at

Bombay
:

Gujarati Printing Press, 1887, or

vols.)

the collection

Dayarama
I.CH. JOSHI,

rasadhdra (9 vols.) and Gadyadhara (3

by K.K.

SHASTRI and
10. Ed.J.G.

Ahmedabad

Gujarati Sahitya Sabha,

1971-1983.
Gujarat Vernacu-

SHAH, Kavi Dayarama

1933,

racita Rasikavallabha,

Ahmedabact

lar Society, 11.

Govardhan M. TRIPATHI, Kavi Daydrdmano aksamdeha, Bombay

1908.

N.M. Tripathi,

12. Ed. C.V.

s.l.,

RAVAL, Pracina kdvya sudha,

pt.

Kavi Raje-bhai krta kavitd samgraha,

1931. See R.V.

PATHAK,

"Raje ane Dayarama", in Nabhovihara (1961), p. 106-

117.

SELF-LUMINOSITY OF CONSCIOUSNESS IN ADVAITA VEDANTA AS EXPLAINED IN THE NYAYAMAKARANDA

Rabindra Kumar Pandya
be concerned in the present paper with the theory of self-luminosity of consciousness or cognition (vijfiana) as it has been propounded by the Advaita Vedanta system of Indian We shall discuss
shall

We

views of the prominent Advaitists

jphilosophical thought.

the

|ike the great Sankaracarya and his ardent followers in passing but mainly the view of Anandabodha Bhattarakacarya and his criticism of the and Prabhakara Nyaya views in

comprehensive and

critical

way.

To begin with, Anandabodha is one of the brightest luminaries in the sky of Advaita Vedanta thought. His contribution to Indian philosophy in general and Advaita Vedanta in particular is not in any way inferior to that of his
predecessors
others.
-

Suresvaracarya, Padmapadacarya, Vimuktatman, Prakasatman and

magnum opus, the tfyayamakaranda, is a landmark in the development of Advaita philosophy. This work of the twelfth century A.D. is a remarkable treatise in the way of
philosophic presentation.
It

Anandabodh's

framework of the system in an analytic, systematic fashion malshalling the chief 1 lines of argument pro and con
.

states the logical

Anandabodha
after

is

a follower of Sankara.
his

Coming

as he did

some four centuries

Sankara,

he found

inheritance

a full-fledged

system with elaborate

purposes propagation of Advaitic philosophy. As he says' at the end of his work, he has collected the material of his subject from the existing sources of his time.

arguments and terminology were already standardised. He collected the most important of them into a systematic form in the Nyayamakaranda for of
Definitions,

logical

weapons of offence and defence.

As is well-known, the general procedure followed by the Indian writers in the discussion of any problem of metaphysics or logic or epistemology is to put the view of the opponent first. The view of the opponent, which is ultimately to be
repudiated,
plausibility
thesis
is

discussed

at the

outset quite

thoroughly

to

show

its

tentative

from various view points. The detailed representation of the opposed critical examination which, by way of providing the counter-arguments, brings out the fallacies contained in the opponents' contention and thereby leads to .its final rejection. The discussion concludes with
followed by a

Vol.

XX,

1996

SELF-LUMINOSITY

OF...

33

an exposition of the independent arguments in favour of one's own position. The view of the opponent is known by the term pwvapaksa and one's own view by the term uttarapaksa or siddhantapaksa.
In the present discussion,

the purvapaksas are represented by the Naiyayikas belonging to the Nyaya school of Aksapada Gautama and Prabhakarafe of Purva
MIniariisa system.

Then Anandabodha
defend
it.

view and

puts forth the Siddhantapaksa

i.e.

Advaita

tries

his best to

We

all

know very
itself.

activities.

that knowledge Qnana) is The function of knowledge is to illuminate

well

the

basis

of

practical

other than

the objects of our world As according to Advaita metaphysics an unreal material world

is superimposed on the one Reality, the principle of pure consciousness the Brahman, a material object is nothing but a false projection of that one consciousness. In conformity with this basic doctrine a material of
.

knowledge,
limited

by

object is called Visayacaitanya or prameyacaitanya (consciousness falsely the superimposed object). Buddlii or antaJikarana is looked upon as

limited

anta/ifca/undvacc/imnacaitanya (consciousness falsely limited by superimposed antaftfcarana). In this respect it is called the knower (pramdtr), the empirical self or JTva 3 In another hypothesis the JTva is consciousness reflected in buddhi Jlva is otherwise called Pramativaitanya. Antahkaranavjtti, i.e. consciousness is falsely
.

pr-amdnocaitanya, for this

is

antahkaranavrtti. Hence it is called v/ttf is accepted as the instrument of knowledge which but the nothing manifestation of the hitherto non-manifest object Thus the

by the superimposed

situation settles

down

to

this

form

:-

the

knower (pramdtd),

the instrument of
basically

knowledge (pramdna) and the objects of knowledge (prameya). All are the same consciousness which is conceptually differentiated into and
in three different

distributed

forms, namely, P 7-amatd,

with the different limiting conditions (updd/u).

pramdna and promcya

in accordance

According knowledge
thing
itself.

to
is

Advaita Vedanta epistemology, the fundamental feature of that it does not depend on human notions". It depends on the
spite

the nature of uniformity knowledge they knowledge from the particular knowledge. Sankar'a calls distinction between nirviSesavijnana and vUesavijnana. The particular knowledge (ytiesavijnana) presents the reality as limited by name and form It is the knowledge of the Absolute Reality as infected by division and discrepancy It gives us the of the knowledge changing objects, not having their being in and
distinguish the universal
the
it

In

of

this

in

through the Absolute, but enjoying an independent existence.

It

provides the

34

RABINDRA KUMAR PANDYA

cognition of things.
is

SAMBODHI
and
infinite

false

The knowledge of

reality in its Absolute

.

aspect

the

universal

knowledge (mm'sesavynana)

It

is

the absolutely perfect

Upanisadic view, identify

effulgence
of

the knowledge. The Advaitins describe it as self-luminous experience or Atman. Sankara expounds that it with Brahman

and, like

Brahman

is

original

which illumines

all

objects but

is

itself

illumined by no other light. The reason for self-luminosity as given

is

by Sankara
self-

that

Brahman can never become an

is

object of knowledge.

As regards

luminosity, he
the the

of the view that had

Atman not been

impossible.

there,

the activities of

mind and senses would have been whole body, senses and mind.

The

light of

Atman pervades

Sankara in his commentary on Brahmasiitra* of Badarayana states that all those which make other objects known are in turn known by means of the light of

Brahman which
of

is

not

known by any
etc.

other means, for

Brahman

is

self-luminous

by virtue of which the sun,

shine.

He

further establishes the self-luminosity

.

5 commentary on Brhaddranyaka Upanisad offering arguments He says that Atman is the cause of the functioning of all senses. If Atman were not there, the activity of the mind and senses would be impossible. It is the cause of all activities, The light of At/nan being the inner-most in the heart,

Atman

in his

pervades the
(budd/!t),

and colours

turns
it

all

the milk green.

all

whole system of the body and senses right from the mind it with its light as an emerald dropped in a pot of milk The light of Atman is superior to all other lights in that
itself.

shines
is

other things, shining by

This does not, however,

also shines

mean
itself

that

Atman

self-luminous in the sense that

is

lamp which

by

while

shining all other things,

it

is

self-luminous, for though a lamp shines an object of illumination just like any other thing illumined

by

itself still
it.

by

Sankara further explains 6 that the self-shining nature of Atman is clearly observed in dream (svapnavastha). In that state, stripped of its connection with
the gross world,
it

creates the

the collection of mental impressions

state.

dream-body and dream objects out of the mdtrd, formed by the experiences of the
is

The cognition of

waking

this

matra (matropdddna)

the object of At/nan's self-

luminosity.

When

Advaitists hold that all the objects of the

is

world are manifested

by consciousness, whereas consciousness alone Naiyayikas as their main opponents.

self-manifesting, they

have the

statements such as

The Naiyayikas mean by jnana or cognition a transitory mental occurent necessarily directed towards an object other than that which is expressed by 'that is a pot'. The pot is said to be the of the
object

Vol.

XX,

1996

SELF-LUMINOSITY
is

OF...

35

knowledge, for the cognition of the pot

necessary and sufficient for

all

our

dealings with the pot. The cognition manifests the object and the object only, but neither the cogniser, nor the cognition itself. The Nyaya position is that for use of the pot, the awareness of the pot is sufficient and the awareness of the

and the awareness of the cognition are redundant. Had the cognition and been the objects, then the cognition would have led to their uses too, which is not the case. Hence, it should be said that a cognition, itself unknown,
self

the self

reveals the object.

primary awareness or the Vyavosdya' of the form 'that is revealed by the secondary introspective awareness of the form 'I know the pot' or 'I have knowledge of the pot'. The latter is called anu-vyavasdya. The

Nyaya
a pot'

asserts that the

is

second knowledge is the primary cognition, the self which is the substratum of this cognition, and also the external object in and through the primary cognition. The structures of the primary cognition and the
object of this

corresponding reflective cognition are more or less the same. Both of them manifest their objects, remaining themselves unknown. It is to be noted that

by the secondary cognitions.

the

according to die Naiyayikas, the primary cognitions are not necessarily followed If the conditions of anu-vyavosdya are present and

impediments are absent, then only anuvasdya takes

jfidna

place.

The Advaitists have meant by

something very different. It is a transcendental self-contained principle, which has no reference to any object. The temporal, finite mental states, which arise and perish, which have been
jfidna in Nyaya are called vitti-jndna in Advaita philosophy. These are supposed to be modifications of antalikarana. In this empirical level, the Advaitists have accepted the intentional character of particular cognitions, and they have also accepted other constituent factors, such as the object of knowledge and the knower, etc. But they have given a very different analysis called
"

of vitti-jndna,

as

far

as

its-

awareness

is

concerned. In fact

we can

talk of
is

Advaita epistemology only in terms of vrtti-jnana, as the svai-upa-jndna, equated with the metaphysical principle in the system viz., Brahman.

Let us see how Anandabodha deals with the problem. Anandabodha explains the Advaita doctrine of self-luminosity (svayamprakdsatd) of Atman or Brahman on the basis of Upanisads and earlier Vedanta texts. According to him, the Selfluminosity of Atman follows from the fact that unlike any other empirical inert
object,

for instance, for

its

object

manifestation but

a jar (g/iata), Atman does not require any other light or it manifests everything else existing in the

36

RABINDRA KUMAR PANDYA

is

SAMBODHI
self-illuminating,

emperical world. Apart from Atman, no object of the world

but

all

objects

depend

entirely

on

the

Atman
is

for their manifestation.

The

proved by the fact that men, after knowing the real nature of the object whether favourable oi: unfavourable, endeavour to achieve only favourable ones and withdraw themselves from unfavourable objects 7 The real nature of the objects whether good or bad is not
.

self-illuminating nature of the

Atman

known by

the sentient Atman. This worldly capability of determining the nature

of the objects as

good or bad undoubtedly proves

that

Atman

is

self-luminous.

Anandabodha employs the following Atman in his Nydyamakaranda

:

syllogism to prove the self-luminosity of the

Vijndnam avacchedakdtjnaprakdsddhinam
avacchinnaprakdsatvdt

yad uktasddhanah sa uaktasddlmnah Yathd dandapmkdsadhino dandprakdsah

In his
this

Pramdnamdla 6 Anandabodh
,

discusses this point mutatis mutandis,

as follows
:

but in

text the

above syllogism has been modified

Idam avacchedakapTakasddhmam
Avacchinnaprakdsat\>dd

dandiprakasavat.

Anandabodha refutes the pwvapaksa view which upholds that Atman can become the object of mental perception (manasapratyaksavisaya). The Atman cannot be self-luminous since it depends on mind for it's manifestation.
In this connection

Anandabodha

refutes this

view by saying that Atman cannot be manifested by

the mental perception since

Atman cannot be

the object of

its

own

cognitive

operation or psychosis

karma
touch

(v/tri) as one object cannot be both kartd (subject) and (object). For example, a sword cannot cut itself or a finger-tip cannot

itself
it

at

cognitions

one and the same time Since Atman is the subject of all cannot be an object of cognitions. Hence the purvapdksa view is
9
.

not valid, says Anandabodha.

further refutes the view of Salikanatha who in his Prakaranapancika advocates Atman as the subject of the cognition (vi/ndna). Salikanatha argues that Atman, not perceived through the direct mental perception (.manasapratyakasa) , cannot be said to be self-luminous. For the Atman is manifested in all the
object-cognitions

Anandabodha

(saivdrtha-samvitsu)

which

Vol.

XX,

1996

SELF-LUMINOSITY

OF...

37

depend on the sense organs (indriyad/zfna). It cannot be said Atman is the recipient of the ultimate result of the action (fcriyd).

that
It

because
is

(Atman)

the object of the action since that would go against the functioning capability of Atman (no khalu asya kriydphalabhdjah api karmabhavah yathd andtmani
vrttih virud/ryate).

For those who know the concept of karma (object) well, they advocate the object (karma) to be one connected with the fruit of the action
i.e.

inherent in something else,

kannavidah')
strives to
.

in the kartd
is

This being the case, Atman

tatlid sati

(Para-samaveta kriydphalsdlikanneti not the object like a person who

e.g.

reach a town

na dtmanah kannabhdvah gantjvat;

when

a town through the action of going inherent in him i.e. Catira, he becomes the enjoyer of the ultimate result i.e. reaching the town; yet Catira is not the object (fcarma) nor is Atman '5 functioning (.dtmanah vyapdra) contradictory in any manner. It is only the town that is the object (fca/Tna),
Caitra, goes to

being connected with the fruit, produced by action of going inherent in Caitra. Salikanatha further argues that Atman cannot be perceived mentally since perception or cognition implies some object for it and as Atman cannot be die
object (karma),
it

blue object manifests

object as
'this'

follows that Atman cannot be perceived. The cognition of a Atman which is its locus as 'not this' (nedam) and the blue

(idam).

We

will

discuss

here

the

Prabhakara Mimamsaka view of Atman

so

that

Salikanatha's arguments will be very clear.

The Prabhakara school of Purva-MImamsa views Atman like that of the NyayaVaisesika concept of Atman. According to Prabhakara, the Atman is not
'knowable' and he uses the 'katrkannavirodha' theory or the contradiction of the It is a matter of subject and the object. The Prabhakara theory is as follows
:

common

the experience that in every cognition three factors are revealed, viz. In cognizer (pramdtd), the object' (prameya) and the cognition itself (pramiti)the cognition 'I know the jar' there is a triple consciousness (triputt-samvit).

Here
to

refers to the cognizing soul,

'jar'

to

the object of cognition and 'know'

while

apprehended together, but apprehended as having a form, the other two are the apprehended without a form. The object is always apprehended as
the fact of cognition. All these three factors are

the

object

is

accusative (fcarma) the soul

is

apprehended as the nominative

(Jcartd),

and

the

for the existence of these cognition or awareness as cognition (fcriyd). The proof three is nothing but direct experience. The self, the object and the cognition are

directly revealed in

every object-cognition, and the

first

two always stand in

38

RABINDRA KUMAR PANDYA

SAMBODHI

need of a revealer, the third is self-revealed. The self and the object are always dependent on cognition for their manifestation. They are not self-luminous,
because

we

see that during sleep they exist, yet they are not manifested in

consciousness.

It cannot be said that they are no-existent when they do not appear in consciousness, because on waking they are recognised as the same as they were before. They do not manifest themselves though they do exist during

sleep.

This

is

self-luminous. There
itself.

For

t-he

because they are not self-lurninous. Cognition, on the contrary, is is no time when cognition can exist without manifesting manifestation of the self and the object cognition is required, but

for its
its

own manifestation there is no need of a own manifester, and, though it manifests the
is

second cognition. Cognition is self and the object both, yet,

only and not
to

unlike the object, the self

'going'
1

never made

its

accusative. Just as in the act of

the 'goer'

the accusative character belongs to

,

'village'

though the result of 'going

is

to

conjunction and disjunction (sarhyoga-vibhaga), related to both, so in the act of cognizing the accusative character belongs the 'jar' only and not to the cognizer, though the result of the cognitive act,
viz.

viz.

manifestation
in

is

related to both. This

is

because the accusative character

in

consists

assuming the result of an action inhering

a different

thing

(parasamavetakriyaphalabliagita). In 'going' the action inheres in the body, and, similarly, in 'cognizing' it inheres in the soul, the results being assumed by 'the
village'

and

'the jar',
is

respectively,

which are different from the agents. Thus

cognition which

by its very nature, reveals the soul and the object also. From cognition its cause, viz., the soul-mind contact is inferred and cognition itself is directly apprehended as cognition. It is not apprehended as its own object as the Buddhist idealist holds. Cognition is selfformless, revealing itself

luminous and illuminates

not needed manifest a

its

subject and object just as the light of a

lamp being
is

self-luminous illuminates the

to

lamp

as well as objects. Just as a second light

light, so

a second cognition

is

not required to manifest

a cognition. The proof of the existence of all entities depends on their being manifested by cognition, but if cognition itself is not manifested, how can there be the proof ?

Anandabodha
argues that
the

refutes the above mentioned view of Salikanatha. He Atman would have been different from its cognition and at same time would not have been the object (fcanna) thereof, it would not
briefly
if

the

depend on cognition (vijnana or

sarnvid)

for

its

manifestation. That which

is

manifested by cognition is necessarily its object. As the Atman cannot be the object of its cognition (yijndna), it logically follows that it cannot be manifested

Vol.

XX,

1996

SELF-LUMINOSITY

OF...

39

by cognition because being manifested by cognition is being pervaded (yydpya) by 'being an object of cognition just as' simsapaness' (simsapdtva) is pervaded by treeness (vrfcsarva). When 'treeness' is denied (vydvartamdna) in a particular
object,
it

is

obvious that 'simsapaness'

is
it

also

absent there. Similarly,

if

the

Atman

is

not the object of cognition

finally

cannot be manifested by cognition.

:

Anandabodha

employs the following syllogism

Samveditd na samvidadhinaprakdsah Saiiivitkarmandm antarena paroksatvdt

samvedanavad

iti

w
.

(The cogniser does not depend on cognition for his manifestation because he not the object of cognition but is self-luminous like cognition itself).
Thus,

is

Anandabodha

refutes Salikanatha's

view and proves the Vedantic doctrine

earlier

of self-luminosity of the

Atman, as propounded in the

texts

of the

Advaita Vedanta.

Anandabodha

in his

Brahman or Atman as consciousness scriptural statements (sYutt'vdfcya) and

doctrine that

Pramdnamdld and Nydyamakaranda explains the nature (yijndna*). With the help of a number
valid reasonings

of of

he establishes the Advaita

devoid of

Brahman

as of the nature of Pure Consciousness (yisudhavijiidnd)

is

which constitutes the essential nature of Brahman. As Brahman

attributes

(nirguria) ,
to

consciousness cannot be
itself

its

attribute.
is

according
empirical

Advaita Vedanta, being

Brahman
like

Consciousness, not identical with the

knowledge expressed by the terms

is

jfidna,

buddhi

etc.,

and

consciousness (yijiidna or samvid)

trans-empirical and transcendental.

According
Since

to

(svayamprakasa]
all

Anandabodha pure consciousness (visitdhavijndna) is self-luminous Which does not require any other object for its luminosity.
.

the empirical objects are manifested

by

this

supreme

light,

no

object

can illumine supreme consciousness, Brahman, which is therefore self-luminous and self-proved. Anandabodha differs from the view put forth by the Nyayaschool which does not approve the theory of self-luminosity of the consciousness
(yijiidna').

According
(dravya).

to the

substance

adventitious qualities
vijfidna
is

Nyaya school the Self (Arman) is essentially a pure The knowledge (jndna or buddhi) being one of the of the Atman resides in the Atman. Hence samvid or

not self-luminous (svayarii-prakasa").

objects

Anandabodha asks the question whether vijndna (consciousness) cognises

40

RABINDRA KUMAR PANDYA

in
itself
it
is

SAMBODHI
the
arise

when

luminous or otherwise

27
.

If

consciousness

manifests
is

objects being itself unmanifest then there

would

doubt whether a pot

cognised or not,

i.e. when a person cognises a pot after that pot-cognition, he does not doubt whether he has seen the pot or not as he is sure of the pot-

cognition.

proved that consciousness at the time of manifesting an there does not arise any doubt in the mind of the cogniser concerning the cognition. Without admitting the self-luminosity of the cognition the determination of the cognition of any object would not be

Hence

it

is

object manifests itself since

possible.

Anandabodha therefore employs

the following syllogism

:-

Vijiianam artha-prakasana samaye prakasate

tadutpatyanantaram sandehdyogyatvad arthavat.

(Consciousness manifests
after the
itself

at

the time of manifestation of object because

cognition of an object, doubt does not arise about that cognition, like

the object.)
If it

by another consciousness, then,

infinite regress

be said that consciousness (yijnand) manifests an object being itself manifest it does not stand to reason. For it will lead to

2 (anavasthdy , because, for the manifestation of the first cognition a second will be necessary, and for the second, a third and so on. Thus, the process would not come to a logical end. Moreover, numerous cognitions of the worldly objects cannot occur at one and the same time. The worldly objects like

and others are insentient by nature and consequently they are not Nor are they manifest by one another. If it be argued that consciousness though insentient, manifests an object, like the eyes, which though insentient manifest a visible object, Anandabodha rejects this view saying that
jar (g/iatoO

self-luminous.

the

alternatives

manifestation.
different

involved in it are not admissible. Manifesting is producing The manifestation produced by consciousness is either nonfrom the object of the cognition or manifestation is different from the

The manifestation (prakasa) is not the nature of object since an insentient object and manifestation (prakasa} cannot be identical with each other, like a liquid and a solid, and the momentary manifestation cannot be
object of cognition.
identical with

an object which

is

subtle

in

nature.

Nor can

it

be

said

that

(prakasa) manifestation is something other than the object, and is an attribute of the object (arthadlmjtna) generated by the cognition (vi/nana); for if it would have been the case, there would not have been manifestation of the past and future objects, though such a manifestation is always seen. actually

Vol.

XX,

1996

SELF-LUMINOSITY

OF...

41

Again,

if

the cognition (vijndna). If it is said manifest neither the object nor its

but manifestation (prafcds'a) were to be internal Cantaram) it is nothing to be non-sentient, C/'ada), then it would own nature. The entire world, therefore,
.

would be blind (jaga-andhyam prasajyeta) Therefore, it must be admitted that manifests the objects. Just as light dispelling cognition is self-luminous and also darkness helps the eye sight in its operation and illumines itself and the object
without requiring any other light, in the same way the Atman manifests 13 and the objects without the need of any intervening object
.

itself

Now, Anandabodha

criticises the

Yogacara view of

vijfidna.

The Yogacara, one

as

of the four schools of the Buddhist philosophy otherwise

for advocating vijndna

known

Vyndnavddi

vijnana the

is

not eternal (nitya)

is

that the (consciousness) as the supreme Reality, argues but momentary (fcsamfca). To prove the validity of

momentariness

(ksanikatva^

of the

vijnana,

this

school points out

that

cognition of blue (niZa)

individual cognitions like

from the cognition of yellow (pita). The the cognition of blue etc. arise and perish and so no
different

maintains the Yogacara school. cognition can be said to be eternal,

Anandabodha refutes
cognition cannot be

"when/ blue'
like the
is

is

view by saying that the momentariness (facmifcatva) of viz. proved by any means of knowledge. The argument, of proving the cognised 'yellow' is not cognised" is not capable
this

momentariness of the cognition. In

all individual cognitions (samvedana-vyafcti) one basic cognition which cognition of blue (nfla) etc., there underlies of the identical with all these subsequent cognitions. Hence, the eternality
is

cognition or consciousness

absolutely valid and logical.

the individual cognitions Secondly, the contention of the Yogacara school, viz., to like the cognition of blue are momentary, is not tenable according

Anandabodha because there would not be

the cognition of difference

(fa/ieda)

among
is

the cognitions without a conscious self or vijndna, the perceiver of their

differences.

The cognition of different cognitions presupposes the Atman which Since no other object or entity except Atman or the consciousness (.vijndna) is proved to be vijnana can determine the difference,
of the nature of vijndna.
eternal (nfrya)

M
.

Thus, Anandabodha makes an important endeavour

to

elucidate

the

Advaita

(svayarh-prakasatva) of consciousness. He forcefully establishes the Advaita view of consciousness by the help of strong arguments and the statements of scripture and refutes his opponent views of the Naiyayikas
theory of self-luminosity

42

RABINDRA KUMAR PANDYA

is

SAMBODHI

and the Prabhakara Mimaiiisakas. This

philosophical thought of India.

his

contribution to existing stock of

REFERENCES
1.

:-

Rao, M.A.V.
vol.

Note on Nydyamakara nda, Quarterly Journal of the Mythic Society,

p.256.
ed.

2.

Nyayamakaranda with Pramanamala and NyayadTpavali of Anandabodha, Balaram Udasina Mandalika, Chowkliamba Sanskrit Series, Baiiaras, 1907, p.
CNM) (PM)

359.

3. Sri

Dharmarajadhvarindra,

Veddntaparibhasd

with notes

and 'Prakasa' Hindi'

Commentary, The Vidyabhavan Sanskrit Granthamala

Vidyabhavan, Varanasi-1, 1963,
4.

100,

The chowkhamba

p.

35.

Brahmasutra-Sankarabhasya 1.3.22.

5.

Sahkarabhasya on Brhadaranyaka Upanisad 4.3.7.

4.3.9.

6. Ibid.

7.

NM
PM.

p.

130.
13.

8.

p.

9.

NM.

p.
p. p.

131. 135. 138. 139.

145.

10. Ibid. 11. Ibid.

12. Ibid.
13. Ibid. 14. Ibid.

p.
p.

p.

144-145.

'NIRAVASITA'
(Pariini,

2. 4.

10)

M. Srinwnnarayana Marti
The celebrated grammarian Panini (7th cent. B.C.) 1 reads in his Astddhydyi a rule Sudrdndm aniravasitdndm (Van 2. 4. 10) enjoining the case-affix in singular number to the samdhdra-dvandva compound in which the members
:

denote sudras

who

2 are unexpelled (from the communication of higher classes)

In other words,

the rule signifies that the unexpelled sudras,

when

expressed

together in a compound, are treated as one aggregate with a singular case-affix. The dvandva compound is formed when the referents of the members of the compound are connected or associated with one common action or one common
quality.

On

the

basis of the semantic function

it

is

classified into

two types

called

itaretarayoga

and

samdhdra 3
the unity

The itaretara-yoga-dvandva compound

diversity

implies unity in diversity;

is

inhering in the

two referents while the

with reference to the action or quality 4 is with reference to individuals

.

For example rdmalaksmanaii gacchatah implies that Rama and Laksmana are two different individuals doing one common action of going. The samdhdra-dvandva
is

formed when the individual distinctions are submerged under a

or

common
of
case-

action

common

quality.

Thus the compound implies predominance

5
.

aggregation (samdhdra) over co-ordination (itaretara-yoga) affix is added to the samdhdra-dvandva. to signify the
individuals.

The singular

non-distinction of

The dvandva compounds taksdyaskdram 'group of carpenters and blacksmiths' and rajaka-tantuvdyam 'group of washermen and weavers' are the examples of Pan. 2.4.10. There is only one counter-example canddlamrtapdh 'canddlas and mitapas' quoted in all the grammatical works of the Paninian
school.

This rule of Panini attests a fact that by about seventh century B.C. there were several classes of sudras, who were divided into two groups, namely aniravasitas
'unexpelled'

and niravasitas

'expelled'.

for unexpulsion

and expulsion. An attempt

But the rule does not speak of the criteria is made here to arrive at the sense

of niravasita

on the basis of the

religious literature.
I

Pataiijali arrives

at the sense of aniravasita vis-a-vis niravasita linguistically

on

the basis of the usage of the

dvandva compounds. He observes

44

M.

SRIMANNARAYANA MURTI
for the

SAMBODHI

It

is

said (a singular

number

dvandva compound) of words expressing

unexpelled
? It is (that
?

(sudras who are) unexpelled; from what (they are) unexpelled from the Aryavarta. Then \jvhat is Aryavarta
is

They

are

region which

lying)

to

the East of Adarsa, to the

to

Himalayas and

the

North of Pariyatra.

West of Kalakavana, to the South of But if so, the compound

kiskindhagandikam, sakayavanam or sawyakrauncam cannot be derived. they are unexpelled from the habitation of the Aryans. What, then,

Then
is

the

habitation of the Aryans ? It is a village (grama), a station of herdsmen (ghosa), a town (nagara), or an occupation of gypsies (samvd/m) Even then there are
.

those like Candalas and mrtapas who are members of the great habitation and living (in those habitations); in such cases (the itaretarayoga-dvandva compounds
like)

candalamrtapah cannot be accomplished.

rite.

If

so,

they are unexpelled from

the sacrificial

Then

(the samaliara-dvandva

compounds) taksdyaskdram and

If so, then, they are those who are unexpelled from the plate. Unexpelled are those, the plate in which they eat becomes pure by a purificatory rite. The expelled are those, the plate in which they eat does not become pure even by a purificatory rite 6

rajakatantuvayam cannot be accomplished.

The paraphrase
social

manifests his religious predilections and also his great insight regarding the expulsions that could have taken place on political,

of Patanjali

Brdhmana
his

Dasyiis very to the status of dasyus and were treated on a par with sudras, being deprived of their profession as priests and of education in the Vedic lore, while their own kinsmen, like Madhucchandas, became even the composers of
.

people south of Vindhyas and came to be known as the Andhras, Pundras, Pulindas and Sabaras, Mutibas; all these descendants of Visvamitra were treated 7 on a par with the non-Aryan tribes called The sons of Visvamitra
in

and religious considerations. For example, according to the Aitareya(7,18), the sage Visvamitra was condemned by a curse with fifty of sons to live on the borders of the settled Aryan settlements and these

the

were degraded

several hymns in the Rgveda. But they were allowed to join their kinsmen in common eating, as is evidenced by such compounds like kiskindhagandikam; Kiskindha and Gandika are the regions lying outside the Aryavarta. Similarly the

compounds Sakayavanam and Sawyakrauncam confirm that the Aryans were

maintaining social and
political contacts

and

the Greeks.

But

when

of sacrificial science, they looked

with the foreign nationals like the Sakas they developed their religion culminating in the form

on a par with sudras;

the form of

at the
8

common

down upon them and hence they were treated same time they maintained good social contacts in

eating

Vol.

XX,

1996

NIRAVASITA

45

The sarriahara-dvanda compounds taksdyaskaram and rajakatantuvayam on the one hand and the itaretarayoga-dvanda compound candala-mrtapah on the other, the amply exemplify following facts in the cultural history of ancient India
during the time of Patanjali
1.
:

The word niravasita 'expelled' vis-a-vis taken from the religious point of view.
2.

aniravasita

'unexpelled'

should

be

sudras

Even though the sudras do not have right to perform sacrifice the unexpelled are allowed to go into the midst of the sacrificers and associate themselves in whatsoever manner with the sacrificers by doing different helps in
the performance of the sacrifice 9
.

On

this

count

all

these sudras, in spite of their

fit

differences in professions, are treated, alike and considered as one group take meal in the plates used by the sacrificing classes.
3.

to

The niravasitas are untouchables because the them become polluted and unfit for reuse by
sacrifices. This criterion of untouchability

plates

touched and used by

to

the
is

communities qualified
also

perform

upheld by the authors

of the Dharmasastra; for example

Manu

calls

these niravasita as apapatras or

avapdtros

10
.

II

We

shall

now endeavour
came
to
to be

to

determine

approximately the
in

period

when

the

niravasita

identified as apapatra or untouchable and the conditions

Aryan society, through the phenomenological approach. It has been widely accepted that the phenomenological approach can be used to describe the religious phenomena
evil

that led

introduce

the

social

the

from

rituals to belief in order to understand such entities

is

on
to

their

own

terms.

Even though the phenomenological approach

emotional reactions,

likely

provide

strong

we may attempt as it is aimed at with a genuine desire to gain complete understanding of the religious beliefs and practices with accuracy of scholarship and with complete sympathy 11
.

Now when we

turn to Panini and Patanjali, their grammatical works are pre12 So eminently to protect and promote the Vedic religion and customs (dcora) the origin of untouchability also has to be searched in the structure of the
.

of sacrifice and the caste system. The Vajasamyi-Samhitd and the Taittiriya-Brahmana are the earliest records giving the caste structure of the

science

Aryan

society.

46

M.

SRIMANNARAYANA MURTI
III

SAMBODHI

The Vajasaneyi-Samhita CVS), 30.3-24 and the Taittmya-Brahmana (TB), 3.4 give
a
large
list

of
to

men and women

be
butchered.

professions

belonging to different castes and different This* translation of the word 'rnedhya' is
called
to

controversiol. Editrs in a sacrifice

Purusamedha 'human

sacrifice'.

There
to

are not less than

184 persons according

ritual.
,

VS and 178 persons according

be classified into different
beliefs 15 ,

TB

involved in the

These persons
professions
14
,

may
.

based on caste 13
appearance
16
,

sex,

religious

groups physical fitness and

are deficient

social

and sexual relations 17

Men and women who

socially, religiously,

enumerated. VS.

uneven are
(asiidrd

to

in the list 22 prescribes that certain persons who are physically be chosen from among people other than brahmanas and fadras

professionally, morally

and physically find place

30.

abrahmands

te

prdjdpatydli). These evidences

show

that all the

different

castes, including nasdda (VS. 30.8), pdkasa (30.17) (30.21) are treated alike and they were allowed to be touched.

and

people of candala

The Satapatha-Brahmana (SB) says that the four castes, brdhmana, rdjanya, vaisya and sudra, do not vomit Soma 18 This passage means that at one time the siidras were also allowed to perform sacrifices. At least that several concessions to the sudras were allowed during the Brahmana period is known from the admission of the rathdkara and nisdda to the sacrifice. The rathakdra is a sudra born to a mdhisya and a karam. He has a right to the rite called ddhdna
.

(cuttings) of heart' tongue, etc., in water. The nisada chieftain has to learn the necessary Vedic verses by heart, without having passed through a regular course of Vedic study" Thus the Brahmana literature evidences the existence of diversified
institution of

<a nisdda chieftain' is admitted to the no regular upanayana for the nisdda, the sacrifices are to be performed with 2" and cooking the sacrificial ordinary fires offerings the purodasas on the earth, and the sacrificing avaddnas

sacred

fires'

19
.

'setting

up

the

Similarly

nisddasthapati
is

Gavedhuka

sacrifice.

As there

marriage and the non-existence of

and complicated

institution of religion in the

form of

sacrifice

was viewed

untouchability. as sacred

However

the

and supreme

IV

*
*

V"^^.

'**

This translation of the word "medhytf

is

controversial. -Editors.

Vol.

XX,

1996

NIRAVASITA
.

47

manas, ksatriyas and vaisyas 22

function
as
officiating

priests

Even among brahmanas some are disqualified to as well as to perform sacrifices for want of
the

required

religious
:

purity.

Some of

noteworthy disqualifications, in

this

marriage (sahodha), is a damsel's child, i.e. born of an unmarried daughter one who 16 (kanlnd), 11) being posthumous child (anujavara) and 12) being one who has two pravaras. /
10)

2) going beyond the frontiers of the country, 3) being born on the border lands, 4) not studying Veda together with its ancillary texts, 5) cultivating lands by ploughing, 6) trading in wool, 7) being a son of an appointed daughter (puftfyaputra), 8) being a son begotten on a woman by a sagotra relation of her husband or another (pdrafcsetr-a) , 9) being one who was in the womb of a woman at the time of her

23 context, are

1)

making a sea voyage,

being one

who

V
The above observations allow us
the
institution
to search for the
sacrifice.

of marriage 2"
is

and

From

the

causes of untouchability in religious point of view

untouchability
interruption
pollutions
to

avowedly a
sacrifice.

the

religious pollution which would cause an Besides the pollutions of the sacrificer, the
are
to

of the

sacrificed wife
sacrifice.

be warded off

for

the

successful

completion of the

In case of occurrence of pollution there are several

sacrificer,

expiatory rites by performing which the sacrifice can be continued. there is no pollution that can make him unfit from the

For the

undertaking
sacrificer
fires'

vow

(cffibd)

time of upto the final bath (ava&hrta). The wife and husband
.

are treated as

one unit and thus the wife is 25 The indispensable for the sacrifice cannot even perform the preliminary rite of 'setting up of the sacred
.

(ognyddheya) without his wife 26 In spite of it, she is considered unfit to 27 execute certain duties and certain others during certain permanently periods. In case of violation the ritual gets interrupted, and it can be resumed only after

performing certain special expiatory

rites.

The

sacrificer's

wife

is

considered to

be polluted on two important occasions, namely the periods of menstruation and confinement. During these two periods she is considered temporarily polluted, because of which she is debarred from the participation in the sacrifice of her husband. As a result the sacrifice gets interruption, warranting for an expiatory rite to overcome the defilement. The Brhaddranyaka Upanisad, 6.4.13 (= SB. 14.9.4.12) ordains that a woman during her monthly periods shall not drink from a metal vessel, wear a fresh dress, even a vrsda or a vrsall (i.e. a sudra man or woman) shall not touch her for a period of three 28 This passage days
.

48

M.

SRIMANNARAYANA MURTI

SAMBO DHI

clearly testifies that the vessels used

by her during her menstrual period become

polluted and unfit to be used

by any one
to

of the four castes.

by others. Similarly,, she should not be touched The period of temporary pollution is considered

also the sudras. In other

to the

be so inauspicious that even her touch pollutes not only the sacrificer but words, her temporary pollution makes her inferior even
sudras.

There are several prescriptions ordained

for the

sacrificer

when

during various stages of the sacrificial ritual. Let us note some of the prescriptions from the Srautasutras in connection with the
his wife goes into periods

periods of the wife

1.
if

Baudhayana prescribes "In the sacrificial rite of setting up of the sacred fire, the wife is found in menses before the distribution of daksina, the sacrificer
:

has

to

abandon the

ritual

and he should

set

up the sacred

fires at

another time

again starting from the beginning all the rites in connection with it". This shows clearly that the pollution of the wife causes total interruption of the ritual. "If,

however, the wife is found in menses after the distribution of daksina, the :w sacrificer should exclude her from the remaining rites and carry them out:
.

2.

Katyayana observes

"If the

sacrificer's

wife

is

in

menses
sacred

after the
fires,

sacrifice,

duly preceded by the setting up of the

all

Somalias been

the things relating to initiation, which she has assumed, should be purified and kept apart. She should stay on sandy ground. At dawn and in the evening she should stand up on that ground. On the fourth day, she should bathe herself with cow's urine and then (again) assume the things relating to

commenced,

initiation
3.

30

".

"If the sacrificer's wife enters menstruation, during the Agnihotra-offering, he should keep her 31 up the offering"
: .

Baudhayana prescribes

the

period

of

away and

finish

4.

Vaikhanasa observes
is

"If the

sacrificer's

she
If

in her

menses, the sacred

fires perish.
fires,

he touches one of the sacred

it

wife touches the sacred fires while So he must renew the sacred fires. one should churn out that fire only and
offer a sacrifice to

deposit

into the relevant fire-place.

to

He should
.

pavamana

Agni, to pavaka Agni and

suet Agni" 32

Similarly the period of confinement caused

woman

by

child-birth or

miscarriage for a
this

is

considered

as

a pollution called

sutaka.

becomes again untouchable temporarily. Only after bath, the food cooked by her becomes fit for consumption by family members and for offering to gods For

During

period

she

Vol.

XX,

1996

NIRAVASITA

49

any reason,

if

he becomes polluted.

an ahitagni consumes food cooked by a He has to perform an expiatory

VI

woman
rite
33
.

in confinement,

The temporary untouchability associated with a brdhmana woman during the turn to a permanent untouchability if periods of menses and confinement may she is debarred permanently from the religious rites. This was what actually
is wedded to a ksatriya or a vaisya, by the happened. When a brdhmana woman inverse order of marriage system, her children are treated on a par with sudras 3 The children called suta (when with the right to take part a common meal
'
1

born

a ksatriya) and vaidehika (when born to a vcmya) are treated as the right to sacrifice. The unexpelled sudras (aniravasitas) and they lose brdhmana woman and her spouse fare ill when the latter is a sudra. She is
to

treated as permanently polluted and debarred from even those rights of sudras. The progeny called cdnddlas or cdnddlas are treated as still lower than a normal 35 The earliest reference of cdnddla as an untouchable occurs in the sT/dYa and a hog 36 The cdnddlas Chandogya-Upanisad, 5.10.7; he is compared to a dog are treated as expelled (m'rava.sita) from the habitation and common meal. Thus
. .

the religious untouchability led to social untouchability.

That the woman's temporary and permanent religious pollutions were cdnddlas can also be proved responsible for the untouchability of the
contextually.
1)

and

truth,
.

woman

woman 38

SB.

The Maitrdyamya-Samhitd reads, "verily, the sacrifice is right 37 " and personifies evil (ni/yti) with is something wrong 14.1.1.13 reads, "the woman, the sudras, the dog, and the black
.

bird (the crow) are something

woman

and
to

defilement

woods (arams)
object,

39 Srautasutras include the menstruating wrong" as causing along with the dog and the black bird the sacrifice. For example, Baudhayana maintains that the kindling as a result of the contact with an impure become

cdnddla

polluted

ordains

cdnddlas,
the

10 Katyayana a dog, a crow, a sinner, a donkey, or a woman in menses' to that if the sacred fires comes into contact with fire belonging 41 Manu also mentions in etc. one should offer a sacrifice to s'uci Agni
.

same verse quarter person and a woman in

The woman's position
married
to

that

the

cdnddla,

woman

in

menses,
touch'
12
.

an out-caste

siitaka as causing pollution

by

when she is is generally satisfactory, on the other hand, in a person of the same class and she has also ample opportunities sexual the choice of her husband. The prevalence of love marriages, premarital

SO

M.

SRIMANNARAYANA MURTI
sufficiently
if

SAMBODHI

contacts and adultery

3

were

evidenced both in the Brdhmanas and

the wife

Upanisads*

If

a woman, say even

is

sexual morality, she

pjirt

permitted

t<p

join her

in

the

sacrifice.

For example according to

wife of the
sacrificer
is

of an dhitagni, falters in her husband by confession and take SB. 2.5.2.20, in one of the

seasonal sacrifices

the

questioned

about her

sexual

loyalty to her husband.

to lead her to the altar.

The

Pratiprastha.tr goes to the

hut of the sacrificer's wife

Before leading her to the altar he asks her "With

whom

do you sleep
to

?"

A woman

commits a

sin against

Varuna

if

she, while
it it

one, sleeps with another. But

it

when one

confesses a

sin,

belonging becomes indeed

smaller; for

becomes

truth. If she
1 .

does not confess truth,

brings disaster to

her and

to

her relations'"
in

Satyakama Jabala
into the Vedic lore

the

Chdndogya-Upanisad
his

is

another example.
into
his school

He was

admitted by the preceptor Haridrumata

Gautama
mother

and initiated

Jabala that she was not very sure of his father as she was having a free sexual life because of serving many brdhmanas during her young age*. The Taittinya-Aranyaka (TA) accounts that
period composition, the father of the daughter, who had free sex and begot a child before marriage, came to be considered as polluted and he ordained to perform an expiatory rite to ward off the evil that has befallen on his family-. Similarly the Brhaddranyaka Upanisad cautions a debauchee of
is

on the confession of

during

its

of

the

evil

that

may

befall

on him by subduing the lady of a

wife can also be punished

sacrificer

paramour of a
Thus
it

The

sacrificer's

by a

ritual".

can be concluded that by the end of the Upanisadic period the children born by mterclass and widow marriages were looked down and deprived of some or several of their fundamental rights. The rights of property were not p

even

VII

produced
.0

Vol

XX,

1996

NIRAVASITA

51

Aryan by an Aryan
force of all those

woman is worthy of all sacraments Another who believe in the authority of the Veda is their
.

51

motivating
resolve to

uphold by

all

means

the

religibn

of sacrifice.

So

all

the

authors of the
officiating

Srautasutras are
priest

unanimous

in maintaining that the sacrificer

and the

should be
52
.

endowed with eminent

character

Even though the

women

parentage, family, learning and were originally allowed to recite the Vedas
certain
rites

and participate in the

sacrifices

and perform

in

lieu

of their

to engage in academic pursuits, husbands, they were discriminated in the rights to own property and to follow independently the religious practices.

The brahmin
a

woman was

the

first

vouched custodian of the religion of

who is lady to be abondoned by a brahmin sacrifice. The belief of the superiority of

.

a strong the clan, anxiety to perpetuate the clan clean and desire to establish 53 a female member of the family Aryan hold must be strong reasons to forsake So when a woman was forsaken by a brahmin for the community, her husband social should also be forsaken by a siidra family, in order to honour the mandate and to maintain harmony in the division of labour. The banished
exclusion from public institutions, family gets complete residential segregation, 54 educational discrimination and loss of profession
.

VIII

he Not only the brahmin woman, but also a brahmin is excommunicated when teacher's wife, teacher's daughter, is involved in adultery and incest with the
elder brother's wife to younger brother, and younger sister, sister-in-law (i.e. father's brother's wife to elder brother), maternal uncle's wife, mother's sister,
sister,

daughter, daughter-in-law,

sister's

daughter and

friend's

wife 55

Manu

says

that the wife of the elder brother is for his

younger brother the teacher's wife

and the wife of the younger brother to an elder brother is like a wife of his Therefore, if an elder brother approaches the the wife of his elder younger brother, or if an younger brother approaches as fallen out of the Aryan community brother, both of them are treated alike 56 he becomes adulterer If an elder brother approaches his brother's wife,
(gurupatni)

daughter-in-law.

(parita)
57

and

and guilty of incest by defiling the bed of a daughter-in-law (snusdga) that to crave for the wives of expelled as an out-caste. Yajnavalkya says bed a son and his own daughter is a sin equal to that of violating a precepter's 59 and he should be killed after having his generative organ cut off
,

58

G'ara)

is

Even though

Manu mentions widow

remarriage

and levirate

(niyoga)

in

52

M.

SRIMANNARAYANA MURTI
.,

SAMBODHI

60 he opposed and denounced them conformity with the contemporary practice "In the sacred texts which refer to marriage, the emphatically. He maintains
:

appointment of widow

is the remarriage of widows prescribed in the rules concerning marriage. This practice which is reprehended

is

no where mentioned, nor

by the learned of the twice born castes, as fit for cattle is said (to have He denies to the son occurred) even among men while Vena ruled" 51 (paunarbhava) begotten on a remarried woman (punarfc/zu) the right to inherit
.

the property of the father as a legal heir

52
.

IX

From the drawn

:

discussion in the foregoing pages the following conclusions

may

be

1.

The exact sense

:

in

which the word aniravasita used by Panini

in

the rule

2.4.10
2.

Sudrdiidm aniravasitdnam cannot be decided.

is

Patanjali's paraphrase of the rule 2.4.10 gives the criterion for aniravasita

touchability vis-a-vis niravasita untouchability.

3.

The idea of expulsion concept of untouchability.

4.

is

known during

the

Brahmana

period, but not the

The concept of untouchability has nothing

It

to

do with

the social order of the

Aryans.
5.

has

its

origin in the ritualistic religion of sacrifice.

is

Untouchability

a pollution

by which a person becomes by

unfit to

touch any
violation

thing of the sacrifical ritual and also to be touched

results in

others.

Any

some expiatory

rite,

without which the participation in the sacrifice

cannot be allowed.
6.

The

man
7.
is

spirit of this untouchability is taken from the temporary pollution of a during her periods of menstruation and confinement.
first person who is discarded permanently as an untouchable religiously woman. Through her, her spouse and children also become untouchables.

The
the

8.

a sudra.
9.

The lady who was made untouchable was a brahmana woman who married Her child is called candala or cdnddla.
the instituion of marriage

When

became very

rigid,

and inverse

(vifoma)
the

order

of intercaste

marriages came

both the direct (anuloma) to be viewed as

the

detrimental to

institution

of religion as well as to

Aryan

unity.
rigid

To
by

dissuade such intercaste marriages, the social order was

made very

Vol.

XX,

1996

NIRAVASITA

53

restricting the freedom to the progeny of such marriages through curtailing their

rights of education, religion

and

profession.

The inverse order treatment was meted

10.

of marriages were very

to

much

depricated.

Worst possible
This was

braliainana

woman by
to

the

society.
it

measure taken by the builders of the Aryan society

keep

clean and strong.

NOTES
1.

R.

G. Bhandarkar,

Early History of the Dekkan, Calcutta, Susil Gupta (India) Pvt.

p. 18.

Ltd.
2.

1957

(rpt.),

A/iiravasitasudravacinafn

sabddndm dvandva ekavad

bhavati,

Kdsikd,

2.4.10.

3.

M. Srimannarayana Murti, Sanskrit Compounds

Philosophical Study, Varanasi,

Chowkhamba
4.

Sanskrit Series Office, 1974, pp. 61-62; 308-327.

Itaretarayogas tu bhinnasanghdbhidhdyindm /

pratyekam ca sauho
5.

'sau

samuhisu samdpyate // Vdkyapadiya,

ity

III.

Vrtti.

29.

Sanghaprddhdnye

tu samdhdi-a

arthdd uktam, Helaraja on

ibid.

6.

Amravasitandm
Ajydvartah.

aniravasitdndm. kali punar ity ucyate kuto 'niravasitdndm. Aiydvartdd prdg Adarsdt pratyak kdlakavandd daksinena himavantam uttarena iti na pdriydtram. yady evam kiskindhagandikam sakayavanam sauryakrauncam kah punar Aryanivdsah. grdmo sidhyati. evam tarhy Aryanivdsdd aniravasitdndm.
tesv abhyantards ghoso nagararh samvdlia iti. evam api ya ete mahdntah sariistydydh canddla mrtapds ca vasanti tatra canddlamrtapd iti na sidhyati. evam tarhi

ydjfidt

karmano 'niravasitdndm.

evam api taksdyaskdram rajakatantuvdyam

pdtram
samskdrendpi na sudhyati

iti

na

sidhyati.
te

evam

tarhi pdtrdd aniravasitdndm. yair bhukte

sariiskdrena sudhyati
te

'niravasitdh.

yair bhukte pdtram

niravasitdh,

Mahdbhdsya, 2.4.10.
In
this

context

it

may

be

noted
in

that

the

dvandva

compounds

mentioned by

Patanjali cannot

be located
opine

The Indo-European

Philologists

any of the Samhitds and Brahamarias. that the very formation of the dvandva

compound is of indigenous development. So these examples should have been taken from the contemporary literature or spoken language.
7.

pancdsat kamydmsah. tad ye jydydmso na

madhucchandasah Tasya ha visvdmitrasyaikasatani putrd dsuh, pancdsad eva jydydmso te kusalam menire tdn anuvydjahdrdntdn
ta
ete-

vah prajd bhaksisteti

'ndhrdh pundrdh sabardh pulindd

mutibdity udantyd

bahavo vaisvdmitrd dasyundrh bhuyisthdh. Aitareya-Brdhmana,

7.18.

54

M.

SRIMANNARAYANA MURTI
this

SAMBODHI
"But in consequence
of the

8.

Manu

also

corroborates

view of
and of

Patanjali.

ommission of the sacred

tribes of ksatriyas

rites,

their

not consulting Brahmanas, the following

this

have gradually sunk in

world to the condition of sudras

die Paundrakas, die Codas, the Dravidas, die

Kambojas, die Yavanas, the Sakas, the

Paradas, the Pahlavas, the CInas,

tlie

Kiratas

and the Dardaras",

:

tr.

G. Buehler, The

Laws of Manu, sacred Books of die East (SBE), 25, 1886

Sanakais tu kriydlopdd

imdh

ksatriyajdtayah /

Vrsalatvam gatd lake brdhmandtikramena ca //

Pundras codadraviddh kambojd yavandh sakdh /

Pdraddh pahlavas
9. Cf.

cmdh

kirdtd

damdds

tathd //

Manu. 10.43-44.

Devaydtrdvivdhesu yajnaprakaranesu ca /

Utsavesu ca sarvesu sprstdsprstir

10.

na vidyate //

Atri.

249.

Canddlasvapacdndm tu bahir grdrndt pratisrayah /

Avapdtrds ca kartavyd

dhanam

esdrii

svagardabham // Manu. 10.51.

'Sati,

11.

Alaka Hejib and Kantherine K. Young,

sliarma,

Widowhood and Yoga'

in

Arvind

et

al.,

Sati

Historical
78f.;

Banarsidass,

1988,

pp.

and Phenomenological Essays, Delhi, Motilal H. p. 107, fh. 332; p. 108, fn. 333. See also
:

Spiegelberg, The Phenomenological

Movement
ff.;

Historical Introduction,

The Hague,
in

Martinus Nijhoff,
'Scientific'

1965,

vol.2,

pp. 657

Harold Coward,

"Limitations

the

and Phenomenological Study of Scripture", Adyar Library Bulletin, vol.

1-29.

52,

1988, pp.

12. Patanjali

and Bhartrhari are very clear in their stand that the

Grammar
cf.

is

primarily

a principal

means

to

preserve the Vedas and the Vedic culture;

Raksohdgama:

laghvasandehdh prayojanam. Mahdbhdsya, Paspahnika, p.l (Kielhorn edn.); see also

Asannam brdhmanas tasya tapasdm uttamam tapah / prathamam chandasam angam dhur vydkaranam budhdh // Vdkyapadiya, 1,11.
Patanjali

values

the

way
cf.

of

life

followed

Aryavarta as par excellence;

Evam

tarlii

nivdsata acaratas

by the orthodox people in the ca. Sa cdcdra Aiydvarta

eva

etasminn

Aryanivdse

ye

brdhmandh

kumbhidMnyd

dlolupd

Sistah.

agrhyamdnakdrandh kimcid antarena kasydscid vidydydh pdragds tatrabhavantah Mahdbhdsya, 6.3.109.

the called

13. Besides

brdhmanas,
'mixed'

ksatriyas,

vaisyas

and judras

(VS.

30.5)

many

of those

castes

(ainfcara-vornos)

resulting

from the direct (anidoma)

e.g.

and

inverse (vitoma) order of marriages are

mentioned;

mdgadha (VS.

30.5), suta,

Vol.

XX, 1996
rathakara
(VS.30.6),

NIRAVASITA
nisada
(30.8),

55

pauiijistha,

ksattd

(VS.

30.13),

dhivara,
etc.

ddsa,

candala (30.21), mdrgara, kaivarta, kirdta (30.16) pulkasa (30.17),

14. Different

professions pursued
(VS.

by die mixed castes are

manikara,
isukdra,

also

given in

detail;

e.g.

taskara

30.6),

Caksan,

dhanuskdra, jydkdra,
abhiprasnin,

rajjusarja,

mrgayu,
(30,10),
vittadha

svanin
hastipa,

(30.7),

bhisak,

naksatradarsa,
avipdlaka,

prasnin,

prasnavivaka

asvapa,

gopala,

ajapdlaka,

kmasa, surdkdra, grhapa,

(30.11), dvdrahara, agnyedha, abhisektd, parivesanakartd (30,12), upasekta,

asvasdda,

parivestd

(30.13),

oyastdpa

(30.14),

ajinasandha,

carmamna

(30.15),

hiranyakdra
vanapa,

(30.17),

carakacdrya

(30.18),

vmavdda,

tunavad/ima, sankhadhma,

"....it is extremely doubtful ddvapa (30.18), etc. As P.V. Kane remarks whether they had become petrified castes at die period of these works", History of

Dharmasdstra,
15. E.g. 16. E.g.

vol.

5,

pt.

2.

p.

1633.
(30.8).

virahana
kliba

(VS. 30.5)

and vrarya

(VS.

30.5),

kubja,

vdmana,

srdma, andlia,
khalati,

bad/lira

(30.10),

sidhmala
kildsa,

(30.17),

muka

(30.19),

pithasarpin

(30.21),

haryaksa,

kirmira,

suklavarna, krsna-pingdksa (30.21), pivana, atidlrgha, atihrasva, atisthula, atikrsna,

atisukla, atikrsa, 17. E.g.

atikulva,

atilomasa (30.21),
strlsakha,

etc.

rebha

(VS.

30.6),

fcari,

kumdnputra
upapati

(30.6),
(30.9),

durmada, urimatta,
snehahrdaya, pisuna,

apratipada,

kitava,

adyutakrt

(30.8),

jam,

priyavadin (30.13), parivitta

(30.9), parivividdna edidhisuhpad,

upadd

(30.9).
e.g.

Women

of different professions
(30.14),

and

characters

are

also

mentioned;

pumscalu, asu, yamasu

avatofca,

paiyayim,

avijdta,

atitvarl,

atiskadvari,

vivarjara, palikni (30.15),

sabalya (30.20), bidalakdri, kantakikari (30.8) pes'askdn,

smarakdri (30.9), vdsahpalpuK, rajayitn (30.13).

18.

While sanctioning expiatory

Catvaro
bhavati
vat
-

rite

for vomiting Sonia in sacrifice, SB. 5.5.4.9 reads

rdjanyo,

varna/i

brdhrnano,

vaisyah,

sudrah.
-

Na haitesdm ekascana
sydddhaiva prdyascittih.
sydt

yah somarii vamati. Sah yadaitesdm ekascit sydt

:

The TaittiriydSamhita, 2.3.2.7 ordains the procedure etarii somendram sydnuikam carum nirvapet.
19.

Yah somavdml

tasmd

Rathakarasyddhane,
Srauta-sutra
(BSS),

Kdtydyana-Srauta-sutra
2.2.15

(KSS),

1.1.9;

see

also

Btiud/ioyana-

and Apastamba-Srauta-siitra, 5.3.18. See also Rathakdrddhikarana (6.1.2.44-50) in the Mlrndmsddarsana for die relevant Vedic passages

and detailed discussion regarding the

eligibility

of the rathakara for die

sacrifice.

20. Api vd laukike 'gnau sydd ddhdnasyasarvasesatvdt, Jaimini's

MTmamsdsutra, 6.8.3.21;

56

M.

SRIMANNARAYANA MURTI
1.1.12.
in:

SAMBODHI

nisddasthapatir gdvedhuke 'dhikrtah, KSS.

21. F.

Max

Miiller,

Apastamba's Yajnaparibhdsd-sutras (Eng.

tr.),

SBE.30, pt.2 (1973,

1st edn. 1892), p.317; laukike,

bhumau pasupuroddsasrapanam, apsv avaddnahomah,

KSS, 1.1.14-16.
22. ibid, p.315. 23. Srautakosa, English section, Poona, Vaidika
8f.;

Sanisodhana Mandala,

pt.

(1958),

p.

pt.

2 (1962), p.967, pp. 976-977.

24.

The

institution of marriage
to

came

began taking definite shapes and several conventions be observed already by the time of the Athawaveda. For example the sons
to be married in the order -of their age. If a

and daughters are

marries

man

or a
sister

woman
it

before

the

marriage

of his

elder

brother or her

elder

was

considered to be inauspicious. The Athcnvaveda, 2.30 gives several charms to avert evil caused by breaking the order. Further the person who accepts 'to serve as an
officiating priest in

such disorderly marriages

as
officiating

is

condemned and sometimes he

elsewhere.

is

expelled

from functioning

priest

The father of such

children are also considered inferior.

25. Cf.

Ardho ha vd esa dtmano yaj jdyd tasmdd ydvaj jdydrii na vindate naiva tdvat
hi

pmjndyate 'sarvo

hi sarvo bhavati, SB. 5.2.1.10.

...

tdvad bhavati. Atha yadaiva jdydrii vindate 'tha prajdyate tarhi See also niviste rnrtd patm nastd vdgnihotrarii juhoti
:

apatm-kasyddhdnam

...

kui-vanti

....

s'raddlid patm....,

Aitareya-Brdhmana, 7.10. M.
in the age of the Liturgical

Srimannarayana Murti,

'Position and

status of
:

Women

L. K. Tripathi (Ed.), Position and Status Ancient India Varanasi, Department of Ancient Indian History, Culture and Archaeology, Banaras Hindu University, 1988, vol.

Samhitas, Brahmanas and Upanisads' in

of

Women

in

1,

p.26.

26. For example, if the sacrificer's wife

is

beyond the boundary of the village during

the sunrise

and sunset
fires
:

in the

Agnihotra offerings Baudhayana prescribes renewal of

the

sacred

Atha yadi patm bahih slrndm punarddhdnam,

p.

ESS.

29.12;

Srautakosa (Eng.
27. For

sec.),

196.

example

if

the sacred fires are spread out

:

by

the sacrificer's wife,

Baudhayana

"If it was done consciously, one should consign the sacred fires woods. He should move away from that spot, churn out the fire, and then spread out the fires. He- should (first) offer pumdhuti and then offer, to tantumant Agni, a cake on eight potsherds. If it was done unconsciously, he should out the fires with the spread vyahrtis, offer pCirndhuti, and then offer to tantumant

[27.11] prescribes

into the kindling

Vol.

XX, 1996

NIRAVASITA

57

Agni a cake on eight potsherds", Smutakosa (Eng.sec.), p.152.

28. Atha

yasya jdydm drtavarh vindet tryahath kamse na vrsaly upahanydt, BU. 6.4.13.

no.

pibed ahatavdsd nendrii vrtalo

becomes polluted Every thing that is touched by a woman during her periods and unfit to be offered to gods. So Baudhayana prescribes that die oblation menses in woman (.Atha havirdosdn becomes polluted if it is touched by a
vydkhydsydmah. Yathitat
29.
...

rajasvalyd vd sprstam
:

...,

BSS. 27.9).
rtviyarii vindeta

Smutakosa (Eng.

sec.), p.

84 = BSS. 29.12

Atha yadi patnim

prdg

ata urdhvam aparodhah. daksindyd etad eva (ddita drabhydnyastnin kdla ddadhydt)
30. ibid. p.

84

KSS. 25.11.14: (Jyotistomddau dlksitasya') patm rajasvald dlksdriipdni

sita

sankvddmi nidhdya sika

31. ibid. p.

d raktaviramandt.

tisthet sariidhivdayoh.

182 197

= =

BSS. 29.12.
Vaikhdnasa-Srauta-sutra, 20.4.
tatra pmyasdttir
tdntutii
iti

32. ibid.

p.

33.

Tad dhur ya dhitdgnir yadi sutakdnnarii prdsmydt kd

tdntumate
-

so 'gnaye

'stdkapdlam puroddsarii mTvapet tasya ydjydnuvdkye

tdnvan rajaso

bhdnuman

vi hy aksdn aha nahyatdnota somyd ity dhutwi vdhavaniye juhuydd agnaye tdntumate svdheti sd tatra prdyascittih, AB. 7.9. TB. 1.3.7 prescribes purification for

the
34.

husband

also

in the case of sutaka.

to

Apastamba allows sudras

supervised
rules

be cooks

in

brdhmana households provided they were

by

member
nails,

about paring
2.2.3.4).

of the three higher classes and observed certain hygienic cutting of hair (aryddhisthitd vd sudrah sariiskartarah syuh,

ApDS.

He

an impure sudra. prohibits the consumption of food brought by

Gautama permits the (apmyatena tu sildrenopahrtam abhojyam, ApDS. 1.5.16.23). brdhmanas to eat food from a sudra who has his own cowherd, or tilled his field, or was a hereditory friend of the family, or his own barber or his ddsa (Gautama
17.1

and

6).

Other law givers narrowed

to

down

die

possibilities

of

common meal
sudra
as

when

time

passed favourable
the

the
is

rigidity of castes.

The Sankhasmrti (13.4)

condemns

brdhmana
:

who

fattened

on the food given by

2, pt.
1,

panktidiisaka. See also

35.

History of Dhannasdstra, vol.

/

pp.

161f.

Anantarasu jdtdndm vidhir esa sandtah

dvyekdntardsu jdtdndm

dharmyam
is

vidydd

imam vidhim

// Manu. 10.7.

The underlying

principle

that while the

son a kshatriya or vaisya looses the

58

M.

SRIMANNARAYANA MURTI

SAMBODHI

religious right to sacrifice,

the son a s'udra looses the right to help the sacrificer

is

and

common
the

meal.

Manu
is

very stringent in condemning the candala to a state

lower than a sudra (Manu, 10.51). Yaska records that

that

Aupamanyava held
nisddah

the view
ity

ni'sdda

fifth

caste,
it

(catvdro
did

varndh

aupamanyavah, Nirukta, 3.8). But

not gain currency.

pancamah Manu also did

:

not

recognise a fifth caste (exclusively embracing untouchables); he says

Brahmanah ksatriyo vaisyas trayo varnd dvijdtayah /

Caturtha ekajdtis tu sudro ndsti tu

pancamah // Manu,
fifth

10.4.

Amarasimha also does not recognise a

2.10. In the

caste;

he includes
:

all

the castes

sprung by intercaste marriages in the class of sudras; see

anutoma marriages

the child is

Ndmalingdnusdsana,. degraded than that of the father and

thus the progeny is called apasada 'degraded' (below the father) (Manu. 10.10). The progeny born in die viloma marriages are called apadhvariisaja 'low born' and
are treated as equal in respect of duty to mere sudras (Manu. 10.41). The progeny born in inverse order are called suta, rndgadha, ayogava, ksaUd and candala (Manu. 10.26). Medhatithi remarks that the candala alone among die progenies born in

inverse
'sprsya/i,

intercaste

marriages was made an untouchable

If

(canddZa

ekah pratilomo

Medhatithi on Manu. 10.13).

prescribed as a necessary expiatory

rite.

any one happens to touch him a bath is The contact with others does not warrant
vol.
2,
pt.
1,

any purificatory bath (History of Dharmasdstra,

172).

The persons of these

six castes bring forth very

much

despicable and abject races

even more foul than their begetters by marriage with women of their own castes (10.29). For example an ayogava woman begets a saimndhra, a maitreyaka and a margfiva by a dasyu 'out-caste of any pure class', a va.de/ufca, and
reciprocally
a nisdda respectively (Manu. 10. 32-34). Progeny of these castes wear the clothes of the deceased and eat reprehensible food (Manu. 10.35). A candala begets a sopaka by a pukkasi woman and an antydvasdyin by a nisddastn (Manu. 10.-39).

36 ..... Ya

iha * a

rthyKo ha

yatte

kapuydm yonim dpadyeran svayonirh vd

siikarayomm vd cdnddlayonim vd, Ch. Up. 5.10.7.

37.

Rtam

vat

satyam yajfio nrtam

stii,

stri,

MS. 1.10.11.

38. Nirrtir hi
39. Esd vai

MS.

1.10.16.
sai ? d srft

dharmo ya esa tapati

tani na prekseta,

s^ m

jyotir

anrfam

5tr,

sakums

sMmh

SB. 14.1.1.31.
p. P.

M^ "'

'

40. Srautakosa

(Eng.

sec.), j,

189 ioy = Bbb. RSS

97 R 27.8

jiVMAstabhir

mmittair vinasyaty

Vol.

XX,

1996

NIRAVASITA

59

amedhyasvacdnddlasudravdyasapatitardlsabharajasvaldbhis ca samsparsane
vindsah.
41. ibid. p.

'ranyor

193

KSS. 25.4.35.
ca

42. Divdkirtim

udakydm

savam
43. For

tatsprstinarii caiva sprstvd

patitam sutikdm tathd / sndnena sudhyati // Manu. 5.85.

:

example TA. 1.27.8 reads

Yat

human

mandrayate, yad yosid yat pativratd.

Aristam yat kinca kriyate, agnis tad anuvedhati.

44. See
:

M. Srimannarayana Murti, 'Women in

cit.,

Liturgical

Samhitas...',

in

L.

K.

Tripathi, op.

p. 17.

45.

Sd hainam uvdca ndham etad veda tdta yadgotras tvarh asi, bahv tvam paricdrim yauvane tvdm alabhe sdham etdn na veda yad gotras

aharii
asi,

carantl

jabdld tu

ndmdham asmi satyakdmo ndma tvam

Up. 4.4.2. That the

asi

men

with
:

whom

she

sa satyakdma eva jdMlo bruvithd iti, Ch. spent her youth were brdhmanas is

confirmed by the passage

4.4.5.

tatn hovdca naitad

abrdhmano vivaktum

arhati,

ibid.

46.

The adultery and other sexual offences committed by unmarried ladies, or married women are considered to be inauspicious for the sacrificer. The pollution arising
out of the sexual offences cannot be warded off by mere ddnas 'donations'. Agni has
to

be specially invoked

to

get rid of the

pollution.

The

child

born to an

unmarried lady came to be considered in

TA

as unfit for religious ceremonies

and

denied admission into the sacrificial place; Nr mrnantu

nr pdtvatyah, akrstd ye ca
op.cit.,

L.K. Tripathi, krstajdh. Kumdrisu kanimsu, jdrimsit ca ye hitdh, TA. 1.27.6; p.21.

47. L. K. Tripathi, op.cit., p.21;

....

Sa vd esa nlrindriyo visukrto 'smdllokat

praiti

yam

evamvid brdhtnanah sapati tasmdd evam vie chrotriyasya ddrena nopahdsam icched uta hy evariwit paro bhavati, RU. 6.4.12 (=SB. 14.9.4.11).
48. For example,

Manu.

9.

86-87 declares

"Among

all

(twice-born men), the wife of

caste by any means, shall personally equal caste alone, not a wife of a different attend her husband and assist him in his daily sacred rites. But he who foolishly

causes that (duty)

alive, is

to

be performed by another, while his wife of equal caste

is

declared by the ancients (to be) as (despicable) as a cdnddla (sprung from son of the the) bmhmana caste. Manu. 9.159-160 also declares that die legitimate son made, the son secretly body, the son begotten on a wife, the son adopted, die born and the son cast-off are the six heirs and kinsmen, while the son of an,

60

M.

SRIMANNARAYANA MURTI

SAMBODHI

unmarried damsel, the son received with wife, the son bought, the son begotten

on a remarried woman, the son

six

self-given,

and the son of a sudra female

are the

who

are not heirs,

but kinsmen.
is

49.

The

principle of

vamds'ramadharma

based on the adherence of the direct order

all

(ariuJoma) not only in the institution of marriage but also in

is

walks of

life.

It

only then the

social

balance

among

the four castes and professional harmony

if

could possibly be achieved. For example

teaching,
it

a ksatriya aspires for the profession of

this profession is

is

a case of inverse order (vifoma) because

for

earmarked

by convention
approaches

brahmana. Therefore, when a brahmana by name Gargya

the king Ajatasutra with a request to the former to teach the brahmopasana, the latter declines to claim himself a teacher lest he should tresspass the anuloma order; he accepts to impart the knowledge of brahmopasana. Sa hovdcdjdtasatruh without himself assuming the position of a teacher
:

pratilomam caitad yad brdlirnanah ksatriyam upeydd brahma me vaksyatiti vyeva

jndpayisydmiti
50. Vyabhicdrena
....,

tvd

Br.

Up.

2.1.15.

varndndm avedydvedanena
tydgena. jdyate

ca /

Svakarmanam ca

varnasathkarah // Manu. 10.24.

"The mixture of castes (varnasamkam) has gone so far even in the early ages
that in the Vanapatva

(180.31-32) Yudhisthira

is

made

to say that

'It is

difficult

to ascertain the caste of

all

a person on account of the confusing mixture of varnas;

all

men

raise

progeny from
the
pt.

sorts

of

women;

therefore,
P.

those
V.

who

are

wise

regard character as
Dharmas'astra, vol.
5,

principal
2,

and desirable matter",

Kane,

History of

p.

1634-5.

51. Cf. Subtjarn caiva suksetrarii jdtarh

sampadyate yathd /

Tathdrydj jdta diydydm saivarn sarnskdram arhati // Manu. 10.69.

52. Cf.

Vijndyate

brdlimana

rtvijo

yonigotrasrutavrttasampannd avigundngd atikininah,

ESS. 2,4; see also: Ldtydyanci-Srauta-sutra, 1.1.1-8.

53. This
is

a well-accepted
:

law of

the

Aryans as reflected

in

the

Mahdbhdrata,

1.107.33

Tyajed kulasydrthe grdmasydrflie kulam tyajet / grdmam janapadasydrhe dtmdrhe prthivim tyajet //
ekarii

See also Mahdbhdrata, 2.55.10; 5.37.16; 5.126.48.

54. For

example

Manu

says

the village and

they shall be

"The dwellings of cdnddlas, svapdkas, etc. shall be outside made apapdtras and their wealth shall be dogs and

Vol.

XX,

1996

NIRAVASITA
shall eat) their

61

donkeys. Their dress (shall be) the garments of the dead, (they

food

from broken dishes, black iron (shall be) their ornaments, and they must always

wander from

place,

to place.

A man who

fulfils

a religious duty,

shall not seek

intercourse with them;

their transactions

(shall be)

marriages with their equals. Their food shall

giver) in a

among themselves, and their be given to them by others (than Aryan

village

broken dish; at night they

shall

not walk about in

and

in towns.

By day they may go about for the purpose of their work, distinguished by marks at king's command and they shall carry out the corpses of persons who have no
relatives; that is settled rule.

By

the king's order they shall always execute criminals,

in

accordance with the law, and they shall take for themselves the clothes, the beds
(tr.),

and the ornaments of such criminals", Buhler

The Laws of Manu, 10.51-56.

55. Mdtulapitrsvasdbhaginibhdgineyisnusdmdtuldmsakhivadhur ity 56. Bhrdtur jyesthasya

agamydh, BSS.

2.2.11.

Yaviyasas tu

bhdiyd yd guntpatny anujasya sd / yd blidryd snusd jyesthasya sd smrtd //

Jyestho yaviyaso

bhdrydm yaviydn vdgrajastriyam

Patitau bhavato gatvd niyuktdv

apy andpadi // Manu.9.57-58.

/
9.

57. Aniyufctasutas caiva putriny dptas ca devardt

Ubhau tau ndrhato bhdgarn jdrajdtakakdmajau // Manu.

58. Niyuktau

143.

yau vidhim hitvd varteyatdm tu kdmatah /

Tdv ubhau patitau sydtdrii snusdgagurutalpagau // Manu. 9.63.

59.

Sakhibhdrydkumdnsu svayonisv antyajdsu ca /

Sagotrdsu sutastnsu gurutalpasamarii smrtam //
Pituh svasdram

mdtus ca mdtuldnim snusdm apt /

Mdtuh sapatmm bhagimm dcdryatdnaydm tathd //

Acdryaptmrii svasutdth gacchams ca gurutalpagah /
lingarii

chitvd vadhas tasya

sakdmdydh

sti-iyds

tathd

// YS. 3.231-233.

60. 61.

Manu. 9.59; 152.

Naudvdhikesu mantresu niyogah kirtyate kvacit /

Na vivdhavidhdv uktarh vidhavdvedanam punah //

Ayarh dvijair hi vidvadbhih pasudharmo vigarhitah /

Manusydndm
62.

api prokte vene rdjyam prasdsati // Manu. 9.65-66.

Kdnmas ca sahodhas

ca kntah paunarbhavas tathd / 9.160. Svdyamdattas ca sudras ca sad addyddabdndhavdh // Manu.

CANDRALEKHAVIJAYA PRAKARANA A DISCOVERY OF AN ISLAND OF DRAMATIC EXCELLENCE

:

Vy'ay

Pandya

Sri (Candralekhavijaya Prakarana has been edited and published by from the collection of Pradyumnasuriji from a single inanuscript procured

Munisri Punyavijayji. The play is referred to in the manuscript-collection of Dr. Biihler and in the History of Classical Sanskrit literature by M. Krishnamachariar.

But
in

it

sees the ray of daylight for the

Sri

first

time due to the untiring efforts put

play can be

by

Pradyumnasuriji. The

copies

of the
Satellite

had from

Dr.

Harivallabh Bhayani,
Gujarat, INDIA).

25/2,

Bimanagar,

Road, Ahmedabad-380015,

Hemacandracarya, a multi-splendoured personality of the medieval Gujarat and India gave rise to the multifarious literary activities of the 12th Century Gujarat,
with the help of his band of devoted illustrious disciples. Among them was Devacandragani, who is the author of this play Candralekha, a Prakarana type
of drama. Sri Pradyumnasuriji,

introduction for the

first

by diligently editing this play with perceptive time has brought to light a remarkable play of the

medieval Gujarat and laid us, the lovers of Sanskrit language and literature, under eternal obligation. It has taken Sri Pradyumnasuriji almost a decade to edit the play from a manuscript procured from the collection of Munisri
Punyavijayji.
It
it.

was a

difficult

task

and the editor has most admirably

accomplished

The plot is complex and full of supernatural elements which the play was written.
The
storyline

reflecting the times during

may

be briefly indicated here actwise

Vijaya (strangely from the legend of the third act he

rise to

is

called Vijayendra, giving

an impression that there are two different persons, but that is not the case) who is a hero of the play had acquired religious merit, the fruit of which
he could not enjoy in the previous birth due to shorter span of
this
life

and hence

His beloved Candralekha, of semidivine origin had committed an error while performing a dance before Vikramasena, the king of Vidyadharas, and she was divested of her miraculous and turned into a female swan
birth.

power

in

a Kamarasa lake by her

into

enemy

Ahitatma. In this birth Vijaya

are

is

to

meet

his
like

beloved-turned

female swan. There

various other

persons

Vol.

XX,

1996

CANDRALEKHAVIJAYA PRAKARANA...

63

Jnanabodha, Matimasrna and divine assistance of the goddess Ajitabala and her mantra to facilitate this task. Vijaya happens to see the female swan and the feelings of previous birth are awakened. But again Ahitatma, a
Ajnasiddha,

demoness, tries to stall the meeting but she is thwarted and defeated by Vijaya and his beloved has been restored to her original human form. The lovers are
united.

(Here ends the

first

act)

Vijaya has a second wife of this birth, a mortal, Deviprabha,

who

is

at her

parents place. Vijaya

longing for her also and one night, he goes there at her parents' place, enjoys her company secretly and returns. She, Deviprabha, becomes pregnant and her parents afraid of the stigma abandon her in the
is

forest.

Deviprabha

is

going

to

give birth to

a son

who

is

destined to be a

Cakravartin; this

was

the forecast of a soothsayer.

Deviprabha while undergoing

in the forest, gives birth to a son who is kidnapped again by that demoness Ahitatma. But Mativibhrama, another assistant, has already rescuedthe son from the clutches of the demoness.

much hardship

(Here ends the second act)

The son born of Vijaya and Deviprabha

is

to

assist his father in

acquiring the

Mahavidya by performing a
themselves in each other's

sacrifice.

Here Vijaya and Candralekha enjoy

In the forest, Vijaya

company

in the lovely forests.

goes to the succour of a maid who has been attacked by a tiger. Candralekha sends Tattvaprapanca to his help. Meanwhile, Candralekha has been kidnapped

by a resident of nether worlds. Vijaya jumps into the dark well, where the enemy is hidden and with the assistance of a serpent Kanakacuda, Candralekha
is

rescued.

(Here ends the third act)

The son born of Deviprabha

Carupaka, a tantric
rite

is now the king of Ujjayini. Vijaya is to perform with the help of his son. He chants the Imantra of Ajitabala goddess. Mantra is of a citrabandha type, in the shape of a garland,

propitiated goddess Ajitbala. Deviprabha

and Vijaya receives the real garland and the divine grains of meets her husband.
(Here ends the fourth act)

rice

from the

For Carupaka sacrifice, everything is ready. The divine rice is obtained. Divine milk remains to be procured, and under the guidance of Sesa serpent, Vijaya

64

VIJAY PANDYA

SAMBODHI

has to perform the sacrifice. There are five altars prepared for the Mahayajna. Sixty-four yoginis have come to play Rasa. Ratnapunja the prince (son of Vijaya

and Devlprabha)

is

there with the sword in his hand. Again, the

is

demon

brother

of Ahitatma tries to disrupt the sacrifice but

foiled

by the king of

serpents.

Meanwhile, Candralekha too

cordially meet.

arrives

on the

scene.

Again the

demon

sister of
it

Ahitatma

tries to

Both co-wives of Vijaya create an obstacle

but the Tattvaprapanchana removes

with his power of penance.

Ultimately Carupaka is prepared and Vijaya obtains Mahasiddhi. Ajnasiddha blesses the prince to be the cakravartin in the city of Mayapuri on the mythical
Vaitadhya.

The

fifth act,

would continue

and the play ends with the fond hope by the playwright that to be read for a long time to come.

it

Literary Estimate of the Play

As can be seen from the storyline that, the plot is quite complex, full of turns and has a story of two births of the hero and one of the two heroines. It is
full

of supernatural elements, deus ex machina

is

quite often resorted to in the

play to achieve a denoument.

The playwright is steeped in the long tradition of the Classical Sanskrit literature and has advantageously employed the various motifs in the play. Consequently
the

Among

echoes of the art of his illustrious predecessors are audible in the play. his predecessors, apart from Kalidasa, who himself is a tradition.

Bhavabhuti seems to have influenced Devacandragani most. To the dramatic genius of Devacandragani, Bhavabhuti seems to be a kindred soul. In fact, a
short note

may

be added on the influence Bhavabhuti has exercised! upon our

dramatist. In the delineation of supernatural elements, Bhavabhuti's impression, particularly of the play Malatlmadhava, (MM) can be discerned. As in the MM.,

here

also,

tantric

rites

are

depicted.

In

the

friendship

between Vijaya and

Tattvaprapancana, a shade of friendship between Madhava and Makaranda can be observed. Ahitatma is portrayed on the lines of Kapalakundala in the MM. In
the third act, a

maid servant goes out

to

a nearly garden to pluck the flowers

and

is

attacked by a tiger as in the

MM,
the

Vijaya

goes

to

the
is

rescue
also

of

Tattvaprapancana

sent

to

Candralekha. So, then Candralekha is an almost similar situation, by Kapalakundala.

wherein also, a tiger happens to attack. maidservant but, in the meanwhile, the succour of Vijaya by the heroine abducted as Malati was also kidnapped in

Vol.

XX,

1996

CANDRALEKHAVIJAYA PRAKARANA...

65

Apart from such shaping influences of the play, the playwright has a creativity of a no mean order. He has a commendable command on Sanskrit language and
he has put his

command

of the language to creative use, too. Devacandragani

has imbibed the spirit of the Sanslrit language and literature to the full hence his play is interspersed with many poetic stanzas and descriptions.

and

He

employs long paragraphs in Sanskrit and Prakrit as well, thereby displaying his virtuosity of both the languages. The writer's creative employment of the
language should be quite astonishing looking to that decadent age from the is described thus literary point of view. In the rarigasucana Tattvaprapancana
i.e. 'sitting

there only, hiding his face

in

between the two knees, he

gesticulates restlessness'.

Such an instruction never

appeared before in the classical Sanskrit play. In the second act the dramatist has employed some denominative forms like
literature in

and so on. Such usage would remind one of the golden age of the Sanskrit which writers like Bana flourished. The verse 1-38

has a striking paranomasia (Slesa alamkdra) figure of speech as the editors has explained in the footnote. Similarly, in 3-20
:

learned

fO-TO-nH viM 4.
I

II

This

is

not
it

a crescent
is

moon done
In

with

tti*e

musk on

the

forehead of the

beloved;

a receptable of the beauty oozing out of the small canal of the

hair.

parting

of the

verses

1-18,

arthantaranydsa alamkdros. In 3-16

speech.

we

19 we get the good examples of have an illustration of utpreksd figure of

In the classical Sanskrit plays, occasionally a character speaks the

language other

than formally allowed to

it.

Similarly here also, Siddhavrata speaks in Sanskrit

leaving aside the Prakrit which she was speaking until now.

The play

is interesting from the linguistic point of view also. In the play, we can observe the sprouting of the Gujarati language, a process already set in from the days of Hemacandracarya. For example in the expression y^hR-H^ ^it% "*^ft ^

yfc^Kl:

on

na

ralie

85 has a tinge of Gujarati expression i.e. ek myan-marh be talwar (Two swords cannot be accommodated in one sheath).
p.

66

VIJAY PANDYA
peculiar in

SAMBODHI
from the tradition of the
classical

The play

is

some respects

differing

is a long recurring pedantic explanation of the mantra on pp. 12 and 13. Then again at the end of the play on pp. 93, 94, 98, 99 the long-winding explanation occurs in the very body of the text. This is very

Sanskrit drama. There

strange, and

when

this

explanation

is

would come

to a stand-still.

The learned

being spun out, dramatic action naturally editor Pradyumnasuri has offered some

explanation of the

phenomenon

in his introduction to the play citing the parallel

instances from the stage of Kerala.

Then, in

this play (rangasucana) a dramatic instruction has tended not only to be long but got mixed up with the speech of a character as has happened on the p. 60. The text runs thus
,
:

In this piece, narration gets

which in

fact has

mixed up with

the dramatic instruction

no place in the drama genre as such, and with the speech of a character.

This peculiarity in a heightened manner, is observed in the Hanumannatakam also, age of which is difficult to determine. Was there a new dramatic form

from the point of view of staging getting evolved in those days and age

Nevertheless the play is most remarkable and would be a valuable contribution of Gujarat to the Classical Sanskrit literature which was, anyhow, getting

depleted in quality and quantity as well in that age.

a literary history of this period of Gujarat is written and that has remained acute concern of Dr. Harivallabh Bhayani, an indologist of international repute hailing from Gujarat, and who has also been connected with the
If

as

editing

and publishing of
Vilasvat!

this

play in

some

or

Manamudrabhanjana

capacity, this play along with the other play in the process of editing, would be most

singular contribution of our author Devacandragani.

Pradyumnasiiriji has earned our gratitude by meticulously editing and publishing the play in the midst of his other numerous religious, social and
literary
activities. In fact,

play which

is

he has proved himself to be a Columbus an island of dramatic excellence.

in

discovering this

HERETICAL CONCEPTION OF UNIVERSE AND JAIN CRITIQUE AS DEPICTED IN THE SUTRAKRTANGA COMMENTARY OF SILANKA
Ch. Lalitha
a very ancient Jain Agamic text placed second among the inhabited universe (fofca), empty Angas. In the Sutrakrtanga the themes of the one's own doctrines space (alofca), loMloka, soul (;Tva), non-soul (qjTva), (svasamaya) and the tenets of others (pa7'asa;nqya) are discussed.

The Sutrakrtanga

is

Heretical theories of universe

and governance of the According to the Brahmanical conception the creation world is by the gods whereas others assume that the world is governed by Brahman 1 According to the Sutrakrtanga Commentaiy of Silanka certain ignorant
.

teachers of other religions contend that the world has

been created or governed

Brahman. These are by gods whereas some others hold that it is created by some of the prevalent views of the thinkers of other religions according to whom it is beyond the capacity of human beings to produce the entire

phenomena. Hence the gods or one of the mightiest gods might have produced the universe. Here the 'Devautte' can be explained in three ways namely. Firstly, Devautte is explained as 'Devdiniptah' a god planting his seed in some 'women'
might have produced

human

beings and other creations. Secondly, the world

of diverse phenomena is 'Devagupta' is explained as 'Devair guptah' the world and adJiarma prevails protected by a god and whenever the dharma degenerates

a god by incarnating himself protects it from his primal just as it as stated in the Bhagvadgltd. Thirdly, the term is translated as 'Devaputra' according to which
the

whole universe
this

is

the progeny of a god

is

who

has produced

it.

Some thinkers

produced by Prajdpati Brahma who is the designer of the vast brahmanda or universe. This idea can be seen in the Upanisads wherein it is stated that Hiranyagarbha preceded the creation and the Svayambhu having
argued that

world

2 desired the creation created the elements like water etc

According

to

the 'great

rsi'

whose name

is

neither mentioned in the text

3
.

nor

preserved by Silahka that the creation of the Universe is by Svayambhu Explaining this verse the commentator points out that some Tirthikas hold that Lord Vishnu

who

is

the

tradition.

Svayambhu is the creator of The creation is a playful thing

the

world according

to the sages of

their

of Visnu or LUd. In order to facilitate for or

continuous creation by the help of

Yama

Mara

this

world along with

its

beings

68

CH.
non-eternal.
to

LALITHA

SAMBODHI
.

is

Hence

all

sentient beings are subjected to illusion and they perish4

theistic
(viz;

According
Isvara

the adherents of the

to

school the
theistic

world was created by

atheistic

whereas according

others

and

followers of
its

Samkhya philosophy)

the world with living beings and lifeless things with

diversity of pleasure and pain

was produced from Pahdna (= Pradhana) 5

is

Of the above two views

born Brahman

viz, that the world

produced by devas or the

Self-

who

is

also

known

as

Hiranyagarbha, some thinkers like the

Sankhya philosophers speculated slightly transforming the first view by setting that Isvara who is Purusa cannot be the author of the universe since he is
unqualified witness
Prakiti

who

is

devoid of any attributes and

its

is

indifferent.

Hence

may be

considered as
the

creator.

The

theists,

viz,

the Vedantins the

Naiyayikas and
Isvara

Vaisesikas

authority in support of their various views.

is

produce different evidences from the Vedic Of these, according to Vedantins,

the upddanakarana of the world.

The non-dual Brahman having desired

1
.

transformed himself into

Jsvara

and created the world by becoming 'Many

Naiyayikas the idea of Js'vara as the creator is derived through the valid means of inference. Just as the existence of a potter is testified by the

According

to

existence of the pot so

five
etc.,

is

the case with the world. All the effects

such as the

elements,

life,

moon and

the sun, the sea and the sky, the sense organs,

intelligent creator. This creator is conceived as an extraordinary, omniscient Purusa who has created the Universe with the help of the elements. The five elements are not self-conscious and are
just like

should have

been created by an

instruments.

The

role

of fs'vara
Isvara
is

is

like

that of a

mason according

to

Naiyayikas. According to

them

eternal, incomparable
is

and omnipotent.
According
is

According
the

to

the naturalists,

the
is

world due

produced from chaos. The innate

to

character of every sentient being

to the principle of Myati.

Niyativadins just
is

as

the

multicoloured wings of a peacock

its

special

quality so

the case with all objects

and

living beings

immutably naturallly. For instance a male is always to be born as a male and so also is the female. According to Vyasa the world is limited but is ever-lasting and consists of seven
islands 7
.

to the sdsvatavadins (Eternalists) the world is limitless, eternal, does not perish and exists since eternity. In Sllanka's opinion here 'eternity indicates that it has no destruction and the order of is fixed things

According

ageold theories
extinct

According to the Sutrakrtdnga Commentary the verse refers to two viz., that the world is unlimited and eternal without never being whereas Vyasa and others Pauranikas contend that the world is eternal
limited.

but

is

According

to

the

former theory, the whole universe, which

Vol.

XX,

1996

HERETICAL CONCEPTION

OF...

69

consists of beings of
is

one sense-organs

to

five

eternal.

There
to

is

no

limit or duration to their existence.

sense-organs and their existence, It is not produced

time and exists in the past, present as well as future. It is not produced out of atoms and hence it is eternal. It is unlimited in the sense its vastness cannot be estimated. According to Vyasa the author of Puranas who

from time

propounded the

later

theory the world

is

limited

in

the sense that

It is

its

geographical vastness is limited to seven islands and three spheres. 8 in the sense that it is ever existent in time
.

eternal

According to

some Brahainanas and Sramanas the universe is created or produced from the 'primordial egg' and that He (Brahman) created the 9 phenomena Explaining this verse the commentator points out that according to some ignorant Brahmanas and Sramanas the universe was produced by the 'primordial egg' as stated in the Brahmandapiirana. According to them from the
.

explosion

of the

primevl egg

all

the
10
.

diverse

phenomena both

sentient

and

insentient have

come

into existence

II.

Jain criticism

The Jain commentator Sllahka refutes the Brahmanical conception of the creation and governance of the world by the gods. The Jains criticize the heretics who contend that they possess the knowledge of the truth and are 11 unaware that the creatures in the world do not know anything Explaining the verse the commentator points out that according to Jain critic, all these thinkers referred above variously conceived the origin of the universe but in fact they do
.

not

know
is

the truth of the object because the world

Jains while refuting the

is

eternal and does never

perish.

The

above theories

.Jiold

that the proposition

"world

created

by god"

is

not valid because in order to create the world the

god himself should exist prior to it. In the absence of the former the latter cannot take place. There is no valid means to postulate such god. If it is argued that it is self-made why cannot the universe be conceived as self-made devoid
of
as eternal owing to the lack of change, he cannot producer of the phenomena. If he is regarded as non-eternal, even then he cannot be considered as the cause of the universe because he will

him

If

he

is

assumed

act as a creator or

have to be extinct at one point of the time or the other. If the creator is to be regarded abstract or intangible just as his nature being as the sky he cannot be the authority of the universe. If he is regarded as corporeal or tangible, he, being ordinary as a human being, cannot be the sole creator of the universe
12 without the associations of some other force besides him
.

70

CH.

LALITHA

SAMBODHI
,

The

the Jains theistic proposition viz., the world is created by Iswara is refuted by relation cannot be extended to by the following arguments. The 'pot and potter' and such cannot be said that it the world and its creator. Even by seeing a pot such a potter had made it. Thus by seeing the world it can be only said that
it

would have is produced by a specific cause. Secondly, someone or the other seen the potter while making the pot. Unlike the above, there is no one who can claim to have seen the creator of the world who is admitted as imperceptible or invisible. A potter is seen by perception but the Isvara who is said to have
created the world cannot be cognised by means of perception.
to
It is

also

wrong

say

(according to

the

Naiyayikas)

that

the

creator
etc., is

who

has

created the

impermanent phenomena such as earth, mountain, is no such rule that a thing should be made by
the clouds in the sky are

an intelligent one. There

intelligent cause.

For

instance,

devoid of the intelligent creator. Similar is the case with the lightening, the sprout of the grass, etc., and also the cold and heat in different seasons. Thus, the emergence as well as the destruction of the diverse

made

phenomena do not need any creator behind them. Further, the design of diverse phenomena in the world cannot be attributed to an intelligent creator. For instance, an ant-hill which is shaped by ants cannot be attributed to a potter. Similarly, the specific designs of diverse phenomena need not be always due to Isvara who
is

a specific creator.

claim that the pot

is

it is proved designed by the potter ? In support of this statement, there Isvara was making a pot. is not a single instance to say someone has seen while Further, when a person's wound is seen to be healed by a medicinal ointment

pervading fs'vara is how can be this be accepted when, by the valid means of perception,
that the pot
is

is to be produced by Isvara how can a Naiyayika produced by a potter ? If it is to be argued that the all only instrumental in creating the pot and other phenomena,

If

everything

totally

how can

it

be argued that
is

all

sustainence

is

due

to Isvara ? If the

analogy of
is

the potter

to

be applied
is

to the creator

we
it

should accept that Isvara also

embodied. But contrary immutable. When Isvara

or disembodied ? If he

to this, Isvara is said to

invisible

how can

be intangible all-pervading and be stated whether he is embodied

the question arises

is

said to be

embodied

whether

his

body

permanent or impermanent. It can be also argued that all embodied things are impermanent and so is the case with the body of Isvara. If it is admitted
is

of Jsvara is impermanent the next question is by whom it is produced argued that Isvara himself has made his body, prior to its production Isvara should have existed in which case the argument leads to ad infinitum. If
that the
?

body

If it is

it is

argued that Isvara

is

the judge of the fruits of meritorious and demeritorious

Vol.

XX,

1996

HERETICAL CONCEPTION

OF...

71

actions of beings, then a question arises that

the jlvas

when
? In

Isvara created the world whether

were endowed with karma or not

the case of the former the next

question will be who is the author of their karmas ? If it is argued that karma were the acts of different jivas, it will not be compatible with the argument that Isvara is responsible for actions in this world. How can it be accepted that Isvara
is

merciful or compassionate and

some

jivas

suffer and

some

are happy;

some

travel in the right

to the Isvara

who

path and some on the wrong path. How can we account this is said to be omniscient and compassionate. Why does he not

shows that Naiyayikas are wrong and Isvara appears be biased, devoid of justice and intelligence, and is unmerciful. Refuting the doctrine of Sankhyas that the whole creation is produced from the
stop the unrighteous ? All this
to

principle of

Pradhana or Prakrti
principle of
?
If it is

it

can be argued that

as

how

the intangible Prakrti

etc.,

can produce diverse

tangible.

phenomena such
Pradhana
created by
is

the
to

seed, mountain

which are

The

said

how

it

is

created

be tangible the question arises or B and so on it leads to ad infinitwn

again.

In

such case,

argued by state that the various tattvas like Mahat rajas and tamas in equal proportions. To can be derived from the principle of Pradhana cannot be accepted. Instead of of Pradhana why can arguing that the universe is produced from the principle
it

the world should not be regarded as eternal. It is the followers of Sahkhya that Prakrti is the combination of sattva,

why

not be said that the cause of diverse

phenomena
world
is

in their innate nature of the

principle of Niyati.
also

The argument
is

that the

created by Self-born one

is

is

unsound because the definition of 'Svayambhu' or Self-born

if

ambiguous

and

the Self-born
?

defined as eternal,
it

how

can the non-dual produce the

world of duality

When

creator of the universe,

how can

cannot be accepted that the Self-born cannot be the it be said that Lord Yama or the principle of

Mqyd which are the by-products of the Self-born can create the universe ? Another speculation that the world has emerged from Hiranyagarbha also
appears as meaningless because
in

the

absence of the

five

elements in the
the origins

beginning
the

how can

the primordial egg

?

was produced and how can

etc.,

of different elements can be explained

Another contention of the Tirthikas and

have emerged

Brahmanas

that the

four castes of Brahmana, Ksatriya

from different organs of Brahma is also absurd because it is inexperiencial and the world by Visnu also does not stand up to the illogical. The creation of
logical analysis,.

For instance

when

question arises
said
to

who

has created the element water

since eternity

Visnu was lying on the primordial water the ? If the element of water is

be

in existence

why

the other elements did not appear

72

CH.

LALITHA

SAMBODHI

since eternity ?

The theory of emergence of brahmd and other gods is also quite ambiguous. The motivation of creation is also not clear. The origin of the doctrine of karma is also not explained. Various kinds of suffering, injustice,
inequality, etc.,

cannot he explained
.

if it

is

accepted that the world

is

created

13 by the omniscient fsvara

philosophers praise their

their doctrines

own

According to Mahavira's disciple Ardraka all doctrines and make them known. While preaching
criticise

Brahmanas and Sramanas

Ill

one another M

Thus the above study reveals the

of the universe. According to
It is

fact that the Jains face the perplexity of the creation

them

the universe

is

neither created nor destroyed.

beginning-less and endless. It is only the condition of the initiation, continuation and disintegration which are responsible for the formulation of the universe and

separation at regular intervals. Hence the Jains presented a doctrine of the cycle of time of evolution (.utsarpini) and involution (avaso/pmF). There is no necessity of the
creator for the creation of universe, nor
disintegration of the universe.
is it

essential to

have a destroyer for the

universe
birth

is

and disintegration of the because of the uniformity of the creeds of nature. The cycle of human
cycle of formation
is

The

and rebirth

because of the accumulation of karmic matter owing

to the action

of the soul.

When karma is destroyed, the souls experience the eternal happiness in the region of the free and the liberated (siddhasila).
REFERENCES
1.
:

Hermann

Jacobi,

(tr.),

Jaina Sutras, (JS), Part

II,

p.244.

2.

Panditratnasri
Sratas/canrf/i),

Hemachandraji, (Tr
(Sukr, Prs)

& Comme.),

Sri

Sutrakrtahga Sutra

(Prathama

pp. 204-207.

3.
4. 5.

JS Part

II,

p.244.
pp.

Sukr

(PrS),
II,

214-216.

JS Part

p.244.
pp. 208-213.

6.
7. 8. 9.

Sukr

(PrS),
II,

JS Part

p.247.
pp.
pp.

Sukr

(PrS),
II,

264-265.

JS Part

244-245.
216-218.

10.

Sukr

(PrS),
II,

pp.
p.

11. JS
12.
13. 14.

Part

245.

Sukr (PrS), pp. 218-220.

Ibid.,

pp.
II,

220-228.
pp.

JS Part

411-412.

KALINJAR FORT THE TIME WINNER ANCIENTMOST FORT OF

:

INDIA*

Dinesh Chandra
Citadels

and

forts

rock against invasions and attacks. Kalinjar which strategically located forts of India
associating

but stood as symbolised not only seats of power or authority is one of the most ancient and

with

it

the

was names of Mohammed

as

the

site

of several
Prithviraj
1
.

battles

Ghazni,

Chauhan,

Akbar and Chhatrasal Qutbud-din Aibak, Humayun, Sher Shah Sun,

The

fort

is

located

on a mountain known
at

Kalinjar,

in

the

east of

Banda

district of

U.P. en route to

isolated

Vindhyan top
It is

Wagod, Satana and Jabalpur. Kalinjar stands on an an elevation of 1200 ft. from sea level. The summit of
in length

the

fort is

oblong in shape and nearly a mile

fortified

and half a mile

in

breadth.

by a rampart four miles

in circuit
to

and constructed of
The

large

blocks of stone.

sloping path provides access

the fort.
:

flight of steps

pass through seven gateways.

The fort had two entrances Alam Darwaza and Panna Darwaza. The Alam Darwaza is a battlemented building added during times of Aurangzeb. It was guarded by other gates like Ganesh, Chandl, architecture created Budhbhadra, Hanuman etc. The fort accommodates in itself Chandela Kings, rock cut tanks and caves. Some of the buildings bear
by
carvings

Mahabharata 2

and inscriptions yielding a renowned tantrik centre in times The fort was decorated with beautiful carvings and images
.

of
of

the invaders and plunderers. The places which gods plundered and destroyed by of high accommodated royal houses and houses of prosperous people bespeak and luxuries of ancients. The two and three quality of architectural magnificence were decorated with balconies with carvings and
storied
palatial

buildings

of artists and artisans of ancient times. Sweet designs depicting the perfection or presentations still echo in laughter of beautiful ladies watching processions
silence of these balconies

and niches of the palatial building of Kalinjar fort. The fort and point out the taste of the ponds added to the beauty of the in images of gods and ancient for 'Jalvihar'. The aesthetic sense found an outlet cave streams emanating from everfille'd water tanks. goddesses and underground it cold breeze The fountains sprinkled and mixed water with dry air making summer. Kalinjar was a 'Giri Durga' built on Kalinjar hill of lofty height
tanks and

during and a 'Deva Durga' which

*

was

built

on mountains region having

Ahmedabad.

gods' images

Eminent

art historian/indologist,

literateure,

74

D1NESH CHANDRA

SAMBODHI

niched on walls. The ramparts of the fort with parapets and shooting gaps are as high as 12ft. and 6 ft. in width. Such a magnificent and strong fort was very
rare in

contemporary

India.
4 penance. Mahabharata makes Padma Purana glorifies it for its holiness. known as Ratnakuta, Mahagiri and Pingala 6
5
.

Vedas 3 refer

to Kalinjar as Tapasthalr, a place of

its

a mention of

beautiful lake and

In olden days, Kalinjar

was

also

Kalinjar or Kalairijara literally

means

the

one who causes time

According
first
.

to

grow

old.

It

has really done so and stood long as

test of time.

to Ferista 7 , "Kalinjar

was founded by Kedar Raja in 7th century. The connected with Kalinjar was Chandra Venna who was
978 A.D
8
.

prominent person
it

associated with

since

and suffered defeat9

in battle

King of Lahore, attacked Ghazni in 978 Again in 1008 A.D. King of Kalinjar sided with Anandpal of Peshawar in order to check the invasion of Ghazni 10
Jaipal,
.
.

Raja of Kalinjar with

In year

1022-23 A.D. Kalinjar

:

fort

was besieged by
is

Mohammed

of Ghazni.

Farista writes about the fort

"This

a fort unparalleled in whole history of

its strength. Nanda, its chief, presented 300 elephants and begged As animals were sent out of fort without riders, Sultan ordered Turks and mount them. The enemy perceiving this, was much surprised and Nanda sent a copy of Hindi verse in praise of Sultan who was much pleased with compliments and later conferred the 11 of 15 forts on him ". grant

Hindustan for
for peace.
to seize

Hasan Nizanii writes, "The accused Parmar, the Raja of Kalinjar, fled the fort after desperate resistance in the battlefield and afterwards surrendered himself. The Government of Kalinjar was entrusted to Hazur-uddin Hasan Arnal and the fort became a part of Mohammedan kingdom of Delhi 12 ".
Historian
into

There

is

In 1182, the

shifted

their

an inscription of 1131 A.D. speaking about the 13 victory of Chandellas Chandela king after being defeated by Prithviraj Chauhan of Delhi, capital from Mahoba (Hamirpur district in U.P.) to
.

Chandelas

made

Kalinjar!
1

". They temples at Khajuraho between A.D. 950 and 1050 before Muslim invasions. once Khajuraho comprised of 85 temples of which only 20 still exist. Skanda Purana 15 speaks of struggle between Hindu powers of North India and their enemies, the Turks. After the

a great contribution in building and decorating the fort

were

also responsible for construction of

dismemberment

hence called Chandratreya came

of the Prathihara empire, the moon once again began to shine on the sacred hill of Kalinjara on the head of Nilakantha. The successor of Chandra, born of Atri,
into

prominence under the leadership of

Vol.

XX, 1996

KALINJAR FORT...
is

75

Harshadeva Chandela. Yashovarmana

in

praised as brave (Sura)

.

who combined

successor of, Yashovarmana,

himself the virtues of Karna, Yudhishthira and Arjuna 16 Dhanga, son and became one of the most powerful rulers of Madhya

Desa

who caused

destruction of enemies and

(i.e.

who by prowess

of arms equalled

even the powerful Hamvlra or Hammira

identified as

Amira) represents a muslim prince

Subuktagin

r/
.

The

fort of Kalinjar

was always obsessed with invasions and

Qutb-ud-din Aibak, the viceroy of

its
.

Mohammad

attacks. In 1202, Ghori took Kalinjar and converted

Chhatrasal

18 Humayun, Slier Shah Suri, Akbar and even temples into mosques all have exerted their powers in winning or conquering the strongest and magnificent fort of Kalinjar 19 It witnessed successive invasions and attacks
.

and had long history to speak about its struggle which it survived with ramparts facing thousands of cannon shells and explosives to deface bosom lies the glory of the past and it welcomes all those who wish
in

its
it.

strong In its

to see it

gleaming light of
its

its

memorable

history. Kalinjar

of

memorable
light

history, architecture, art, painting or sculpture

not only offers a vivid vision but also throws

it was enjoying in the grandeur of its royal kingdom it beauty and charm it beckoned and the chivalry and prowess it displayed. The life hereafter with meaningful philosophy to live, igrow and sublime still speaks from its mute broken images and behold a vivid picture of

ample

on

its life

sheltered in

its

the fort in

our inner eye.

It

imbued
civic

in itself the

strong ancient citadels of

in
it

Dholavira, Mohenjadaro and other Indus sites

royal structures, planning

accommodating
life
20
.

granderous

and

conveniences of

It

also displayed the

rock like solid China Wall for invaders and attackers

envied the grandeur and magnificence of the fort of Kalinjara, focusing the claims of ancient Indian
architecture

who

and planning.
:

REFERENCES
1.

Imperial Gazetteer of India,

(IGO) Vol. XIV, Oxford, 1908,

p.

311.

2. ibid.

3.

Valmlki Ramayana, Uttara-kanda, 59; Mahabharata, Vanaparva, 59; Harivamsa, 21;

and Kalinjara-mahatmya of the Padmapurana mentions

Ardhayojana-vistirnarii tat ksetram
Kalinjareti

mama mandiram
iti

vikhyatam muktidaih siva-sannidhau //

kalinjara

Gangaya daksine bhage

Sarvatirtha-phalaiii tava

smrtah. /

pundancaiva hyanantakam // Kalanjara-samarii ksetram nasti bralimanda-golake //

76

DINESH CHANDRA

SAMBODHI

4.

56.
7.

imperial Gazetteer of India, Vol. XIV, Oxford, 1908, p. 311, notes that Mahabharata CVana P.87) mentions it as a famous city and states that whoever bathes in the Lake of gods is as meritorious as he who bestows in charity one thousand cows It also mentions that the Tirtha called Hiranya-vindu is also situated at this place Padmapurana, Svarga, Ch. 19, vs. 130.

IGO,
ibid.

ibid.

8-

Dey, Nandatal

Book
9.

Geographical Dictionary of Ancient and Medieval India, Oriental

Printers
ibid.

Corporation, Delhi, 1971.

IGO,

10. ibid. 11. Ferista

P.

Accounts Ref

.;

Martin Brice

Forts and Fortreses,

New

Forts and Palaces of India,

York, 1990; Begde

New

Delhi,

1982.

12. Nizami,

Hasan

Ref.

ibid.

13. Jor. of Asiatic Society of Bengal, 14.

15.

XVII (1848),

p.

313.

IGO,

ibid.

Vamana-purana, Ch. 84; Dey, Nandalal, op.

cit.,

pp

84-85

16. ibid. 17. Epigraphica Indica, 18. IGO, 19. ibid.,

ibid.

Vo.

I,

p.

218.

p.

312.

VARIANTS FROM VENlSAMHARA AND THE KAVYAPRAKAS'A OF MAMMATA*

Jagriti

Pandya
important one so far as the
are

The problem of
Classical works,

text-criticism

is

an

all

Sanskrit

especially

literary

ones,

attempted
literary
etc.

it

with the works of Kalidasa.

similar attempt

concerned. Dr. Rewaprasad has is awaiting with other

works such
fresh angle

as those of Bhavabhuti, Bhattanarayana, Vis'akhadatta,

is

Bana

presented in this paper. By way of illustrations hundreds from the works of great masters have been quoted in the works of poetics and various commentaries on works such as the Kavyaprakasa of Mammata. Very often they enter into the exercise of fixing up this or that
of verses
variant,

suggesting that

STWT'TO:,

SR ^pj

tjj3:

e tc.

In this small

paper

it

is

attempted
as
It is
is

to pick

(=VenI.)

of

Bhattanarayana

up some verses from the Venlsamhara presented in the various editions of the
hereby to arrive at a fixed final problems of text-criticism to be solved by

Kavyaprakas'a (=K. P.) reading, but our interest

great editors.
In preparing this
1.

not claimed

in raising

paper the following editions of the Vein have been consulted.

S.)

Nirnayasagar (=N.

edition
edition

2. 3.

Chaukhamba (=Chau.)
Poona
edition

4.
5. 6.

Madras editon
Gajendragadkar (=Gaj.) edition

Deshpande (=Des.) edition

have also taken into account some important editions of the commentaries on the same.
:

We

K.

P.

with

different

They are
1.

Kavyaprakas'a

With Balabodhini With

TT^fa

CJha. Edn.)
(Tf.

2. 3.

Kavyaprakas'a
Kavyaprakas'a

&

^tcf

&

ecln.)

With U^flWR

("^n. edn.)

Accepted for reading at A.I.O.C., Haridwar.

78

JAGR1TI
-

PANDYA

SAMBODHI

4.
5.

Kavyaprakas'a

Rewaprasada (=R. P.) edn.

Prayaga edn.

Kavyaprakas'a
Kavyaprakas'a
Kavyaprakas'a

6.
7. 8. 9.

With

K<lfa*"T

(T1T

^t=

end.)
Oei

With
With With
-

"tflfteT^Ftf^T
P=1^=K
(fo|^fi

&

y'yg-M-y=bl[\Hl

&

"*f.

"5f

edn.)

Kavyaprakas'a
Kavyaprakas'a

edn.)
edn.)
CRT.)

f=twiR<t>i

Cfa^ff.

10. Kavyaprakas'a 11. Kavyaprakas'a

With ~W$"3 (Hlfalc^HO-'^&Kf With

edn.

^cf (^^-^^f
:

OETTo)

edn.

Our
(1)

effort

proceeds as below

In this verse,
different

no

variant

is

commentaries on the

the

commentator of Veal

refers to 'W^R^s-ii:', a reading

seen in either any edition of the VenI or in the K. P. But Jhalakikar has noted that Jagaddhar, which is not proper

according to Jalakikar'.
(2)
:

"HI?!

This verse also does not suggest any variant in the different commentaries on the K. P., while the N. S. Edn. (p. 13) and Des. edn. (p. 9) of the Vem have
1

'^RfcT

with

'Differ'

noted in the

ft.

note.

Other editions of the VenI do not

suggest any variant.

(3)

This verse also has no variant in either the different editions of the VenI or
those of the K. P.

Vol.

XX, 1996

VARIANTS
is

FROM VENISAMHARA

AND...

79

In this verse,
different

no variant commentaries on

seen in either any edition of the Vein or in the the K. P., excepting ^fnT (^.) edn. p.II (p. 91) which
ft.

has ijfa for TJfe mentioned in the

(5)

note

(p.

p.

8).

This verse has

many

variants such as

All editions of the

Vein have

this
ft.

reading, while the N. S. Edn. of the Vein

(p.

26) has TF4Hii4qi4: in the

note.

The

different commentaries

on

the K. P.

have also

All editions of the

ft.

Vein have

while N.

S.

Edn. has

^T.

with

^0

in the

note.
the K. P.

The different commentaries on

Jha. Edn.
II

have equally preferred both of them.

(p.

(p.

487-88), R. P. Edn.

(p.

499), TraiT Edn.

p.II

330),

3,
(p.

225), fe%3T edn. (p. 286), fam edn. edn. (p. 402), ^TT edn. (p. 498), ^. &
(p.

(p.

tf. 3fo

138 have while H. & edn (p. 195), ^%rT (TTTo) edn.

<& edn. p.

237)

&

T%?T

C^t.)

edn.

p.

II

(p.

211) have

cgfif for

Jha. edn. (p. 488)

^tlcf

has also noted

the
I

'H^R...^^
in the
ft.

^tzt:

other reading -"*ffi in the commentary - ^dlRi '%'$$& is also noted as a variant by *%cf (^T.) edn.
17).

TRTt

(p.

211)

note

(p.

N.

S.

edn. of the

Vem

.(p.

26) has "^P^ with

^T^

in the

ft.

note,

chau edn.

(p.

34-35), Gaj, edn. (p. 19) & Des. edn. (p. 21) have preferred ^p^ while Poona edn. (p. 10), & Madras edn. (p. 23) (p. 6 B) have accepted ^FJ.

Most of the commentaries on the

K. P.

have

Tic edn. (p. 195), t^F edn. (p. 286) & ^%cT 0&t) edn. p. II (p. 211) have "3cP^ for *&{. The last one, i.e. ^%<T (^o) reads "^F^ in the ft. note (p. while. 7. & <t edn. (p. 402) & ^FKf On.) edn. (p. 195) have I, 17), p.

1 &

~^^

but R.

P. edn.

(p.

499),

"Stf.

mentioned

Trl

&

c(cT

for

^f

in the

ft.

note.

80

JAGRITI

PANDYA

SAMBODHI

This variant
also

is accepted by all editions of the Venl. The N. noted g^HRl in the ft. note.

S.

edn.

(p.

26) has

The different commentaries on

the

K. P.

have

^$'W

only.

All editions of the

"

Venl have

this

reading but N.

S.

edn.

(p.

26) has also noted

in the

ft.

note.
K. P.

The

different

commentaries on the

have

im,

except fMfar edn.

(p.

286)

which has
dlfet:

o^ifr for

W$\

N. S. Edn. of the Vein

(p.
dl

(p.

26) has

cTlfeT:

with
(p.

W&ti

in the

ft.

note. Chan. edn.

(p.

34-35) has

cllfef:

while Poona edn.

10)

& Madras

edn.

23)

have
ft.

GaJ-

edn.

Cp-

19)

&

Des.

edn.

(p.

21) have

clT^ with

cITfecT:

in the

note.

The different commentaries on

the

K. P.

have Wfef: only.

All editions of the

P.

Vein have
srofr

have mostly preferred

(p. (p.

WF( while for 3W{

P.

the different commentaries

on the

K.

Jha. edn.

487-88) has STOT'K.

edn.
(p.

(p.

499), 3RPT edn.

(p.

330),

3s.

edn.p.

JI

225)
(TTT.)

& ta.'
edn.
(p.

edn.

p. II

138) follow Jha. edn.

with

&

?. edn.

402)

&
(p.

(p.

^TfT

^
edn.
(7)

498),

237) have
3f=

arat

^
II

&
(p.

edn.

(p.

195)

&

M^ edn.
ft.

3?^

the

ft.

note, while

~^
17)

(p.

286) have 3FR,

(p.
I,

(^f.)

edn. p.

211) has

s?^

with awf in the

note.

p.

There are

many

variants in this verse.

They

are as

under

This variant
:,

is

accepted by

all

editions of the
in the
ft.

Venl

&

those of the K. P.
S.

but

is

also

mentioned with ?pR:

note by N.

edn.

(p.

27). K. P.

Vol.

XX,

1996

VARIANTS FROM VENISAMHARA

p.
II

AND...

81

CRT.)

edn.

(p.

169} has

also

shown

it

in the

ft.

note

(p.

I,

p.

15)

N.

S.

edn. of the Vein

edn. (p. 37), Gaj. edn. (p. 21)

edn.

(p.

10)

&

27) has sii-ili^i^ with silHliHl^ in the ft. note. Chau. & Des. edn. (p. 23) have '^Hlr^l^ while Poona Madras edn. (p. 25) have
(p.

The different commentaries on the

them have
Jha edn.
^fTo

K.

P.

differ in

giving this variant.

Some

of

^ii-il^i. See-

(p.

424),
p.
II

IptT.

edn.

(p.

454), R. P. edn.
edn. p.
II

(p.

438), TRFT edn.

(p.

293),

3, edn.

(p.

120)

& 1Wf*
(TT.)

(p.

96).

y*

&

^J

edn

(p.

357)

& ^$3
(^Tt)
(p.
I

edn. (p. 159) have

II

the

ft.

note, while T^RTI

in

edn. p.
p. 15)

(p.

^IHls^l^ with ^HHI^*!^ in 169) has WHlrtWlc^ with -Hr^*!^ &

the
(p.

ft.

note

edn.

246) has

^Mi^W^
seems

but ^t^R has noted

to

W3

y^RiirH*
'

dg^i^ in
note
-

his

commentary. Thus
THo

^i-ilR^hic^

be favoured by him.
^ii-iirwehi^ in

^o

&

TT.

31.

edn.

(p.

127) has ^1-lloW^ with

the

ft.

All editions

of the Vein and those of the K. P. have this variant, but, 3

K. P.
(p.

& ^
ft.

edn.
note.

on the

357) has

also

noted the other reading

*(%Rfq: in the

All editions

of the
-

Vem

have

this variant,
ft.

but N.

S.

edn.

(p.

27) also mentions

the otherone

szjrzRf

in the

note.
K. P.

The different commentaries on the

357) has
Jha.
(p.

have

also

^^Rf, but
(p.

"Sf.

&

^.
is

edn.

(p.

2TPT% in the

ft.

note. Moreover, in

^fa2

358)

^Mftf

referred.

424)

has criticized both the readings.

All editions of the

Vem

21) Des. edn.

(p.

have this reading, but N. S. edn. (p. 27), Gaj. edn. 23) have also mentioned f^Fffo for ^Flft in the ft. note.
K. P.

(p.

The different commentaries on the

do not

differ in giving this variant.

This variant

is

accepted by

all

edns. of the Veni and those of the K. P. but N.

'

82

JAGRITI
edn. of the

PANDYA
nleic^i

SAMBODHI
in the
ft.

S.

Vem

(p.

27) has

also

noted the other reading

note.

This variant

is

seen only in-N.

10),

S. edr|.
(p.

of the

Vem

(p.

27). Chau. edn. (p. 37),

Poona edn.
have

(p.

Madras edn.

25), Gaj. edn. (p. 21)

&

Des. edn.

(p.

23)

SW

for

The
(p.

different

commentaries on the

K. P. also

have

3F^

for
P.

3J^. See
edn.
(p. (p.

Jha. edn.

424),
(p. (p.
p.II

31.

&

-3.

edn.

edn. edn. edn.

293),

(p.

357),
p.
II

^T
(p.

edn.
120),

^. edn.

II

m^&U
(mO edn.

(p.

454), R.

438), 3RFT
127),

u. edn.
(p.

f^F
CRT,,)

246), forar. edn. p.

(p.

(p.

96), *%cf

159) and iF&cf

169).

Chau. edn.
ft.

(p.

37) shows %f%, while N.

is

S.

edn. (p. 27) has %f% with

%$ n
j

the

note,

which

accepted by Poona edn. (p, 10), Madras edn.

(p.
ft.

21)
note.

&

Des. edn. (p. 23) Gaj. edn.

&

(p. 25), Gaj edn. Des. edn. have also noted %frf in the

The different commentaries on the

II

K. P.
ft.

have %fa only, but ^%cT

(p.
I,

OSTT.)

edn. p.

(p.

169) has %f% with

%1

in the

note.

p.

15).

(7)

TFrfcf

This verse shows only one variant

All

viz.

editions

of the

Vem
in the

have ^ft^l:,
ft.

while

N.

S.

edn.

mentioned

(p.

Wg^fa

29-30)

has

note.
K. P.

The major commentaries on the edn (p 355), i & *

Cp
'

prefer
R. P.

*%^T:

for

68X

edn^ 309), edn

'

edn

Cp

'

219)

^
.

^%^T:
-

See
(p.

Jha
253);

(p.

378), 3RFT edn.

edn p n
-

(p

57)

The

last

ITn In^ f SS
edn.
p.
II
r (p.

one has also noted the other reading 3 and

141) has also vftf&t. wi th
this

-q%^

in the ft
'

note

* edn ^ 73 ''11* ^^. in the fc note

:

Some commentators have discussed

reading as below

Vol.

XX,

1996

VARIANTS FROM VENI SAMHARA

AND...

83

^To'-Jha.

edn. p. 355

1Wt
'--R.

&

"3.

edn.

p.

309

edn. p. 254

has favoured

3FTPT

edn.

p.

253

(4)

^T:

II

3.8
are
as

This verse has three variants.

They

under

All editions

71) has t;sq<WUc|^ for

as referred to

of the VenI, except Madras edn., have ^<*irq^ but in the notes Cp- 296)

Madras edn.

(p.

it

mentions

by Mallinatha

in the Meghaduta.
K. P.

Most of the different commentaries on the

have

also

3<H<*<J<=K?*,

while

&

"STo

edn.

(p.

81) has

All

has editions of the VenI. have Hfa<ll;l*l<l, but the N. S. edn. (p. 70). mentioned the other reading yPd-bdli+ld in the ft. note, which was preferred by most of the different commentaries on the K. P. See 0151
Jha. edn.

260),
65)
31.

mi

Cp.

365), *.
edn.
p.
II

&
(p.

<&

edn.

(p.

316), R. P. edn.
edn.
(p.

(p.

386), 3FTPT edn.

(p.

74),

t^T
(TRT.)

^?f
-3=

C^RT.)

edn.

(p.

105) and

222-223),
edn. p.
II

ta
(p.

edn.
146).

p. II (p.

64-

(^t.)
(p.

&

edn!

(p.

316) and

^cf

edn.

105) have noted the other reading

84

JAGRITI
in

PANDYA
"gerr.

SAMBODHI
edn.
(p.

the

ft.

note,

which

is

&

accepted by

400} and

3. edn.

(p.

81).

All editions of

the Vem. have

this rea'ding

but N.

S.

edn.

(p.

70) has the other

ft.

readings
In
this

3T^^f:

^:,

ar^ef^ci: and

a^JjTJ^:

ffc also in the

K.
P.

note.

verse

the different commentaries on the

have shown different

readings.

Jha. edn.

(p.

365) has

^^^:
4
.

^t.

He has

also discussed

about aujjpjgf

it:

of

edn. in the

commentary

^
II

&
(p.

edn. (p.

316), R. P. edn.
II

(p.

386),

WT
(TTT.)

edn. edn.

(p. (p.

260),

<fr

edn. p.

74), ftrar. edn. p.

II

(p.

64-65), ^fnf

105) and

^uT

(^.)

edn. p. edn.
(p.

146) have accepted 222-223) and & tf.

(p.

m^

3T^
ir.

"p, following Jha. edn., while

II

H&*
with

^Wf:
(9)

7:

in the

ft.

note.

edn. p.
(p.

(p.

81) have

ST^T^M:

edn.

400) has

-p

This verse sliows two variants.

All editions of the Venl.

and those of the R.

94) has mentioned

P.

^
N
S.

&

have accepted

this

*.

TT.

edn.

reading but
ft.

(p.

'^^^MNdlfir:'

in the

note.

edn of the Vem.

(p.

72) has
"

J 63X & DeS CP 68) haVG While chau 04 in^ and 'H 104-105) Madras edn. (pp. 73-74) have accepted T*rp. Most of the different commentaries on the K. P have iqgt

*t?'

^^

<Wjt with 'wp'

"

in the

ft.

note.

Poona edn
'

"^

ed

CPP

p.

(P . 22ffl ,

te

edn

Vol.

XX,

1996

VARIANTS FROM VENISAMHARA

:

AND...

85

(10)

TJFfa

%Rft
h
ifa"

In this verse the following variants are noted.

This reading
also

is

mentioned
-

accepted by all editions of the Vein, but N. S. Edn. the other reading -iiP^ciPHPrt in the ft. note.
(p.

(p.

78)

has
edn.

See
Cp.

Chan. edn.

118), Poona edn.

(p.

Cp-

37),

Madras

edn. (p. 82), Gaj.

71)

&

Des. edn.

77)

The
See
Cp.
II

different
-

commentaries
(p.

on

the K. P. have also accepted

(p.

-iiP^dHPH.

Jha. edn.

272),
(p.
II

m
156)
(p.

^to

386), "ST. & ^ edn. edn. p. II (p. 90),

edn. p.
II

m^&^
CRT.)

332, R.
y.

P. edn. (p. 404), 3PFT

edn.
p.

edn.

(p.

96),

f^RT

edn.

230),
(p.

fta

(p. 78),

O&l

edn. (p. 120) and ^FcT

(^Ht.)

edn.

p.

But

"SlJtcT

332) has preferred 420) follows in giving

- ^ ^ir^dHHlfct
to
wpc)<^ics:

^rr. edn.

Cp-

this

reading.
1

It

also refers

-iiRwHMlRi in

the

commentary

"SfFf:

(p.

421)

With reference

-itP^aHPH,

Jha edn.

Cp-

386) reads-

All editions of the

Veni have

31^

but N.

S.

edn.

Cp-

78) has noted aimt^

for

3?^
The
p. II

in the

ft.

note.

different
(p. Cp-

commentaries on the
(tfr.)

96) and
I,

K. P.
Cp-

have

3^

while

\.

&

31=

edn.
ft.

edn.

p. II

156) have

31^ with

siraH

in the

note.

P-

All editions of the

(p.

Vem
cR.
rR.

and those of the

K. P.

have

rR.

But chau. edn. of

Veiv

118) has $R for

The commentator mentions

cR. K. P.

^nf

CRT.)

edn Cp-

120) has also

^FT for

86

JAGRITI

PANDYA

SAMBODHI

All editions of the Vein

have

this reading.

The

different

commentaries on the
flcT:

K. P. also
ft.

have

^:

except

Tf=

&

"S,

edn.

(p.

332) which has

with reference
*ra:

for

^cf:

in the

note.
p.
II

to

this

reading m, "& edn.

^f

(p.

90.) observes

wfo
ffrf

'TO:,

ffa -qfc TspRf

^fir in

?f<T

3ffi

TT^eFn^nTT

ST^UcWqTFI

f^f^cT:

(11)

This verse does not suggest any variant in the different editions of the VenL, except the N. S. edn. (p. 81), which has ^T:' with 'o^rf^T: in the ft. note'
4 1

The
(12)

different
^?T:

commentaries on the

K.

P.

also

do not suggest any variant.

T3tWK[f?r
crnfwsr:

This verse has so

many

variants.

They

are as under-

This variant
also noted

is

accepted hy
in the

all
ft.

wwm:

editions of the VenI but N. S. edn.

(p

86) has

note.
K.

The

different

commentaries on the

P.

have

^fef&
Ve 'T
'

only.

"

""

'

'

edn

'

*e

Cp.

134 Poona edn. "I 134-135), (p. 42), Madras edn. 87 " 88) Gaj edn DeS

86) whife CI

-- ^n.
Des
to
t

"^

ft

no*:
different

^
(p.

'

'

(p.

93), Gaj.

'

edn h

edn (P 80)
noted

*4
-

he

The
(P.

commentaries on the
ed,,

328),

,.

& *

291),

K. P.

have also
.

ed,, tp

37

M 7;

see ^for TOH " Jha R .P.T 36^

Vol.

XX,

1996
*n.

VARIANTS FROM VENISAMHARA

II

AND...

87

edn.
p.
II

^. edn. p. (p. 240), (p. 212), -fam. edn. p. II

II

(p.

49),

m^ &^
On)
edn.

edn.

(p.60),

M*F

edn.

(p.

42), ^%?r

(p.

72-73) and

edn. p.

(p.

134).

All editions of the

Vem
(p.

have

this reading,

but N.

S. edn. (p.

80) and Des. edn.

ft.

87-88) have also noted the other' reading-

86), Gaj. edn. (p. * singly in the

note.
different
(p.

The edn
OTTo)

commentaries on the K. P. have also accepted **iwe: except 370-371), which has ^Wtfl^ for %3TW: 3J & "3 edn. (p. 291) and edn. (p. 72-73) have also mentioned h$!IUgl^ in the ft. note.
(p.

Jha edn.

328) has also noted

WcTFT

it

in his

commentary-

This variant

is

accepted by

all

editions of the
jjRi'H'W in

Vem, but
ft.

N. S. edn. (p. 86) has

also noted the other reading-

the

note.

The different commentaries on them have

See
-

the K. P.

differ in giving this variant.

Some

of

*.

&

<

-3.

edn.

(p.

291), gJT. edn.

(p.

edn.
(^t.)

p. II '(p.

212), 'fam. edn.

II

p. II

(p.

& 3. 7. edn. (p. 60), 370-371), 42), T^cf (m) edn. (p. 72-73) and
and ~&ft
edn. have also
(p.

m\

edn. p.

(p.

134).
-

The
edn.

first

and the

last

but one
ft.

i.e.

3?.

&

3. edn.

("HI.)

noted tfaWT? in the

(p.

note; while Jha. edn. (p. 328), R.P. edn.

360),

240) and

^IT

edn.

p.

II

(p.

49) have %fcWPR for

All editions of the

also noted the other

Vem. -have accepted this reading but one - ^ in the ft. note.
K. P.

N. S. edn.

(p.

86) has

The
has

different

commentaries on the
in the
ft.

have

*T,

while ^%fi C^N) edn.

(p.

134)

with

"^

note.

This reading

is

also accepted

by

all

editions of the

Vem. and those of

the K. P.

88

JAGRITI PANDYA
TTo

SAMBODHI
(p.

but

&

3. edn.

(p.

291) and
ft.

*f%?f

CRT.)

edn.

72-73) have also noted the

other reading cRSJ in the

note.

N. S. edn. of the
edl1
"

Vem.

(p.

86) has

s(l

llcJ-H:

with
(p.

s{l

u ll'M(H:

in

the

ft.

note. Des.
(p.

( P"

87 ' 88 )

llas

^n^W:

and chau. edn.

(p.

134-135) and Gaj. edn.

(p.

80)

have

s^iiHiPi:,

while Poona edn.

42) and Madras edn.

K. P.

93)

have ^P

Most of the different commentaries on the

See
-

have
(p.

Jlia.

edn.

(p.

328),

"S.

&

edn.

edn (p. 240), ^To (p. 360), edn. 73) and ^%?f Cat.) edn. p. II (p. 134).
edn
-

wm
P-

(p.

291), ^IT. edn.

p.
II

370-71), R.P. edn.

(TIT.)

(p.

49), ^%cT

edn.

(p.

72-

II II

(p.
(p.

edn. p.
t.

42) has ^J|irHi: with s^IMP): in the ft. note. Similarly, 134) also reads "<M|,>]P) j n t le ft note (p j_ p ^ 2 ) while,
; i
_

ir.

edn. p.

II

(p.

60) and fMftr edn.

p.

II

(p.

212) have ^uiNPH; for

All editions of the

Vem

on the

K.

P.

also

edn. (p. 72-73) have

(p.

mostly prefer "3^: with

for

have accepted this variant. The different commentaries this. But 3T. & "3. edn. (p. 291) and ^%cf OTT.)

^R:

and ^^cf:

in the

ft.

note; while

370-371) has

^H:

Tgqr.

edn

(13)

This verse has three variants.

They are

as under

All

editions of the Venl. have ^iirdHIH, but N. S. edn. mentioned the other reading- ^;^||RHHI in the ft. note.

(p.

87) has

also

The

different

commentaries on the

K.

P.

have

also

This variant
has

is

seen in

all

editions of the
(p.

^Tft

for

3^3

N. S. edn.

Vem, except Poona edn. (p. 42) which 87) has also noted the other readings

Vol.

XX,

1996
note.

VARIANTS FROM VENISAMHARA

ft.

AND...

89

and

3T^trf in the

The different commentaries on

3qfa for
3T^flT

the K. P. have 3T%, while ^TT= edn. (p. 436) has

3T%
note,

3t=

&
I.

^
p.

edn.

(p.

343) and

^t%?f CRT.)
p.
II

edn.

in the

ft.

note, while ^fcft (^o) edn.

14).

[p.

(p. 140) have 3T% with with 3^3, in 162) has

3^

the

ft.

(p.

All editions

of the Venl. have ^M+HHI. but N.

ft.

S.

edn.

(p.

87) has also noted the

other reading f^tiM-li. in the

note.

The different commentaries on

them have
-^tii-Mio,
3T.

the K. P. differ in giving this variant.

Some

of

while the others have f^FFRT

p. II

\.

&

U.

edn.
II

(edn.

p. II

(p.

109),

ft^F edn.

p. II

(p.

235-236) and

f^^To

edn. p.
Jha.

Cp-

88) have

-jM^hM-iio

While,

edn.
-

Cp-

402)

has
TT3:
(p.
I

f^hM-iu The
"ST.

other
(p.

reading

is

noted in
(p.

the

commentary
P.
(p.

edn.

(p.

^M^I-H. J^ffi 419), fT^F! edn.

&
(p.

"3.

edn.

280),
p.
II

m^

343),
II

1^

edn.

436), R.
0?T.)

edn. p.

(p.

103), ^IcT

edn.

140) and ~&F3

(^0

edn.

162) have also %frl-HI.

Works on Alankara Thus, fixing up of a given variant poses many problems. could serve as useful research tools for the purpose. Our effort will be rewarded unavoidable. It may be noted that if scholars feel this approach to be useful and
other works

on Alankara, such as those of Hemacandra and Vis'vanatha and of a given work. others could also be utilized while preparing a critical text

NOTES
1.

See

K.

P.

Jha.

edn.

p.

422

4.

See Jha. edn.

p.

365

^ETTWft
5.

K.

P.

1 'SfFPf ^:> T^f (TTTo), SFRT^f

edn. Pune,

(p.

158) reads

90

JAGRITI

PANDYA

SAMBODHI

6.

7. 'S^tcf

(p.

291) seems to favour

this

reading.

8.

This variant

is

preferred
as

50) in the discussion

f:

by uwfaxii;j*a'i) (3RPT edn. below

:

p.

240) and

~$fto

^o

edn. (p.

STffa:

fwrft

^nfr,

REFERENCE BOOKS

Ed.

K.

P.

Parab
Press,

Pub.
2.

Nirnaya Sagar

Bombay, seventh

edition,

1930

Ed.

Pandit Shri

Ramadev Jha
Sanskrit series office, Varanasi, Third edition,

Pub.
3.

Chaukhamba

1959

^MfctgRJ^Ed.
-

Prof. K.

N. Dravid

Pub.
4.

The oriental Book supplying Agency, Poona, Second editon, 1922

qfl*i6K*^Ed.
-

C.

Sankara Rani
Sri

Sastri

Pub.
5.

The

Balamanorama

Press,

Mylapore, Madras, 1943.

qufl'dsK*^-

Ed.

&
A.

Pub.B.

Pub.
6.

Gajendragadkar Revised third editon, 1941

q-jil^eK^Ed.
-

Pub.
7.

R.R. Deshpande Dadar Book Depot, Bombay

First edition,

1953

*l4n<*w:Ed.
-

(With BalabodhinQ

Vamanacharya Jhalakikar
Bhandarkar Oriental Research
1983
Institute,

Pub.

Poona, Eighth edition,

8.

q>ioqnefjnfy :

Ed.
-

(With Pradeepa & Udyota)

Vasudeva

Pub.

Shastri Abhyankar Anaiidashram Sanskrit Granthavali, Pune, 1911

Vol.

XX,

1996

VARIANTS FROM VENISAMHARA

(With Sudhasagar)
Ed.
-

AND...

91

9.

efi|oHHtiH(i:-

Sri

Narayana

Sastri Khiste

Pub.
10.

Chowkhamba

Sanskrit Series Office, Benares,

1927

Ed.

Pub.
11.

Rewaprasad Dwivedi Banaras Hindu University Varanasi,

First edition,

1981

<*>l<^y*Ri:-

(With Balacittanuranjam, SarabodhinI and Kavyaprakasadarpana)

Ed.
-

Dr. Goparaju

Rama &

Dr.

Jagannatha Pathak

Pub.
12.

Ganganatha Jha Kendriya Sanskrit Vidyapitha, Prayaga, 1976

(With Saradipika)

cRTSW^RW:Ed.
-

Dr. T.S. Nandi

Pub.
13.

Gujarat University, First edition, 1976 (Vol.

P.
I.

I),

&

1984

(Vol.

II)

cHoMycbW:Ed.
Pub.
-

&

II.

(With Sahitya-cudamani

&

Sampradaya-prakasini)

K.

Sambas'iva Sastri
Series,

Trivandrum Sanskrit
P.
I.

1926 & 1930

14.

cR^ra^M:Ed.
-

&

II

(With Viveka)

Sivaprasad Bhattacharya
Sanskrit College, Calcutta,

Pub.
15.

1961

W^TOcFRT:Ed.
-

(With Vistarika)
Dr.

Gaurinatha Shastri
Sanskrit Vis'vavid^alaya, Varanasi, First edition,

Pub.

Sampurnananda
1976

16. "^TTSZTMiRT:-

(With Samketa
Ed.
-

"RI.)

Vasudeva

Shastri

Abhyanakar
Granthavali, Pune,

Pub.
17.

Anandashram Sanskrit
(With Samketa

1921

cBioqythM:Ed.
-

m)

N.

S.

Venkatnathacharya

Pub.

Oriental Research Institute University of Mysore, Mysore 1974

(Vol. I)

& 1977

(Vol. II)
"l.)

18.

cKrcX|y*M:-

P.

&

II

(With Samketa
Parikh

Ed. Pub.

prof.

R.C.

Rajasthan Oriental Research

Institute,

Jodhapur, 1959.

ALAMKARA
(Continued

DAPPANA

H. C. Bhayani

from Sambodhi Vol.17, 1990-91)

jaiii

uvamanenuvameassa

niruvijjae ni

(?)

rtivanam khu /

dawa-guna-sammaarii

tarn

bhanami

ilia

ruvarh kaino //

upamanenupameyasya

yat nirupyate nirupanam khalu /

ilia

dravya-guna-sammatain tarn bhananti

rtipakam kavayah //
substance or qualities
is

When

the

nature of

Upameya based on

the

letter's
is

represented by Upamina, then that representation

tail!

called Rtlpaka

by the poets

cia

duviham

samatdia-paattha-viraana-janiam / biaiii ekkekka-desa-parisamtliiam hoi // tadeva dvividharii jayate

jaai

padhamarii

The same
terms,

prathamani dvitiyam ekaikadesa-parisamsthitam bhavati //

is

samasta-padartha-viracana-janitarii /

of two types
is

the
to

first is

the second

confined
:

such as produced by relating to

all

the

a single part.

Saala-vatthu ruaarii jaha

gaana-saraih pecchaha pausammi taiiu-kiraua-kesara-sanahait / tara-kusuma-wavanam mahabharana paulam samakkamai //

ekkekka-desa-ruvaarii jaha
:

aviraa-pasaria-dhara-nivaa-nitthavia-pamthia-samuho/ marihai maiii sa-daiarii nikkivo pausa-cilao //

bhea

naeliirii cia

haria-cchaeliirii

atthe labbhijjai cia saaleara ruaa-hiriito //" 5

dlvijjamti paaiiii

ruvaana kaa /
kiriae

ekkae cea jattha

/
tivihaiii

muha-majihariuagaae tarn bhannai

dlvaaiii'

//

1.

Dlviaiii.

Vol.

XX,

1996

ALAlttKARA

DAPPANA

93

muha-divaara jaha
bhiisijjamti

gairhda maena suhada asi-ppaharena / gaua? ta-raena turamga sohagga-gunena mahilao // 47

The

illustration

of Mukha-DIpaka

'The excellent elephants shine forth in virtue of the ichor, the brave-warriors in virtue of the sword-strokes received, the horses in virtue of their speed and the

women

in virtue

of their beauty.'
:

majjha-divaam jaha

sukavma jaso surana dhirima ihiam narirhdana / kena khalijjai pisunana dummai bhlruana (?) bhaam

7/"

18

The

illustration

of Madhya-DIpaka

'Who can harm,

violate or diminish the

fame of great

poets, the steadfastness

of the brave men, the wishes of the kings, the evil designs of the back-biters and the fear of the cowards.'

amtadlvaam jaha
satthena

buha danena patthiva guru-tavena jai-nivaha / rana-sahasena suhada maliiale paada homiti // 49

The

illustration

of Antya-Dipaka

The wise men by means of learned treatises, the kings by means of charity, the ascetics by means of rigorous austerity, the soldiers by means of daring acts on the battle-field become famous in this world.
addha-bhaniam nirumbhai jassim
juttia hoi so

roho /

50 paa-vanna-bhea-bhinno jaai du-viho anuppaso //

That

is Rodha wherein what is partly spoken is restrained artfully. Anuprasa has two types distinguished on the basis of words and sounds.

roho jaha

ko na valai tena vina

ma bhanasu a pulaiehim pasehim / 51 ai-rahasa-jampiaim havariiti paccha avacchaim //

?

Who

would not burn without him

rashly

Do

not speak with your sides

afterwards.

thrilling.

Words spoken very

become harmful

94

H.

C.

BHAYANI

SAMBODHI

paaimppaso jaha

sasi-muhi muhassa lacchiih thanasalini thanahararh-pi pecchaiiito 52 ranuaai tanuoari hali [a]' suo kahasu jam juttarh //

The

illustration of

Padanuprasa

The ploughman's son, seeing the beauty of your face,

seeing your breasts,
girl,

bearer of
is

plump
this

breasts,

O moon-faced girl, and becomes thinner, O slim-bellied

So

tell

me what
:

proper in

matter.

vaimanuppaso jaha
vaaiiiti

sajala-jalahara-jala-lava-samvalana-slda-ppharhsa /

pliullariidhua-dhuva-kusumucchalariita-gaihdhuddhura pavana // S3

water-bearing clouds, springing from flowers that are shaken

jattha nimittahiiiito loa
viraijjai

winds are blowing, having cooling touch due particles from the and
TJie

to

the

mixture

of water

by

strongly redolent with the fragrance bees.

ekkamta-goaram vaanaih /

so tassa a aisaa-namo alamkaro // 5<1

aisaalaihkaro jaha
jai

gamdha-niilia-bhamarari. na hoi avaamsa-

te

Lena vibhavijjai kaola-miliam

figure Atisaya

Campaa-pasuam /
//=

paham

tissa

The

illustration of the

with the colour of her cheeks

vigae
vi

IIKU

ekka-dese gu naihtarenam tu sarhthul jattha / vwesa-payadana-kajjenarit so viseso tti

//

-vi

tcha nisasu sohai pi5]

p.aa,

taiilbola .

pio

Vol.

XX,

1996

ALAMKARA
:

DAPPANA

95

The

illustration of the figure Visesa

The lower
lover

lip of the beloveds, which is at night wet with betel leaf-juice does not appear as beautiful as when it appears in the morning deeply kissed by their

even though then

jattha niseho

it

is

deprived of colouring.
(?)

wa

saslhi

kirai

visesa-tanhae

so

akkhevo duviho homta-vakkariita-bheena // 5S

is

Where something
Aksepa.
It is

negated
:

with some

specific

purpose,

the

figure

is

of two types
:

Bhavat and Apakranta.

Homtakkhevo jaha
jai

vaccasi taha vaccasu

tai

vaccai

mahu garu Ca-daha)-virahaggi-tavia-taiiue / samaarii cia ahava kaha jarhpiaih esa (?) // 59
Bhavat aksepa
:

The
'If

illustration of

you are going away, then

go. As

my body

will

be burnt by the intense

fire

of separation, with

you
:

will certainly depart my.. ..But

how

Avakkarhtakkhevo jaha

khagga-ppahara-dadha-dalia-riu-dalassa gaa-kuiiibha-vidhassa / tua natthi ettha ko mahiharana samcalano hojja 7/ 60

The
You,

illustration of

Apakrantaksepa

has torn the broad temples of the elephants of the hostile army that was crushed with your forceful sword-strokes- there is nobody here to who
can possibly be a mover of mountains
hoi sahao jai vairego
?

who

una visesa-karanena / vaana-manehim saa annenam bajjhai kaihim // 61

The (description
Vyatireka.
jai

of) nature is Jati.

When some

special trait is pointed out it

is

jaha

sira-dharia-kalasa-gholira

baha-jualai gama-tarunie /
62 pamaro puhavim 7/

mannai
The
illustration

vilasa-dittho bhai-tthiaarh

of

Jati.

The husbandsman, glanced

at

sportively

by the young

village

girl,

carrying a

96

H.

C.

BHAYANI

SAMBODHI

water pot on her head and swinging her both hands, thinks he has gained (the (whole) earth.
vairego jaha.
:

dusaha-paava-pasaro somo
te

wa

sai akhalia-paho tarn si / jada una donha ve ravi raa raa haa-chaa // 63

The

illustration of

Vyatireka

The spread of your prowess (2. heat) is unbearable. You are always gentle and you tread the path without stumbling (2. stopage) ....... Besides the sun are inanimate (?) Hence their lustre is dimmed (before you)
phuda-simgarai-raso so rasio aha bhaimae alamkaro / anna-vavaesa-bhanie vinimmio hoi pajjao // M

When

there
is

is

explicit erotic

sentiment the figure

is

said to be
is

Rasita.

When

something
rasio jaha

said

under disguised reference Paryaya

produced.

dui-viaddha-vaananubamdha-iara viambhiurii thaddha / padai saunnassa uare rasarhta-rasana kuramgacchl //_ 65

The

illustration

of Rasita
girl,

The proud fawn-eyed

won over (?) by the soliciting clever words of the female messenger, yawning and with her girdle tinkling would fall on the chest of a man who has earned religious merits.
:

pajjao bhannai jaha

garuana coriae ramamti (e) payada-rai-rasam katto / ma kunasu tassa dosam sumdari visama-tthie kajje X/ 66
Paryaya
is

illustrated as follow

How
it

can there be real sexual pleasure in making love clandestinely-concealing from the elders ? Charming woman, in such a difficult matter do not blame

him. jaha nia (?) bhannai bahua parivadi-paadanam jaha-samkham / kith puna biunam tiunam cauggunam hoi kawammi // 67

When many

things

are

described

with

a view to

reveal

series

it

is

Vol.

XX,

1996

ALAMKARA
It

DAPPANA

97

Yathasariikhya.

can be two-membered, three-membered or four-membered.

biuno jalia

hamsa-sasi-kamala-kuvalaya-bhasala-mulanana
tissa

nijjia lacchi

gai-muha-karaala-loana-dhammetta-bahahirh //
of the two-membered Yathasariikhya
:

The Her

illustration
gait, face,

palms, eyes, tuft of hair and arms have conquered the beauty respectively of the swan, moon, lotus, blue lotus, black-bee and lotus-fibres.
tiuno jaha
jo
:

vahai vimala-vellahala-kasana-sia-sari [a]-visa-miarhkarh /

sivarh.

muddhaddha-raaniara-mauli-sarhsiam tarn

navaha //
:

The

illustration

of the three-membered Yathasamkhya

Bowdown
river,

to that Siva,

who

carries respectively pure, delicate, black

and white

poison and moon.

:

Caugguno jaha
tie

sama-maua-dlhehirh nimmala-tamba-dhavala-sohehim /
jiairii
70 mani-javaa-kamalaim //

dasanahara-naanehim

The
Her

illustration of the

Four-membered Yathasamkhya

teeth,

have also
lac -dye

and eyes which are respectively even, soft and long and respectively shining, red and white lustre have conquered diamonds,
lower
lip

and lotus respectively.

anavekkhia-patta-sahaa-saiitpaae samahio hoi / 71 guna-kiriana-viroheria esa bhanio viroho-tti //

Samahita occurs when rich help

is

received unexpectedly.
is

When
:

there

is

opposition between qualities or actions, the figure

called Virodha

Samahio jaha

accamta-kuvia-piaama-pasaanattharii paattamame / n uio camdo-vi tatto a pasario malaa-gamdhavaho //

The

illustration of

Samahita

When she has begun efforts to appease her greatly indignant very moment arose the moon and then the southern breeze

dear one, at that

spread.

98

H.

C.

BHAYANI

SAMBODHI

viroho jaha

tujjha jaso

hara-sasahara-samujjalo saala-navania didham-pi /

73

mailai navara vara-veri-vlra-vahu-vaana-kamalaim //

Your
(head)

fame

eventhough

bright

white

like

the

moon

on

Siva's

makes black with

dirt the lotus-faces

of the wives of your

brave enemies.

uvamanena saruam bhaniuna bhsssae jahim bheo /

thui-karanenam samdeha-saihsio so-hu sarhdeho //
the character of something is described first through a standard of comparison and then the distinction is made in order to praise, resorting to

When

doubt

that figure

is

Samdeha.

Saiiideho jaha
kirii

kamalaminam no

tarn sa-kesaraiii kirn sasl

na tattha

mao /

dittham sahi tujjha

Tlie illustration of
'Is

muham
:

sa-samsaarii ajja tarunehiin // 75

Samdeha

this a lotus ?
(is

But no, that has filaments. Then

present).'

is

this the

moon

But no

there the deer

friend,

your face

is

looked at with such doubts

by the young
nattlii

boys.'

viheo kiria-rasiassa-vi hoi jattha phala-riddhi /

bhannai vibhavana so kawalamkaraittehim // 76

Wherein eventhough there

is

no

still,

because of resort

akmdance of

result,

that has

been

called

to actions there ensues Vibhavana by the experts in Poetic

vibhavana jaha

vaddhai a-sitta-mulo apao horn gao-vi a kanho a dhoa-vimalo

to-vi pasarai

nahammi
7S

jaso tujjha //

The

illustration of

Vibhavana

washed

Your fame, grows even though its roots are not watered, even though without legs it spreads to the sky, even it is not though
black/ even
it

is

spotlessly

white/dean.

thouTno g

Vol.

XX,

1996

ALAMKARA

DAPPANA
/

99

anno cia uttara aa jattha bhavai

duviho
Listen to
it

tarn sa tarn bhanio

lioi

jaha taha sahijjamtam nisameha //

being described

how

it

is

of .two types

kassa-i vaanai tahim

a-suehim

uttarehirii ,najjainti

sa uhimtarammi uhia gudha-bhavo a-saautto // 79

When somebody's words

jassa

are

known even though

the reply given

is

not heard.

bhaniihim anno anno paadijjae jahim attho / annavaesa-namo sittho satthaarehirii 7/ 80

That in which words express one meaning but another meaning also becomes revealed that Bhava is called Anyapades'a by the authorities of the
Alariikarasastra.

(to

be continued)

NOTES

41.1 viruvijjae viruvaaiii su.

42.1 paattha.

43.1

sara,

kesari; kamai.
(?);

tthavaaiii
1.

paunam

(?);

dlviam.

52.

paa

53.2.

kusuma
moaram.

54.1.

59.
61.

homitaekkamta ekkamtak
dalikymbh
2.

61.1 pahara,

atta

samcanam

f37T

I
if

1
I

'

**f ^ft ^UT

,

TT^raNt

^f %

if

t^T t

fcr,

fw
|,

%r tntr

^T ^f

im ^m

f,

^l^K

l'

%
^rr

t^f^Rir

fnfr

t,

if

37%

37TrRT

VoII. XX,

1996
^ffa

101

WT
'

if

if,

nfiraf

if

^rr

TfMf

if

3JFft
if,

f*F[-f*R

Sfftrff if

I'

STJSTR ft

t,

t t
1
i

I*

arfio

TRTT

3TRI,

^nff
"gRT

IPTT

imr

t
HPT

TOR %

^ffa

t^W^RIT,

w^tr,

"

102

SAMBODHI

f*R-fR
Jt

f*FT-f*R

M1

^T

3JW

far

^f

^IT

3TER

Tfcf

|_,

fi

TR,

^^

^ff

VoII.

XX, 1996

of Variation)
1

'<HHM "STRH
f^FT

ft <Jr4-l

3?af

3N%
t
i

ft

^TH
"tf

"CFrfH '3c^FT cR*t

~qr

1wr

^Rci^H t^snf ^tr

=PTf

^c^Ff

fTtff

^fff

W^TR

4R<HK

it
f^FTcfT

n^

fw?^ ^

ffcH

I*

"jptf

(Heredity

traits)

^n^T

sfl -*\<\

(Germ Plasm)

^t FT

%
^
f
,

snter

f
"I

if

ft

ctifqFT Itcf

f"

"at

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regards

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have and

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The Jainas

in

the

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4.

of Indian Literature

Edited by Jina Vijaya Muni,

Ahmedabad, 1946, Page.

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REVIEWS
Narayan M. Kansara
JAIN STUDIES IN

HONOUR OF JOZEF DELEU,

Volume
in

edited by

Rudy Smet and KenjiWatanabe. Honwhose students recall for his work on
|

no-tomasha, Tokyo, 1993, pp. xvi + 504.

This

work

is

Felicatation

honour of

Prof. Deleu,

his

stimulating lessons in
literary

all fields

of Indology.

He

first

became known

the

histriographic writings" and to the

He genre called prabandha which flourished in Jain circles during the Middle Ages. succeeded in calling attention to the importance of the prabandhas "as (semi-) need for further research on die literary features of this
J.

genre. In this field

able to

work with

the

eminent

Deleu can be seen as a forerunner. He was fortunate enough to be Walther Schubring, and specialist on Jain cnonical literature,

the later expressed his appreciation of Delue's competence and his affection for this gifted scholar and his fine personality. Deleu was awarded the Doctorate Honories Causa of the

the task of publishing Schubring's posthumous edition der (1978). His very useful contribution is to the Worterbuch Deleu's masterpriece is his book Mythologie, on "Die Mythologie des Jinismus" (1978). Critical with Jaina .Introduction, Canon, Viya/iapannatri (Bhagavai), the fifth Ariga of the
Rijksuniversiteit.

He was entrusted

of the

Naydhammakahao

Analysis,

Commentary and Indexes. Following the

account of
its

text scrupulously

lie

gives a critical and

intelligible

on questions relating of proper names and technical terms ocurring in the treatise. According to first aim of studies in the Jaina Canon should be the critical edition of its
light

sheds contents; moreover, in an elaborate introduction he also to the composition of the text; he further addes valuable indexes
J.

Deleu, "the

texts".

Preface by Colette Caillat, some reminiscences by Charles Willemen and Bio-data and Selected Bibligraphy by Chris Van Alphen-De Lauwer comprise the first three articles about
J.

Deleu, and his contribution to Indological studies.

entitled 'Jain Studies during the last

The next section

viz.,

two decades', contains four

articles,

The Jaina Aga'ma Series by Muni Jambuvijaya, Jainology in Western Publications I by Klaus Bruhn and // by Colette Cailat and The Study of Jaina Art by Klaus Bruhn. Then follow the articles, in all eighteen, by scholars like Nalini Balbir,' Bansidhar Bhatt, H.C. Bhayan,,
Willera B. Bollee,

Hohanes Bronkhorst, Klaus Bruhn, Colette Caillat, Paus Dundas, Junko K.R. Norman, Sakamoto-Goto, Phyllis Granoff, Padmanabh S. Jaini, Colin M. Myrhofer, Suzuko Ohira, Gustav Roth, Frank Van Den Bossche, Kenji Watanabe and Albrecht Wezler.

Muni Jambuvijaya has pointed out

branches
it is

that like the Zedic tradition which has posited a Purusa, various the old Jaina tradition has posited a Vidyd-Purusa. or Srauta-Purusa and the of his body; are viewed as of (arigas) and sub-parts (upangas)

knowledge

parts

at first,

thus that the fundamental class of the Jaina Agamas is known as Ariga. The Agamas, included the Ganipitaka, or Dvadasanga, because the ganarf/iaras are

only

192

NARAYAN

M.

KANSARA

SAMBODHI

considered to be their authors. All Agamas other than die twelve Arigas in the class are included in the class called angabhahya. But we have no source or means at our disposal
to

work out

the chronological order in which the

new

additions were

made

in the class

called aiigabdhya.

Muni Jambuvijaya

tries to

stray links of history.

On

construct a picture of a chronological order by joining together the evidence of Vacaka Umasvati, the author of the

Tattvdrthddhigama-sutra and on that of the Dhavald-tikd on it, he finds that eighteen works listed by him were well known as angabahya works in those days. The Nandisutra mentions sixty angabhahya works which were other than the avasyakas. At present many of them
are extinct.

The

list

of the established classed of the Sruta, which

is

universally recognised by the

Svetambaras with some minor changes includes,

6 Chedasittrasj 4 Mulasutras, 10 Prakimakas,
living literature.
personalities.

11 Arigas, 12 Updngas, and 2 Culikasutras The Jaina Agamas are a have been edited and They published by a number of religious Modern scholars have not evinced as much interest in the study of the Jaina
.

Agamas

as they have in the study of

all

its

Vedic and Buddhist counterparts. Indeed the

need.

critical

edition of

the

Agamas was a long

felt

made for the publication of the Jaina Agamas, as for instance by Stevenson, Weber, Ray Ray Dhanaptsimhaji, Hermann Jacobi, Leumann, Steinthal, Hoernel, Schubring, Sagaranandasuri. As a result of the efforts of Muni Shri Punyavijayaji
Since 1848 attempts were
for

Vidyalaya (Govalia Tank Road,

about forty years, a committee was formed in the year 1964 by the Shri Mahavira Jaina Bombay 16) to publish a critical edition of the Jaina
edit all the Jaina
to
:

Agamas. The scheme was adopted to them in 17 Volumes. It was decided

editing the texts of the Jaina
(ii)

Agamas

Agamas critically and to publish accept the following six principles in critically utilization of the old handwritten manuscripts, (1)

texts;

of the CurnT, TIka, Avacuri, Tippanaka, etc., (in) and of the quotations from the Aganla (iv) comparision with the Sutras readings found in other Agama texts; (v)

unwanted and wrong emendations made by scholars; and (vi) of the far Volumes I, II, III, IV, V, IX, XV, and XVII have already been published, and Volume VII is under progress.
discrimination of the

mistakes committed by copyists. So

on 'Jainology in Western Publications I, Klaus Bruhn focuses attention on the known development in Jaina literature the exegetical works connected with the Svetambara canon - Niryuktis, Bhasyas, Curnis, Tikas.
In his article
less
:

The main problem of Jaina' philosophy as the basis of Jainology is neither the preparation of "better" editions nor the edition of new manuscripts; what is first necessary is the philological study of the immense mass of edited texts.This is very difficult. Studies of complete works are conspicuous by their absence and even those portions selected for
study are often comparatively small. One intention of this paper is to offer a few suggestions for a biblogmphy of text editions and to describe furthermore what we could call a systematic preparation of conspectuses, to greatly facilitate the work of further generations.

Vol.

XX,

1996

REVIEWS

193

an annotated bibliography of text editions will always be midway between a the catalogue of manuscripts and a history of literature. We mention information about extent of the text, about the traditional sub-divisions, about minor elements (mangold,
Basically,

colophones, prasasti), about the form (prose/metre), about the language (Sanskrit/Prakrit), about the text-commentary relation (if a text edition contains both), about authors, and

about substantial textual

Basically,

patallels.

a conspectus

from the beginning

the text into a string

to the end.

produced by a continuous segmentation of a given text, extending More often man not a transformation of the continuum of of the structure of segments is a prerequisite for a quick comprehension
is

and the contents of a composition. In

frequent sub-segmentation
is

princile,

that segmentation will be unilinear, so

avoided.

The contents of each segment must be mentioned, and surrogates must be used where a
proper
units
title

which

are

(epitome) cannot be given. In many cases it will be useful to isolate specific known a priori and which do not participate in the intricasies of die text

must be paid to explicit traditional divisions. In metrical works verses are as a rule counted within such divisions.
to the

same

extent as other portions. Attention

conspectus

is

descriptive

and thus basically synchronous. There

may be

different historcal

is not a part of the conspectus project. But, conspectus the Vasudevahindi can ignore the fundamental difference between Brhatkatha elements and the elements belonging to the universal history of the Jainas (24 tlrthankaras, etc.).

starata but their spearation

no

of

labyrinthine structure of a text

may be

clarified

by

isolating certain "blocks"

such as the

Ksemendra. Vetalapancavimsatika in the Brhatkatha versions of Somadeva and concerned with die Conspectuses of a tabular type have their main habitat in studies the "exegetical" literature. Thus, the of section metrical the stratum, Niryukti-Bhasya
A.N. Upadhye deal conspectuses by Leumann, N. Balbir, Obedies, Bruhn, Webor, Delue, with dogmatic material and with stories only as far as stories partake in the technical character of non-narrative texts or are not easily spearated from dieir dogmatic context. In some cases the narrative material is either absolutely autonomous or merely loosely

connected with basically dogmatic texts. It is a different matter if stories are units sui or connected with dogmatic works for purposes of generis but nevertheless are embedded in, demonstration. Abstracts of stories or story collections prepared by H. Jacobi, M.

K.Bruhn can be cited in this field. Bloomfield, A.N. Upadhye, Mette, Balbir/Oberlies and
Besides the problem of die breadth of Indian (and Jaina) literature, there exists the universal the number of modern publications. It has thus become problem of the enormous increase in of information manageable. Here necessary to find ways of making the growing corpus Bruhn suggests that bibliographies as used in research should not converge in a unified different as we need types of bibliographies as many bibliographical system, but that of bibliographies of different proportions. And, as to the possible and consequently he admits that summaries (mostly in English) and other "responsibility of the author, and have made the use of books and articles easier than in the devices have come to
stay

194

NARAYAN

M.

KANSARA

SAMBODHI

past.

die existing matrix of literary trasmission,

suggestion from the point of view; of philologists would be to increase the use of i.e. of the texts handed down by tradition. The

most

gratifying step in this direction

translations, analyses, etc.) covering single text in toto.

would be the preparation of fresh studies (editions, On the one hand, the author should

indicate, wliereever possible, in clear manner and at a fixed place which texts (Text portion) have been discussed (Translated) in his study. On the other hand, more attention should

be paid to specialized bibliographies considering single

Balbir's "Stories

texts

or limited clusters of

texts, e.g.

short,

it

from the Avasyaka Commentaries", in The Clever Adultress (pp. 17- 74). In would be desirable to make the relation between the texts and publications

more

transparent.

An

introduction to a bibliography should not be restricted to a discussion of general problems. few words on the present state of research are also called for. Our knowledge of Jaina

literature will

remain deficient as long

-

as
-

they are not adequately analyse. The

is

most ambitious
the Jaina

perhaps the only ambitious

Series as started

research project being carried out in India

Agama

by

the late

Muni Punyavijaya.

The

list of monographs and collective volume given at the end of die article notices 53 items published from 1973 to 1991. The bibliography lists the contributions by scholars like

Alsdorf, Balbir,

Bloomfield, Bruhn, Delue, Guerinot, Jain,

Jainert.

Leumann, Lienhard,

Mette, Renou, Rocher, Schubring, Tripathi, Upadhye, and 1993.

In this article on 'Jainology in Western Publications

Weber and Windisch, between 1866

Colette Caillat has started with

II',

Gramrnatik der Prakrit Sprachen by R. Pischel. Colin Mayrhofer (Australian National University) laid the foundation for an Apabhraihsa Dictionary. Most of the Jain texts in Old Gujarati have been edited in India by Indian scholars, who moreover scutinized much of
the

Baumann and Bender

relevant vocabulary. Important contributions of R.L. Turner, J.C. Wright, G. are here noticed. Jaina Saurasenl studies by K. Oejins and K. Okuda

are veiy useful.For the

most

part, linguistic

focussed on the Svetambara canon. As far as

systematically referred to as

and grammatical investigations have been grammar is concerned, Pischel can be still

an

audioritative work.

On

the other hand, following

-

W.
so

Schubring and
as vocabulary

L. Alsdorf,

attention has been concentrated on metrics

an important tool
less

for textual criticism. Finally, lexicographical studies have not

been neglected, die

and grammar are not infrequently intervened.

Among

the books, editions, etc., accompanied by linguistic descriptions, he has listed the works by Colette, Adekheid, Norman, Bollee, Gustav, Balbir, Ch. Cliojnacki, published between 1972 and 1991. In the case of Phonetics, in most studies all Prakrit data is dealt

with from a general point of view, the emphasis bearing on the general rule, rather than the actual realizations in the various Jain Prakrits. Contributions, during 1976-1989, by J. Sakamoto-Goto, Denwood and Piatigorsky, Schwarzchild, Balbir, Breunis, Mette and

Norman

are listed. In Lexicography, particularly the Jaina one, the studies have derived considerable benefit from the publications, in India, of the Agama Sabdakosa, Vol. I by

Vol.

XX,

1996

REVIEWS

195

Acarya Tulasi and Yuvacaiya Mahaprajna, Ladnun, 1980. Jain lexicography, especially when dealing with Prakrit terms, has often been coupled with grammatical and
etymological observatons. In several cases, comparisions of Ardhamagadhl / Jaina Maharastrl terms with their Buddhist counterparts have proved fruitful, especially when an evaluation of semantic evolutions is necessary. Since 1983 upto 1993, Tatia, Kyoshu, Mette

and Balbir have contributed in the field of technical terms. And Norman and Watnabe have worked on miscellaneous topics.
In his article on T7ie Study of Jaina Art', Klaus Bruhn clarifies that Jaina
art,

Cailat,

being mainly

"Jaina-sponsored art" by a particular community, has by necessity its own distinct physiognomy. The period selected by him is 1972-1991. The extraneous factors which
intensified both actual research work and the stream of publications during the period were the 2500th anniversary of the Nirvan of Mahavlra (1974-75) and 1000th anniversary of the

consecration of the Gommatesvara statue at Shravan Belgola (1981).

For documentation of Western Indian Jain painting, he has to rely on the numerous has publications by S.M. Navab. Much material which is not found in the Navab publication

been supplied by U.P. Shah.

Pictorial presentation has so far

been inadequate

for painted

wooden book-covers

or patalis and palm-leaf manuscripts. A very general deficit in the exists. A publication of paintings on doth (Svetambara) and of murals (Digambara) documentation of sculptural and architectural remains is necessary and possible in the case in the to due activities, of Jaina sites which are Deogarh jirnoddhara changes

undergoing

and single Lalitpur District being a case in point. In cataloguing, collections,, manuscripts, illustrations have each to be considered as such; here again we are indebted to U.P. Shall

and Moti Chandra, but valuable information can

publications.

also

be derived from some of the Nawab

In an "annotated" bibliography of art (including iconography) publications which help us

to "understand" the representations,
i.e.

to relate

them

to the texts as far as possible, also

have to be mentioned.

A simplifying but useful diagnosis would be the statement that the from case to case. Here, meaning of both "understanding" and "indentification" will change as elsewhere, U.P. Shah has set new standards. It is only in die case of miniature paintings
and narrative panels (not very frequent
in Jaina art) that

we

are able to tackle the text-

image
been
His

(text-picture) issue in a

understanding of those texts laid by W. Norman Brown.

list

more confident matter. The foundation ofr an adequate which have received the greatest number of paintings has

of authors notices Klaus Bruhn, Gollette Ciallat,

J.

Doshi, Karl

Khandalawala,

Gritli

Von

Manilal Nawab, Shadkshari Settar,

Madhusudan A. Dhaky, Sarvu V. Ramesh Prasad Mohapatra, Sarabhai Umakant Premanand Shall, Harihar Singh, Calembur
Mitterwallner,

works of the Sivaramamurti and Maruti Nandan Prasad Tiwari. His bibliography notices 37 R.P. above authors, and others like R. Kumar, S.V. Doshi, A. Ghosh, B.N. Goswamy,
and D.M. Srinivasan. Hingorani, M. Chandra, G.D. Sontheimer
In his 'Detailed Exposition' of die Prakrit

word

'Vibhasa',

an item in Jaina Exegetical

196

NARAYAN M KANSARA
'

SAMBODHI
a thorough investigation of the

Terminology Nalinl Balbir has selected the word

to initiate

vocabulary for ,t has the basic advantage of being well-documented in all , ram of exegeucal hterature and being explained with the help of examples in two different ses o works, namely, the Avasyaka-corpus and the Brhatkalpabhasya Thus besides^ acm^l usage of me word we also come to know about the way it is conceived as a
technical ternt

Vibhasa occurs as a

member

uiinscL),

Brhatkalpabhasya (187)). In the present along with the place ~ r

R^TM
oups nH H
,

""f*

an a O'-stanza

of a fivefold chain of terms centered around the idea of

common

to the

case, the </-...

Avasyakaniryukti (13) and the formal base of distribution (

*

d; ? ^^."Tf
Cum: (115 ai 5-116.14)
gl ves (1)

temS5
1011

res P ectivel y-

with

"^

Thus, vibhasa will not be explained and vamya wi which jt is T

de

6XainleS

a general definition of vibhasa (+ bhasa and vatt.ya)

'

and
f

Wh
of a
'

tdls

-rtain^pes
in two,

called v ' W!dsart

ww

sto *

thL

or

n HV be mostly
V

atself as

foimillg a nominal sentenC6) Qr Wkh COrreS

.). It

has

notTen

c=
such

:
Which has bee
"aid before

r for
.

Vol.

XX,

1996

REVIEWS
last

197

hatth-uttare".

The

The

five events, viz.,

event of Mahavira's niwana/'nirvana took place in the Svati asterism. 1, 3-6 (excluding the second event of srz/iarie) are collectively designated

as the

panca kalyanakas (five auspicious events) in Jainisra. The Digambaras have no panca 'hcitth'-uttare concept since the second event, saharie, in die Mahavlra-biography is altogether absent in their tradition. The liturgical formula as a whole is used in the auspicious rituals particularly during the Rain-Retreat, varsa-vasa. In the Conspectus, he has stated in brief

how

the Mahavlra-biography came to be extended in the texts. The Jainas are very preoccupied with an idea of originality of their scriptures, particularly die teachings of the

samayikas, the 5 mahavratas and the varsavasa. The idea has survived until

now

in

an

unbroken tradition which started right from the time of Mahavlra. The Jaina tradition thus bears a very living and effective testimony to the origin of the above-stated three fundamental teachings, that some monks inserted the Mahavlra-biography in the canonical texts wherein
these teachings were first codified, viz., the samayikas in the Avasyaka Sutra, the 5 mahaBhavana (Acara 15) and the varsavasa in the Kalpa Sutra (Paryusanakalpa) The purpose behind the insertion of the biography was to impress upon die successive generations that the discussion of these fundamentals came directly from die mouth of Mahavlra. Of course, it was not feasible to extend the biography in die Avasyaka Sutra. So it was extended in the original Avasyaka-Niryukti which is equally considered to be one of
vratas in the
.

the canonical texts (MQla-sutms] of the Svetambaras

original references

Appendix

1,

Appendix

2, give die

from Avasyaka-Niryukti and Acara-CurnT, respectively, while Appendix gives abbreviations and select bibliography. Notes conclude the article. In his 'Notes on SomeApabhramsa and Desya Words', H.C. Bhayani has discussed the following
3
twenty-three words
'fond of, 'given
to';
:

Addhovaddhi

(fern.) 'divided

into two halves'; ariyalla -'tiger'; akkhaniya

avakkha

(fern.)

'worry', anxiety; uccholi, 'lap';

uvvedha-vedhi 'getting

frequently wrapped and unwrapped'; khema-khemi 'mutual embracing' (as a form of intimate greeting); khollada (neut.) 'hut'; cadinna 'string' (of the bow, chuddahlra "the moon'; dikka-

ruya -'child' tluidariikiya 'paiddha-' 'addicted

.

to',

'fond of, 'covetous'; pn/afc/cn-'covetous',

'greedy"; bhagavai 'Durga'; bhaddiya- 'Krsna'; vappikkaya- 'paternal'; valahiya 'pool', 'lake';

vicale

'in

sirfiduraya- (neut.) 'cord or rope

the midst'; von'igillaya- 'adorned', 'decorated'; sattdvisamjoyana-'the moon'; made from the date palm'; /levatya- 'became angry, enraged'.
this list, a

In the case of each and every word of

relevant passage in which the

word occurs

has been duly quoted, the translation of the quotation is given and necessary comparative and critical notes are added. Here the words discussed are 'desya and it presents an area
of study that is considerably complex and has multifarious aspects. Inspite of its importance it has remained neglected after some pioneering initial studies. The few notes presented here relate to some rare and Desya words mostly from the Ritthanemicariya of Svayambhu,

an Apabhramsa epic poem datable towards the end

of the ninth century A.D.

The words
if

discussed here are mostly such as either not recorded in Prakrit dictionaries or,

recorded,

Dr. Bhayani lias scanned many Prakrit and the Apbhramsa texts for ascertaining and authenticating the form, meaning and vogue of recorded Desya words and for spotting the unrecorded ones. The task becomes quite

no occurrences

are noted from literature.

!9

NARAYAN

M.

KANSARA

SAMBODHI
any word-indeed or only
partially

laborious because the published texts are mostly without

and inadequately indexed.

In his 'Remarks on the History of Jaina Meditation', Johannes Bronkhorst traces the history of Jaina meditationa to the canonical texts of the Svetambara Jainas, where four kinds of

dhyana ae mentioned, and which came to be looked upon as four types of meditation, enumerated among the different kinds of inner asceticism. The later tradition, when looking for canonical guidance regarding meditation, was henceforth confronted with a list of four kinds of 'meditation', only the last one of which, viz., 'pure meditation', should
properly be regarded as such. This strange confusion was followed by an even more dramatic development, that 'pure meditation' came to be considered inaccessible in the present age (in this world). Already the Tattvartha Sutra states that knowledge of the Piirvas is a precondition for entering pure meditation. Thus, in the time between 150-350
C.E. pure meditation was condidered no longer attainable in this world. The reasons for this development seem clear. It appears to be the almost unavoidable consequence of the gradual exaltation of the Jina, and of the state of liberation preached by him. A comparable development took place in Buddhism, where already early superhuman qualities came to be ascribed to Arhants and release was postponed to a next life. It is clear that all existing practice had henceforth to be assimilated to the descriptions of 'pious meditations' This means that two historical developments - (1) the addition of 'pious meditation' under the

headmg

purpose,

totally abandoned it. Mahavlra's disciple Gotama emphasizes the Importance of control of thought ^dtyananignAa) above outward signs of penance. This tendency persisted. A number of later Jain work deal with meditation. But how did they treat the

mam

'meditation' (dhyana), and (2) the exclusion of 'pure meditation' from it left meditators with a canonical 'description of meditation' which was never meant for such a it can cause no surprise that the practice of meditation has often been neglected the subsequent history of Jainism. Yet; Jainism never

**"

***

"^ ** ^^ ^
ci

subject? Several authors,

fi

however Those -tion and simply ignorf

CD Vlrasena in his Dhavald on Satkhandagama Sutra (5.4.26) drops afflicted (,ta) and wrathful (,,, rfra) dhy& na from the canonical classification, and ret ns onTpious Warnya) and pure (MkaJ dfyana, and states that the only difference between e latte
in the

<*

--

"

Vol.

XX,

1996

REVIEWS

199

form

(amitrta).

justified.

The suspicion of influence from similar forms of Hindu meditation seem The same four kinds of meditation are mentioned and similarly described in the

Kubjikdmata Tantra (ch. 17-19), the Malinivijayottara Tantra (ch.2 and 19), Abhinavagupta's Tantraloka (10.241 ff). Nava-cakresvara Tantra (9) and Gurugitd
Cw.ll9ff.).

By adopting these forms

form of

of meditation the Jainas could interpret

dharmya

dhyana
(3)

as a
far

real 'meditation', not of 'thinking'.

from the scriptures is made by Haribhadra in his Yogadrstisamuccaya, though he does not deny that which he describes consists of eight stages, which are said to correspond with the eight stages mentioned by others, among

more

drastic departure

of Patanjali. But in the last stages nothing resembling the canonical descriptions meditation shows up. Haribhadra's break with tradition is complete in this respect.

them

(4)

Hemacandra's Yogasastm constitutes a special

case, since he describes traditional

forms

of meditation in chapters 7 to 11 wherein he follows earlier texts like the Jndnarnava.

What

makes Hemacandra special is his twelfth chapter in which something quite different form what precedes is introduced. Most noteworthy is Hemacandra's insistence on not using consraint. If one exerts no restraint on die mind it will reach peace, not otherwise. Muni
words in Jambuvijaya has found very similar ideas, often expressed in virtually identical a work entitles Amanska Yoga, attributed to Goraksa Natha, in die context of those in die
Yogasastra.
It

Jaina

tradition, besides or

into the seems, therefore that Hemacandra again introduced new practices perhaps rather instead of the traditional practices.
suffice

These few examples must

to

show

that the history of Jaina meditation

is

not

a practical interest in meditation felt free to work rather independently from the canonical descriptipn, often borrowing elements from nonthan (1) people of greater scholastic Jama schools of meditation. The reasons are

continuous. Those later authors

who had

meditational capability
canonical
texts;

development and interpretation of the minor role was played by meditation in Jaina circles. had a strong interest in its practice and who Eveiy now and men there were individuals a certain period and region, such as this might sometimes lead to some kind of 'revival' in the Terapantiiis of northern India. But these be today
had the hand
in die
(2) the relatively

we seem
among

to among witnessing individuals had to start almost from scratch, so to speak, the Jainas but perhaps more often elsewhere.

and

to

look for a teacher,

Klaus Brulm presents his study on mdna

or an
chapter

in his article entitled

The Concept

of

"mdna"

treatise since a reader should not expect in Jaina literature a (Pride) in Jaina Dogmatics', on mana, although it is contained in a list of vices (anger, pride, extensive

deciet,

was some importance

with its quasiand greed), and this list became a part and parcel of Jaina soteriology Here the individual member mathematical tendencies (theory of annihilation of karma). others. But it continued to occupy a place of little more than a negative entity among
of mdna, the in die field of ethics as well. As regards the explantion a short statement or die form of a reference to available evidence takes either the form of between a dogmatic concept and the story a story which illustrates mana, and the relation

200

NARAYAN

M.

KANSARA

SAMBODHI

may

vary a good deal. The story expressing mana in one way or another have developed easily if we consider the situation of the monk and the vivid description of monastic and
religious
life

in Jaina literature:

mana

Jama

of the Sisya or student; of the heretic, disbeliver

non
are

in general; of the

rare. Again,

priest. But stories with explicit reference to as Jaina literature incorporated an enormous amount of epical

Brahmanical

mana

and even
or even a

mythological accounts taken from Brahmanical literatue, a Ksatriya or a god is easily described as possessed by mana, and this is also
versions of these stories. Yet this

demon

refleced in the relevant Jaina

mana

is

hardly related to die

mana

Bruhn has thought it advisable to make his discussion of mana to some extent independent from the texts, and use as his starting point a list of keywords largely based on Sanskrit terms found in Jaina texts and to proceed form central terms to more peripheral terms. The list includes MANA or PRIDE MARDAVA or HUMILITY, PARAPARIVADA or BLAME, VINAYA or RESPECT for the
all this
:

winch

la clearly a

of Jaina dogmatics

deadly

sin.

In view of

DISRESPECT for the guru, State of INFERIORITY, MANA or PRIDE in positive senses, LAJJA or SHAME, KlRTI or GLORY (MANA or HONOUR), HYBRIS (Greek) and MANABHANGA or MORTIFICATION. He has discussed in detail mana in die kasava tetrad, other conceptualizations of mana, mana and gotra, mana as the great spiritual obstacle, mana and vinaya, mana and the issue of terminological fluctuations mana
or
speculations in the Mularadhana, and worldly attachment and shame.

GURUHILANA

guru'

Since the discussion necessiates a digression in the form of observations of a nonBruhn as added a prologue on the place of pride in the life of die Jama community. The non-Jainas always outnumbered the Jainas. The Jainas felt that their
philological character,

and a message (ethical tenets like anekantnvada being of special importance) They had to demonstrate by all possible means that their religion could cope with other contemporary crreds In the early phase, this was mainly done through great rituals (including solemn ceremonies accompanmg the consecration of images), through popular lectures, and through public discussions. Demonstrations of the spiritual and cultural strength of Jainism (whatever the occasion) certainly played an important part in the life of the community. There was also an astonishing extravagance in the description of the lives of the Jaina saviours, and the Jaina authors had special aptitude for the composition of impressive biographies of TTrthankaras and other saints No study dealing with religious pride and sentiment would try to collect ltB basic data from a puritan religion like Jainism. Quite different is e
spiritual substance,

religion
ike

had

had an old tradition, a rich almnsa and doctrinal principles to asert and preserve their

like

identity with great zeal, and

snof
in the section

study forms of pnde as existing in the community, most of them influenced by the special

<

COUnity

^^

^^
is

ltS

^
to

PPOSite

<

^lityfshould To

on

'Sectional Studies',

an attempt

made

improve the description given

Vol.

XX,

1996

REVIEWS
in

201

by the author

BRUHN

Se.

While suggesting a few new items which should find

:

(a) consideration in a study of Jaina ethics, he has listed, and clarified, the following monastic Cluster analysis; (b) ten sections, viz., ethics, soteriology (and karma theory),
dialectics (bhangii, niksepa, etc.), discipline, ritual, literature (general), narrative literture, of the church; (c) study of die stories as and

natural philosophy,

cosmography,

history

connction of both concepts and stories; (d) necessity of finding adequate ways for the between Svetambara and diescription of plain differences of spirit and atmosphere and (e) the selection of texts for the study of Jaina ethics. With its

Digambara;

Abbreviations,

Appendix

and

Notes,

the

article

covers

about forty-

four pages of learned presentation.

a study In his 'Words for violence in the "Seniors" of the Jaina Canon', Colette Caillat presents
of several recurring expressions or words, about violence (Jii'msa), some of which, though different shades of meaning, or to quasi-synonyms, can be shown to be used with slightly be preferred in specific contexts or phrases. He has reviewed some of these expressions,

verbs and verbal nouns, especially danda (aya-danda, the verbal and pdridivoya (pane aivaei, aivaya); as also

dandam (sam)-aranWiai, etc.) and some nominal forms from the root
himsa never have a desiderative
i.e.

HAN

and H1MS, sometimes exchanged, and that

is

hiriisai,

meaning. The present suevey

limited to die "seniors" of the Svetambara canon,

It is

to

die Ayaraiiga, Suyagada, Uttarajhaya, Dasaveyallya.

submitted

as a tribute to Deleu.

He has shown how grammar, vocabulary, style combine to impress upon the Jaina mind there is the necessity to respect and spare all life, "not to injure" (na HIMS) the living so consistendy diat little doubt that the seniors of the canon insist on "non-injury" (ahimsa)
:

from the start Jainism can be termed a doctrine of non-voilence, ahiriisa-samaya. There no denying that
ahiriisa is

is

an old concept in die Indian traditions: Hans-Peter Schmidt has has evolved, has been shown, in his "The Origin of Aliimsa", how it has originated, India. But it is no less certain that from transformed, enriched, and has become essential in which has explored it indefatigably. As was central in the Jaina
the beginning
it

system,

far as the seniors of the

(non-)
to

violence

is

canon are concerned, it is clear that the vocabulary relating to are provided, here. particularly rich. Extensive Notes

'THE MARGINAL MONK AND THE TRUE "3TRTHA" draws die attention somewhat peripheral position to which the students of Jainism have long been in South inured and they have had to endure often imperfect judgements about key topics will Asian studies as a result of exclusion of Jain evidence. Even the most stoical Jainologist
Paul Dundas, in his
the

be driven

to pretext at

a recent interpretation of world-renunciation in Soudi Asian reigions

a place for Jesuits and Capucins in its proposed which, extraordinarily, contrives to find model while omitting any reference to Jain ascetics. Burgharfs account is referred to here. both Jain and Western, have preferred to see Jainism as a unified whole, a

Many

writers,

around a gradual progress through a series of idealised path of salvation which revolves encompassing both the lay and ascedc states, while giving
spiritual stages (guriast/idnrc)

to the Svetambara-Digambra split as the one significant only passing acknowledgement since the death of Mahavlra. Dundas 'historical' event to take place within the religion

202

NARAYAN

M.

KANSARA

SAMBODHI

two ways by which Jain writers shaped a sense of identity by the Jain ascetic comunity. The first is the repeated defining as deviant other members of excoriation by both the Svetambras and die Digambaras of the pasattha/parsvanatha monk,
describes in his paper
is the attempt by the sixteenth-century polemicist Dharmasagara to confirm the existence of a true and orthodox Jainism by singling out what he saw as the

while the second

dislocation in the lineage validation of the rival

Kharatara Gaccha, and the spurious claims of authority of

Svetambara monastic grouping, the some of its most famous teachers.

The

fifth

ariga

of die Svetambara agama, die Viyahapannatti,

shows clearly
ascetic

that early the

Jainism was aware of the necessity of differentiating

between the

members on

basis of die varying nature of their levels of attainment,

when

it

(25.6) gives the following

'free'

designations applied to monks:

(niyantha} and 'pure' (sinaya).

empty The first

(piilaga),

'spotted'

(bausa), 'bad' (kuslla),

of monks, while the latter two are, respectively, the

spiritual liberation

three types represent inadequate or deviant types monk well advanced on the path to

and the enlightened

kevalin. All five of these types are

mutually

distinct

in

terms of their elimination of karma and understanding of scripture.

However, a canonical taxonomy which was, to prove still more ubiquitous over the centuries occurs at the Viyahapannatti 100.4 where a group of laymen is described as pasattha, osanna, kusKa and ahdchanda in Deleu's translation, 'inert', 'languid', 'bad' and 'self-willed',
:

respectively. This list

is significant because it was repeatedly used to apply to deviant monks by both Svetambaras and Digambaras and was thus a means by which true

asceticism, understood as being opposite of the traits exemplified

by the

list,

could be

defined across the most significant Jain sectarian boundary.

Dundas has concentrated here

on the term pasattha, almost invariably Sanskritised as parsvastha. It literally means 'standing near", 'being beside', and Jain commentators explain the 'nearness' embodied in
the

term as referring

to

regard to the monastic

of faults
is

community and

he marginal position which the parsvastha monk occupies with its spiritual and intellectual concerns. A wide range

ascribed to parsvastha monks, and

he

is

reviled

by both the Svetambara and

Digambra writers. Bollee suggested a link with pasanda 'heretic', while some scholars have wished to see a connection with the twenty-third tirthankara Parsva whose followers were
regarded by later tradition as
lax.

What

is

more

significant for

our purposes

is

the virtually

whereby he infringes nearly every important aspect of correct monastic practice as defined by the most atithoriatiative Jain sources of both sects. The description of such as wide range of defects and
inadequate
as

all-encompassing nature of the parsvastha's deviance

behaviour suggests not so

providing of the

much an
It is

interest in identifying specific

delinquency

the

means by which
if

the character of the upright (samvigna, si/vi/iita)

monk
self-

could be shaped and recognised.

identification in Jainism,

easy

to feel that, for the

purposes of ascetic
it

the parsvastha

monks had not

existed,

would not have been

necessary to invent them.

Then, Dundas has considered in detail Dharmasagara's polemic against the Kharatara Gaccha, in his Kupaksakausikaditya, 'The Sun on the Owlish Heretics' or the

Vol.

XX,

1996

REVIEWS

203

Pravacanapariksa. In his Concluding Observations, Dundas has noted that for Dharmasagara, the true tirt/ia was the lineage to which he belonged, the Tapa Gacha,

founded by Jagacandra in the thirteenth century and which, on the basis of

its

uninterrupted chain of succession, its pure exposition of the doctrine (.suddhaprarupana) and practice of austerities (duskarakriya) is described. Firstly, as the unique and only tlrtha
India (PP p.33). The two conclusions drawn are ascetic groups such as the Kharatara Gaccha and others who claimed to have introduced, single-handedly as it were, reforms into Jain practice might not have heen acknowledged by the larger community as quickly
in
:

as their chroniclers suggest, and, secondly, invocation of the

four gacchas descended from

Vajrasvamin here gives the impression of being a convenient, 'short hand' way of describing the totality of orthodox, 'mainstream' Jainism, with no acknowledgement of other gacchas
or saklias being allowed. There
is

tantalising evidence that

some

ascetics

went

still

further,

shoitdrcuiting this principle completely by the claim of direct contact with Simandhara, th'2 tirthankara currently preaching in the parallel continent of Mahavideha. By the time of the

eighteenth century, we find Acarya Bhiksu, an apostate SthanakavasI ascetic, dispensing with the notion of lineage and founding the Terapanthi sect without reference to any recent
it offers, is predecessors. Dharmasagara's PP, for all the rich data and elaborate polemic ultimately an abortive attempt to define and control Jain identity. The repeated reference

to

parsvastha

monks throughout

the centuries demonstrates the impossibility of a

community of righteous

ascetics unified

by

their blameless
it

performance of die idealised

behaviour described in the scriptures. History makes wider range of identities for Jains, both ascetic and
religious practice.

clear that there has always

been a
and

lay, involving a variety

of social and

They may possibly

turn out to be

more relevant

that the Jesuits

Capucins.

W.B. Bollee, has discussed the Story of a Frog in his article in German, entitles 'Die Geschchte voin Frosch Nayadhammakahao 1,13'. Here Mahavira is replying to the question
of his disciple

Goyama Suhamma. The

story

is

told

by Jambu,

the disciple of

Goyama.
is

Mahavira narrated the story

in the 12th Adliyayana to illusrate the purport that merit

obtained due to association with a good guru. All the stories of the previous adhyayanas ruled. is located in the city of Rajagrha wherein King Srenika are moral stories. The
story

To the north-east of the city was a caitya known by the name Gunasila. Once Mahavira a god named Dardura arrived there, and people came to offer him obeisance. At that time asked Mahavira, too came to offer his obeisance to Mahavira, and returned. Then, Goyama narrates the story Mahavira In the -of attainments reply divine go. the god did as to where which is by Bollee in 45 sections of his article. Mahavira
of the Frog,
tells

elaborately presented

that

once upon a time when he arrived

at Gunasila caitya, the

assembly and King

Srenika too

came

to offer his obsisance. to

became a sravaka. Thereafter due

lack of proper follow up

Then came the jeweller Nanda who served him and the lack of contact with Jain monks, and due to his
to the

religious by listening to the instructions pertaining of heterodix traditions discourses of vftarago, he became prone to the influences and when he was of att/wnw-b/iafcta vow the undertook he due In course, (mithyatva).

Jaina

204

NARAYAN

M.

KANSARA

SAMBO DHI

tormented by extreme hunger and thirst on the third night, he realised the importance of numerous step-wells and tanks where people bathe and get water. And, under the concurrence of the king he constructed Nanda lake, with all the facilities for free fpod and drink and medical treatments, and with adequate staff to look after all the functions of the establishment. This earned him high fame in the city. In the course of time, the
jeweller

and died, and due to his attachment with the lake he was born as a frog in the lake. he could listen to the people talking with much respect for the jeweller Nanda who had constructed lake, and remembered his previous birth as the jeweller Nanda. Now, when Mahavlra arrived there this time, he also remembered that he had accepted the vows of five anuvmtas and seven siksavratas and that when he was tormented by extreme hunger and thirst, he had constructed this lake. And he resolved to resume those vows and undertook the chatcha chattha penance. When the assembly and King Srenika started for the GunasUa caitya, the frog too came out of the lake to go to Mahavlra to offer his obeisance. On his way, he was crushed under the left leg of one of the young horses of the king. As he realised that he would not last he went to a secluded any
fell
ill

Even

as a frog,

longer,

place, folded his hands and having rotated them thrice on his own head he offered obeisance to the tinhakams and to Mahavira, and undertook the vow of the paccakhana for the rest of the life and died in due course. He was reborn as the god Darduraka in the heaven. Bollee has treated this story in great detail.

Junko Sakamoto-Goto has presented a very elaborate study of Middly-Indian Verbs in Medical Causative. (The article being in German, the summary could not be given in view of its being very detailed and full of numerous types with numerous illustrations and
examples.
Phyllis Granoff has highlighted the role of written texts in
-

medieval Jain sectarian conflicts

Going by die Book. Although books or written texts were highly regarded and at times even worshipped by all the major religious gropus, Jain, Buddhist" and Hindu, and though the copying- of texts was considered a meritorious deed, little attention has been given to the role written texts might have had outside this largely ritual context. The
various
sectarian biographies that come from the different Brahmanic and Jain group of hographies, viz., that of the Kharataragaccha, a medieval Svetambara Jain sect as recorded the He has Kliarataragnccha-brliadgurvdvali. presented the thesis in three

sections

(l) Settling the Issues

Discourse; (2) Denying the

(3)

Book + Scenes from

Written Texts in the Context of Debate and Public the Deeds of JJnandatta and Jinesvaraand

Stealth. In the 4th section, Conclusions, the author has pointed out that outside the Jain tradition some of the most interesting evidence for a positive valuation of die importance of written texts comes from the followers of Ramanuja, for instance, in the

Reading by

ntaCarya> CemUiy ^1, r Madhava and Sankaracarya too provide

Sttoad

a 17th

bi graphy of R**nuja. The schools ample evidence. These few references

as well as

m Jam

traditions,

and these conflicts might even cause us to revise

Vol.

XX,

1996

REVIEWS
excellence

205

our notions of India as the "oral" culture par learning in its very scholarly culture.

and pay more attention

to

book

Padinanabh

Jaini, in his "Fear of

the Vedic tradition

Cyn/ria)

Food ? Jaina Attitudes on Eating", while distinguishing from the heterodox systems contrasts the former as oriented to sacrifice

from the

latter as

initially offered to

adhering to the path of asceticism (fapas); the one consumes food the Deity and hence sanctified by its acceptance, while the other descries
fruitless, prohibits the eating of die so-called prasada, and ridicules the as futile, thus rejecting any notion of sacredness attached to food. The

oblation to gods as
offerings to

manes

mode of spiritual activity of the of the sramana is tapas, which primarily consists of 'heating' oneself, i.e. drying or thinning by reducing the intake of food and water. Tapas is thus a form of self-sacrifice calculated to bring about magical powers (rdd/ii) as well as achieve the spiritual goal of moksa. The Buddhist texts, too, make similar claims on behalf
preferred

Gautama who is said to have fasted for long periods of time during the six years of his strenuous search for Enlightenment. The Jainas are thus distinguished from the
of Siddhartha

Brahmanical tradition by their rejection of the sacredness of food, of sacrificial meat, as also of ghee and, by extension, rejection of the cow as a sacred animal. They are distinguished from the Buddhists by their emphatic adherence to the practice of fasting as a primary component of their spiritual path. This invites an examination of the attitude of the Jainas
to food

and the reasons

for their belief in the efficacy of fasting as a

means of

attaining

moksa. Probably the Jaina doctrine of the material (paudgalika) nature of karma capable
of producing impure transformation (vibhava-parinama) of the soul (jlva) is at the root of this belief, and Sarhsam would thus appear to be coterminous for a Jaina; there never was
a time

when

he has not eaten in

this biginningless cycle of birth

and death. The path of

all its

moksa, therefore consists in overcoming the desire liberation is freedom from hunger for ever.

for food

in

forms, for true

Colon Mayrhofer attempts to place Karakanditcariu (KG) of Kanakamara in the context of other treatments of the same theme and to relate the narrative structure to its intention.

The

differences between the Mcaka version, the Dsvsndm-Akhyanakamanikosa (AMK) can be summarized as version, and the KC-Brhatkathakosa (BVK)-Kahdkosu (KK) groups

in the

combined with pathos. Now, uniquely bodhi, bodhi plus anagnorisis, bodhi and anagnorisis KG we find a further elaboration in the direction of pathos, the pathos of sexual love
in separation.

The KG interweaves the

stoiy

from the Brhatkatha

story.

tradition involving his

to

wife MadanavalT with the two stages of the main

Kanakamara has chosen

work

the conquest of wives the conquest of Dravida country into the pattern of the cakravartin, omniscient narrator and territary. In the final sandhi of the KG, the sage Stiagupta is the has the scrab on his he K. of like an anterior of why narration who explains through the and etc. This can be considered the climax of his

hand from which he

takes

name,

Kanakamara's poem, both

K.R.

in the religious

and

its literary

aspects.

and Translation with a has contributed 'Uttarajjhayana-sutta I an Edition has considerec Metrical Analysis and Notes'. In this paper he

Norman

206

NARAYAN

M.

KANSARA

SAMBODHI

it

does not present the same metrical problems as the fourth and eighth ajjaayanas, nevertheless since it deals with discipline it is of great interest. Nearly seventy years have passed since Charpentier made his edition, and in that time much work has been done in

and Middle Indo-Aryan studies. As a result of that, solutions can be suggested for some (but unfortunately not all) of the problems which he discussed in his notes. No MSS were directly available to Norman for the production of a critical edition,
the field of Jaina

but he has

mad

of Jacobi's edition and the

readings of the

MSS used by Charpentier, as quoted MSS noted by Pt. Amritlal Mohanlal Bhojak.
of Bhagavatisutra
:

use of the printed editions listed by him, and he has noted the readings in his edition, and the

Suzuko Ohira presents an abstract of a 'Study The Viydhapannatti, the

fifth

Chronological Analysis.'

Aiiga of the Jaina canon popularly known by its epithet 'Bhagavati, is fundamentally concerned with the general theoretical problems of jlva-ajlva in the loka that are the essential themes treated in the Pannatti-texts. Inspite of the external
ajlva as

appearance of pellmell, it retains its vital consistency in dealing with the doctrines of jlvaa whole. The chronological layers of the Bhagavati passages are hopelessly entagled, and many expository passages of the earlier concepts must have been filtered out

and
in

lost in the

course of time. Even

its

commentator Abhayadeva frequently has

lost

difficulty

understanding the earlier passages of which the meaning had been

its

by

his time. Dr.

Del deals with

Study of the Bhagavatisutra A Chronological Analysis' an attempt undertaken over a decade ago under the guidance of Pt. D. D. Malavania. In
satisfaction in 'A
-

Canonical its "Introduction, "Table of Contents, "Chapter A Chronological Survey of die Canonical Texts" and "Calamane calie", an article Stages belonging to Chapter III, enough to introduce the said work.
die present abstract included are
I

Gustav Roth, in his 'Gosala Mahkhaliputta's Birth in a Cow-stall Including Notes on a Parallel in the Gospel of Luke 2", seems to vindicate Deleu's observation "that originally XV had been
a complete and separate text by itself, named Teyanisagga, before it became part of the Viyahapannatti (Bhagaval) under the name Gosalayasaya" in his study of the said work, with reference to A. Weber's remarks. Roth finds that this important observation is
,

not subdivided into uddesa chapters like Saya I-XIV, XVI-XX, XXIV-XXVI, XXVIII-XXXII, XXXIV-XXXVI, XLI, or into vagga sections like Saya XXIXXIII. This actual state of facts shows that Saya XV, known as Gosalaya-saya occupies a
is

underlined by the fact that Saya

XV

special position in die Viy. as a whole. At the beginning of his account of Saya XV, Deleu informs us about the literature relevant to the subject and comments (215) on Gosala's birth as follows "G. was bom in the cow-shed (gosala) of the Brahman Gobahula at Saravana
:

near SavatthT. His parents, the mankha Mankliali and his wife Bhadda, therefore called him Gosala. "Roth has given the Jaina Prakrit text of this passage (in transliteration), English
translation of it, and added his commentary in which he has discussed a few points regarding the contents of these chapters which introduce the Gosala-saya section of the Viy. Then he has referred to the discussion by A.L.Basham to which he adds a few notes. Buddhaghosa

(5th cent. A.D.) also refers to Gosala's birth in a cow-stall in the Pali

3-31 (PTS ed.,

London 1886) with

reference to the

commentary Sv I, 143Samannaphala Sutta in the Divydvadana.

Vol.

XX, 1996
feels that

REVIEWS
if

207

Roth

anything is authentic in the Gosala chapter, the last cryptic words speak for themselves, where he teases his lay-follower, speaking about the form of a halld, his host, and crying to play die lute. This comes out of a mind of a man who finds himself

mad with the intoxications of life. To be born in a cow-stall was apparently uncommon in ancient India, and it is likely that die account originated during the 5th or the 6th centuries B.C., and was transmitted in the Gosala-chapter of the Viy. in the Jaina Canon. Basham called our attention to a parallel version in die New Testament, and felt
exhausted and
not
it

to

both refer to Gosala's

be historically almost valueless. Buddhist and Jaina sources, independent of each other, birth in a cow-stall The Christian sources in the other hand do not

show any such uniformity in their respective accounts of Jesus Christ's birth. Garbe and other saw in the account of Luke a parallel connection with the Buddhist legends referring to the
appearance of the seer Asita. Asita realising his impending deadi after his sight of die Buddha-to-be child, and therefore, shed tears in distress because he could not take part in the career of the Spiritual Awakened one. This specific feature of the Asita legend shows
that
it

is

the core of a

common,

ancient,

and most popular

tradition, of the third century

B.C. Since then close relations were maintained between the

Magadha kingdom and

the

Greek

principalities of the Asia

Minor with Antiocheia

as the centre

of the Seleucid Empire,

and beyond that. The people of Antiocheia, the present day Antakya, has been famous for its fig, olive, and orange plantations. This important account of Luke's Acts, composed in about A.D. 80-90 A.D., shows that it was in the cosmopolitian metropolis of Antiocheia in

which a development started which led to the growth of Christianity into a World Religion as a separate branch of a common Jewish tradition. Scholars in the field of studies of the New Testament have come to the conclusion that early Christian traditions were not concerned about Jesus Christ's birth and childhood. The New Testament passages about
legendary temptation

Mara; the most

comparisons with the accounts of Buddha's temptations by have been frequently treated by scholars like Windisch an< Garbe. This speaks in favour of a high degree of likelihood that Luke had absorbed a good number of Indian tales from the floating mass of legendary motifs hailing from India, and which he modified according to the standards and needs serving die cause of the message
invite
striking parallels

of Christ,

among them

the account of his nativity.

Frank Van Den Bossche, presents an investigation into the nature of 'Jain Relatvism, an distinction should be made, as K.K. Dixit Attempt at Understanding' and feels that a clear a has done, between canonical and post-canonical relativism. Both are distinct through The post-canonical writers dogmatic-doctrinal and logical-rational approach, respectively. and basis it a rational to order in Canon the of give took up the classificatory relativism The picture above all to turn it into a coherent metaphysical and epistemological system.
he relativistic has already been drawn by B.K. Matilal. However of die problem of negation as it did not place Jain Relativism explicitly in the perspective tries to show uiat the Jain view Bossche tradition. Indian the in was discussed philosophical as a part on negation resulted in the acceptance of the factual existence of Non-existence core of Anekdnta-vada and that of the make-up of a real, that this assuption represents the of what can be labelled as

208

NARAYAN

M.

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SAMBODHI

apply supra-universals to different attributes. Accordingly, an object has innumerable properties which are not contradictory. On the level of concrete about the world of knowledge sensuous objects and its expressions this view entails three possibilities
:

Formula (Sapta-bhangi-viida). By way of conclusions he has drawn an overall picture of as follows Anakantavada says that an object is characterized by Existence and Non-existence. This entails no contradiction, since both as

Naya-vada, and Sapta-Wiarigf-naya vada are but epistemological corrolaries of Anekantavada. He has discussed (1) Anekanta-vada as propounded in the Anekdnta-jaya-patdkd (2) the theory of the nayas in the Syadavdda-manjan, and (3) the theory of the Sevenfold
:

Jam Relativism

(1) a proposition of incorrect if

Existence or Non-existence are asserted in an absolute

excluding the alternative;

(2) a proposition
is

way

partly correct

if

reasons, so as not to exclude the alternative;

Existence or Non-existence are asserted out of practical

(3} a proposition is totaly correct if Existence or Non-existence are asserted in a conditional

way, implicitly pointing to the alternative.

As

the term 'Syadvdda', he thinks that it applies to the whole of Jain relativistic thought the term 'syrf being central to the Jain conception of the true
to

Sapta-bhangi-vada do really represent two stages in single movement of thought, generated out of Anekanta-vada. How these doctrines did evolve in the Jain Canon is another matter and should be the object of further studies.

knowledge. Naya-vdda and

-BhavanF, 3rd of the Ayaranga-sutta II, Kinji Watanabe contributes to the study of the formation of the Jaina Scriptures, taking the third Cula supplement) of the second book of Ayaran^utta, as an example. In conclusion he states diat though we know the phenomenon that has occurred often enough in the history of the Jams canon, viz., that an older text of the same name had existed before, but which became lost and a new text was substituted later in its place, and was passed off under the older one s name, our case of Bhavana is not such one. In fact most of the prose paragraphs xcur with but small alternation in the Kalpa Sutra, says H. Jacoby doubted the Miginal character of the Mahavlra-biography in it. But, says Watanabe, among the interin luotations Angas, the Mahavlra biography (no title) in the extent KalpaJL is more

In his (Notes on the

cm

vL

SUCh

fra

BMva 'V- As

^sted

by Klaus Bruhn, we are in

Wezler examines the contents of the Dvyovadonacapeta Vedankusa - "A Slap on the ace of the Brahmins", 'Introducing a Little-known Jain Text of Polemical elective,' The o fall s in two parts, the first consisting or 849 (numbered) verses introduced by se am pearly v,na The verses which he has compiled and uoted in the ^habharatad.su/itihasasamuccaye. first part of this work deal with dhrma, i.e. 'normative rules of conduct or ightftd conduct' itself. The texts ehich are not subsumed under ,naM b mtadi coilt o tl"
Jlbrecht

Vol.

XX,

1996

REVIEWS
Rgveda,
Taittirlya

209

40

titles like Aiigirasasmrti,

Aranyaka, Dharmasastra, Bhagavata,

quite
texts.

Vivekavilasa, and others.

unspecific; they are rather

Some of these tides, e.g., Ayurveda or Dharmasastra, are names of traditional branches of learning than of individual
to

Each and every quotation has

Vedaiikusa

source, taking note of the context and possible variant readings, as a necessary critical examination. The second part of the is not only clearly demarcated from the first by the latter's concluding statement, but also by its distinctly different character, since it is now die audior himself who speaks on

be traced back

to its

own behalf, and what he wishes to express he states almost right at the beginning. He is not content simply to prove in this manner that none of the nine factors, viz., sarira, jati, jlva,
his

and sarhskara, can be regarded as constituting brahmanhood, but continues his argument by expressing his own opinion. At die very end of the work it becomes entirely clear that the 'slap on the face' (varfana-cnpetd) is not, of course,
kula, yoni, jnana, saucacara, tapas
to be taken literally, but also that the title Vedankusa itself is not only metaphorical, but "a goad in the form of Veclic utterances". And to be sure, like the real goad, this special one (in the hands of a Jain or a Jain monk) is also considered as being used only to urge on the elephant-like Brahmins so that they avoid the wrong path (fcupat/ia, etc.), return to the right one (sanmarga, etc.) and thus in their turn also reach the final goal (but, of course, alone, i.e.

without their 'mahout'). Practically no work has been done so far on die special subject of the criticism directed by Jain authors against .the Brahmins, or Vedicism in general. What we
have, in contradistinction, is von Glasenap's short, though informtive article on der Bucldhisten and Brahmanen gegen die Jainas". What is pointed out by this
scholar
priests,
is

'Die
late

Polemik

German

true: (that the Jains (as well as the Buddhists) opposed the brahmanical did not accept their claim of superiority, or rather denied it strictly; (2) that they considered Hinduism to be a kind of degenerated Jainism and Hindus to have deserted from

no doubt

the true faith; (3) that they, although they themselves strictly adhered to the caste system (and che varna system), had their own myth about the creation of the varrias' including that of the (true) Brahmins; and (4) that they described in this connection what true Brahmins ar-2 to them. It is clear why it was first of all the Brahmins who became the target of Jain criticism

morally wicked,

and polemics. The antipathy which did not fall short of denouncing the other group as etc., was of course a mutual one; but it would be stupid to even ask die arise as an question when it began and by which side it was started, for it was bound to

inevitable confrontation. In
historical fact

any

case, this continuous,

and

still

continuing, process

is

which

article will fully deserves the attention of scholars. This

is

convince the

reader that the Vedaiikusa

rich and vast Jain literature to the understanding and knowledge of

not the least valuable and interesting work of the extraordinarily which Professor Deleu

has contributed so much. N.M.K.

RESTORATION OF THE ORIGINAL LANGUAGE OF ARDHAMAGADrll TEXTS BY K.R. CHANDRA. Prakrit Jain Vidya Vikasa Fund, Alimedabad, 1994, pp. XXIV + 104. Rs. 80-.
This work
of the Original is a follow-up of the author's previous work, entitled 'In Search same subject. Here is attempted a study ArdhamagaliT, relating to some other aspects of this of variant readings of a few words from the Acarariga, Part I, which is regarded as the oldest

210

NARAYAN M. KANSARA

SAMBODHI

Jains. In the Section I, portion of the Ardhamagadhl canonical works of the Svetambara variant readings from the palm-leaf and paper Mss. are noted sutra-wise in a number of tables with similar old word-forms from the published four other older under different titles

along

Ardhamagadhi

texts to

have the idea of

how

far the older

word-forms could be traced. The

amply proves that with the passage of time and due to the word-forms migration of the Jains from the East to the West, the original Ardhamagadhi were replaced by later younger (Maharastrl) word-forms, may be due to uncarefulness or time. But this of the readers the to with the purpose of making the language intelligible character of the language of liberty became detrimental to the preservation of the original Lord Manama and his Gandhras who had preached in the East India centuries before the
analytical study of these tables

Christian Era started. Additionally, in Section

II,

there are variants of

Vrittis

some words from older

Ardhamagadhi

which strengthen the above conclusion. This study clearly demonstrates that although older word-forms are found scattered in the Mss. and in various editions of the Ardhamagadhi texts, is it not advisable at this stage, now, to replace the currently accepted word-forms by the older word-forms,
texts, their Prakrit Curnis

and Sanskrit

in the
it

available Mss. of the

new editions to be published herefter? Although this study is not complete in itself, older word-forms from all the being only a beginning, we need a further scanning of Ardhamagadhi canonical works in order to help the editors in restroing
that the Jain acaryas

the original character of the

hoped
This

Ardhamagadhi language of Mahavlra and and eminent scholars would move forward
of the Ardhamagadhi works.

his

Gandharas.

It

is

in this direction for

bringing out a
is

critical edition

a true piece of research

work and Dr. Chandra

is

to

treatise

which shows

his brilliant scholarship

and meticulous

be congratulatied for this care. In making a general

estimate of the author's achievement as a editor one feels the difficulty of avoiding which are amply justified in this particular case. He has thouroughly
superlatives,

ransacked the different readings of the text and has tried his best to find out the original older readings. To find out the original oldest readings of the cannonical texts of die

Svetambara Jain canon

scientific

is

a herculean task and requires a painstaking and penetrating

outlook with a good background of linguistic insight. It is true indeed that one must take into account the Inscriptional Prakrits and Pali in this respect, but they should
not be taken as the only guiding factors for die older specimens of Ardhamagadhi, since sometime this latter language shows greater affinity with old Persian than with classical
Sanskrit.

However,

Dr.

Chandra has shown

the

way

for the future scholaas to carry out the

research

work

for a missing link. N.M.K.

THE SAMKHYA-YOGA AND THE JAIN THEORIES PARINAMA

Jhaveri. Gujarat University,

by the Late Indukalaben H.

Ahmedabad, 1990,

pp. IX

-f

192. Rs.30/-.

This work

is

a doctoral dissertation of the author prepared

under the guidance of Professor

ago.

R.C. Parikli and approved

unpublished so long, but

by the Gujarat University a few decades it was taken up for publication by

The

thesis

was

lying

the university with the

cooperation of the Charitable Trust registered in

memory

of the late Dr. Indukalaben

Vol.

XX,

1996

REVIEWS

211

Jhaveri

by her friends and well-wishers.

As has been stated by the author, few scholars have utilized the Sarhkhya-yoga sources and the ideas contained in them to formulate a systematic Samkhya-Yoa theory of Parindma,

and the Jain sources to formulate the Jain theory of Parinama, and the Jain sources to die formulate the Jain theory of Parinama. Although the problem of relation between and Samkhya-Yoga and the Jain systems has been touched by scholrs like Grabe, Jacobi, their and bearing on others, no one has attempted a comparative study of these systems the theory of Parinama.

The Thesis has been divided in ten chapters (!) Seeds of Parinama in the earliest Sanskrit 200 B.C.); (2) Samkhya Ideas in pre-Isvarakrsna literature; (3) literature (250 B.C. and its commentaries; (4) Development of Parinama in Parinama in the
:

Sarhkhya-Karika

the Yoga-sutras

commentaries; (5)

their important commentaries, as also in the Samkhya-sutras and their Other topics relted to Parinama; (6) Jain sources; (7) Parinamavada in Parinama in the the Aganias; (8) Parinama in the works of Umasvati and Kundakunda; (9) an appendix Tarka period; and (Samkhya- Yoga and Jain a comparison. There is further 72 Sanskrit and Prakrit works, 45 the followed

and

on 'Agunilaghy',
works

by

Bibliography listing

in English,

and 11 Research Journals.

:

are (1) a new study of the emergence points worked out in the thesis has been drawn, for the of the idea of Parinama in the early Veclic literature; (2) attention as given by Yaska; (3) new Parindma or first time, to the precise definition of Viparmdma of Parindma thrown on the problems of Tattvdntara-Parindtna, the process light: has been (4) the problem safisrsia-viveka and vi&savisesa- which occur in the Samkhya-Yoga works; the from passages is Parinama and Agama of the "relation between' Pajjava or Paryaya a critical study of the Jain technical terms discussed for the first time in this manner; (5) of Pftryoyahas been attempted here for the first time; (6) further applications

Some of the new

aguwtog/iy'

Parinama and Parispando, PrayogaDrayya-paryaya and Gwm-paryaya, as found in the later Parinama and Visrasa-Parinama, Artha-paryaya and Vyan;ana-paryaya, examined for the first time in a way done by the Jain' dialectical works have been critically
Parindma', viz.,
author- and (7) a

new approach has been

tried in the

Pre-Isvarakrsna study of the nature of

and Jain. In this way, by putting the historical relation between Samkhya views of India's ancient thinkers of the two forward in this thesis, a critical study of the has attempted to contribute to the schools on Parinama, the author

Samkhya and
important

'Permanence and Change, a concept of gret understanding of the concept of modern knowledge as a scientific principle. IV.M.K the history of philosophy as well as

^ance"!
(Gujarat!)

JAINA-DARSANA AND SAMKHAYA-YOGA-MAM JNANA-DARSANA-VICARANA

Granthamala, Ahmedabad, 1994, by Jagrti Dillpa Setha. Sahskrta-Samskrti
Rs.lSO/-.
pp.

16

200.

to the Gujarat dissertation submitted by the author This stttdy incorporates the doctoral of Pandit Malavamya, the Ph.D. degree under the guidance University, Ahniedaad for a comparative of Indology, Ahmedabad. It presents Retired D rector of the L.D. Institute

21 2

NARAYAN M. KANSARA

SAMBODH

study of the concepts of Jnana and Darsana as developed in the systems of India: philosophy, particulrly, Jainism, Buddhism and Samkhya-Yoga. Byway of historical survej the concepts are also examined in the of what has been recorded in the Upanisads light GIta and the Nyaya-Vaisesika system also. Original works have been taken as the source material and a perspective of integral harmony has been followed in the interpretation o these original works, while evaluating the concepts, with proper and well-guided logica enquiry. The author has also tried to remove the or conflict in the views of the opposition Founders of the systems. The conclusions drawn are non-partisan and logically harmonious. The work is divided into five chapters (1) Jnana and
:

Darsana

in the

Upanisads and

the

Bhagavadgita; (2) the nature of one who possesses Jflana and Darsana in Jaiaism -uis Samkhya-Yoga; (3) Jnana and Darsana (=bod/ia) in Jainism and Samkhya-Yoga- (4) Darsana as sraddhana in Jainism and Samkhya-Yoga; and (5) Jnana, Darsana 'and Sniddha m the Buddhist religion and philosophy as also in the Nyaya-Vaisesika system.

conclusions drawn by the author are as follows Samkhya-Yoga holds Jnana as a dharn* of acetana cictatactva.
as the essential nature of the cetanatattva. In

Some

of the

by Jaiiusm

53L-

2=

manah-paryaya-dars'ana, since they take dariana to be sva-Lnv^,!", The Upanisads have used the term 'darsana' in the sense of / rarfd/lfl -. similar is the r" ,s-c>

accepted a

=; r^ s h^t^^
is

(]J It is into proper ,hat It should have been taken view of this the refutation of Samkhva Y,, noteworthy; (2) The object of Jnana in the Samkhya-Yoga are the
:

LT-

r:;~.

- id
oxtonnl
wirl,

of
a,

and the former

is

interested scholars ,o

'
tl

work
Indian

'

is

ant KXt

ciudoubredly

be

**" '"*""' f *= or *"

f

'

e lablc
'

"

StUdentS

philosophy.

"'P^

*
u
f |i

^ M
'

h"

iu