MICROWAVE ANTENNAS INTRODUCTION Antennas are devices used to radiate electromagnetic energy into s ace!

T"e c"aracteristics o# transmitting and receiving antennas are similar$ so a good transmitting antenna is o#ten a good receiving antenna! A single antenna er#orms %ot" #unctions in many modern a lications! ANTENNA C&ARACTERISTICS Since t"e o erating rinci les o# lo'(#re)uency and micro'ave antennas are essentially t"e same$ t"e electrical c"aracteristics are also very similar! *ou 'ill need a #undamental +no'ledge o# radar and communications antenna electrical t"eory in your s"i %oard antenna maintenance 'or+! Antenna t"eory is rimarily a design consideration o# antenna si,e and s"a e re)uirements t"at de end on t"e #re)uency used! A %rie# descri tion o# antenna electrical c"aracteristics is su##icient #or t"e needs o# most students o# electronics! Antenna E##iciency T"e e##ectiveness o# an antenna de ends u on its a%ility to cou le or radiate energy into t"e air! An e##icient antenna is one '"ic" 'astes very little energy during t"e radiation rocess! T"e e##iciency o# an antenna is usually re#erred to as t"e -OWER .AIN or -OWER RATIO as com ared to a standard re#erence antenna! T"e o'er gain o# an antenna is a ratio o# t"e radiated o'er to t"at o# t"e re#erence antenna$ '"ic" is usually a %asic di ole! /ot" antennas must %e #ed r# energy in t"e same manner and must %e in t"e same osition '"en t"e energy is radiated! T"e o'er gain o# a single di ole 'it"out a re#lector is unity 0one1! An array o# several di oles in t"e same osition as t"e single di ole$ and #ed 'it" t"e same line$ "as a o'er gain o# more t"an one! T"e e##ectiveness o# an entire transmitting2 receiving system de ends largely on im edance matc"ing %et'een t"e elements o# t"e system! Im edance matc"ing is articularly critical at t"e antenna connection! I# a good im edance matc" is maintained %et'een t"e system and t"e antenna t"roug"out t"e o erating #re)uency %and$ o'er trans#er to and #rom t"e antenna is al'ays ma3imum! T"e transmission line or 'aveguide used to trans ort energy to and #rom t"e antenna s"ould "ave a c"aracteristic im edance e)ual to t"at o# t"e antenna! A ro er im edance matc" allo's all availa%le o'er to %e a%sor%ed and radiated %y t"e antenna 'it"out re#lections %ac+ do'n t"e line! I# you "ave a transmission line or 'aveguide 'it" an im edance mismatc" at t"e termination$ standing 'aves are set u %y t"e re#lections! Standing 'aves cause losses in t"e #orm o# un'anted radiations$ "eat losses in transmission lines$ and arcing in 'aveguides!

T"e STANDIN.(WAVE RATIO$ a%%reviated s'r$ is a 'ay to measure t"e degree o# mismatc" %et'een t"e transmission line and its load! T"e s'r can %e e3 ressed as a ratio o# t"e ma3imum and minimum values o# t"e current or voltage in t"e standing 'aves t"at are set u on t"e lines as #ollo's4

A transmission line or 'aveguide a roac"es a er#ectly matc"ed condition '"en t"e s'r a roac"es a value o# 5! A ratio t"at is a little "ig"er t"an 5 is usually acce ta%le in ractical a lications! Measurement o# s'r is t"e only ractical met"od o# detecting an im edance mismatc" %et'een a transmitting2receiving system and its antenna! As suc"$ t"e system s'r is an im ortant indication o# t"e overall e##iciency o# t"e system during o eration! T"e line im edance can usually %e matc"ed to t"e antenna at only one #re)uency! &o'ever$ t"e s'r 'ill NOT %ecome too "ig" i# t"e antenna is used over a small range o# #re)uencies and t"e line is matc"ed to t"e center #re)uency! Antenna Directivity *ou can divide antennas into t'o general classes %ased on directivity$ omnidirectional and directional! OMNIDIRECTIONA6 antennas radiate and receive energy #rom all directions at once 0S-&ERICA6 WAVE7RONT1! T"ey are seldom used in modern radar systems as t"e rimary antenna$ %ut are commonly used in radio e)ui ment and i## 0identi#ication #riend or #oe1 receivers! DIRECTIONA6 antennas radiate energy in 6O/ES 0or /EAMS1 t"at e3tend out'ard #rom t"e antenna in eit"er one or t'o directions! T"e radiation attern contains small minor lo%es$ %ut t"ese lo%es are 'ea+ and normally "ave little e##ect on t"e main radiation attern! Directional antennas also receive energy e##iciently #rom only one or t'o directions$ de ending u on '"et"er it is unidirectional or %idirectional! Directional antennas "ave t'o c"aracteristics t"at are im ortant to you in radar and communications systems! One is DIRECTIVIT* and t"e ot"er is -OWER .AIN! T"e directivity o# an antenna re#ers to t"e NARROWNESS o# t"e radiated %eam! I# t"e %eam is NARROW in eit"er t"e "ori,ontal or vertical lane$ t"e antenna "as a "ig" degree o# directivity in t"at lane! An antenna may %e designed #or "ig" directivity in one lane only or in %ot" lanes$ de ending on t"e a lication! T"e o'er gain o# an antenna increases as t"e degree o# directivity increases %ecause t"e

o'er is concentrated into a narro' %eam and less cover t"e same distance!

o'er is re)uired to

Since micro'ave antennas are redominantly unidirectional$ t"e e3am les you 'ill study in t"is c"a ter are all o# t"e unidirectional ty e! Reci rocity *ou read in t"is c"a ter t"at an antenna is a%le to %ot" transmit and receive electromagnetic energy! T"is is +no'n as RECI-ROCIT*! Antenna reci rocity is ossi%le %ecause antenna c"aracteristics are essentially t"e same regardless o# '"et"er an antenna is transmitting or receiving electromagnetic energy! Reci rocity allo's most radar and communications systems to o erate 'it" only one antenna! An automatic s'itc"$ called a DU-6E8ER$ connects eit"er t"e transmitter or t"e receiver to t"e antenna at t"e ro er time! Du le3er o eration 'ill %e! e3 lained in later NEETS modules dealing 'it" radar and communications systems! /ecause o# t"e reci rocity o# antennas$ t"is c"a ter 'ill discuss antennas #rom t"e vie' oint o# t"e transmitting cycle! &o'ever$ you s"ould understand t"at t"e same rinci les a ly on t"e receiving cycle! Radar 7undamentals Radio$ television$ radar$ and t"e "uman eye "ave muc" in common %ecause t"ey all rocess t"e same ty e o# electromagnetic energy! T"e ma9or di##erence %et'een t"e lig"t rocessed %y t"e "uman eye and t"e radio( #re)uency energy rocessed %y radio and radar is #re)uency! 7or e3am le$ radio transmitters send out signals in all directions! T"ese signals can %e detected %y receivers tuned to t"e same #re)uency! Radar 'or+s some'"at di##erently %ecause it uses re#lected energy 0ec"o1 instead o# directly transmitted energy! T"e ec"o$ as it relates to sound$ is a #amiliar conce t to most o# us! An e3 erienced erson can estimate t"e distance and general direction o# an o%9ect causing a sound ec"o! Radar uses micro'ave electromagnetic energy in muc" t"e same 'ay! Radar transmits micro'ave energy t"at re#lects o## an o%9ect and returns to t"e radar! T"e returned ortion o# t"e energy is called an EC&O$ as it is in sound terminology! It is used to determine t"e direction and distance o# t"e o%9ect causing t"e re#lection! Determination o# direction and distance to an o%9ect is t"e rimary #unction o# most radar systems! Telesco es and radars$ in terms o# locating o%9ects in s ace$ "ave many common ro%lems! /ot" "ave a limited #ield o# vie' and %ot" re)uire a geogra "ic re#erence system to descri%e t"e osition o# an o%9ect 0target1! T"e osition o# an o%9ect vie'ed 'it" a telesco e is usually descri%ed %y relating it to a #amiliar o%9ect 'it" a +no'n osition! Radar uses a standard system o# re#erence coordinates to descri%e t"e osition o# an o%9ect in relation to t"e osition o# t"e radar! Normally AN.U6AR measurements are made #rom true nort" in an imaginary #lat lane called t"e &ORI:ONTA6 -6ANE! All angles in t"e U- direction are measured in a second imaginary lane er endicular to t"e "ori,ontal lane called t"e VERTICA6 -6ANE! T"e center o# t"e

coordinate system is t"e radar location! As s"o'n in #igure ;(5$ t"e target osition 'it" res ect to t"e radar is de#ined as <= degrees true$ 5= degrees u $ and 5= miles distant! T"e line directly #rom t"e radar to t"e target is called t"e 6INE O7 SI.&T! T"e distance #rom oint 5 to oint >$ measured along t"e line o# sig"t$ is called TAR.ET RAN.E! T"e angle %et'een t"e "ori,ontal lane and t"e line o# sig"t is +no'n as t"e E6EVATION AN.6E! T"e angle measured in a cloc+'ise direction in t"e "ori,ontal lane %et'een true nort" and t"e line o# sig"t is +no'n as /EARIN. 0sometimes re#erred to as A:IMUT&1! T"ese t"ree coordinates o# range$ %earing$ and elevation determine t"e location o# t"e target 'it" res ect to t"e radar! 7igure ;(5! ( Radar target osition!

/earing and elevation angles are determined %y measuring t"e angular osition o# t"e radar antenna 0t"e transmitted %eam1 '"en it is ointing directly at t"e target! Range is more di##icult to determine %ecause it cannot %e directly measured! T"e radar system is designed to measure range as a #unction o# time! Since t"e s eed o# electromagnetic energy is t"e same as t"e s eed o# lig"t$ range is determined %y measuring t"e time re)uired #or a ulse o# energy to reac" t"e target and return to t"e radar! /ecause t"e s eed o# t"e ulse is +no'n$ t"e t'o('ay distance can %e determined %y multi lying t"e time %y t"e s eed o# travel! T"e total must %e divided %y t'o to o%tain t"e one('ay range %ecause t"e time value used initially is t"e time re)uired #or t"e ulse to travel to t"e target and return!

T"e discussion o# micro'ave antennas in t"is c"a ter re)uires only t"e most %asic understanding o# radar conce ts? Radar #undamentals 'ill %e discussed in more detail in a later NEETS module! @!5 Micro'ave antennas and lo'(#re)uency antennas are similar in '"at 'aysA @!> W"at term is used to e3 ress t"e e##iciency o# an antennaA @!; W"at term is used to e3 ress t"e measurement o# t"e degree o# mismatc" %et'een a line and its loadA @!B W"at ty e o# antenna radiates in and receives energy #rom all directions at onceA @!C W"at is t"e term t"at is used to descri%e narro'ness in t"e radiated %eam o# an antennaA @!< W"at c"aracteristic allo's t"e same antenna to %ot" transmit and receiveA RE76ECTOR ANTENNAS A s "erical 'ave#ront 0one in '"ic" t"e energy s reads out in all directions1 s reads out as it travels a'ay #rom t"e antenna and roduces a attern t"at is not very directional! A 'ave#ront t"at e3ists in only one lane does not s read %ecause all o# t"e 'ave#ront moves #or'ard in t"e same direction! 7or an antenna to %e "ig"ly directive$ it must c"ange t"e normally s "erical 'ave#ront into a lane 'ave#ront! Many "ig"ly directive micro'ave antennas roduce a lane 'ave#ront %y using a re#lector to #ocus t"e radiated energy! T"e -ARA/O6IC RE76ECTOR is most o#ten used #or "ig" directivity! Micro'aves travel in straig"t lines as do lig"t rays! T"ey can also %e #ocused and re#lected 9ust as lig"t rays can$ as illustrated %y t"e antenna s"o'n in #igure ;(>! A micro'ave source is laced at #ocal oint 7! T"e #ield leaves t"is antenna as a s "erical 'ave#ront! As eac" art o# t"e 'ave#ront reac"es t"e re#lecting sur#ace$ it is "ase( s"i#ted 5D= degrees! Eac" art is t"en sent out'ard at an angle t"at results in all arts o# t"e #ield traveling in arallel at"s! /ecause o# t"e s ecial s"a e o# a ara%olic sur#ace$ all at"s #rom 7 to t"e re#lector and %ac+ to line 8* are t"e same lengt"! T"ere#ore$ '"en t"e arts o# t"e #ield are re#lected #rom t"e ara%olic sur#ace$ t"ey travel to line 8* in t"e same amount o# time! 7igure ;(>! ( -ara%olic re#lector radiation!

I# a di ole is used as t"e source o# transmission$ energy 'ill %e radiated #rom t"e antenna into s ace as 'ell as to'ard t"e re#lector! Energy '"ic" is not directed to'ard t"e ara%oloid "as a 'ide(%eam c"aracteristic '"ic" 'ill destroy t"e narro' attern o# t"e ara%olic re#lector! &o'ever$ a &EMIS-&ERICA6 S&IE6D 0not s"o'n1 may %e used to direct most o# t"e radiation to'ard t"e ara%olic sur#ace and t"us revent t"e destruction o# t"e narro' attern! Direct radiation into s ace is eliminated$ t"e %eam is made s"ar er$ and more o'er is concentrated in t"e %eam! Wit"out t"e s"ield$ some o# t"e radiated #ield 'ould leave t"e radiator directly! Since t"is art o# t"e #ield t"at 'ould leave t"e radiator 'ould not %e re#lected$ it 'ould not %ecome a art o# t"e main %eam and could serve no use#ul ur ose! In #igure ;(; t"e radiation attern o# a ara%oloid re#lector contains a ma9or lo%e and several minor lo%es! T"e ma9or lo%e is directed along t"e a3is o# revolution! Very narro' %eams are ossi%le 'it" t"is ty e o# re#lector! 7igure ;(B illustrates t"e %asic ara%oloid re#lector!

7igure ;(;! ( -ara%olic radiation

attern!

7igure ;(B! ( /asic

ara%oloid re#lector!

*ou may see several variations o# t"e %asic ara%oloid re#lector used to roduce di##erent %eam s"a es re)uired %y s ecial a lications! T"e %asic c"aracteristics o# t"e most commonly used ara%oloids are resented in t"e #ollo'ing aragra "s! Truncated -ara%oloid

7igure ;(C$ vie' 0A1$ s"o's a TRUNCATED -ARA/O6OID! Since t"e re#lector is ara%olic in t"e "ori,ontal lane$ t"e energy is #ocused into a narro' %eam! Wit" t"e re#lector TRUNCATED 0cut1 so t"at it is s"ortened vertically$ t"e %eam s reads out vertically instead o# %eing #ocused! T"is #an(s"a ed %eam is used in radar detection a lications #or t"e accurate determination o# %earing! Since t"e %eam is s read vertically$ it 'ill detect aircra#t at di##erent altitudes 'it"out c"anging t"e tilt o# t"e antenna! T"e truncated ara%oloid also 'or+s 'ell #or sur#ace searc" radar a lications to com ensate #or t"e itc" and roll o# t"e s"i ! 7igure ;(CA! ( Truncated ara%oloid!

T"e truncated ara%oloid may %e used in target "eig"t(#inding systems i# t"e re#lector is rotated E= degrees$ as s"o'n in vie' 0/1 o# #igure ;(C! Since t"e re#lector is no' ara%olic in t"e vertical lane$ t"e energy is #ocused vertically into a narro' %eam! I# t"e re#lector is truncated$ or cut$ so t"at it is s"ortened "ori,ontally$ t"e %eam 'ill s read out "ori,ontally instead o# %eing #ocused! Suc" a #an(s"a ed %eam is used to accurately determine elevation! 7igure ;(C/! ( Truncated ara%oloid!

Orange(-eel -ara%oloid A section o# a com lete circular ara%oloid$ o#ten called an ORAN.E( -EE6 RE76ECTOR %ecause o# its orange( eel s"a e$ is s"o'n in #igure ;( <! Since t"e re#lector is narro' in t"e "ori,ontal lane and 'ide in t"e vertical lane$ it roduces a %eam t"at is 'ide in t"e "ori,ontal lane and narro' in t"e vertical lane! In s"a e$ t"e %eam resem%les a "uge %eaver tail! T"e micro'ave energy is sent into t"e ara%olic re#lector %y a "orn radiator 0not s"o'n1 '"ic" is #ed %y a 'aveguide! T"e "orn radiation attern covers nearly t"e entire s"a e o# t"e re#lector$ so almost all o# t"e micro'ave energy stri+es t"e re#lector and very little esca es at t"e sides! Antenna systems '"ic" use orange( eel ara%oloids are o#ten used in "eig"t(#inding e)ui ment! 7igure ;(<! ( Orange( eel ara%oloid!

Cylindrical -ara%oloid W"en a %eam o# radiated energy t"at is noticea%ly 'ider in one cross( sectional dimension t"an in anot"er is desired$ a cylindrical ara%oloidal section '"ic" a ro3imates a rectangle can %e used! 7igure ;(F illustrates suc" an antenna! A -ARA/O6IC C*6INDER "as a ara%olic cross section in 9ust one dimension '"ic" causes t"e re#lector to %e directive in one lane only! T"e cylindrical ara%oloid re#lector is #ed eit"er %y a linear array o# di oles$ a slit in t"e side o# a 'aveguide$ or %y a t"in 'aveguide radiator! It also "as a series o# #ocal oints #orming a straig"t line rat"er t"an a single #ocal oint! -lacing t"e radiator$ or radiators$ along t"is #ocal line roduces a directed %eam o# energy! As t"e 'idt" o# t"e ara%olic section is c"anged$ di##erent %eam s"a es are o%tained! *ou may see t"is ty e o# antenna system used in searc" radar systems and in ground control a roac" 0gca1 radar systems! 7igure ;(F! ( Cylindrical ara%oloid!

Corner Re#lector T"e CORNER(RE76ECTOR ANTENNA consists o# t'o #lat conducting s"eets t"at meet at an angle to #orm a corner$ as s"o'n in #igure ;(D! T"e corner re#lector is normally driven %y a &A67(WAVE RADIATOR located on a line '"ic" %isects t"e angle #ormed %y t"e s"eet re#lectors! 7igure ;(D! ( Corner re#lector!

&ORN RADIATORS 6i+e ara%olic re#lectors$ you can use &ORN RADIATORS to o%tain directive radiation at micro'ave #re)uencies! /ecause t"ey do not use resonant elements$ "orns "ave t"e advantage o# %eing use#ul over a 'ide #re)uency %and! T"e o eration o# a "orn as an r# radiating device is similar to t"at o# an automo%ile "orn radiating sound 'aves! &o'ever$ t"e t"roat o# an automo%ile "orn usually is si,ed muc" smaller t"an t"e sound 'avelengt"s #or '"ic" it is used! T"e t"roat o# t"e r# radiating "orn is si,ed to %e com ara%le to t"e 'avelengt" %eing used! &orn radiators are used 'it" 'aveguides %ecause t"ey serve %ot" as an im edance(matc"ing device and as a directional radiator! &orn radiators may %e #ed %y coa3ial and ot"er ty es o# lines! &orn radiators are constructed in a variety o# s"a es$ as illustrated in #igure ;(E! T"e s"a e o# t"e "orn determines t"e s"a e o# t"e #ield attern! T"e ratio o# t"e "orn lengt" to t"e si,e o# its mout" determines t"e %eam angle and directivity! In general$ t"e larger t"e mout" o# t"e "orn$ t"e more directive is t"e #ield attern! 7igure ;(E! ( &orn radiators!

6ENS ANTENNAS Wit" a 6ENS ANTENNA you can convert s "erically radiated micro'ave energy into a lane 'ave 0in a given direction1 %y using a oint source 0o en end o# t"e 'aveguide1 'it" a CO66IMATIN. 6ENS! A collimating lens #orces all radial segments o# t"e s "erical 'ave#ront into arallel at"s! T"e oint source can %e regarded as a gun '"ic" s"oots t"e micro'ave energy to'ard t"e lens! T"e oint source is o#ten a "orn radiator or a sim le di ole antenna!

Waveguide Ty e T"e WAVE.UIDE(T*-E 6ENS is sometimes re#erred to as a conducting(ty e! It consists o# several arallel concave metallic stri s '"ic" are laced arallel to t"e electric #ield o# t"e radiated energy #ed to t"e

lens$ as s"o'n in #igure ;(5=$ vie's 0A1 and 0/1! T"ese stri s act as 'aveguides in arallel #or t"e incident 0radiated1 'ave! T"e stri s are laced slig"tly more t"an a "al# 'avelengt" a art! 7igure ;(5=A! ( Waveguide lens!

7igure ;(5=/! ( Waveguide lens!

T"e radiated energy consists o# an in#inite num%er o# RADIA6 SECTIONS 0RA*S1! Eac" o# t"e radial sections contains mutually er endicular E and & lines and %ot" are er endicular to t"e direction o# travel! /ecause eac" o# t"e radial sections travels in a di##erent direction$ t"e oint source$ in itsel#$ "as oor directivity! T"e ur ose o# t"e lens is to convert t"e in ut s "erical micro'ave segment 0'"ic" consists o# all o# t"e radial sections1 into arallel 0collimated1 lines in a given direction at t"e e3it side o# t"e lens! T"e #ocusing action o# t"e lens is accom lis"ed %y t"e re#racting )ualities o# t"e metallic stri s! T"e collimating e##ect o# t"e lens is ossi%le %ecause t"e velocity o# electromagnetic energy ro agation t"roug" metals is greater t"an its velocity t"roug" air! /ecause o# t"e concave construction o# t"e lens$ 'ave#ronts arriving near t"e ends o# t"e lens travel #art"er in t"e same amount o# time t"an do t"ose at t"e center! T"us$ t"e 'ave#ront emerging #rom t"e e3it side o# t"e lens a ears as a lane 'ave! It consists o# an in#inite num%er o# arallel sections 0'it" %ot" t"e E #ield and & #ield com onents1 mutually er endicular to t"e direction o# travel! Delay lens Anot"er ty e o# lens t"at you may see is t"e DIE6ECTRIC or META66IC DE6A* 6ENS s"o'n in #igure ;(55! T"e delay lens$ as its name im lies$ slo's do'n t"e "ase ro agation 0velocity1 as t"e 'ave asses t"roug" t"e lens! T"e delay lens is conve3 and is constructed o# dielectric material! T"e delay in t"e "ase o# t"e 'ave assing t"roug" t"e lens is determined %y t"e DIE6ECTRIC CONSTANT 0RE7RACTIVE INDE81 o# t"e material! In most cases$ arti#icial dielectrics$ consisting o#

conducting rods or s "eres t"at are small com ared to t"e 'avelengt"$ are used! 0Arti#icial dielectrics are o# t"ree(dimensional construction and act as a dielectric to electromagnetic 'aves!1 In t"is case t"e inner ortion o# t"e transmitted 'ave is decelerated #or a longer interval o# time t"an t"e outer ortions! T"e delay causes t"e radiated 'ave to %e collimated! 7igure ;(55! ( Delay(ty e lens!

6oaded Micro'ave 6ens T"e 6OADED MICROWAVE 6ENS$ s"o'n in #igure ;(5>$ is a multi(cellular array o# t"ousands o# cells! Eac" cell contains a slo'('ave 0delayed1$ serrated(metal$ lastic(su orted 'aveguide element '"ic" acts as a "ase(controlling device! A loaded lens can #ocus micro'ave energy in muc" t"e same 'ay as t"e 'aveguide ty e! T"e reason is t"at t"e s eed o# ro agation is "ig"er in t"e region %et'een arallel lates t"an in #ree s ace! T"e arallel lates su ort t"e cells! 7igure ;(5>! ( 6oaded lens!

T"e lens s"o'n in #igure ;(5> "as an egg(crate a earance %ecause it is really t'o lenses occu ying t"e same volume! Vertical lates ma+e u a lens t"at #ocuses a vertically olari,ed %eam$ and "ori,ontal lates "andle %eams '"ic" are "ori,ontally olari,ed! In ot"er 'ords$ t"is ty e o# construction can %e used in multi le(%eam a lications '"ere t"e olari,ation o# t"e %eams is di##erent!

@!5> W"at is t"e ur ose o# a collimating lensA @!5; &o' does a 'aveguide(ty e lens #ocus s "erical 'ave#ront micro'ave energyA @!5B W"at ty e o# lens decelerates a ortion o# a s "erical 'ave#rontA

ANTENNA ARRA*S S"ar ly directive antennas can %e constructed #rom t'o or more sim le "al#('ave di ole elements! T"ey must %e ositioned so t"at t"e #ields #rom t"e elements add in some directions and cancel in ot"ers! Suc" a set o# antenna elements is called an ANTENNA ARRA*! W"en a re#lector is laced %e"ind t"e di ole array$ radiation occurs in one direction 'it" a attern similar to t"e one s"o'n in #igure ;(5;! 7igure ;(5;! ( 7ield attern o# an antenna array!

*ou 'ill encounter t'o %asic ty es o# antenna arrays$ -ARASITIC and DRIVEN! /ot" ty es o# antenna arrays 'ere e3 lained in NEETS$ Module 5=$ Introduction to Wave Propagation, Transmission Lines, and Antennas! Only a %rie# revie' is resented in t"is c"a ter! T"e ara%olic re#lector antennas reviously discussed and t"e antenna s"o'n in #igure ;(5; are e3am les o# arasitic arrays! Notice t"at t"e re#lector in #igure ;(5; is not directly connected to t"e energy source! Driven arrays$ in '"ic" all t"e radiating elements are connected to t"e energy source$ "ave smaller losses t"an arasitic arrays '"ile retaining some o# t"e narro'(%eam c"aracteristics! -arasitic arrays$ suc" as t"e ara%olic re#lector$ are used rimarily as antennas in #ire control radars and ot"er installations$ suc" as micro'ave communication systems$ t"at re)uire very accurate 0narro'1 %eams! Driven arrays are used rimarily as searc"(radar antennas %ecause e3tremely narro' %eams are less critical t"an lo' losses!

I# you osition a num%er o# driven "al#('ave antenna elements 'it" res ect to eac" ot"er so t"at energy #rom t"e individual elements 'ill add in certain directions and cancel in ot"er directions$ t"en t"e antenna system is directional! Signals #rom a num%er o# di##erent sources may contri%ute to or su%tract #rom t"e overall e##ect! /y ro erly "asing t"e energy #ed to t"e antenna elements$ and %y ro erly locating t"e elements$ you can control t"e direction o# t"e energy! *ou can cause t"e energy to add in t"e desired direction and to %e out o# "ase 0cancel1 in t"e undesired direction! Driven arrays are usually made u o# a num%er o# "al#('ave di oles ositioned and "ased so t"at t"e desired directional attern 'ill %e ac"ieved! 7igure ;(5B$ vie' 0A1$ s"o's a sim le antenna array consisting o# t'o "ori,ontally mounted elements$ eac" a "al# 'avelengt" long and #ed in "ase! T"e resulting radiation attern is in a direction at rig"t angles to t"e lane containing t"e antenna conductor!

7igure ;(5B! ( &ori,ontal array #ield

atterns!

T"ree( and #our(element arrays are s"o'n in #igure ;(5B$ vie's 0/1 and 0C1$ res ectively! T"e #ield attern o# eac" array is s"o'n %eneat" it! Note t"at t"e %eam %ecomes s"ar er as t"e num%er o# elements is

increased! I# a still(narro'er %eam is desired$ you may add additional elements! T"e #ield atterns o# t"e antennas in t"e #igure are %idirectional! Unidirectional atterns may %e o%tained 'it" a arasitic re#lector mounted %e"ind t"e driven antenna elements! T"e /EDS-RIN. ARRA* 0#igure ;(5C1$ so called %ecause o# its resem%lance to a %eds ring$ is an e3am le o# a unidirectional antenna! It consists o# a stac+ed di ole array 'it" an untuned re#lector! T"e more di oles t"at are used or stac+ed in one dimension 0"ori,ontal$ #or e3am le1$ t"e more narro' t"e %eam o# radiated energy %ecomes in t"at lane! Conse)uently$ t"e si,e o# t"e antenna is not t"e same #or all installations! Antennas suc" as t"e %eds ring array are commonly used in TWO(DIMENSIONA6 SEARC& RADARS t"at o%tain t"e range and %earing in#ormation o# a target! 7igure ;(5C! ( /eds ring array!

7RE@UENC*(SENSITIVE ANTENNA T"e radar antenna in #igure ;(5< uses a #eed section to drive "ori,ontally stac+ed array sections '"ic" radiate t"e a lied r# ulses! T"e same array sections receive t"e target returns! Eac" array contains slots cut to radiate and receive a articular #re)uency! /earing data is o%tained %y mec"anically rotating t"e antenna ;<= degrees! Elevation data is o%tained %y electronic scanning o# t"e %eam in elevation! T"e radar antenna is #re)uency sensitive and radiates ulses at an elevation angle determined %y t"e a lied #re)uency! W"en t"e #re)uency is increased$ t"e %eam elevation angle decreases! Conversely$ '"en t"e a lied #re)uency is decreased$ t"e %eam elevation angle increases! T"e %eam elevation angle is t"ere#ore selected %y t"e a lication o# a #re)uency corres onding to t"e desired angle o# elevation! T"e "ysical lengt" o# t"e antenna #eed section$ called t"e SER-ENTINE SECTION 0#igure ;(5F1$ in relation to t"e 'avelengt" o# t"e a lied energy determines t"e direction o# t"e radiated %eam! *ou may understand t"is more clearly i# you consider "o' t"e %eam is s"i#ted! T"e s"i#t occurs 'it" a c"ange in #re)uency %ecause t"e ositive and negative ea+s o# t"e energy arrive at ad9acent slotted arrays at di##erent times! T"e c"ange in t"e #ield attern is suc" t"at t"e angle

o# de arture 0angle at '"ic" t"e radiated %eam leaves t"e antenna1 o# t"e %eam is c"anged! Note t"at a c"ange in "ase o# t"e a lied r# energy 'ould cause t"e same e##ect! 7igure ;(5<! ( 7re)uency(sensitive antenna!

7igure ;(5F! ( Ser entine #eed!

A S6OT ANTENNA e3"i%its many o# t"e c"aracteristics o# a conventional di ole antenna! W"en arranged in arrays$ a "ig" degree o# directivity can %e o%tained! Also$ t"e %eam can %e caused to scan a volume o# s ace %y c"anging eit"er t"e #re)uency or "ase o# t"e energy driving t"e antenna elements! /asic Slot Antenna and Its Com lementary Di ole T"e slot antenna consists o# a radiator #ormed %y cutting a narro' slot in a large metal sur#ace! Suc" an antenna is s"o'n in #igure ;(5D! T"e slot lengt" is a "al# 'avelengt" at t"e desired #re)uency and t"e 'idt" is a small #raction o# a 'avelengt"! T"e antenna is #re)uently com ared to a conventional "al#('ave di ole consisting o# t'o #lat metal stri s! T"e "ysical dimensions o# t"e metal stri s are suc" t"at t"ey 'ould 9ust #it into t"e slot cut out o# t"e large metal s"eet! T"is ty e o# antenna is called t"e COM-6EMENTAR* DI-O6E! 7igure ;(5D! ( Slot antenna and com lementary di ole!

T"e slot antenna is com ared to its com lementary di ole to illustrate t"at t"e radiation atterns roduced %y a slot antenna cut into an in#initely large metal s"eet and t"at o# t"e com lementary di ole antenna are t"e same! Several im ortant di##erences e3ist %et'een t"e slot antenna and its com lementary antenna! 7irst$ t"e electric and magnetic #ields are interc"anged! In t"e case o# t"e di ole antenna s"o'n in #igure ;(5D$ t"e electric lines are "ori,ontal '"ile t"e magnetic lines #orm loo s in t"e vertical lane! Wit" t"e slot antenna$ t"e magnetic lines are "ori,ontal and t"e electric lines are vertical! T"e electric lines are %uilt u across t"e narro' dimensions o# t"e slot! As a result$ t"e olari,ation o# t"e radiation roduced %y a "ori,ontal slot is vertical! I# a vertical slot is used$ t"e olari,ation is "ori,ontal! A second di##erence %et'een t"e slot antenna and its com lementary di ole is t"at t"e direction o# t"e lines o# electric and magnetic #orce a%ru tly reverse #rom one side o# t"e metal s"eet to t"e ot"er! In t"e case o# t"e di ole$ t"e electric lines "ave t"e same general direction '"ile t"e magnetic lines #orm continuous closed loo s! W"en energy is a lied to t"e slot antenna$ currents #lo' in t"e metal s"eet! T"ese currents are not con#ined to t"e edges o# t"e slot %ut rat"er s read out over t"e s"eet! Radiation t"en ta+es lace #rom %ot" sides o# t"e s"eet! In t"e case o# t"e com lementary di ole$ "o'ever$ t"e currents are more con#inedG so a muc" greater magnitude o# current is re)uired to roduce a given o'er out ut using t"e di ole antenna!

T"e current distri%ution o# t"e di ole resem%les t"e voltage distri%ution o# t"e slot! T"e edges on t"e slot "ave a "ig" voltage concentration and relatively lo' current distri%utionG t"e com lementary di ole "as a "ig" current concentration and relatively lo' voltage! Slot antennas are ada ta%le #or t"e v"# and u"# ranges! One o# t"eir ractical advantages is t"at t"e #eed section '"ic" energi,es t"e slot may %e laced %elo' t"e large metal sur#ace in '"ic" t"e slot is cut! T"us$ not"ing needs to e3tend #rom t"e sur#ace! In addition$ t"e slot itsel# may %e covered %y a section o# insulating material to rovide a seal so t"at t"e antenna can %e ressuri,ed 'it" dry air! Dry air ressuri,ation reduces moisture in t"e 'aveguide and revents arcing!

Many of the new radar systems reaching the fleet over the next few years will use frequency- or phase-sensitive antennas. Some of the new radars will use antennas that electronically scan the azimuth as well as elevation, eliminating the moving antenna.
T"e ANTENNA C&ARACTERISTICS o# micro'ave and lo'(#re)uency antennas are essentially t"e same! T"e e##iciency o# an antenna is e3 ressed as a -OWER .AIN or -OWER RATIO as com ared to a standard re#erence antenna! T"e STANDIN. WAVE RATIO 0s'r1 is a measurement o# t"e im edance mismatc" %et'een a transmission line and its load and is an indicator o# overall system e##iciency! DIRECTIVIT* re#ers to t"e direction in '"ic" an antenna radiates and t"e narro'ness o# t"e radiated %eam in DIRECTIONA6 ANTENNAS! OMNIDIRECTIONA6 ANTENNAS radiate and receive in all directions at once! RECI-ROCIT* is t"e a%ility o# an antenna to %ot" transmit and receive electromagnetic energy! RE76ECTOR ANTENNAS are antennas t"at use a re#lector to #ocus electromagnetic energy into a %eam t"at is directional in eit"er t"e vertical lane$ t"e "ori,ontal lane$ or %ot" lanes at once! T"e %asic -ARA/O6IC RE76ECTOR s"o'n in t"e illustration$ or one o# its variations$ is most o#ten used!

6ENS ANTENNAS use a CO66IMATIN. 6ENS to #orce t"e s "erical com onents o# a 'ave#ront into arallel 0#ocused1 at"s %y delaying or accelerating ortions o# t"e 'ave#ronts$ as s"o'n in t"e illustration!

An ANTENNA ARRA* is a set o# antenna elements and may %e one o# t'o %asic ty es$ t"e DRIVEN ARRA* or t"e -ARASITIC ARRA*! 7RE@UENC*(SENSITIVE ANTENNAS use #re)uency(sensitive slots as radiation sources to ac"ieve directivity! T"e angle at '"ic" t"e radiated %eam leaves t"e antenna is determined %y t"e #re)uency o# t"e radiated

energy! Currently t"e most common #re)uency(sensitive antennas use t"is #eature to ac"ieve elevation coverage '"ile a,imut" coverage is ac"ieved %y rotating t"e antennas! Ne' systems 'ill use stationary #re)uency(sensitive antennas to ac"ieve %ot" a,imut" and elevation coverage!