Statistics is the study of the collection, organization, analysis, interpretation, and presentation of data.

It deals with all aspects of this, including the planning of data collection in terms of the design of surveys and experiments. Statistics is the science of assembling, characterizing, and interpreting collections of data. Statistics involves the manipulation of numbers, the results of which give more meaning and status to research findings. TYPES OF STATISTICS Statistical investigations may be descriptive or inferential. DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS Summarization of data and learning about the population Analysis is confined exclusively to the data gathered. The basic features of the data in the study provide simple summaries about the sample and the measures. Together with simple graphic analysis, they form the basis of virtually every quantitative analysis of data. The classification of the various techniques commonly used are the graphical description where graphs are used to summarize data, tabular descriptions where data are summarized in tables, and the summary statistics in which we calculate certain values to summarize data. STEPS IN DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS: o Collection of data o Classification of data o Summarizing data o Presentation of data INFERENTIAL STATISTICS You are trying to reach a conclusion that extend beyond immediate data alone. Use judgement of the probability that an observed difference

between groups is a dependable one that might have happened by chance in this study. Inferential Statistics or statistical inference constitutes the drawing of generalizations from numerical information available from sample groups to a large group, from which information has not been obtained. After data have been collected, classified, summarized and presented through descriptive statistics, analysis of data is done through inferential statistics. TERMINOLOGIES IN STATISTICS Population It is the large collection of objects, person, places or things and is usually represented by N.

Sample It is a portion or a small part of the population termed as a subgroup, subset or representative of the population. Represented by n. Parameter It is any numerical or nominal characteristic of a population. It is a value or measurement obtained from a population. Statistic It is an estimate of the parameter. It is any value or measurement obtained from a sample. Data These are facts or a set of information or observations under study. Two categories of data o Quantitative data numerical in nature obtained from counting, measuring.

o Qualitative data assume values that manifest the concepts of attributes. Sometimes called as categorical data. Variable It is a characteristic or property of a population or sample which make the members different from each other. LEVEL OF MEASUREMENT Measurement o The assignment of numerals to objects and phenomena according to accepted rules. o Helps in making decisions about the meaning and interpretation of research. o Facilitates making decisions about individuals. o Involves the process of assigning numerical value to concepts under investigation or responses that have been made, events, characteristics and responses according to some scale. Different Measurement Scales o Nominal Scale refers to categories or classifications of things, persons or phenomena. In situations where this scale applies, numbers are used to name, identify or classify person or things. Arithmetical procedures are limited to counting or simply enumerating persons or things belonging to a group or class. o Ordinal Scale Numbers used in this scale are based on order or ranks. In addition to counting methods of ranking persons or things based on specified factors like intelligence, popularity, economic status, age may be used. o Interval Scale Allows determining just how far apart two (2) person or things are. o Ratio Scale Highest level of measure in the sense that it has a true zero point. This signifies that we can divide one number by another or express the two as ratio.

DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICAL TOOLS Frequency Distribution o Consists of summarized data. o It is an arrangement of data which shows the frequency of different values or group of values as a variable. o Data presented in this form is called group data. o If every value of a variable is listed they are called ungrouped data. o They may be arranged in ascending or descending order called an array. STEPS IN MAKING ORDINARY GROUPED FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION o Determine the range, which is one more than the difference between the highest score and the lowest. o Select the class or group interval, which is the size of the groups into which the scores are to be classified. It is impractical to use any class interval except a whole number. Fractions are disregarded. Next whole number is taken. Odd-numbered intervals have whole number mid-points when the class limits are fractional (ending in .5), so usually they are to be preferred over even-numbered intervals, which have factional mid-points. o Determine the limits of the classes. The table must, of course, be long enough to include the highest score and the lowest score. o Make the tabulation. A short vertical line (tally) is drawn for each score opposite the class in which it falls. Ratios and Rankings Ratios express also a relationship between two (2) variables, a part to its whole. o Statistical Ratio

 It is the relationship of one (1) number or quantity to another wherein it expresses the value of the numerator relative to one (1) or more units of the denominator. Construction of Ratios 1. The whole is always the denominator. 2. Magnitude of earlier period as the base. 3. Independent variable or the cause as the base. Typical Use of Ratio 1. Percent relative use of a constant base. 2. Percent changes use of different base this should not be confused with percent relative; although both measures associate magnitudes with time, this one does not use a constant base. 3. Percent point of change the difference between any two (2) percent relatives. Formula: Percent point of change = Current Year Prior Year x100 Prior Year Or simply get the difference of the percent relatives obtained. Ranking - Used to identify the position of an individual or group in a series of ranks where R1 is the variable with the highest frequency. MEASURES OF CENTRAL TENDENCY Average is a typical value which tends to describe the set of data. Is what is common in the group, or what is the norm of the group. Measure of Central Tendency o simply some representative point on the scale, a central point which values scattered on either side. o The purpose of obtaining measures of central tendency is to be able to describe a population of statistical measurements.

Mean

Computed Average. Arithmetic mean. The mean is what is most often meant when someone refers to the "average" of a group of numbers. It is calculated by adding up all the numbers in a set and then dividing the sum by the number of integers in the set. For example, take the following set of numbers: 12, 8, 16, 12, 13, 19, 16, 77, 15, 10 Add all the numbers together: 12+8+16+12+13+19+16+77+15+10=198 Divide the sum by the number of integers in the set: 198/10=19.8 The mean of the set is 19.8.

Computation of Mean o From an Ungrouped Data Arithmetic Mean X = mean = the summation of x n = the size of the number of subjects Weighted Mean used when the option items of the questionnaire are assigned points. w = weight factor

o From Grouped Data Long Method

_ X = mean f = frequency of values x = midpoint of each class n = total number of values Short Unit Deviation Method [ ]

_ X = mean x = guessed mean (midpoint of any class limit) f = frequency of values d = unit coded deviation from the guessed mean i = size of the class interval n = total number of values

 Short Group Deviation Method

_ X = mean x = guessed mean (midpoint of any class limit) f = frequency of values d = deviation of the midpoint of each class limit from the assumed mean. n = total number of values

Median

The most widely used average in the educational measurement. The median is the point which divides the distribution into halves. In an ungroup series, midscore is used instead of median. The median is often used as a reference point for describing the location of individual persons in a distribution. The median is the number in the middle of the set when the numbers are arranged in order from least to greatest. If the set contains an even number of integers, the median is the two numbers in the middle added together and divided by two. Take the same set of numbers as used above: 12, 8, 16, 12, 13, 19, 16, 77, 15, 10 Arrange the numbers from least to greatest: 8, 10, 12, 12, 13, 15, 16, 16, 19, 77

There are 10 numbers in the set, which is an even number. Take the two integers from the middle and add them together: 13+15=28 Divide the sum by 2: 28/2=14 The median of the set is 14. Computation of Percentiles o Percentile a point in the score distribution below which the stated percentage of all measure lies. Mode

Nominal Average. It is used for qualitative variables and is defined as the variable with the greatest frequency. It is the item in a set of values which occurs most frequently. It is obtained by inspection. The mode of the set is the number that appears most often within the set. If there are two numbers that are as common as one another and more common than any other number, there can be more than one mode in a set. If no numbers are repeated in the set, there is no mode for the set. Take the same set of numbers once more: 12, 8, 16, 12, 13, 19, 16, 77, 15, 10 12 and 16 each appear twice, while all the other numbers appear only once. 12 and 16 are each considered modes of the set.

When should each be used?

The mean, median or mode may be the most appropriate measure of central tendency, depending on the nature of the data. Often, the mean is the most straightforward measure of central tendency, and it is the most commonly used. However, extremely large or extremely small numbers within the set may throw off its reliability. In the example

above, 77 is much larger than any of the other numbers in the set. As a result, the mean, 19.8, is larger than every other number in the set. To correct for extremely large or extremely small outliers, the median can be used. Even though we used the same set to find the median, 14 appears to be much closer to most of the numbers in the set. The mode is most often used when dealing with statistical data that is not easily translated into numbers. For example, if instead of a set of numbers, you were presented with a set of opinions, votes or test answers, the mean and median would not be applicable. By finding the mode, or the most common element in the set, the "average" answer can be found. As a rule, the mean is regarded as the best measure of central tendency and the mode is the poorest. The mean, however, greatly influenced by the extreme scores, and whenever it is desired to avoid this influence, the median is to be preferred. AS such situations often arise in educational measurement, the median is widely used. The median is also easier to find than the mean, unless an electronic calculator is available. Variability is the extent to which the scores tend to scatter or spread above and below the average. COMMON MEASURES OF VARIABILITY Range Referred as the distance between the lowest and the highest scores plus one. It is not a good measure of variability since it uses only two (2) scores and the rest of the scores lost their identity. Quartile Deviation As a measure of variability is used when the measure of central tendency is the median. It is the measure of variability that avoids being unduly influenced by extreme scores and is represented by Q.

Standard Deviation The standard deviation from the mean is used as a measure of variability when the measure of central tendency is the mean. In statistics and probability theory, standard deviation shows how much variation or "dispersion" exists from the average (mean, or expected value). A low standard deviation indicates that the data points tend to be very close to the mean, whereas high standard deviation indicates that the data points are spread out over a large range of values

Example: You just get the high and low value of your population and provide assessment for the said variation. As a rule, the standard deviation is regarded as the best measure of variability; range is the poorest. The range is subject to all the limitations which mode has as a measure of central tendency. Just as the mean is greatly influenced by extreme scores, so is standard deviation. Whenever it is desirable, therefore, to avoid the influence of extreme scores, the median is employed as a measure of central tendency, and with it a percentile measure of variability such as Q or D. In like manner, when the mean is used, standard deviation is the appropriate measure of variability. STATISTICAL INFERENCE Statistical Interference constitutes the drawing of generalizations from numerical information available from sample groups to a large group, from which information has not been obtained. Inferential Statistics are statistical techniques used to infer the characteristics of the population based on the estimate of a sample. o Estimation Estimate of some population descriptive of a statistical measure such as total, mean, proportion etc., from a sample.

 The problem of estimation is concerned with the confidence which can be placed in a sample estimate with regard to a population parameter. o Testing of Hypothesis Statistical Hypothesis is an assumption concerning a quantitative characteristic of a population (parameter). A test of a statistical hypothesis is a procedure of determining whether a hypothesis can be rejected or not. A statistical hypothesis about a population characteristic cannot be tested using a sample from the population under consideration. The most that can be done is to confirm or admit the tenability of a hypothesis. Only a complete study of the population can prove the hypothesis. A test of hypothesis is made in terms of probability statement, and this is based on the knowledge of the sampling distribution of a statistic (A value computed from the sample) Intelligent assumptions or guesses are referred as hypotheses. A hypothesis is either rejected or accepted upon the information obtainable from the data gathered. TYPES OF HYPOTHESIS TESTING One-Tailed Testing It is a directional test with the region of rejection lying either left or right tail of the normal curve. Right Direction Test The region of rejection is on the right tail. Left Direction Test The region of rejection is on the left tail. Two Tailed Testing It is a non-directional test with the region of rejection lying on both tails of the normal curve.

SAMPLE MEAN COMPARED WITH POPULATION MEAN T Test-assess whether the mean of two groups are statistically different from each other. Example: suppose you want to test and study students from the graduate school taking up doctors degree and masters degree. You want to asses which is older, the students taking dba or dpa. DBA DPA (mean) 50 years old (mean) 51 years old

Testing the difference between percentages o To determine the significance of difference of two (2) given percentages when they are not correlated, we use the critical ration formula. Chi square o Discovered by Karl Pearson. o The distribution was introduces to determine whether or not discrepancies between observed theoretical counts were significant. o It is used to compare observed data with the expected. o Example: You are expecting that 80% of MBA students are working from private sectors while 80% of MPA students to government sectors. Then you compare that expected data to the observed and actual data. In short, comparison of actual against forecast. ANOVA o Testing the significance of the difference between the means of two (2) independent samples, the t-test is used. o ANOVA is used when testing the significance of the difference among several means or to test the hypothesis that several independent samples have come from a common population.

o Comparing whether the mean of more than 2 groups. An analysis of variances is being used. DBA (mean) 50 years old DPA (mean) 51 years old DEM (mean) 52 years old MEASURES OF RELATIONSHIP/ STATISTIC OF ASSOCIATION o This type of statistics used to describe data consists of the statistics of association. o THREE CONCEPTS: Regression Analysis It is the process wherein one variable is predicted from another variable, the former being called the dependent variable and the latter, the independent variable. It is an estimation of one variable based on the changes or movement of the other variable. Standard Error of Estimate A measure of the dispersion or deviation about the regression line. The size of the standard error of estimate is a measure of the degree of variation about the estimated form of relationship. Correlation Means that two variables tend to vary together, the presence of one indicates the presence of the other; one can be predicted from the presence of the other. Refers to any of a broad class of statistics relationship involving dependence. In short, there is a causal relationship.

The height of sons is dependent to the height of the father. An electrical utility may produce less power on a mild day based on the correlation between electricity demand and weather Familiar examples of dependent phenomena include the correlation between the physical statures of parents and their offspring, and the correlation between the demand for a product and its price. Correlations are useful because they can indicate a predictive relationship that can be exploited in practice. WHAT IS A DESCRIPTIVE SURVEY METHOD OF RESEARCH?
Descriptive research method, according to J. Estolas, J. Macaballug and Estolas, describes and interprets what is . It reveals condition or relationships that exist practices that prevail or do not prevail. In a nutshell, it attempts to interpret the present. Descriptive investigations include all those studies which aim to present facts covering the nature and status of a set of conditions, a group of persons, system of thoughts or a class of events.

SAMPLING PROCEDURES Sampling Is a method developed that makes it possible to get the needed fact most economically in terms of money and time. With the use of sampling, data from a small but represented crosssection of the population are scientifically collected and analysed. Sample is the portion of the population in representative if it reflects the characteristics of the population. Sample Survey the method of conducting an investigation. Principles of Sampling 1. Appraisal that involve sampling are only estimates and predictions.

2. Estimates are based on sampling are least accurate when the sample is a small proportion of the whole and when the sample is not representative of the whole. 3. If researcher does not possess the necessary skill and technical know-how in sampling procedure, the sampling may become biased and unrepresentative. SAMPLING CONCEPTS and TERMINOLOGIES Element The unit which information is collected and which provides the basis for analysis. It refers to the members of the population. Population The theoretically specific aggregation of the elements. Study Population The aggregation of elements from which a sample is actually selected. Sampling Unit an element or set of elements considered for selection in some stage of sampling. Sampling Frame - the actual list of sampling units from which the sample is selected. Sampling Stratum that group , section or category of elements from which selection is made in some stage of sampling. Confidence level The degree of confidence that a sample statistics will accurately fall within a certain or specified interval from the population parameter. Confidence Interval the range in which the sample statistics should fall. Sampling Error The degree of error of a sample statistics when compared with the population parameter. GENERAL TYPES OF SAMPLING 1. Probability Sampling The sample is a proportion (a certain percent) of the population and such sample is selected from the population by means of some

systematic way in which every element has a chance of being included in the sample. TYPES OF PROBABILITY SAMPLING i. Simple Random Sampling a sampling method in which every unit in the population has an equal probability of being included in the sample size n. ii. Systematic Random Sampling a probability sampling method in which every Kth element of the population is selecting starting from a randomly selected first element. iii. Stratified Random Sampling Involves the process of selecting randomly samples from the different strata of the population used in the study. iv. Multistage Sampling sample is obtained by taking simple random sampling of successively smaller grouos within a population. v. Cluster Sampling a variation of multistage sampling. Sometimes called area sampling because it is applied on geographical basis. Population is divided into groups or clusters and a simple random sampling of the cluster is taken. The sample consists of all the members of the chosen cluster. 2. Non-probability Sampling Sampling wherein sample is not proportion of the population and there is no system in selecting the sample. Selection of samples depend on the situation. TYPES OF NON-PROBABILITY SAMPLING i. Accidental, Haphazard or convenience sampling 1. Accidental no system of sample selection; only those whom the researcher meets by chance are included in the sample. Sample may be biased and sampling method lack representativeness. 2. Haphazard or Convenience involves the process of picking out people in the most convenient and fastest

way to get immediate reaction relative to a hot and controversial issue. ii. Purposive Sampling - involves the determination of target population. We sample with a purpose in mind. It usually have one or more specific predefined groups that will be seeking. Respondents are chosen on the basis of their knowledge of the information desired. 1. Model Instance Sampling - samples the most frequent case or the typical: case. 2. Expert Sampling involves the assembling of a sample of person with known or demonstrable experience or expertise in some areas. 3. Quota Sampling you want to represent the major characteristic of the population by sampling a proportional amount for each. 4. Heterogeneity Sampling all opinions and views are included and are not concerned about representing these views proportionately. 5. Snowball Sampling begin by identifying someone who meets the criteria for inclusion in the study.