Cosmology From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia For other uses, see Cosmology (disambiguation).

This article possibly contains original research. Please improve it by verifying the claims made and adding inline citations. tatements consisting only of original research may be removed. (!ctober "##$) The %ubble e&treme 'eep Field (&'F) (as completed in eptember "#)" and sho(s the farthest gala*ies ever photographed by humans. +*cept for the fe( stars in the foreground ((hich are bright and easily recogni,able because only they have diffraction spikes), every speck of light in the photo is an individual gala*y, some of them as old as )-." billion years. the observable universe is estimated to contain more than "## billion gala*ies. Cosmology (from the /reek 012345, kosmos 6(orld6 and 7849:;, 7logia 6study of6), is the study of the origin, evolution, and eventual fate of the universe. Physical cosmology is the scholarly and scientific study of the origin, evolution, large7scale structures and dynamics, and ultimate fate of the universe, as (ell as the scientific la(s that govern these realities.<)= >eligious cosmology (or mythological cosmology) is a body of beliefs based on the historical, mythological, religious, and esoteric literature and traditions of creation and eschatology. Physical cosmology is studied by scientists, such as astronomers, and theoretical physicists. and academic philosophers, such as metaphysicians, philosophers of physics, and philosophers of space and time. ?odern cosmology is dominated by the @ig @ang theory, (hich attempts to bring together observational astronomy and particle physics.<"= Although the (ord cosmology is recent (first used in )B-# in Christian WolffCs Cosmologia /eneralis), the study of the universe has a long history involving science, philosophy, esotericism and religion. >elated studies include cosmogony, (hich focuses on the origin of the Dniverse, and cosmography, (hich maps the features of the Dniverse. Cosmology is also connected to astronomy, but (hile the former is concerned (ith the Dniverse as a (hole, the latter deals (ith individual celestial obEects. Contents ) 'isciplines " %istorical cosmologies - Physical cosmology F >eligious and mythological cosmology G ee also H Iotes B >eferences $ +*ternal links 'isciplines

Physics and astrophysics have played a central role in shaping the understanding of the universe through scientific observation and e*periment. What is kno(n as physical cosmology has been shaped through both mathematics and observation the analysis of the (hole universe. The universe is generally understood to have begun (ith the @ig @ang, follo(ed almost instantaneously by cosmic inflation. an e*pansion of space from (hich the universe is thought to have emerged )-.BJ$ K #.#-B billion years ago.<-= ?etaphysical cosmology has also been described as the placing of man in the universe in relationship to all other entities. This is e*emplified by the observation made by ?arcus Aurelius of a manCs place in that relationshipL 6%e (ho does not kno( (hat the (orld is does not kno( (here he is, and he (ho does not kno( for (hat purpose the (orld e*ists, does not kno( (ho he is, nor (hat the (orld is.6<F= %istorical cosmologies Further informationL Timeline of cosmology Iame Author and date Classification >emarks %indu cosmology %indu >igveda ("### @C) Cyclical or oscillating, Mnfinite in time !ne cycle of e*istence is around -)) trillion years and the life of one universe around $ billion years. This Dniversal cycle is preceded by an infinite number of universes and to be follo(ed by another infinite number of universes. Mncludes an infinite number of universes at one given time. Nain cosmology Nain Agamas ((ritten around G## A' as per the teachings of ?ahavira GJJ7G"B @C) Cyclical or oscillating, eternal and finite Nain cosmology considers the loka, or universe, as an uncreated entity, e*isting since infinity, the shape of the universe as similar to a man standing (ith legs apart and arm resting on his (aist. This Dniverse, according to Nainism, is broad at the top, narro( at the middle and once again becomes broad at the bottom. @abylonian cosmology @abylonian literature (c. -### @C) Flat earth floating in infinite 6(aters of chaos6 The +arth and the %eavens form a unit (ithin infinite 6(aters of chaos6. the earth is flat and circular, and a solid dome (the 6firmament6) keeps out the outer 6chaos67ocean. +leatic cosmology Parmenides (c.G)G @C) Finite and spherical in e*tent The Dniverse is unchanging, uniform, perfect, necessary, timeless, and neither generated nor perishable. Ooid is impossible. Plurality and change are products of epistemic ignorance derived from sense e*perience. Temporal and spatial limits are arbitrary and relative to the Parmenidean (hole. @iblical cosmology /enesis creation narrative (c.G## @C) Flat earth floating in infinite 6(aters of chaos6 @ased on @abylonian cosmology. The +arth and the %eavens form a unit (ithin infinite 6(aters of chaos6. the earth is flat and circular, and a solid dome (the 6firmament6) keeps out the outer 6chaos67ocean. Atomist universe Ana*agoras (G##PF"$ @C) Q later +picurus Mnfinite in e*tent The universe contains only t(o thingsL an infinite number of tiny seeds, or atoms, and the void of infinite e*tent. All atoms are made of the same substance, but differ in si,e and shape. !bEects are formed from atom aggregations and decay back into atoms. Mncorporates ReucippusC principle of causalityL 6nothing happens at random. everything

happens out of reason and necessity.6 The universe (as not ruled by gods.<citation needed= Pythagorean universe Philolaus (d. -J# @C) +*istence of a 6Central Fire6 at the center of the Dniverse. At the center of the Dniverse is a central fire, around (hich the +arth, un, ?oon and planets revolve uniformly. The un revolves around the central fire once a year, the stars are immobile. The earth in its motion maintains the same hidden face to(ards the central fire, hence it is never seen. This is the first kno(n non7geocentric model of the Dniverse.<G= toic universe toics (-## @C P "## A') Msland universe The cosmos is finite and surrounded by an infinite void. Mt is in a state of flu*, as it pulsates in si,e and periodically passes through upheavals and conflagrations. Aristotelian universe Aristotle (-$FP-"" @C) /eocentric, static, steady state, finite e*tent, infinite time pherical earth is surrounded by concentric celestial spheres. Dniverse e*ists unchanged throughout eternity. Contains a fifth element, called aether (later kno(n as Suintessence), added to the four Classical elements. Aristarchean universe Aristarchus (circa "$# @C) %eliocentric +arth rotates daily on its a*is and revolves annually about the sun in a circular orbit. phere of fi*ed stars is centered about the sun. Ptolemaic model (based on Aristotelian universe) Ptolemy ("nd century A') /eocentric Dniverse orbits about a stationary +arth. Planets move in circular epicycles, each having a center that moved in a larger circular orbit (called an eccentric or a deferent) around a center7point near the +arth. The use of eSuants added another level of comple*ity and allo(ed astronomers to predict the positions of the planets. The most successful universe model of all time, using the criterion of longevity. Almagest (the /reat ystem). Aryabhatan model Aryabhata (FJJ) /eocentric or %eliocentric The +arth rotates and the planets move in elliptical orbits, possibly around either the +arth or the un. Mt is uncertain (hether the model is geocentric or heliocentric due to planetary orbits given (ith respect to both the +arth and the un. ?edieval universe ?edieval philosophers (G##P)"##) Finite in time A universe that is finite in time and has a beginning is proposed by the Christian philosopher Nohn Philoponus, (ho argues against the ancient /reek notion of an infinite past. Rogical arguments supporting a finite universe are developed by the early ?uslim philosopher Alkindus, the Ne(ish philosopher aadia /aon and the ?uslim theologian Alga,el. ?ultiversal cosmology Fakhr al7'in al7>a,i ())FJP)"#J) ?ultiverse, multiple (orlds Q universes There e*ists an infinite outer space beyond the kno(n (orld, and /od has the po(er to fill the vacuum (ith an infinite number of universes. ?aragha models ?aragha school ()"GJP)G"$) /eocentric Oarious modifications to Ptolemaic model and Aristotelian universe, including reEection of eSuant and eccentrics at ?aragheh observatory, and introduction of Tusi7couple by Al7Tusi. Alternative models later proposed, including the first accurate lunar model by Mbn al7 hatir, a model reEecting stationary +arth in favour of +arthCs rotation by Ali TuUVu, and planetary model incorporating 6circular inertia6 by Al7@irEandi. Iilakanthan model Iilakantha omayaEi ()FFFP)GFF) /eocentric and %eliocentric A universe in (hich the planets orbit the un and the un orbits the +arth, similar to the later Tychonic system.

Copernican universe Iicolaus Copernicus ()FB-P)GF-) %eliocentric (ith circular planetary orbits First clearly described heliocentric model, in 'e revolutionibus orbium coelestium. Tychonic system Tycho @rahe ()GFHP)H#)) /eocentric and %eliocentric A universe in (hich the planets orbit the un and the un orbits the +arth, similar to the earlier Iilakanthan model. @runoCs cosmology /iordano @runo ()GF$7)H##) Mnfinite e*tent, infinite time, homogeneous, isotropic, non7hierarchical >eEects the idea of a hierarchical universe. +arth and un have no special properties in comparison (ith the other heavenly bodies. The void bet(een the stars is filled (ith aether, and matter is composed of the same four elements ((ater, earth, fire, and air) every(here, and is atomistic, animistic and intelligent. Teplerian Nohannes Tepler ()GB)P)H-#) %eliocentric (ith elliptical planetary orbits TeplerCs discoveries, marrying mathematics and physics, provided the foundation for our present conception of the olar system, but distant stars (ere still seen as obEects in a thin, fi*ed celestial sphere. tatic Ie(tonian ir Msaac Ie(ton ()HF"P)B"B) tatic (evolving), steady state, infinite +very particle in the universe attracts every other particle. ?atter on the large scale is uniformly distributed. /ravitationally balanced but unstable. Cartesian Oorte* universe >enW 'escartes )Bth century tatic (evolving), steady state, infinite A system of huge s(irling (hirlpools of aethereal or fine matter produces (hat (e (ould call gravitational effects. %is vacuum (as not empty. All space (as filled (ith matter that s(irled around in large and small vortices. %ierarchical universe Mmmanuel Tant, Nohann Rambert )$th century tatic (evolving), steady state, infinite ?atter is clustered on ever larger scales of hierarchy. ?atter is endlessly being recycled. +instein Dniverse (ith a cosmological constant Albert +instein )J)B tatic (nominally). @ounded (finite) 6?atter (ithout motion.6 Contains uniformly distributed matter. Dniformly curved spherical space. based on >iemannCs hypersphere. Curvature is set eSual to X. Mn effect X is eSuivalent to a repulsive force (hich counteracts gravity. Dnstable. 'e itter universe Willem de itter )J)B +*panding flat space. teady state. X Y # 6?otion (ithout matter.6 !nly apparently static. @ased on +insteinCs /eneral >elativity. pace e*pands (ith constant acceleration. cale factor (radius of universe) increases e*ponentially, i.e. constant inflation. ?ac?illan universe William 'uncan ?ac?illan )J"#s tatic Q steady state Ie( matter is created from radiation. tarlight is perpetually recycled into ne( matter particles.

Friedmann universe of spherical space e*panding space.

Ale*ander Friedmann )J""

pherical

kZ [) . no X Positive curvature. Curvature constant k Z [) +*pands then recollapses. patially closed (finite). Friedmann universe of hyperbolic space Ale*ander Friedmann )J"F e*panding space. %yperbolic

kZ 7) . no X Iegative curvature. aid to be infinite (but ambiguous). Dnbounded. +*pands forever. 'irac large numbers hypothesis Paul 'irac )J-#s +*panding 'emands a large variation in /, (hich decreases (ith time. /ravity (eakens as universe evolves. Friedmann ,ero7curvature, a.k.a. the +instein7'e itter universe +instein Q 'e itter )J-" +*panding flat space. kZ # . X Z # Critical density Curvature constant k Z #. aid to be infinite (but ambiguous). CDnbounded cosmos of limited e*tent.C +*pands forever. C implestC of all kno(n universes. Iamed after but not considered by Friedmann. %as a deceleration term S Z\ (hich means that its e*pansion rate slo(s do(n. The original @ig @ang. a.k.a. Friedmann7Rema]tre ?odel /eorges Rema]tre )J"BP"J +*pansion X Y # X Y ^/ravity^ X is positive and has a magnitude greater than /ravity. Dniverse has initial high density state (Cprimeval atomC). Follo(ed by a t(o stage e*pansion. X is used to destabili,e the universe. (Rema]tre is considered to be the father of the big bang model.) !scillating universe (a.k.a. Friedmann7+instein. (as latterCs )st choice after reEecting his o(n )J)B model) Favored by Friedmann )J"#s +*panding and contracting in cycles Time is endless and beginningless. thus avoids the beginning7of7time parado*. Perpetual cycles of big bang follo(ed by big crunch. +ddington Arthur +ddington )J-# First tatic then +*pands tatic +instein )J)B universe (ith its instability disturbed into e*pansion mode. (ith relentless matter dilution becomes a 'e itter universe. X dominates gravity. ?ilne universe of kinematic relativity +d(ard ?ilne, )J--, )J-G.

William %. ?cCrea, )J-#s Tinematic e*pansion (ith I! space e*pansion >eEects general relativity and the e*panding space paradigm. /ravity not included as initial assumption. !beys cosmological principle Q rules of special relativity. The ?ilne e*panding universe consists of a finite spherical cloud of particles (or gala*ies) that e*pands WMT%MI flat space (hich is infinite and other(ise empty. Mt has a center and a cosmic edge (the surface of the particle cloud) (hich e*pands at light speed. %is e*planation of gravity (as elaborate and unconvincing. For instance, his universe has an infinite number of particles, hence infinite mass, (ithin a finite cosmic volume. FriedmannPRema]treP>obertsonPWalker class of models %o(ard >obertson, Arthur Walker, )J-G Dniformly e*panding Class of universes that are homogeneous and isotropic. pacetime separates into uniformly curved space and cosmic time common to all comoving observers. The formulation system is no( kno(n as the FR>W or >obertsonPWalker metrics of cosmic time and curved space. teady7state e*panding (@ondi Q /old) %ermann @ondi, Thomas /old )JF$ +*panding, steady state, infinite ?atter creation rate maintains constant density. Continuous creation out of nothing from no(here. +*ponential e*pansion. 'eceleration term S Z 7). teady7state e*panding (%oyle) Fred %oyle )JF$ +*panding, steady state. but unstable ?atter creation rate maintains constant density. @ut since matter creation rate must be e*actly balanced (ith the space e*pansion rate the system is unstable. Ambiplasma %annes AlfvWn )JHG !skar Tlein Cellular universe, e*panding by means of matter7antimatter annihilation @ased on the concept of plasma cosmology. The universe is vie(ed as meta7gala*ies divided by double layers _hence its bubble7like nature. !ther universes are formed from other bubbles. !ngoing cosmic matter7 antimatter annihilations keep the bubbles separated and moving apart preventing them from interacting. @ransP'icke theory Carl %. @rans. >obert %. 'icke +*panding @ased on ?achCs principle. / varies (ith time as universe e*pands. 6@ut nobody is Suite sure (hat ?achCs principle actually means.6<citation needed= Cosmic inflation Alan /uth )J$# @ig @ang (ith modification to solve hori,on problem and flatness problem. @ased on the concept of hot inflation. The universe is vie(ed as a multiple Suantum flu* _hence its bubble7like nature. !ther universes are formed from other bubbles. !ngoing cosmic e*pansion kept the bubbles separated and moving apart preventing them from interacting. +ternal Mnflation (a multiple universe model) Andre` Rinde )J$- @ig @ang (ith cosmic inflation A multiverse, based on the concept of cold inflation, in (hich inflationary events occur at random each (ith independent initial conditions. some e*pand into bubble universes supposedly like our entire cosmos. @ubbles nucleate in a spacetime foam. Cyclic model Paul teinhardt. Ieil Turok "##" +*panding and contracting in cycles. ?7theory. T(o parallel orbifold planes or ?7branes collide periodically in a higher dimensional space. With Suintessence or dark energy. Cyclic model Rauris @aum. Paul Frampton "##B olution of TolmanCs entropy problem Phantom dark energy fragments universe into large number of disconnected patches. !ur patch contracts containing only dark energy (ith ,ero entropy.

Table notesL the term 6static6 simply means not e*panding and not contracting. ymbol / represents Ie(tonCs gravitational constant. X (Rambda) is the cosmological constant. Physical cosmology ?ain articleL Physical cosmology Physical cosmology is the branch of physics and astrophysics that deals (ith the study of the physical origins and evolution of the Dniverse. Mt also includes the study of the nature of the Dniverse on its very largest scales. Mn its earliest form it (as (hat is no( kno(n as celestial mechanics, the study of the heavens. The /reek philosophers Aristarchus of amos, Aristotle and Ptolemy proposed different cosmological theories. Mn particular, the geocentric Ptolemaic system (as the accepted theory to e*plain the motion of the heavens until Iicolaus Copernicus, and subseSuently Nohannes Tepler and /alileo /alilei proposed a heliocentric system in the )Hth century. This is kno(n as one of the most famous e*amples of epistemological rupture in physical cosmology. With Msaac Ie(ton and the )H$B publication of Principia ?athematica, the problem of the motion of the heavens (as finally solved. Ie(ton provided a physical mechanism for TeplerCs la(s and his la( of universal gravitation allo(ed the anomalies in previous systems, caused by gravitational interaction bet(een the planets, to be resolved. A fundamental difference bet(een Ie(tonCs cosmology and those preceding it (as the Copernican principle that the bodies on earth obey the same physical la(s as all the celestial bodies. This (as a crucial philosophical advance in physical cosmology. ?odern scientific cosmology is usually considered to have begun in )J)B (ith Albert +insteinCs publication of his final modification of general relativity in the paper 6Cosmological Considerations of the /eneral Theory of >elativity6 (although this paper (as not (idely available outside of /ermany until the end of World War M). /eneral relativity prompted cosmogonists such as Willem de itter, Tarl ch(ar,schild and Arthur +ddington to e*plore the astronomical conseSuences of the theory, (hich enhanced the gro(ing ability of astronomers to study very distant obEects. Prior to this (and for some time after(ards), physicists assumed that the Dniverse (as static and unchanging. Mn parallel to this dynamic approach to cosmology, one long7standing debate about the structure of the cosmos (as coming to a clima*. ?ount Wilson astronomer %arlo( hapley championed the model of a cosmos made up of the ?ilky Way star system only. (hile %eber '. Curtis argued for the idea that spiral nebulae (ere star systems in their o(n right P island universes. This difference of ideas came to a clima* (ith the organi,ation of the /reat 'ebate at the meeting of the (D ) Iational Academy of ciences in Washington on "H April )J"#. The resolution of this debate came (ith the detection of novae in the Andromeda gala*y by +d(in %ubble in )J"- and )J"F. Their distance established spiral nebulae (ell beyond the edge of the ?ilky Way. +vidence of gravitational (aves in the infant universe may have been uncovered by the microscopic e*amination of the focal plane of the @MC+P" radio telescope.<H=<B=<$=

ubseSuent modelling of the universe e*plored the possibility that the cosmological constant, introduced by +instein in his )J)B paper, may result in an e*panding universe, depending on its value. Thus the @ig @ang model (as proposed by the @elgian priest /eorges Rema]tre in )J"B (hich (as subseSuently corroborated by +d(in %ubbleCs discovery of the red shift in )J"J and later by the discovery of the cosmic micro(ave background radiation by Arno Pen,ias and >obert Woodro( Wilson in )JHF. These findings (ere a first step to rule out some of many alternative physical cosmologies. >ecent observations made by the C!@+ and W?AP satellites observing this background radiation have effectively, in many scientistsC eyes, transformed cosmology from a highly speculative science into a predictive science, as these observations matched predictions made by a theory called Cosmic inflation, (hich is a modification of the standard @ig @ang model. This has led many to refer to modern times as the 6/olden age of cosmology6.<J= !n )B ?arch "#)F, astronomers at the %arvard7 mithsonian Center for Astrophysics announced the detection of gravitational (aves, providing strong evidence for inflation and the @ig @ang.<H=<B=<$= >eligious and mythological cosmology ee alsoL >eligious cosmology ?ythological cosmology deals (ith the (orld as the totality of space, time and all phenomena. %istorically, it has had Suite a broad scope, and in many cases (as founded in religion. The ancient /reeks did not dra( a distinction bet(een this use and their model for the cosmos. %o(ever, in modern use it addresses Suestions about the Dniverse (hich are beyond the scope of science. Mt is distinguished from religious cosmology in that it approaches these Suestions using philosophical methods (e.g. dialectics). ?odern metaphysical cosmology tries to address Suestions such asL What is the origin of the Dniversea What is its first causea Ms its e*istence necessarya (see monism, pantheism, emanationism and creationism) What are the ultimate material components of the Dniversea (see mechanism, dynamism, hylomorphism, atomism) What is the ultimate reason for the e*istence of the Dniversea 'oes the cosmos have a purposea (see teleology) 'oes the e*istence of consciousness have a purposea %o( do (e kno( (hat (e kno( about the totality of the cosmosa 'oes cosmological reasoning reveal metaphysical truthsa (see epistemology) ee also Portal icon Astronomy portal

Absolute time and space /ala*y formation and evolution Rist of astrophysicists Ion7standard cosmology

TaiEi (philosophy) Tao Warm inflation Iotes MntroductionL Cosmology 7 space 7 #F eptember "##H 7 Ie( cientist 'efinition of cosmology in !*ford 'ictionaries (@ritish Q World +nglish) Planck collaboration ("#)-). 6Planck "#)- results. &OM. Cosmological parameters6. ar&ivL)-#-.G#BH <astro7ph.C!=. 6The thoughts of ?arcus Aurelius Antonius viii. G"6. @oyer, C. A %istory of ?athematics. Wiley, p. GF. taff ()B ?arch "#)F). 6@MC+P" "#)F >esults >elease6. Iational cience Foundation. >etrieved )$ ?arch "#)F. Clavin, Whitney ()B ?arch "#)F). 6IA A Technology Oie(s @irth of the Dniverse6. IA A. >etrieved )B ?arch "#)F. !verbye, 'ennis ()B ?arch "#)F). 6'etection of Waves in pace @uttresses Randmark Theory of @ig @ang6. Ie( bork Times. >etrieved )B ?arch "#)F. Alan /uth is reported to have made this very claim in an +dge Foundation intervie( +'/+ >eferences Cronin, Oincent, The Oie( from Planet +arthL ?an Rooks at the Cosmos, Ie( borkL William ?orro( Q Company, Mnc., )J$), M @I #7H$$7##HF"7H Nean7?arc >ouvicre, @rcves mWditations sur la crWation du monde, RC%armattan, Paris "##H. >oos, ?atts Mntroduction to Cosmology. Nohn Wiley Q ons, Rtd, ChichesterL "##-. %a(ley, Nohn F. Q Taterine A. %olcomb Foundations of ?odern Cosmology. !*ford Dniversity Press, !*fordL )JJ$. %etherington, Iorriss . CosmologyL %istorical, Riterary, Philosophical, >eligious, and cientific Perspectives. /arland Publishing, Ie( borkL )JJ-. Rong, @arry. The !rigins of ?an and the Dniverse M @I #7JG#$#G#7H7$ ?artinus ThomsenCs The Third Testament is about the e*planation of life, everything inside it and the reason (or origin) of it. Arthur ToestlerCs The leep(alkers ()JGJ) provides a scholarly study of the history of cosmology from the Chaldeans to Tepler. chechner, ara N. Comets, Popular Culture, and the @irth of ?odern Cosmology. Princeton, Ie( NerseyL Princeton Dniversity Press. )JJB. Weinberg, teven, )JJ". 'reams of a Final Theory (Pantheon @ooks, Ie( bork) M @I #7HBJ7F)J"-7- P non7technical book. Weinberg, teven, "##$, Cosmology (!*ford Dniversity Press) M @I #7)J7$G"H$"7" P theoretical te*tbook. +*ternal links Rook up cosmology in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.

Ribrary resources about Cosmology !nline books >esources in your library >esources in other libraries Cosmic NourneyL A %istory of cientific Cosmology from the American Mnstitute of Physics ProEect Cosmology A schematic for the cosmos (-', interactive unification of scientific schematics) Mntroduction to Cosmology 'avid RythCs lectures from the MCTP ummer chool in %igh +nergy Physics and Cosmology The ophia Centre The ophia Centre for the tudy of Cosmology in Culture, Dniversity of Wales Trinity aint 'avid the /enesis cosmic chemistry module <sho(= v t e ?aEor subfields of astronomy and astrophysics <sho(= v t e +nvironmental humanities CategoriesL Cosmology Iavigation menu Create account Rog in Article Talk >ead +dit Oie( history

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