Biri VEIT Vedic Philosophy Edited by Shantanu Bose mma AtAB: 2110100308186! alfa Publications NEW DELHI-110 002 (INDIA)ALFA PUBLICATIONS 4398/5, Ansari Road, Daryaganj, New Delhi - 110 002 Phone : 23275092, 23274151 e-mail : alfapublications@yahoo.co.in Vedic Philosophy ©Reserved First Published, 2010 ISBN : 978-93-80096-94-0 [No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a _ Tetrieval system of transmitted, in any form or by any means, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without prior written permission of the publisher.] PRINTED IN INDIA Printed at: Navprabhat Printing Press, 275, FIE, Patparganj Delhi-110092Preface The Vedas are among the oldest sacred texts. The Samhitas date to roughly 1500-1000 BCE, and the “circum-Vedic” texts, as wellas the redaction of the Samhitas, date toc. 1000-500 BCE, resulting in a Vedic period, spanning the mid 2nd to mid 1st millennium BCE, spanning the Late Bronze Age and the Iron Age. Gavin Flood sums up mainstream estimates, according to which the Rigveda was compiled from asearly as 1500 BCE over a period of several centuries. The Vedic period reaches its peak only after the composition of the mantra texts, with the establishment of the various shakhas all over Northern India which annotated the mantra samhitas with Bralimana discus- sions of their meaning, and reaches its end in the age of Buddha and Panini and the rise of the Mahajanapadas (archaeologically, Northern Black Polished Ware). Michael Witzel gives a time span of c. 1500 BCE to c. 500-400 BCE. Witzel makes special reference to the Near Eastern Mitanni material of the 14th c. BCE the only epigraphic record of Indo-Aryan contemporary to the Rigvedic period. He gives 150 BCE (Pataijali) as a terminus ante quem for all Vedic Sanskrit literature, and 1200 BCE (the early Iron Age) as terminus post quem for the Atharvaveda.The general accepted historical chronology of the Vedas ranks the Rig Veda as the first, followed by the Yajur ‘Veda, Sama Veda and finally the Atharva Veda. Transmission of texts in the Vedic period was by oral tradition alone, preserved with precision with the help of elaborate mnemonic techniques. A literary tradition set in only in post-Vedic times, after the rise of Buddhism in the Mauryawi) period, perhapsearliestin the Kanva recension of the Yajurveda about the Ist century BCE; however oral tradition predomi- nated until c. 1000 CE. Due to the ephemeral nature of the manuscript material (birch bark or palm leaves), surviving manuscripts rarely surpass an age of a few hundred years. The Benares Sanskrit University has a Rigveda manuscript of the mid-14th century; however, there are a number of older Veda manuscripts in Nepal belonging to the Vajasaneyi tradition that are dated from the 11th century onwards. The major topics dealt in this book are ; Introduction to Vedas; Vedic Science; Ashvamedha; Rigveda; Ayurveda; Indian Mathematics; Hinduism; Historical Vedic Religion; Maharishi Mahesh Yogi; Indian Martial Arts; Madhyamaka Tradition; etc. No doubt, these will serve the purpose of trainees and trainers, professional and policy planners in the field. Since the sources of information are all secondary, we express our gratitude to the scholars whose works are cited or substantially made use of. We are thankful to all those who rendered ready help and cooperation while working on this project. We express our gratitude to various scholars, teachers and friends for their assistance and guidance. Finally, we thank our publishers for bringing out this book in very limited time. —EditorContents 11. ewe eXnage won ep Preface . Introduction to Vedas . Vedic Science . Ashvamedha . Rigveda Ayurveda . Indian Mathematics . Hinduism . Historical Vedic Religion . Maharishi Mahesh Yogi 10. Indian Martial Arts Madhyamaka Tradition Index (v) 48 76 104 116 152 174 200 221 2781 Introduction to Vedas The Vedas (véda, “knowledge”) are a large body of texts originating in Ancient India. Composed in Vedic Sanskrit, the texts constitute the oldest layer of Sanskrit literature and the oldest scriptures of Hinduism. The class of “Vedic texts” is aggregated around the four canonical Sambités ot Vedas proper (turiya), of which three (tray) are related to the performance of yajna (Sacrifice) in historical (Iron Age) Vedic religion: 1. the Rigveda, containing hymns to be recited by the hot or chief priest; 2. the Yajurveda, containing formulas to be recited by the adhvaryu or officiating priest; 3. the Samaveda, containing formulas to be chanted by the udgat. The fourth is the Atharvaveda, a collection of spells and incantations, stories, predictions, apotropaic charms and some speculative hymns. According to Hindu tradition, the Vedas are apauruseya “not of human agency”, are supposed to have been directly revealed, and thus are called eruti (“what is heard”).. The four Samhitas are metrical. The term samhita literally means “composition, complation”. The individual verses contained in these compilations are known as mantras. Some selected Vedic mantras are still recited at prayers, religious functions and other auspicious occasions in contemporary Hinduism.2 Vedic Philosophy The various Indian philosophies and sects have taken differing positions on the Vedas. Schools of Indian philosophy which cite the Vedas as their scriptural authority are classified as “orthodox” (Astika). Other traditions, notably Buddhism and Jainism, which did not regard the Vedas as authorities are referred to by traditional Hindu texts as “heterodox” or “non-orthodox” (nastika) schools. In addition to Buddhism and Jainism, Sikhism and Brahmoism do not accept the authority of the Vedas. Etymology and Usage The Sanskrit word véda “knowledge, wisdom’ is derived from the root vid- “to know”. This is reconstructed as being derived from the Proto-Indo-European root *u/eid-, meaning “see” or “know”. As a noun, the word appears only in a single instance in the Rigveda, in RV 8.195, translated by Griffith as “ritual lore”: yah samidha yé ahuti | yd védena dadicea mérto agndye | yé némasa svadhvaréh “The mortal who hath ministered to Agni with oblation, fuel, ritual lore, and reverence, skilled in sacrifice.” Geldner's translation of the same passage has Wissen “knowledge”. The noun is from Proto-Indo-European, cognate to “aspect”, “form”. Not to be confused is the homonymous 1st and 3rd person singular perfect tense véda, cognate to (w)oida “I know”. Root cognates are Greek OYé, English wit, etc., Latin video “I see”, etc. In English, the term Veda is mostly used to refer to the Sambitas (collection of mantras, or chants) of the four canonical Vedas (Rigveda, Yajurveda, Samaveda and Atharvaveda).Introduction to Vedas 3 The Sanskrit term veda as a common noun means “knowledge”, but can also be used to refer to fields of study unrelated to liturgy or ritual, e.g. in agada-veda “medical science”, sasya-veda “science of agriculture” or sarpa-veda “science of snakes” (already found in the early Upanishads); durveda means “with evil knowledge, ignorant”. The Vedas are among the oldest sacred texts. The Samhitas date to roughly 1500-1000 BCE, and the “circum-Vedic” texts, as well as the redaction of the Samhitas, date to c. 1000-500 BCE, resulting in a Vedic period, spanning the mid 2nd tomid 1st millennium BCE, spanning the Late Bronze Age and the Iron Age. Gavin Flood sums up mainstream estimates, according to which the Rigveda was compiled from as early as 1500 BCE over a period of several centuries. The Vedic period reaches its peak only after the composition of the mantra texts, with the establishment of the various shakhas all over Northern India which annotated the mantra samhitas with Brahmana discussions of their meaning, and reaches its end in the age of Buddha and Panini and the rise of the Mahajanapadas (archaeologically, Northern’ Black Polished Ware). Michael Witzel gives a time span of c. 1500 BCE to c. 500-400 BCE. Witzel makes special reference to the Near Easter Mitanni material of the 14th c, BCE the only epigraphic record of Indo-Aryan contemporary to the Rigvedic period. He gives 150 BCE (Patafijali) as a terminus ante quem for all Vedic Sanskrit literature, and 1200 BCE (the early Iron Age) as terminus post quem for the Atharvaveda.The general accepted historical chronology of the Vedas ranks the Rig Veda as the first, followed by the Yajur Veda, Sama Veda and finally the Atharva Veda. Transmission of texts in the Vedic period was by oral tradition alone, preserved with precision with the help of elaborate mnemonic techniques. A literary tradition set in only in post-Vedic times, after the rise of Buddhism in the Maurya period, perhaps earliest in the Kanva recension of the4 Vedic Philosophy Yajurveda about the Ist century BCE; however oral tradition predominated until c. 1000 CE. Due to the ephemeral nature of the manuscript material (birch bark or palm leaves), surviving manuscripts rarely surpass an age of a few hundred years. The Benares Sanskrit University has a Rigveda manuscript of the mid-14th century; however, there are a number of older Veda manuscripts in Nepal belonging to the Vajasaneyi tradition that are dated from the 11th century onwards. Categories of Vedic Texts The term “Vedic texts” is used in two distinct meanings: 1. texts composed in Vedic Sanskrit during the Vedic period (Iron Age India) 2. any text considered as “connected to the Vedas” or a “corollary of the Vedas” Vedic Sanskrit Corpus The corpus of Vedic Sanskrit texts includes: * The Samhita (Sanskrit samhita, “collection”), are collections of metric texts (“mantras”). There are four “Vedic” Samhitas: the Rig-Veda, Sama-Veda, Yajur- Veda, and Atharva-Veda, most of which are available in several recensions (wAkha). In some contexts, the term Veda is used to refer to these Samhitas. This is the oldest layer of Vedic texts, apart from the Rigvedic hymns, which were probably essentially complete by 1200 BC, dating to ca. the 12th to 10th centuries BC. The complete corpus of Vedic mantras as collected in Bloomfield’s Vedic Concordance (1907) consists of some 89,000 padas (metric feet), of which 72,000 occur in the four Samhitas. . The Brahmanas are prose texts that discuss, in technical fashion, the solemn sacrificial rituals as well asIntroduction to Vedas 5 comment on their meaning and many connected themes. Each of the Brahmanas is associated with one of the Samhitas or its recensions. The Brahmanas may either form separate texts or can be partly integrated into the text of the Samhitas. They may also include the Aranyakas and Upanishads. The Aranyakas , “wilderness texts” or “forest treaties”, were composed by people who meditated in the woods as recluses and are the third part of the Vedas. The texts contain discussions and interpretations of dangerous rituals (to be studied outside the settlement) and various sorts of additional materials. It is frequently read in secondary literature. some of the older Mukhya Upanishads (Bhadaranyaka, Chandogya, Katha). certain Satya literature, ie. the Shrautasutras and the Grhyasutras. The Shrauta Sutras, regarded as belonging to the smriti, are late Vedic in language and content, thus forming part of the Vedic Sanskrit corpus. The composition of the Shrauta and Grhya Sutras (ca. 6th century BC) marks the end of the Vedic period , and at the same time the beginning of the flourishing of the “circum-Vedic" scholarship of Vedanga, introducing the early flowering of classical Sanskrit literature in the Mauryan and Gupta periods. While production of Brahmanas and Aranyakas ceases with the end of the. Vedic period, there is a large number of Upanishads composed after the end of the Vedic period. While most of the ten mukhya Upanishads can be considered to date to the Vedic or Mahajanapada period, most of the 108 Upanishads of the full Muktika canon date to the Common Era. The Brahmanas, Aranyakas, and Upanishads often interpret the polytheistic and ritualistic Samhitas in6 Vedic Philosophy philosophical and metaphorical ways to explore abstract concepts such as the Absolute (Brahman), and the soul or the self (Atman), introducing Vedanta philosophy, one of the major trends of later Hinduism. The Vedic Sanskrit corpus is the scope of A Vedic Word Concordance (Vaidika-Padénukrama-Kosa) prepared from 1930 under Vishva Bandhu, and published in five volumes in 1935- 1965. Its scope extends to about 400 texts, including the entire Vedic Sanskrit corpus besides some “sub-Vedic” texts. Volume I: Samhitas Volume i: Brahmanas and Aranyakas Volume III: Upanishads Volume IV: Vedangas A revised edition, extending to about 1800 pages, was published in 1973-1976. Shruti Literature The texts considered “Vedic” in the sense of “corollaries of the Vedas” is less clearly defined, and may include numerous post-Vedic texts such as Upanishads or Sutra literature. The latter group of texts is called shruti (Sanskrit: eruti; “the heard’). Since post-Vedic times it has been considered to be revealed wisdom, as distinct from other texts, collectively known as smriti (Sanskrit: smti; “the remembered”), that is texts that are considered to be of human origin. This indigenous system of categorization was adopted by Max Miiller and, while it is subject to some debate, it is still widely used. As Axel Michaels explains: These classifications are often not tenable for linguistic and formal reasons: There is not only one collection at any one time, but rather several handed down in separate Vedic schools; Upanitads ... are sometimes not to be distinguished fromIntroduction to Vedas 7 Aranyakas...; Brahmanas contain older strata of language attributed to the SaChitas; there are various dialects and Jocally prominent traditions of the Vedic schools. Nevertheless, it is advisable to stick to the division adopted by Max Miiller because it follows the Indian tradition, conveys the historical sequence fairly accurately, and underlies the current editions, translations, and monographs on Vedic literature.” The Upanishads are largely philosophical works in dialog form. They discuss questions of nature philosophy and the fate of the soul, and contain some mystic and spiritual interpretations of the Vedas. For long, they have been regarded as their putative end and essence, and are thus known as Vedanta (“the end of the Vedas”). Taken together, they are the basis of the Vedanta school. Other texts such as the Bhagavad Gita or the Vedanta Sutras are considered shruti or “Vedic” by some Hindu denominations but not universally within Hinduism. The Bhakti movement, and Gaudiya Vaishnavism in particular extended the term to include the Sanskrit Epics and Vaishnavite devotional texts such as the Pancaratra. Vedic Schools or Recensions Study of the extensive body of Vedic texts has been organized into a number of different schools or branches (Sanskrit vakhi, literally “branch” or “limb”) each of which specialized in learning certain texts. Multiple recensions are known for each of the Vedas, and each Vedic text may have anumber of schools associated with it. Elaborate methods for preserving the text were based on memorizing by heart instead of writing. Specific techniques for parsing and reciting the texts were used to assist in the memorization process. Prodigous energy was expended by ancient Indian culture in ensuring that these texts were transmitted from generation to generation with inordinate fidelity. For example,8 Vedic Philosophy memorization of the sacred Vedas included up to eleven forms of recitation of the same text. The texts were subsequently “proof-read” by compating the different recited versions. Forms of recitation included the jata-pitha (literally “mesh recitation”) in which every two adjacent words in the text were first recited in their original order, then repeated in the reverse order, and finally repeated again in the original order. That these methods have been effective, is testified to by the preservation of the most ancient Indian religious text, the Rgveda, as a redacted into single text during the Brakmana period, without any variant readings. The Four Vedas The canonical division of the Vedas is fourfold (turiya) viz., 1. Rigveda (RV) 2. Yajurveda (YV, with the main division TS vs. VS) 3. Sama-Veda (SV) 4, Atharva-Veda (AV) Of these, the first three were the principal original division, also called “tray? vidya’, that is, “the triple sacred science” of reciting hymns (RV), performing sacrifices (YV), and chanting (SV). This triplicity is so introduced in the Brahmanas (ShB, ABr and others), but the Rigveda is the older work of the three from which the other two borrow, next to their own independent Yajus, sorcery and speculative mantras. ‘Thus, the Mantras are properly of three forms: 1. Ric, which are verses of praise in metre, and intended for loud recitation; 2. Yajus, which are in prose, and intended for recitation in lower voice at sacrifices; 3. Séman, which are in metre, and intended for singing at the Soma ceremonies.Introduction to Vedas 9 The Yajurveda, Samaveda and Atharvaveda are independent collections of mantras and hymns intended as manuals for the Adhvaryu, Udgatr and Brahman priests respectively. The Atharvaveda is the fourth Veda. Its status has occasionally been ambiguous, probably due to its use in sorcery and healing. However, it contains very old materials in early Vedic language. Manusmrti, which often speaks of the three Vedas, calling them trayam-brahma-sandtanam, “the ttiple eternal Veda”. The Atharvaveda like the Rigveda, is a collection of original incantations, and other materials borrowing relatively little from the Rigveda. It has no direct relation to the solemn CErauta sacrifices, except for the fact that the mostly silent Brahman priest observes the procedures and uses Atharvaveda mantras to ‘heal’ it when mistakes have been made. Its recitation also produces long life, cures diseases, or effects the ruin of enemies. Each of the four Vedas consists of the metrical Mantra or Samhita and the prose Brahmana part, giving discussions and directions for the detail of the ceremonies at which the Mantras were to be used and explanations of the legends connected with the Mantras and rituals. Both these portions are termed shruti (which tradition says to have been heard but not composed or written down by men). Each of the four Vedas seems to have passed to numerous Shakhas or schools, giving rise to various recensions of the text. They each have an Index or Anukramani, the principal work of this kind being the general Index or Sarvantukramani. Rigveda The Rigveda Samhita is the oldest extant Indic text. It is a collection of 1,028 Vedic Sanskrit hymns and 10,600 verses in all, organized into ten books (Sanskrit: mandalas). The hymns are dedicated to Rigvedic deities.10 Vedic Philosophy ‘The books were composed by poets from different priestly groups over a period of several centuries, commonly dated to the period of roughly the second half of the 2nd millennium BCE (the early Vedic period) in the Punjab (Sapta Sindhu) region of the Indian subcontinent. There ate strong linguistic and cultural similarities between the Rigveda and the early Iranian Avesta, deriving from the Proto-Indo-Iranian times, often associated with the Andronovo culture; the earliest horse-drawn chariots were found at Andronovo sites in the Sintashta-Petrovka cultural area near the Ural Mountains and date to ca, 2000 BCE. Yajurveda ‘The Yajurveda Samhita consists of archaic prose mantras and also in part of verses borrowed and adapted from the Rigveda, Its purpose was practical, in that each mantra must accompany an action in sacrifice but, unlike the Samaveda, it was compiled to apply to all sacrificial rites, not merely the Somayajna, There are two major groups of recensions of this Veda, known as the “Black” (Krishna) and “White” (Shukla) ‘Yajurveda (Krishna and Shukla Yajurveda respectively), While White Yajurveda separates the Samhita from its Brahmana (the Shatapatha Brahmana), the e Black Yajurveda intersperses the Samhita with Brahmana commentary. Of the Black Yajurveda four major recensions survive (Maitrayani, Katha, Kapisthala-Katha, Taittiriya). Samaveda The Samaveda Samhita (from séman, the term for a melody applied to metrical hymn or song of praise) consists of 1549 stanzas, taken almost entirely (except for 78 stanzas) from the Rigveda, Like the Rigvedic stanzas in the Yajurveda, the Samans have been changed and adapted for use in singing. Some of the Rigvedic verses are repeated more than once. Including repetitions, there are a total of 1875 verses numbered in the Samaveda recension translated by Griffith.Two majorIntroduction to Vedas u recensions remain today, the Kauthuma/Ranayaniya and the Jaiminiya, Its purpose was liturgical, as the repertoire of the udgit or “singer” priests who took part in the sacrifice. Atharvaveda The Artharvaveda Samhita is the text ‘belonging to the Atharvan and Angirasa poets. It has 760 hymns, and about 160 of the hymns are in common with the Rigveda. Most of the verses are metrical, but some sections are in prose. It was compiled around 900 BCE, although some of its material may go back to the time of the Rigveda, and some parts of the Atharva-Veda are older than the Rig-Veda though not in linguistic form. ‘The Atharvanaveda is preserved in two recensions, the Paippalada and Uaunaka. According to Apte it had nine schools (shakhas). The Paippalada text, which exists in a Kashmir and an Orissa version, is longer than the Saunaka one; it is only pastially printed in its two versions and remains largely untranslated. Unlike the other three Vedas, the Atharvanaveda has less connection with sacrifice. Its first part consists chiefly of spells and incantations, concerned with protection against demons and disaster, spells for the healing of diseases, for long life and for various desires or aims in life. The second part of the text contains speculative and philosophical hymns. The Atharvaveda is a comparatively late extension of the “Three Vedas” connected to priestly sacrifice to a canon of “Four Vedas”. This may be connected to an extension of the sacrificial rite from involving three types of priest to the inclusion of the Brahman overseeing the ritual. Brahmanas The mystical notions surrounding the concept of the ‘one “Veda” that would flower in Vedantic philosophy have12 Vedic Philosophy their roots already in Brahmana literature, for example in the Shatapatha Brahmana. The Vedas are identified with Brahman, the universal principle (UBM 10.1.1.8, 10.2.4.6). Vac “speech” is called the “mother of the Vedas” (UBM 65.34, 105.51). The knowledge of the Vedas is endiess, compared to them, human knowledge is like mere handfuls of dirt (TB 3.10.11.3- 5). The universe itself was originally encapsulated in the three Vedas (SBM 10.4.2.22 has Prajapati reflecting that “truly, all beings are in the triple Veda”). Vedanta While contemporary traditions continued to maintain Vedic ritualism (Srauta, Mimamsa), Vedanta renounced all ritualism and radically re-interpreted the notion of “Veda” in purely philosophical terms. The association of the three Vedas with the bhiir bhuoah svak mantra is found in the Aitareya Aranyaka: “Bhith is the Rigveda, bhuvah is the Yajurveda, soak is the Samaveda” (1.3.2). The Upanishads reduce the “essence of the Vedas” further, to the syllable Aum. Thus, the Katha Upanishad has: “The goal, which all Vedas declare, which all austerities aim at, and which humans desire when they live a life of continencé, I will tell you briefly it is Aum” (1.2.15) In Post-Vedic Literature Vedanga Six technical subjects related to the Vedas are traditionally known as vedinga “limbs of the Veda”. V.S. Apte defines this group of works as: “N. of a certain class of works regarded as auxiliary to the Vedas and designed to aid in the correct pronunciation and interpretation of the text and the right employment of the Mantras in ceremonials.”Introduction to Vedas 13 These subjects are treated in Siitra literature dating from the end of the Vedic period to Mauryan times, seeing the transition from late Vedic Sanskrit to Classical Sanskrit. The six subjects of Vedanga are: © Phonetics (iksa) © Ritual (Kalpa) © Grammar (Vyakarana) * Etymology (Nirukta) * Meter (Chandas) © Astrology (Jyotisa) Parisista Pariceista “supplement, appendix” is the term applied to various ancillary works of Vedic literature, dealing mainly with details of ritual and elaborations of the texts logically and chronologically prior to them: the Samhitas, Brahmanas, Aranyakas and Sutras. Naturally classified with the Veda to which each pertains, Parisista works exist for each of the four ‘Vedas. However, only the literature associated with the Atharvaveda is extensive. The Atvaliyana Grhya Pariceista is a very late text associated with the Rigveda canon. The Gobhila Grhya Pariceista is a short metrical text of two chapters, with 113 and 95 verses respectively. The Katiya Parieeistas, ascribed to Katyayana, consist of 18 works enumerated self-referentially in the fifth of the series (the Caranavydha) The Krsna Yajurveda has 3 parisistas The Apastamba Hautra Pariceista, which is also found as the second praena of the Satyasidha Urauta Siitra’, the Varaha Urauta Sitra Paridista and the Katydyana Urauta Satra Parittista.4 Vedtic Philosophy © For the Atharvaveda, there are 79 works, collected as 72 distinctly named parisistas. Puranas A traditional view given in the Vishnu Purana (likely dating to the Gupta period) attributes the current arrangement of four Vedas to the mythical sage Vedavyasa.. Puranic tradition also postulates a single original Veda that, in varying accounts, was divided into three or four parts. According to the Vishnu Purana (3.2.18, 3.3.4 etc) the original Veda was divided into four parts, and further fragmented into numerous shakhas, by Lord Vishnu in the form of Vyasa, in the Dvapara ‘Yuga; the Vayu Purana (section 60) recounts a similar division by Vyasa, at the urging of Brahma. The Bhagavata Purana (12.6.37) traces the origin of the primeval Veda to the syllable aum, and says that it was divided into four at the start of Doapara Yuga, because men had declined in age, virtue and understanding, In a differing account Bhagavata Purana (9.14.43) attributes the division of the primeval veda (aum) into three parts to the monarch Pururavas at the beginning of Treta Yuga. The Mahabharata (santiparva 13,088) also mentions the division of the Veda into three in Treta Yuga. Upaveda The term upaveda (“applied knowledge”) is used in traditional literature to designate the subjects of certain technical works. Lists of what subjects are included in this class differ among sources. The Charanavyuha mentions four Upavedas: * Medicine (Ayurveda), associated with the Rigveda * Archery (Dhanurveda), associated with the Yajurveda © Music and sacred dance (Gandharvaveda), associated with the Samaveda * Military science (Shastrashastra), associated with the AtharvavedaIntroduction to Vedas 15 But Sushruta and Bhavaprakasha mention Ayurveda as an upaveda of the Atharvaveda. Sthapatyaveda (architecture), Shilpa Shastras (arts and crafts) are mentioned as fourth upaveda according to later sources. “Fifth Veda” Some post-Vedic texts, including the Mahabharata, the Natyasastra and certain Puranas, refer to themselves as the “fifth Veda”. The earliest reference to such a “fifth Veda” is found in the Chandogya Upanishad. "Dravida Veda” is a term for canonical Tamil Bhakti texts. VEDIC SANSKRIT Vedic Sanskrit is an Old Indic language. It is the language of the Vedas, the oldest shruti texts of Hinduism, compiled over the period of the mid 2nd to mid 1st millennium BCE. It is an archaic form of Sanskrit, an early descendant of Proto-Indo-Iranian. It is closely related to Avestan, the oldest preserved Iranian language. Vedic Sanskrit is the oldest attested language of the Indo-Iranian branch of the Indo-European family. From ca. 600 BCE, in the classical period of Iron Age Ancient India, Vedic Sanskrit gave way to Classical Sanskrit as defined by the grammar of Panini. Vedic Sanskrit has been orally preserved asa part of the oral CErauta tradition of Vedic chanting. Linguists seek to restore the historical natural language of the Vedic period from the preserved Vedic Sanskrit texts. Five chronologically distinct strata can be identified within the Vedic language (Witzel 1989). 1. Rgvedic. The Rgveda retains many common Indo- Iranian elements, both in language and in content, \ that are not present in any other Vedic texts. Its creation must have taken place over several centuries, and apart16 v s w Vedic Philosophy from the youngest books (1 and 10), it must have been essentially complete by around 1200 BCE. . Mantra language. This period includes both the mantra and prose language of the Atharvaveda (Paippalada and Shaunakiya), the Rigveda Khilani, the Samaveda Samhita (containing some 75 mantras not in the Rigveda), and the mantras of the Yajurveda. These texts are largely derived from the Rigveda, but have undergone certain changes; both by linguistic change and by reinterpretation. Conspicuous changes include change of vieva “all” to sarva, and the spread of kuru- (for Rigvedic kno-) as the present tense form of the verb kar- “make, do”. This period corresponds to the early Iron Age in north-western India (iron is first mentioned in the Atharvaveda), and to the kingdom of the Kurus, dating from about the twelfth century BCE. Samhita prose (roughly 1100 BCE to 800 BCE). This period marks the beginning collection and codification of a Vedic canon. An important linguistic change is the complete loss of the injunctive and of the grammatical moods of the aorist. The commentary part of the Black Yajurveda (MS, KS) belongs to this period. . Brahmana prose (roughly 900 BCE to 600 BCE). The Brahmanas proper of the four Vedas belong to this period, as well as the Aranyakas (Aranyakas) oldest of the Upanishads (Brihadaranyaka Upanishad, Chandogya Upanishad, Jaiminiya Upanishad Brahmana). . Sutra language. This is the last stratum of vedic Sanskrit leading up to 500 BCE, comprising the bulk of the Shrauta and Grhya Sutras, and some Upanishads (E.g. Katha Upanishad, Maitrayaniya Upanishad. Younger Upanishads are post-Vedic).Introduction to Vedas 7 Around 500 BCE, cultural, political and linguistic factors all contribute to the end of the Vedic period. The codification of Vedic ritual reached its peak, and counter movements such as the Vedanta and early Buddhism emerged, using the vernacular Pali, a Prakrit dialect, rather than Sanskrit for their texts. Darius I of Persia invaded the Indus valley and the political center of the Indo-Aryan kingdoms shifted eastward, to the Gangetic plain. Around this time (4th century BCE), Panini fixes the grammar of Classical Sanskrit. Phonology Sound changes between Proto-Indo-Iranian and Vedic Sanskrit include loss of the voiced sibilant z. Vedic Sanskrit had a bilabial fricative , called upadhminiya, and a velar fricative , called jihvamuliya. These are both allophones of visarga: upadhmaniya occurs before p and ph, jihvamuliya before k and kh. Vedic also had a retroflex | for retroflex J, an intervocalic allophone of d, represented in Devanagari with the separate symbol and transliterated as 7 or 7h. In order to disambiguate vocalic | from retroflex I, ISO 15919 transliterates vocalic ! with a ring below the letter, 1. (Vocalic ris then also represented with a ring, r, for consistency and to disambiguate it additionally from the retroflex and k of some modern Indian languages.) Vedic Sanskrit had a pitch accent. Since a small number of words in the late pronunciation of Vedic carry the so-called “independent svarita” on.a short vowel, one can argue that late Vedic was marginally a tonal language. Note however that in the metrically restored versions of the Rig Veda almost all of the syllables carrying an independent svarita must revert to a sequence of two syllables, the first of which carries an udatta and the second a (so called) dependent svarita. Early Vedic was thus definitely not a tonal language but a pitch accent language.18 Vedic Philosophy P&nini gives accent rules for the spoken language of his (post-Vedic) time, though there is no extant post-Vedic text with accents. The pluti vowels (trimoraic vowels) were on the verge of becoming phonological during middle Vedic, but disappeared again. Principal Differences Vedic Sanskrit differs from Classical Sanskrit to an extent comparable to the difference between Homeric Greek and Classical Greek. Tiwari ([1955] 2005) lists the following principal differences between the two: Vedic Sanskrit had a voiceless bilabial fricative (called upadhmaniya) and a voiceless velar fricative (called jihwamuliya)—which used to occur when the breath visarga appeared before voiceless labial and velar consonants respectively. Both of them were lost in Classical Sanskrit to give way to the simple visarga. Vedic Sanskrit had a retroflex lateral approximant as well as its aspirated counterpart, which were lost in Classical Sanskrit, to be replaced with the corresponding plosives and. (Varies by region; Vedic pronunciations are still in common use in some regions, e.g. southern India, including Maharashtra.) The pronunciations of syllabic, and their long counterparts no longer retained their pure pronunciations, but had started to be pronounced as short and long and. . The vowels e and o were actually realized in Vedic Sanskrit as diphthongs /ai/ and /au/, but they became pure monophthongs /e/ and /o/ in Classical Sanskrit. The vowels ai and au were actually realized in Vedic Sanskrit as hiatus /a and /au, but they became diphthongs /ai/ and /au/ in Classical Sanskrit.Introduction to Vedas 19 © The Pratishakhyas claim that the dental consonants were articulated from the root of the teeth (dantamuliya), but they became pure dentals later. This included the /t/, which later became retroflex. Vedic Sanskrit had a pitch accent which could even change the meaning of the words, and was still in use in Panini’s time, as we can infer by his use of devices to indicate its position. At some latter time, this was replaced by a stress accent limited to the second to fourth syllables from the end. Vedic Sanskrit often allowed two like vowels to come together without merger during Sandhi. Grammar Vedic had a subjunctive absent in Panini’s grammar and generally believed to have disappeared by then at least in common sentence constructions. All tenses could be conjugated in the subjunctive and optative moods, in contrast to Classical Sanskrit, with no subjunctive and only a present optative. (However, the old first-person subjunctive forms were used to complete the Classical Sanskrit imperative.) The three synthetic past tenses (imperfect, perfect and aorist) were still clearly distinguished semantically in (at least the earliest) Vedic. A fifth mood, the injunctive, also existed. Long-i stems differentiate the Devi inflection and the Vrkis inflection, a difference lost in Classical Sanskrit. * The subjunctive mood of Vedic Sanskrit was also lost in Classical Sanskrit. Also, there was no fixed rule about the use of various tenses ([un, lan and lit). There were more than twelve ways of forming infinitives in Vedic Sanskrit, of which Classical Sanskrit retained only one form. Nominal declinations and verbal conjugation also changed pronunciation, although the spelling was20 Vedic Philosophy mostly retained in Classical Sanskrit. E.g., along with the Classical Sanskrit's declension of deva as deoah— deoau—devih, Vedic Sanskrit additionally allowed the forms devah—devd—devisah. Similarly Vedic Sanskrit has declined forms such as asme, tve, yusme, tua, etc. for the ist and 2nd person pronouns, not found in Classical Sanskrit. The obvious reason is the attempt of Classical Sanskrit to regularize and standardize its grammar, which simultaneously led to a purge of Old Proto-Indo-European forms. Proto-Indo-European and its immediate daughters were essentially end-inflected languages in which what would later become bound prefixes were still independent morphemes. Such morphemes (especially for verbs) could come anywhere in the sentence, but in Classical Sanskrit, it became mandatory to attach them immediately before the verb; they, then, ceased being independent morphemes and became prefix- morphemes bound to the beginnings of verbs. Substratum Vedic Sanskrit has a number of phonetic, morphological and syntactical features showing substratum influence of non-Indo-European sources, variously traced to the Dravidian or Munda language families. SANSKRIT METRE Verses in Sanskrit have a variety of different meters. They are divided by number of padas in a verse, and by the number of syllables in a pada. Chandas, the study of meter, especially Vedic meter, is one of the six Vedanga disciplines, or “organs of the vedas”. Common Vedic meters are: © jagati: 4 padas of 12 syllables © tristubh: 4 padas of 11 syllablesIntroduction to Vedas a © viraj: 4 padas of 10 syllables * anustubh: 4 padas of 8 syllables, this is the typical shloka of classical Sanskrit poetry © gayatri: 3 padas of 8 syllables Principles The main principle of Sanskrit meter is measurement by the number of syllables. The metrical unit of verse is the pada (“foot”), generally of eight, eleven, or twelve syllables; these are termed gayatri, tristubh and jagati respectively, after meters of the same name. A rcis a stanza of typically three or four padas, with a range of two to seven found in the corpus of Vedic poetry. Stanzas may mix padas of different lengths, and strophes of two or three stanzas (respectively, pragatha and tsca) are common. Syllables in a pada are also classified as metrically short (laghu “light”) or long (gura “heavy”): a syllable is metrically short only if it contains a short vowel and is not followed by consecutive consonants in the same pada. All other syllables are long, by quality (having a long vowel or diphthong) or by position (being followed by a consonant cluster). Comparison with the Avestan literature shows that originally there were no constraints on permissible patterns of long and short syllables, the principle being purely quantitative: Vedic prosody innovated a number of distinctive rhythms: * The last four syllables of a pada, termed the cadence by Indologists, are usually iambic or trochaic. This is mainly a strict alternation in the penultimate and antepenultimate syllables, as the final syllable can be of either weight. * A caesura is found after the fourth or fifth syllable in tristubh and jagati padas, dividing the pada into an opening and break before the cadence.2 Vedic Philosophy * The break very often starts with two short syllables. ‘* The opening shows an iambic or trochaic tendency in keeping with the cadence, though the first syllable can be of either weight, the alternation being in the second and third. There is, however, considerable freedom in relation to the strict metrical canons of Classical Sanskrit prosody, which Amold (1905) holds to the credit of the Vedic bards: It must be plain that as works of mechanical art the metres of the Rigveda stand high above those of modern Burope in variety of motive and in flexibility of form. They seem indeed to bear the same relation to them as the rich harmonies of classical music bear to the simple melodies of the peasant. And in proportion as modern students come to appreciate the skill displayed by the Vedic poets, they will be glad to abandon the easy but untenable theory that the variety of form employed by them is due to chance, or the purely personal bias of individuals; and to recognize instead that we find all the signs of a genuine historical development. Classification Arnold (1905) uses the term dimeter for metrical schemes based on.the 8-syllable (gayatri) pada, there being a two-fold division of a pada into opening and cadence; and the term trimeter for schemes based on 11-syllable (tristubh) or 12- syllable (jagati) padas, the division being into opening, break and cadence. The principal difference between the two forms of trimeter is in the rhythm of the cadence: generally trochaic for tristubh padas and iambic for jagati padas, Except for one significant collection, gayatri padas are also generally iambic in the cadence, The compatibility of iambic cadence underlies the significant variety of mixed meters combining gayatri and jagati padas.Introduction to Vedas 23 Dimeter Forms ‘Metres with two to six gayatri padas are named dvipada gayatsi, gayatri, anustubh, pafikti and mahdpaiikti. Of these, only the gayatri and anustubh are frequently found. Traditional Literature While Chandas, the study of Vedic meter, is one of the six ‘Vedanga (“limb of the vedas”), no treatises dealing exclusively with Vedic meter have survived. The oldest work preserved is the Chandas-shastra, at the transition from Vedic to Classical (Epic) Sanskrit poetry. Later sources are the Agni Purana, based on the Chandas shastra, chapter 15 of the Bharatiya Natyashastra, and chapter 104 of the Brihat-samhita. These works all date to roughly the Early Middle Ages. Vrittaratnakara of Kedarabhatta, dating to ca. the 14th century, is widely known, but does not discuss Vedic meter. The Suvrittatilaka of Kshemendra was also influential, and valuable for its quotations of earlier authors. A well-known quantitative scheme in the traditional literature classifies the common meters according to the syllable count of a stanza, as multiples of 4: thus, dvipada viraj (20), gayatri (24), usnih (28), anustubh (32), brhati (36), pafikti (40), tristubh (44), and jagati (48). This scheme omits the original viraj entirely (with 33 syllables) and fails to account for structural variations within the same total syllable count, such as the 28 syllables of the kakubh (8+12+8) versus the usnih (8+8+12), or the 40 of the later virdj (4x10) versus the paiikti (5x8). More comprehensive schemes in the traditional literature have been mainly terminological, each distinct type of stanza carrying its own name. The classification is exhaustive rather than analytic: every variant actually found in the received text has been named without regard to any need for metrical restoration. The most exhaustive compilations, such as the modern ones by Patwardhan and Velankar, contain over 600 metres.2 Vedic Philosophy This is a substantially larger repertoire than in any other metrical tradition. VEDIC PERIOD The Vedic Period (or Vedic Age) is the period during which the Vedas, the oldest sacred texts of the Indo-Aryans, were being composed. Scholars place the Vedic period in the second and first millennia BCE continuing up to the 6th century BCE based on literary evidence. The associated culture, sometimes referred to as Vedic civilization, was centered in the northern and northwestern parts of the Indian subcontinent. Its early phase saw the formation of various kingdoms of ancient India. In its late phase (from ca. 600 BCE), it saw the rise of the Mahajanapadas, and was succeeded by the Maurya Empire (from ca. 320 BCE), the golden age, classical age of Sanskrit literature, and the Middie kingdoms of India. The reconstruction of the history of Vedic India is based on text-internal details. Linguistically, the Vedic texts could be classified in five chronological strata: 1, Rigvedic: The Rigveda is by far the most archaic of the Vedic texts preserved, and it retains many common Indo-Iranian elements, both in language and in content, that are not present in.any other Vedic texts. Its creation must have taken place over several centuries, and apart from that of the youngest books (first part of 1 and all of 10), would have been complete by 1000(?) BCE. Archaeologically, this period may correspond with the Gandhara Grave Culture, the Cemetery H culture of the Punjab and the Ochre Coloured Pottery culture (OCP) further east. There is no widely accepted archaeological or linguistic evidence of direct cultural continuity from the Indus Valley civilization. . Mantra language: This period includes both the mantra and prose language of the Atharvaveda rpIntroduction to Vedas v3) wa 2 (Paippalada and Shaunakiya), the Rigveda Khilani, the Samaveda Samhita (containing some 75 mantras not in the Rigveda), and the mantras of the Yajurveda. Many of these texts are largely derived from the Rigveda, but have undergone certain changes, both by linguistic change and by reinterpretation. Conspicuous changes include change of vishva “all” by sarva, and the spread of the kuru- verbal stem (for Rigvedic krno-). This is the time of the early Iron Age in north-western India, corresponding to the Black and Red Ware (BRW) culture, and the kingdom of the Kurus, dating from ca. the 10th century BCE. Samhita prose: This period marks the beginning of the collection and codification of a Vedic canon. An important linguistic change is the complete loss of the injunctive. The Brahmana part (‘commentary’ on mantras and ritual) of the Black Yajurveda (MS, KS, TS) belongs to this period, Archaeologically, the Painted Grey Ware (PGW) culture from ca. 900BCE corresponds, and the shift of the political center from the Kurus to the Pancalas on the Ganges. Brahmana prose: The Brahmanas proper of the four Vedas belong to this period, as well as the Aranyakas, the oldest of the Upanishads (BAU, ChU, JUB) and the oldest Shrautasutras (BSS, VadhSS). . Sutra language: This is the last stratum of Vedic Sanskrit leading up to c. 500 BCE, comprising the bulk of the (Erauta and Grhya Sutras, and some Upanishads (e.g. KathU, MaitrU). All but the five prose Upanishads are post-Buddhist). Videha (N. Bihar) as a third political center is established. . Epic and Paninian Sanskrit: The language of the Mahabharata and Ramayana epics, and the Classical Sanskrit described by Panini is considered post-Vedic,26 Vedic Philosophy and belongs to the time after 500 BCE. Archaeologically, the rapid spread of Northern Black Polished Ware (NBP) over all of northern India corresponds to this period. The earliest Vedanta, Gautama Buddha, and the Pali Prakrit dialect of Buddhist scripture belong to this period. Historical records set in only after the end of the Vedic period, and remain scarce throughout the Indian Middle Ages. The end of Vedic India is marked by linguistic, cultural and political changes. The grammar of Panini marks a final apex in the codification of Sutra texts, and at the same time the beginning of Classical Sanskrit. The invasion of Darius I of the Indus valley in the early 6th century BCE marks the beginning of outside influence, continued in the kingdoms of the Indo Greeks, new waves of immigration from 150 BCE (Abhira, Shaka), Kushan and ultimately the Islamic Sultans. The most important historical source of the geography of post-Vedic India is the 2nd century Greek historian Arrian whose report is based on the Mauryan time ambassador to Patna, Megasthenes. Rigvedic Period The origin of the Vedic civilization and its relation to the Indus Valley civilization, Indo-Aryan migration and Gandhara Grave culture related cultures remains controversial and politically charged in Indian society, often leading to disputes on the history of Vedic culture. The Rigveda is primarily a collection of religious hymns, and allusions to, but not explanation of, various myths and stories, mainly in the younger books 1 and 10. The oldest hymns, probably in books 2-7, although some hold book 9, the Soma Mandala, to be even more ancient, contain many elements inherited from pre-Vedic, common Indo-Iranian society. Therefore, it is difficult to define the precise beginning of the “Rigvedic period”, as it emerges seamlessly from the era preceding it. Also, dueIntroduction to Vedas 27 to the semi-nomadic nature of the society described, it cannot be easily localized, and in its earliest phase describes tribes that were essentially on the move. RigVedic Aryans have a \ot in common with the Andronovo culture and the Mittanni kingdoms as well as. with early Iranians. The Andronovo culture is believed to be the site of the first horse-drawn chariots. Political Organization The grama (wagon train), vis and jana were political units of the early Vedic Aryans. A vish was a subdivision of a jana or “kxishti”, and a grama was a smaller unit than the other two. The leader of a grama was called gramani and that of a vish was called vishpati. The rashtra (polity) was governed by a rajan (chieftain, “king’). The king is often referred to as gopa (protector) and occasionally as samrat (supreme rutet). He governed the people with their consent and approval. He was elected from a restricted class of ‘royals’ (rajanya). There were various types ‘of meetings such as the vidhata or “Sabha”. Gana was the non-monarchial assembly that is a parallel one to the monarchial assemblies of that period headed by Jyestha the same was referred in Buddhist text named Jettaka. The Sabha, sitated outside of settlement, was restricted to the Vratyas, bands of roving Brahmins and Kshatriyas in search of cattle, with a common woman (pumscali) while the vidatha was the potlatch-like ritual distribution of bounty . The main duty of the king was to protect the tribe. He was aided by several functionaries, including the purohita (chaplain) and the senani (army chief; sena: army). The former not only gave advice to the ruler but also was his chariot driver and practiced spells and charms for success in war. Soldiers on foot (pattis) and on chariots (rathins), armed with bow and arrow, were common. The king employed spac28 Vedic Philosophy (spies) and dutas (messengers). He collected taxes (originally ceremonial gifts, bali), from the people which he had to redistribute. Society and Economy The concept of varna (class) and the rules of marriage were rigid as is evident from Vedic verses (RV 10.90, W. Rau 1957). The status of the Brahmins and Kshatriyas was higher than that of the Vaishyas and Shudras. The Brahmins were specialized in creating poetry, preserving the sacred texts, and carrying out various types of rituals. Functioning as intellectual leadership, they also restricted social mobility between the varnas, as in the fields of science, war, literature, religion and the environment. The proper enunciation of verses in ritual was considered essential for prosperity and success in war and harvests. Kshatriyas amassed wealth (cattle), and many commissioned the performance of sacrifices. Kshatriyas helped in administering the polity, maintained the structure of society and the economy of a tribe, and helped in maintaining law and order. 2 In the Early Vedic Period all the three upper classes Brahmins, Kshatriyas, and Vaishyas were considered as — relatively— equal Arya, but in the Later Vedic Age the Brahmins and Kshatriyas became upper class. The Vaishyas were pastoralists and farmers; the Shudras were the lower class; they included artisans and were meant to serve the upper three classes . As the caste system became deep-rooted there were many restrictions and rules which were to be followed. Cattle were held in high esteem and frequently appear in Rigvedic hymns; goddesses were often compared to cows, and gods to bulls. Agriculture grew more prominent with time as the community gradually began to settle down in post-Rigvedic times. The economy was based on bartering with cattle and other valuables such as salt or metals.Introduction to Vedas 29 Families were patrilineal, and people prayed for the abundance of sons. The Society was strictly organized in a system of four varna (classes, to be distinguished from caste, jati) Vedic Religious Practices The Vedic forms of belief are the precursor to modern Hinduism. Texts considered to date to the Vedic period are mainly the four Vedas, but the Brahmanas, Aranyakas and the older Upanishads as well as the oldest Shrautasutras are also considered to be Vedic. The Vedas record the liturgy connected with the rituals and sacrifices performed by the 16 or 17 Shrauta priests and the purohitas. The rishis, the composers of the hymns of the Rigveda, were considered inspired poets and seers (in post-Vedic times understood as “hearers” of an eternally existing Veda, CErauta means “what is heard”). The mode of worship was performance of sacrifices which included the chanting of Rigvedic verses (see Vedic chant), singing of Samans and ‘mumbling’ of offering mantras (Yajus) . The priests executed rituals for the three upper classes (varna) of Vedic society, strictly excluding the Sudras. People offered for abundance of rain, cattle, sons, long life and gaining ‘heaven’. The main deities of the Vedic pantheon were Indra, Agni (the sacrificial fire), and Soma and some deities of social order such as Mitra-Varuna, Aryaman, Bhaga and Amsa, further nature deities such as Surya (the Sun), Vayu (the wind), Prithivi (the earth). Goddesses included Ushas (the dawn), Prithvi and Aditi (the mother of the Aditya gods or sometimes the cow). Rivers, especially Saraswati, were also considered goddesses. Deities were not viewed as all-powerful. The relationship between humans and the deity was one of transaction, with Agni (the sacrificial fire) taking the role of30 Vedic Philosophy messenger between the two. Strong traces of a common Indo- Iranian religion remain visible, especially in the Soma cult and the fire worship, both of which are preserved in Zoroastrianism. The Ashvamedha (horse sacrifice) has parallels in the 2nd millennium BC Andronovo culture, in Rome and old Ireland, was continued in India until at least the 4th century AD and revived under Jay Singh in 1740 AD. Vedic religion evolved into the Hindu paths of Yoga and Vedanta, a religious path considering itself the ‘essence’ of the Vedas, interpreting the Vedic pantheon as a unitary view of the universe with ‘God’ (Brahman) seen as immanent and transcendent in the forms of Ishvara and Brahman. These post-Vedic systems of thought, along with later texts like ‘Upanishads, epics (namely Gita of Mahabharat), have been fully preserved and form the basis of modern Hinduism. The ritualistic traditions of Vedic religion are preserved in the conservative CErauta tradition, in part with the exception of animal sacrifice, which was mostly abandoned by the higher castes by the end of the Vedic period, partly under the influence of the Buddhist and Jain religions, and their criticism of such practices. The Later Vedic Period ‘The transition from the early to the later Vedic period was marked by the emergence of agriculture as the dominant economic activity and a corresponding decline in the significance of cattle rearing. Several changes went hand in hand with this. For instance, several large kingdoms arose because of the increasing importance of land and long distance trade. The late Vedic period, from ca. 500 BCE onward, more or less seamlessly blendsinto the period of the Middle kingdoms of India known from historical sources. Kingdoms The late Vedic period was marked by the rise of the sixteen Mahajanapadas referred to in some of the literature.Introduction to Vedas 31 The power of the king and the Kshatriyas greatly increased. Rulers gave themselves titles like ekarat (the one ruler), sarvabhauma (ruler of all the earth) and chakravartin (‘who moves the wheel’). The kings performed sacrifices like rajasuya (royal consecration), vajapeya (including a chariot race) and, for supreme dominance over other kings, the ashvamedha (horse sacrifice). The coronation ceremony was a major social occasion. Several functionaries, in addition to the purohita and the senani, took part. The role of the people in political decision making and the status of the Vaishyas as such was greatly decreased. A VEDIC WORD CONCORDANCE A Vedic Word Concordance (Sanskrit: Vaidika- Padénukrama-Kosa ) is a multi-volume concordance of the corpus of Vedic Sanskrit texts. It has been under preparation from 1930 and was published in 1935-1965 under the guidance of Vitivabandhu Uastri (d. 1973), with an introduction in Sanskrit and English. It aims to be “a universal vocabulary register” of “Vedic works, with complete textual reference and critical commentary bearing on phonology, accent, etymo- morphology, grammar, metre, text-criticism, and Ur-Aryan philology”. The work covers 123,000 word-bases and 5,000,000 word forms found in about 400 Vedic (Samhitas, Brahmanas, Aranyakas), (Upanishads (even very late ones), and most of the Vedanga) texts. However, the Vedanga section does not cover all published Shrauta or Grihya texts, while the Upanisad section also includes the Bhagavadgita. The concordance extends to about 11,000 pages, published in 16 parts: Section: Samhitas (6 parts), 1942-63. Section I: Brahmanas and Aranyakas (2 parts), 1935,36 Section II: Upanishads (2 parts), 194532 Vedic Philosophy Section IV: Vedangas (4 parts), 1958-61 Index (2 parts), 1964-65. A revised and enlarged edition was published 1973-1976. History of Development Acharya Vishva Bandhu Shastri continued the work of Swamis Vishveshvaranand and Nityanand who had published word indices to the four Vedic Samhitas in 1908-1910, leading the Vishveshvaranand Institute from 1924 until his death in 1973. After the partition of India, the institute moved to its present premises at Sadhu Ashram, Hoshiarpur, Punjab (Republic of India). Most of the c. 6000 Sanskrit manuscripts, formerly located at the Dayanand College of Lahore, were clandestinely brought to Hoshiarpur at the time. Since 1965, the institute has been incorporated in the Panjab University, Chandigarh as the Vishveshvaranand Institute of Sanskrit and Indological Studies (VISIS). Based on the Vedic Word Concordance, the institute currently compiles a Dictionary of Vedic Interpretation, of which the first volume, running up to the lemma Agni, has been completed. ee2 Vedic Science Vedic science may refer to a number of disciplines, ancient and modern, Hindu, occultist or New Age, proto- scientific, found in or based on the Vedas. Vedic Period * Vedanga, the six ancient disciplines subservient to the understanding and tradition of the Vedas 1. Shiksha (eiks4): phonetics and phonology (sandhi) . Chandas (chandas): meter . Vyakarana (vydkarana): grammar . Nirukta (nirukta): etymology . Jyotisha (jyotisa): astrology (Hindu astronomy) . Kalpa (kalpa): ritual Traditional au PWV * Historical Indian mathematics © Traditional Hindu units of measurement * Ayurveda, traditional medicine of India © Dhanurveda, traditional martial arts of India Modern * pseudoscientific claims of a prefiguration of modern science in the Vedas, see scientific foreknowledge in the Vedas34 Vedic Philosophy * Maharishi Vedic Science of Maharishi Mahesh Yogi * Vedic mathematics developed by Shri Bharati Krishna Tirthaji (not to be confused with historical Indian mathematics) SHIKSHA Shiksha is one of the six Vedangas, treating the traditional Hindu science of phonetics and phonology of Sanskrit. Its aim is the teaching of the correct pronunciation of the Vedic hyrans and mantras. The oldest phonetic textbooks are the Pratishakyas (pritivakhya, a vrddhi abstract from Sanskrit prati-tidkha), describing pronunciation, intonation of Sanskrit, as well as the Sanskrit rules of sandhi (word combination), specific to individual schools or Shakhas of the Vedas. Pratishakhyas The Pratishakhyas, which evolved from the more ancient padapathas (padapatha) around c. 500 BCE, deal with the manner in which the Vedas are to be enunciated. Five Pratishakhyas are preserved: * Rigveda-Pratishakya (Shakala shakha), attributed to Shaunaka © Shukla-Yajurveda-Pratishakhya © Taittiriya (Black Yajurveda) Pratishakhya, ed. Whitney 1871 * Atharvaveda-Pratishakhya (Shaunakiya shakha) * Shaunakiya Chaturaadhyaayika (Shaunakiya shakha) ‘The Pratishakhyas led to a great clarity in understanding the surface structure of language. For clarity of pronunciation, they propose breaking up the large Sanskrit compounds intoVedic Science 35 stems, prefixes, and suffixes. Certain styles of recitation (paitha) such as the jatépdtha involved switching syllables, repeating the last word of a line at the beginning of the next, and other permutations. In the process, a considerable amount of morphology is discussed, particularly regarding the combination of sequential sounds, which leads ta the modalities of sandhi. An even more important discovery recorded in the Pratishakhya texts, particularly the Samaveda Pratishakhya, which is claimed to be the earliest), is an organization of the stop consonant sounds into a 5x5 varga or square: ka kha ga gha Ea ca cha ja jha fia ta tha da dha na ta tha da dha na pa pha ba bha ma in which difference between sounds is preserved whether you recite it horizontally or vertically. This was extended and completed with fricatives and sibilants, semi-vowels, and vowels, and was eventually codified into the Brahmi alphabet, which is one of the most systematic sound to writing mapping. A scholar has commented: Mendelejev’s Periodic system of elements, the varga system was the result of centuries of analysis. In the course of that development, the basic concepts of phonology were discovered and defined. Other Shiksha Texts In addition, several Shiksha texts exist, most of them in metrical verse form but a few in sutra form. Some of these surviving texts are: English translation of Paniniya Siksa ¢ Amoghanandini Shiksha © Apisali Shiksha (in sutra form) © Aranya Shiksha. . Vedic Philosophy Atreya Shiksha Avasananimyaya Shiksha Bharadvaja Shiksha Chandra Shiksha of Chandragomin (sutra form) Charayaniya Shiksha Galadrka Shiksha Kalanirnya Shiksha Katyayani Shiksha Kauhaliya Shiksha Kaundinya Shiksha Keshavi Shiksha Kramakarika Shiksha Kramasandhaana Shiksha Laghumoghanandini Shiksha Lakshmikanta Shiksha Lomashi Shiksha Madhyandina Shiksha Mandavya Shiksha Mallasharmakrta Shiksha Manasvaara Shiksha Manduki Shiksha Naradiya Shiksha Paniniya Shiksha (versified) Paniniya Shiksha (in sutra form) Paniniya Shiksha (with accents) Parashari Shiksha Padyaatmika Keshavi Shiksha Pari ShikshaVedic Science 37 Pratishakhyapradipa Shiksha Sarvasammata Shiksha Shaishiriya Shiksha Shamaana Shiksha Shambhu Shiksha Shodashashloki Shiksha Shikshasamgraha Siddhanta Shiksha Svaraankusha Shiksha Svarashtaka Shiksha Svaravyanjana Shiksha Vasishtha Shiksha Varnaratnapradipa Shiksha Vyaali Shiksha Vyasa Shiksha Yajnavalkya Shiksha . . Although many of these Shiksha texts an attached to specific Vedic schools, others are late texts. Syllabicity Traditionally syllables (not letters) in Sanskrit are called Akshara”, meaning “imperishable (entity)”, as it were “atoms” of speech. These aksharas are basically classified mainly into two types, © Svara (pratyahara am): Vowel © Vyanjana (pratyahara han): Consonant Svara aksaras are also known as prana aksara i.e. they are main sounds in speech, without which speech is not possible. We find same notation used for referring the Tamil vowels calling them as Llyir ezhutthu. Panini referred to svara by ac pratyahéra, After him, they are referred as ac Aksara.38 Vedic Philosophy Vyafijana means embellishment, i.e., consonants are treated as embellishment for the vowels to make a language sonorant. They are also known as Prani akshara ie,, they are like a body in which life (svara) will be present. We find same notation used for referring the Tamil Consonants calling them as Mey ezhutthu. Panini referred to vyaiijana by Hal Pratyahdra. After him, they are referred as Hal akshara. Again vyafijana aksaras are divided into three types, * Vyaiijana © Sparsa: Stop o Antastha: Approximant o Usman: Sibilant Sparoea aksaras include syllables from Ka to Ma they are 25 in number. Antastha aksaras include syllables ya, ra, la and va. Ushman aksaras include «a, sha, sa and ha. It was told that a vowel can be pronounced in 18 ways (x2x3) in Sanskrit language based on timing, manner, and accent of pronunciation. Morae Each vowel can be classified into three types based on the time of pronunciation (morae). The unit of time is matra (approx. 0.4 second). They are, © Hrasva:: Short vowel, Eka-matra © Dirgha : Long vowel, Dvi-matra * Pluta: Prolonged vowel, Tri-matra (pluti) Each vowel can be pronounced in three ways according to timespan of articulation.Vette Science 39 Nasality Each vowel can be classified into two types based on the manner of pronunciation. They are Mukkha : Oral Nasika : Nasal (all vowels are considered phonemically oral) Pitch Accent Each vowel can be classified into three types based on accent of articulation. This was lost in Classical Sanskrit, but used in reciting Vedic & Upanishadic hymns and mantras. ‘Udatta:: high pitch Anudatta : low pitch Svarita : falling pitch Each vowel can be pronounced in three ways according to the accent of pronunciation. Traditional Articulatory Phonetics According to Indian linguistic tradition, articulation is analysed by different parameters and features. Places of Articulation Generally, in articulatory phonetics, the place of articulation (also point of articulation) of a consonant is the point of contact, where an obstruction occurs in the vocal tract between an active (moving) articulator (typically some part of the tongue) and a passive (stationary) articulator (typically some part of the roof of the mouth). According, to Indian linguistic tradition, the places of articulation (passive) are classified as five. They are:- Kanthya : Velar Talavya : Palatal40 Vedic Philosophy Mardhanya : Retroflex Dantya : Dental Oshtya : Labial . Apart from that, other places are combinations of the above five places. They are:- Dantésthya : Labio-dental (Eg: v) Kantatalavya : Eg: Diphthong e Kantésthya : labial-velar (Eg: Diphthong 0) The places of articulation (active) are classified as three, they are Jihvamila : tongue root, for velar Jihvamadhya : tongue body, for palatal Jihvagra : tip of tongue, for cerebral and dental Adhésta : lower lip, for labial Efforts of Asticulation Effort of articulation (Uccérana Prayatna) is of two types for consonants, Bahya Prayatna : External effort Sptsta : Plosive ishat Sprsta : Approximant ishat Samvrta : Fricative Abhyantara Prayatna : Internal effort Alpaprana : Unaspirated Mahaprana : Aspirated vasa : Unvoiced Nada : Voiced VYAKARANA ‘The Sanskrit grammatical tradition of vyakarana is one of the six Vedanga disciplines. It has its roots in late VedicVedic Science 41 India, and includes the famous work, Astidhydyi, of Panini (ca. 4th century BCE). The impetus for linguistic analysis and grammar in India originates in the need to be able to obtain a strict interpretation for the Vedic texts. The work of the very early Indian grammarians has been lost; for example, the work of Sakatayana (roughly 8th c. BCE) is known only from cryptic references by Yaska (ca. 6th-5th c. BCE) and Panini. One of the views of Sakatayana that was to prove controversial in coming centuries was that most nouns are etymologically derivable from verbs. In his monumental work on etymology, Nirukte, Yaska supported this claim based on the large number of nouns that were derived from verbs through a derivation process that became known as krit-pratyaya; this relates to the nature of the root morphemes. Yaska also provided the seeds for another debate, whether textual meaning inheres in the word (Yaska’s view) or in the sentence (see Panini, and later grammarians such as Prabhakara or Bhartrihari). This debate continued into the 14th and 15th ¢. CE, and has echos in the present day in current debates about semantic compositionality. Pre-Paninian Schools Panini’s Ashtadhyayi, which is said to have eclipsed all other contemporary schools of grammar, mentions the names of eleven schools of Sanskrit grammar that preceded it. The scholars representative of these schools are: ® Aindra ¢ Udkatdyana Apitiali (Pan. 6.1.92) * Uakalya2 Vettic Philosophy © Kasakrisna © Gargya © Géillava (Nir. 4.3) - © Kétiyapa (Pan. 8.4.67) © Senaka (Pan. 5.4.12) * Sphotiyana (Pan. 6.1.123) © Candravarmana © Kunaravidava (Pan. 3.2.14; 7.3.1) There is no surviving evidence of any of these schools that predates Panini except for Yska’s Nirukta. Yaska was a grammarian in the tradition of Uakatayana who. predated Panini by about a century. In Yaska's time, nirukta “etymology” was in fact a school in opposition to vyakarana “grammar” According to the nairuktas or “etymologists”, all nouns are derived from s verbal root. Yaska defends this view and attributes it to Uakatayana. Yaska also reports the view of Gargya, who opposed Uakatayana who held that certain nominal stems were ‘atomic’ and not to be derived from verbal roots Of the remaining schools, we know only what Yaska, Panini and later authors attribute to them, their original works being lost. Uakalya is held to be the author of the padapatha of the Rigveda (a word-by-word analysis of the mantra text). Panini’s School P&nini’s extensive analysis of the processes of phonology, morphology and syntax, the Astadhy@yi, laid down the basis for centuries of commentaries and expositions by following Sanskrit grammarians. Panini’s approach was amazingly formal; his production rules for deriving complex structures and sentences represent modern finite state machines. Indeed many of the developments in Indian Mathematics, especiallyVedic Science 43 the place value notational system may have originated from Paninian analysis. Panini’s grammar consists of four parts: * Uivasfitra: phonology (notations for phonemes specified in 14 lines) * Astadhyayi: morphology (construction rules for complexes) * Dhatupatha: list of roots (classes of verbal roots) © Ganapatha: lists classes of primitive nominal stems Commentators on Panini and some of their views: Katyayana (linguist and mathematician, 3rd c. BCE): that the word-meaning relation is siddha, ie. given and non-decomposable, an idea that the Sanskriticist Ferdinand de Saussure called arbitrary. Word meanings refer to universals that are inherent in the word itself (close to a nominalist position). Patanjali (linguist and yoga sutras, 2nd c. BCE) - author of Mahabhashya. The notion of shabdapramanah - that the evidentiary value of words is inherent in them, and not derived externally. Not to be confused with the founder of the Yoga system. The Nyaya school, close to the realist position (as in Plato). Considers the word-meaning relation as created through human convention. Sentence meaning is principally determined by the main noun, uddyotkara, Vachaspati (sound-universals or phonemes) The Mimamsa school. E.g. sentence meaning relies mostly on the verb (corresponds to the modem notion of linguistic head). Kumarila Bhatta (7th c.), prabhakara (7th c. CE).4 Vedic Philosophy Bharthari (c. 6th c. CE) that meaning is determined by larger contextual units than the word alone (holism). KadikAveti (7th century) Bhatti (c. 7th c. CE) exemplified Panini’s rules in his courtly epic the Bhattikavya. The Buddhist school, including Nagarjuna (logic/ philosophy, c. 150 CE) Dignaga (semantics and logic, c. 5th c. CE), Dharmakirti. Medieval Accounts The earliest external historical accounts of Indian grammatical tradition is from Chinese Buddhist pilgrims to India from the 7th century . * Xuanzang (602-664) * 1 Ching (634-713) + Fazang (643-712) The Indica of Al-Biruni (973-1048), dating to ca. 1033 contains detailed descriptions of all branches of Hindu science. Mughal Period Early Modern (Mughal period, 17th century) Indian Jinguists who revived Panini's school inchude Bhattoji Dikshita and Varadaraja. Similar to the Chinese Buddhists, Tibetan Buddhism aroused interest in India among its followers. Taranatha (born 1573) in his treatise of the history of Buddhism in India {completed around 1608) speaks about Panini and provides some information about grammars, but not in the manner of a person familiar with their content. Gaudiya Vaishnava Sanskrit grammar is outlined by Jiva Goswami in his Hari-namamta-vyakaranam.Vedic Science Modern Sanskrit Grammarians Beginning of Western Scholarship » Jean Francois Pons Henry Thomas Colebrooke « August Wilhelm von Schlegel * Wilhelm von Humboldt © Dimitrios Galanos 19th Century ¢ Ramakrishna Gopal Bhandarkar ¢ Franz Kielhorn * William Dwight Whitney * Bruno Liebich * Otto Boehtlingk * Georg Biihler * Franz Bopp * Jacob Wackernagel, Altindische Grammatik 20th Century to Present Leonard Bloomfield Paul Thieme Karl Hoffmann Louis Renou Bimal Krishna Matilal Johannes Bronkhorst George Cardona Paul Kiparsky Frits Staal Michael Witzel Kshetresa Chandra Chattopadhyaya Vagish Shastri .46 Vedic Philosophy NIRUKTA Nirukta (“explanation, etymological interpretation”) is one of the six Vedanga disciplines of Hinduism, treating etymology, particularly of obscure words, especially those occurring in the Vedas. The discipline is traditionally attributed to Yaska, an ancient Sanskrit grammarian. Yaska’s association with: the discipline is so great that he is also referred to as Niruktakara or Niruktakrit (“Maker of Nirukta”), as well as Niruktavat (” Author of Nirukta”). In practical use, nirukta consists of brief rules (sittras) for deriving word meanings, supplemented with glossaries of difficult or rare Vedic words. Nirukta is also the name given to a celebrated commentary by Yaska on the Nighantu, an even older glossary which was already traditional in his time. Yaska’s Nirukta contains a treatise on etymology, and deals with various attempts to interpret the many difficult Vedic words in the Nighantu, It is in the form of explanations of words, and is the basis for later lexicons and dictionaries. The Nighantu is now traditionally combined with the Nirukta as a unified text. A ctitical edition of the Nighantu and the Nirukta was published by Laskhman Sarup in the 1920s. Etymology Nirukta (Sanskrit) from mir forth, out + the verbal root vac to speak, utter. Uttered, pronounced, expressed, defined; as a noun, the etymological interpretation of a word, also the name of such works. Use of Nirukta in Rhetoric The related Sanskrit noun niruktih means “derivation”, or in rhetoric, an “artificial explanation of a word.”Vedic Science 47 Flourishes of rhetorical skills in the art of nirukta were considered a mark of commentorial authority. As a result, many Sanskrit commentaries include elaborate variations on possible word derivations, sometimes going far afield of obvious meanings in order to show hidden meanings. The nature of Sariskrit grammar, with its many contractions, gave rise to ample opportunities to provide alternate parsings for words, thus creating altemative derivations. Many examples of the rhetorical use of nirukta occur in Bhaskararaya’s commentaries. Here is an example from the opening verse of his commentary on the Ganesha Sahasranama. The opening verse includes Ganandtha as a name for Ganesha. The simple meaning of this name, which would have seemed obvious to his readers, would be “Protector of the Ganas”, parsing the name in a straightforward way as gana (group) + natha (protector), But Bhaskararaya demonstrates his skill in nirukta by parsing it in an unexpected way as the Bahuvrihi compound ganana + atha meaning “the one the enumeration (gananaA) of whose qualities brings about auspiciousness. The word atha is associated with auspiciousness (maEgalam).” This rhetorical flourish at the opening of the sahasranama demonstrates Bhaskaraya’s skills in nirukta at the very beginning of his commentary on a thousand such names, including a clever twist appropriate to. the context of a sahasranama. eo3 Ashvamedha The Ashvamedha was one of the most impostant royal situals of Vedic religion, described in detail in the Yajurveda (1S 7.1-5, VSM 22-25 and the pertaining commentary in the Shatapatha Brahmana (EBM 13.1-5). The Rigveda does have descriptions of horse sacrifice, notably in hymns RV 1.162-163 (which are themselves known as aavamedha), but does not allude to the full ritual according to the Yajurveda. Gayatri Pariwar have been organising performances of a modesnised version of the sacrifice, not involving actual animal sacrifice, since 1991. The Vedic Sacritice The Ashvamedha could only be conducted by a king (raja). Its object was the acquisition of power and glory, the sovereignty over neighbouring provinces, and general prosperity of the kingdom. The horse to be sacrificed must be a stallion, more than 24, but less than 100 years old. The horse is sprinkled with water, and the Adhvaryu and the sacrificer whisper mantras into its ear. Anyone who should stop the horse is ritually cursed, and a dog is killed symbolic of the punishment for the sinners. The horse is then set loose towards the North-East, to roam around wherever it chooses, for the period of one year (or half a year, according to some commentators), The horse is associated with the Sun, and its yearly course. If the horse wanders into neighbouring provinces hostile to theAshvamedha 49 sacrificer, they must be subjugated. The wandering horse is attended by a hundred young men, sons of princes or high court officials, charged with guarding the horse from all dangers and inconvenience. During the absence of the horse, an uninterrupted series of ceremonies is performed in the sacrificer’s home. After the return of the horse, more ceremonies are performed. The horse is yoked to a gilded chariot, together with three other horses, and RV 1.6.1,2 (YV VSM 23.5,6) is recited. The horse is then driven into water and bathed. After this, it is anointed with ghee by the chief queen and two other royal consorts. The chief queen anoints the fore-quarters, and the others the barrel and the hind-quarters. They also embellish the horse’s head, neck, and tail with golden omaments. The sactificer offers the horse the remains of the night's oblation of grain. After this, the horse, a hornless he-goat, a wild ox (go- mrga, Bos gavaeus) are bound to sacrificial stakes near the fire, and seventeen other animals are attached to the horse. A great number of animals, both tame and wild, are tied to other stakes, according to a commentator 609 in total (YV ‘VSM 24 consists of an exact enumeration). Then the horse is slaughtered (YV VSM 23.15, tr. Griffith) Steed, from thy body, of thyself, sacrifice and accept thyself. Thy greatness can be gained by none but thee. The chief queen ritually calls on the king’s fellow wives for pity. The queens walk around the dead horse reciting mantras. The chief queen then has to mimic copulation with the dead horse, while the other queens ritually utter obscenities. On the next moming, the priests raise the queen from the place where she has spent the night with the horse. With50 Vedic Philosophy the Dadhikra verse (RV 4.39.6, YV VSM 23.32), a verse used as a purifier after obscene language. The three queens with a hundred golden, silver and copper needles indicate the lines on the horse’s body along which it will be dissected. The horse is dissected, and its flesh roasted. Various parts are offered to a host of deities and personified concepts with cries of svaka “all-hail”. The ‘Ashoastuti or Eulogy of the Horse follows (RV 1.162, YV VSM 2424-45), concluding with: May this Steed bring us all-sustaining riches, wealth in good kine, good horses, manly offspring Freedom from sin may Aditi vouchsafe us: the Steed with our oblations gain us lordship! The priests performing the sacrifice were recompensed with a part of the booty won during the wandering of the horse. According to a commentator, the spoils from the east were given to the Hotar, while the Adhvaryu a maiden (a daughter of the sacrificer) and the sacrificer’s fourth wife. The Shatapatha Brahmana emphasizes the royal nature of the Ashvamedha: Verily, the Asvamedha means royal sway: it is after royal sway that these strive who guard the horse. (SBM 131.63 trans. Eggeling 1900) It repeatedly states that “the Asvamedha is everything” (SBM 13.4.2.22 trans. Eggeling 1900) Known Historical Performances Pusyamitra Sunga is said to have performed the Ashvamedha rite after he toppled Mauryan rule in 185 BC. A historically documented performance of the Ashvamedha is during the reign of Samudragupta I (d. 380), the father of Chandragupta Il. Special coins were minted toAshvamedha 51 commemorate the Ashvamedha and the king took on the title of Maharajadhiraja after successful completion of the sacrifice. There were a few later performances, one by Raja of Kannauj in the 12th century, unsuccessfully, as Prithviraj Chauhan thwarted his attempt and later married his daughter. The last known instance seems to be in 1716 CE, by Jai Singh II of Amber, a prince of Jaipur Performances in Hindu Epics Performances of the Ashvamedha feature in the epics Ramayana (1.10-15) and Mahabharata. In the Mahabharata, the sacrifice is performed by Yudhishtira (Book 14), his brothers guarding the horse as it roamed into neighbouring kingdoms. Arjuna defeats all challengers. The Mahabharata says that the Ashvamedha as performed by Yudhishtira adhered to the lefter of the Vedic prescriptions, After the horse was cut into parts, Draupadi had to sit beside the parts of the horse. In the Ramayana, Rama's father Dasharatha performs the Ashvamedha, which is described in the bala kanda (book 1) of the poem. The Ramayana provides far more detail than the Mahabharata. The ritual take place for three days preceded by sage Rishyasringa and Vasista(?.14.41,42). Again itis stated that the ritual was performed in strict compliance with Vedic prescriptions (1.14.10). Dasaratha’s chief wife Kausalya circumambulates the horse and ritually pierces its flesh (1.14.33). Then “Queen Kausalya desiring the results of ritual disconcertedly resided one night with that horse that flew away like a bird.” [1-14-34]. The fat of the sacrificed horse is then burnt in ritual fire and after that the remaining parts of the body with spoons made out of Plaksha tree branches(1.14.36,38-39), At the conclusion of the ritual Dasharatha symbolically offers his other wives to the presiding priests, who return them in exchange. for expensive gifts52 Vedlic Philosophy (1.14.35). The four sides of the Yagna alter is also donated to priests who had done the ritual and it is exchanged by them for gold, silver, cows and other gifts(1.15.43-44). The ritual is performed again towards the end of the poem, but in very different circumstances. It figures centrally in the uttara kanda (book 7) where it leads to the final major story in the poem. In this narrative, Rama was married to a single wife, Sita, who at the time was not with him, having been excluded from Rama’s capital of Ayodhya. She was therefore represented by a statue for the queen’s ceremony (7.x). Sita was living in Valmiki’s forest ashram with her twin. children by Rama, Lava and Kusha, whose birth was unknown to Rama. In its wanderings, the horse, accompanied by an army and Hanuman, enters the forest and encounters Lava, who ignores the warning written on the horse's headplate not to hinder its progress. He tethers the horse, and with Kusha challenges the army, which is unable to defeat the brothers. Recognising Rama’s sons, Hanuman sends them to Ayodhya where they are reconciled with their father, who also accepts Sita back at court. Sita, however, no longer wishes to live, and is absorbed by the earth. It is never stated whether the sacrifice was completed, but after Sita’s death Rama is said to have repeatedly performed the Ashvamedha using the golden statue as a substitute for his wife. Some historians believe that the bala kanda and uttara kanda were latter interpolations to the authentic form of the Ramayana, due to references to Greek, Parthians and Sakas, dating to no earlier than the 2nd century BCE Indo-European Comparison Many Indo-European branches show evidence for horse sacrifice, and comparative mythology suggests that they derive from a PIE ritual. The Ashvamedha is the clearest evidence preserved, but vestiges from Latin and Celtic traditions allow the reconstruction of a few common attributes.Ashvamedha 53, The Gaulish personal name Epomeduos is from *ek’wo- medhu- “horse+mead”, while ashvamedha is either from *ek’wo- mad-dho- “horse+drunk” or *ek’wo-mey-dho- “horse+strengti”. ‘The reconstructed myth invoives the coupling of a king with a divine mare which produced the divine twins. Some scholars, including Edgar Polomé, regard the reconstruciton of a PIE ritual as unjustified due to the difference between the attested traditions (EIEC s.v. Horse, p. 278). Vedanta and Puranas The Brhadaranyaka Upanishad (a mystical appendix to the Shatapatha Brahmana and likely the oldest of the Upanishads) has a creation myth where Mtyu “Death” takes the shape of a horse, and includes an identification of the Ashvamedha with the Sun: Then he became a horse (ashva), because 1r swelled (ashoat), and was fit for sacrifice (medltya); and this is why the horse-sacrifice is called Ashva-medha Therefore the sacrificers offered up the purified horse belonging to Prajapati, (as dedicated) to all the deities. Verily the shining sun [ye tapati] is the Asvamedha, and his body is the year; Agni is the sacrificial fire (arka), and these worlds are his bodies. These two are the sacrificial fire and the Asvamedha-sacrifice, and they are again one deity, viz. Death. (BrUp 1.2.7. trans. Miller) 7 The Upanishads describe ascetic austerities as an “inner Ashvamedha”, as opposed to the “outer” royal ritual performed in the physical world, in.keeping with the general tendency of Vedanta to move away from priestly ritual towards spiritual introspection; verse 6 of the Avadhuta Upanishad has: “Through extreme devotion [sam-grahanesti] he [the ascetic] performs ashvamedha within [anta]. That is the greatest sacrifice [mahd-makha] and the greatest meditation [maha-yoga).”54 Vedic Philosophy According to the Brahma Vaivarta Purana (185.180), the Ashvamedha is one of five rites forbidden in the Kali Yuga. In Hindu Revivalism In the Arya Samaj reform movement of Dayananda Sarasvati, the Ashvamedha is considered an allegory or a ritual to get connected to the “inner Sun” (Prana) Dayananda in his Introduction to the commentary on the Vedas rejected the classical commentaries of the Vedas by Sayana, Mahidhara and Uvata as medieval corruptions “opposed to the real meaning of the Vedas” (p. 443) in order to arrive at an entirely symbolic interpretation of the ritual: “An empire is like a horse and the subjects like other inferior animals” (p. 448). Thus, VSM 23.22, literally “he beats on the vulva (gabha), the penis (pasas) oozes repeatedly (ni-galgaliti) in the receptacle” is interpreted not in terms of the horse and the queen, but in terms of the king and his subjects, “The subjects are called gabha (to be seized), kingly power called pasa (tobe penetrated)” (p. 454). This interpretation is apparently based on a verse from Shatapatha Brahmana. Following Dayananda, Arya Samaj disputes the very existence of the pre-Vedantic ritual; thus Swami Satya Prakash Saraswati claims that “the word in the sense of the Horse Sacrifice does not occur in the Samhitas In the terms of cosmic analogy, ashva is the Sun. In respect to the adhyatma paksha, the Prajapati-Agni, or the Purusha, the Creator, is the Ashva; He is the same as the Varuna, the Most Supreme. The word medha stands for homage; it later on became synonymous with oblations in rituology, since oblations are offered, dedicated to the one whom we pay homage. The word deteriorated further when it came to mean ‘slaughter’ or ‘sacrifice’. arguing that the animals listed as sacrificial victims are just as symbolic as the list of human victims listed in theAshvamedha 55 Purushamedha (which is generally accepted as a purely symbolic sacrifice already in Rigvedic times). Other commentators accept the existence of the sacrifice but reject the notion that the queen lay down with the dead horse. Thus Subhash Kak in a blog posting suggests that the queen Jay down with a toy horse’ rather than with the slaughtered stallion, due to presence of the word Ashvaka, similar to Shivaka meaning “idol or image of Shiva” All World Gayatri Pariwar since 1991 has organized performances of a “modern version” of the Ashvamedha where a statue is used in place of a real horse, according to Hinduism Today with a million participants in Chitrakoot, Madhya Pradesh on April 16 to 20, 1994. Such modern performances are sattvika Yajnas where the animal is worshipped without killing it,, the religious motivation being prayer for overcoming enemies, the facilitation of child welfare and development, and clearance of debt, entirely within the allegorical interpretation of the ritual, and with no actual sacrifice of any animal, nor any sexual connotations. Criticism and Controversy The earliest recorded criticism of the ritual comes from. the Crvaka, an atheistic school of Indian philosophy that assumed various forms of philosophical skepticism and religious indifference. A quotation of the Carvaka from Madhavacharya’s Sarva-Darsana-Sangraha states: The three authors of the Vedas were buffoons, knaves, and demons. All the well-known formulae of the pandits, jarphari, turphari, etc. and all the obscene rites for the queen commanded in Aswamedha, these were invented by buffoons, and so all the various kinds of presents to the priests, while the eating of flesh was similarly commanded by night-prowling demons. The mock bestiality and necrophilia involved in the ritual caused considerable consternation among the scholars56 Vedic Philosophy first editing the Yajurveda. Griffith (1899) omits verses VSM 23.20-31 (the ritual obscenities), protesting that they are “not reproducible even in the semi-obscurity of a leaned European language” (alluding to other instances where he renders explicit scenes in Latir. sather than English). A. B. Keith’s 1914 translation also omits verses. This part of the ritual offended the Dalit reformer and framer of the Indian constitution B. R. Ambedkar and is frequently mentioned in his writings as an example of the perceived degradation of Brahmanical culture. HORSE SACRIFICE Many Indo-European branches show evidence for horse sacrifice, and comparative mythology suggests that they derive from a Proto-Indo-European ritual. In most instances, the horses are sacrificed in a funerary context, and interred with the deceased. There is evidence from three branches of Indo-Europeans of a major horse sacrifice ritual based on a mythical union of Indo-European kingship and the horse. The Indian Acevamedha is the clearest evidence preserved, but vestiges from Latin and Celtic traditions allow the reconstruction of a few common attributes. Some scholars, including Edgar Polomé, regards the reconstruction ofa PIE ritual as unjustified due to the difference between the attested traditions (Encyclopedia of Indo- European Culture see Horse, p. 278). The Gaulish personal name Epomeduos is from ek’w0- medhu- (“horse + mead”), while aavamedha is either from ek’wo-mad-dho- (“horse + drunk”) or ek’wo-mey-dho- (“horse + strength”). Mythology ‘The reconstructed myth involves the coupling of a king with a divine mare which produced the divine twins. AAshoamedha 57 related myth is that of a hero magically twinned with a horse foaled at the time of his birth (for example Cuchulainn, Pryderi), suggested to be fundamentally the same myth as that of the divine twin horsemen by the mytheme of a “mare- suckled” hero from Greek and medieval Serbian evidence, or mythical horses with human traits (Xanthos), suggesting, totemic identity of the Indo-European hero or king with the horse. Comparative Evidence The Indian Ashvamedha involves the following: 1. the sacrifice is connected with the elevation or inauguration of a member of the wartior caste the ceremony took place in springtime the horse sacrificed was a grey or white stallion .. the stallion selected was one which excelled at the right side of the chariot AEN a . it was bathed in water wherein a sacrificed dog had been deposited . it was sacrificed alongside a homless ram and a he- goat a ™ the queen underwent “mock-coupling” with the stallion = the stallion was dissected and its portions awarded to various deities The Roman Equus October ceremony involves: 1. the horse was dedicated to Mars 2. the sacrifice took place in September to October, corresponding to the Indian “month of the yoked horses” (ashoayuja). 3. the horse sacrificed was a stallion which excelled at the right side of the chariot58 Vedic Philosophy 4, the slaughtered stallion is dismembered and various parts (head and tail, and possibly the penis) are sent to different locations The Irish ceremony as recorded by Geraldus Cambrensis: 1. the king likely (Geraldus is not explicit) couples with the mare to be sacrificed nv . the horse is dismembered and cooked in a cauldron, and consumed by the king who is also sitting in the cauldron The Norse ceremony according to the description in Hervarar saga of the Swedish inauguration of Blot-Sweyn, the last or next to last pagan Germanic king, c. 1080: 1, the horse is dismembered for eating, 2. the blood is sprinkled on the sacred tree at Uppsala. The Vélsa pattr also mentions religious veneration of the penis of a slaughtered stallion. Archaeology ‘The primary archaeological context of horse sacrifice are burials, notably chariot burials, but graves with horse remains reach from the Eneolithic well into historical times. Herodotus describes the execution of horses at the burial of a Scythian king, and Iron Age kurgan graves known to contain horses number in the hundreds. There are also frequent deposition of horses in burials in Iron Age India. The custom is by no means restricted to Indo-European populations, but is continued by Turkic tribes as the cultural successors of the Scythians ANIMAL SACRIFICE Animal sacrifice is the ritual killing of an animal as part of a religion. It is practiced by many religions as a means of appeasing a god or gods or changing the course of nature.Ashvamedha 59 Animal sacrifice has turned up in almost all cultures, from the Hebrews to the Greeks and Romans and from the Aztecs to the Hindus. Remnants of ancient rituals of animal sacrifice are apparent in many cultures, for example the Spanish bullfights, or kappatos in Judaism, or ritual prescriptions for slaughtering procedures like shechita or abihah, Slaughtering lambs is a common practice in Islam {the meat being consumed, not burned). Ancient World Animal sacrifices were common throughout the Ancient Near East, as well as some of the Mediterranean islands. For example the Minoan culture of Phaistos on Crete reveals basins for animal sacrifice dating to the period 2000 to 1700 BC. Indo-European Cultures Historical Vedic religion: Ashvamedha Ancient Roman religion: Equus October, Tauromachy, Taurobolium Ancient Greek religion: Holocaust (sacrifice), Hecatomb Celtic paganism © Germanic paganism: Blét Hinduism The basis of Hindu scriptures are the Vedas, which encourage Vedic Sacrifices (Yajna). These include the Ashwamedha (Horse Sacrifice), as well as the Somayaagam and Agnistoma (involving the sacrifice of goats). The meat of the animals were never eaten (nor were the animals actually killed by the priests themselves), and asphyxiation was used to minimise discomfort to the creature. Due to protests by activists, recent performances of the Somayaagam and60 Vedic Philosophy Agnistoma in Kerala have used “pishta pashu” (forms of animals made out of paste) as a substitute for live animals. Although many Hindus are vegetarian, there are Hindu temples in India as well as Nepal where goats and chickens are sacrificed. These sacrifices are mainly done at mandirs following the Shakti school of Hinduism where the female nature of Brahman is worshipped in the form of Kali Ma and Durga. There are many village temples in Tamil Nadu where this kind of sacrifice takes place. Even in many Sakti shrines of Orissa animals like goat and chicken are sacrificed on Durga Puja in the month of Aswina (September-October) every year. In Sambalpur, this ritual sacrifice is performed in the Samaleswari temple (Pasayat, 2003:67-84). . The Hindu way of animal sacrifice/slaughter is called Jhatka, where the head of the animal is severed completely by a single blow of a heavy sword. This is considered to be the Tost merciful and painless death for the animai, as the spinal cord and the blood supply to the brain are severed immediately. Today much of the urban Hindu community disapproves of animal sacrifice, which has been phased out in many urbai areas. There still remain many traditional practices in conservative rural areas, where attempts to stop the practices have been met with resistance. Possibly the largest animal sacrifice in the world occurs during Gadhimai festival in Nepal. In the 3 day long sacrifice in 2009 it was speculated that more than 250,000 animals were killed’ while 5 million devotees attended the festival. Judaism Many Jewish sources discuss the deeper meaning behind korbariot, For example, Sefer Hachinuch explains that an individual bringing an animal sacrifice for a sin understands that he personally should have been sacrificed as punishmentAshvamedha 61 for the rebellion against God inherent his the sin, but God mercifully accepts the sacrifice in his or her place. Furthermore, it is considered fitting that an animal is used as a sacrifice because at the moment of sin, the individual in question disregarded his elevated human soul, effectively acting as an animal. Christianity References to animal sacrifice appear in the New Testament, such as the parents of Jesus sacrificing two doves (Luke 2:24) and the Apostle Paul performing a Nazirite vow even after the death of Christ (Acts 21:23-26). The Christ is referred to by his apostles as “the Lamb of God,” the one to whom all sacrifices pointed (Hebrews 10), in fulfillment of a, within the Christian context, lacking understanding of such substitution as expressed in Judaism. Islam Wealthy Muslims sacrifice an animal during the Festival of Sacrifice (Eid ul-Adha). This is also the time of Hajj (Pilgrimage to Mecca). Usually a sheep or goat (sometimes cattle or even camel) is sacrificed then distributed to the poor, in commemoration of God’ s forgiveness of Ibrahim (Abraham) from his vow to sacrifice his son Ismael. Latter Day Saints (Strangite) Animal sacrifice was instituted in the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints (Strangite), a minor Latter Day Saint faction founded by James J. Strang in 1844. Strang was a lawyer and newspaper editor from New York who had converted to Mormonism just prior to Joseph Smith’s murder, and he claimed to have been appointed by Smith to succeed him as the Church President. Although the majority of Latter Day Saints rejected his claims, Strang managed to briefly gain a sizable following before being murdered in 1856,62 Vedic Philosophy In 1851, Strang announced publication of the Book of the Law of the Lord, purported to be a translation of the “Plates of Laban” that figure prominently in parts of The Book of Mormon. Chapters 7 and 40 dealt with the topic of animal sacrifices. Given the prohibition on sacrifices fot sin contained in Ti Nephi 9:19-20, Strang did not require sin offerings. Rather, he focused on sacrifice as an element of religious celebrations, especially the commemoration of his own coronation as king over his church, which occurred on July 8, 1850. The head of every house, from the king to his lowest subject, was to offer - “a heifer, or a lamb, or a dove. Every man a clean beast, or a clean fowl, according to his household.” While the killing of sacrifices was a prerogative of Strangite priests, female priests were specifically barred from participating in this aspect of the priestly office. “Firstfruits” offerings were also demanded of all Strangite agricultural harvests. Animal sacrifices are no longer practiced by the diminunitive Strangite organization, though belief in their correctness is still required. Lucumi/Santeria In Santeria, such animal offerings constitute a portion of what are termed “ebos” ~ ritual activities that include offerings, prayer and deeds. The blood of the animals is thought to hold “aché,” or life force. Other Some villages in Greece also sacrifice animals to Orthodox saints in a practice known as kourbania. In India ritual of animal sacrifice is practised in many villages before local deities. For instance, Kandhen Budhi is the reigning deity of Kantamal in Boudh district of Orissa, India.‘Ashoamedha 6 She is the presiding deity of Kandha people of this area. She is represented in the natural form of stone under a tree on the bank of the river Tel. Every year, animals like goat and fowl are sacrificed before the deity on the occasion of her annual Yatra/Jatra (festival) held in the month of Aswina (September- October). The main attraction of Kandhen Budhi Yatra is Ghusuri Puja. Ghusuri means pig, which is sacrificed once in every three years. Kandhen Budhi is also worshipped at Lather village under Mohangiri GP in Kalahandi district of Orissa, India(Pasayat, 2009:20-24). Bali Jatra of Sonepur in Orissa, India is also an annual festival celebrated in the month of Aswina (September-October) when animal sacrifice is an integral part of the ritual worship of deities namely Samaleswari, Sureswari and Khambeswari. Bali refers to animal sacrifice and hence this annual festival is called Bali Jatra (Barik, 2009:160-162). PURUSHAMEDHA Purushamedha (literally translated, “human sacrifice”) is a Vedic yajna (ritual) described in the Yajurveda (VS 30-31). The verse describes people from all classes and of all descriptions tied to the stake and offered to Prajapati. The Purusha Sukta describes the process of creation of matter from the cosmic Purusha (universal spirit) which is shown as a human-like entity. The Purusha Medha is an enactment of the sacrifice of Purusha that leads to creation. The ritual in many aspécts resembles that of the Ashvamedha (horse sacrifice), with, according to Griffith (1899) man, the noblest victim, being actually or symbolically sacrificed instead of the Horse, and men and women of various tribes, figures, complexions, characters, and professions being, attached to the sacrificial stakes in place of the tame and wild animais enumerated in Book XXIV [VS 24]. These nominal64 Vedic Philosophy victims were afterwards released uninjured, and, so far as the text of the White Yajurveda goes, the whole cetemony was merely emblematical. The ceremony evokes the primordial mythical sacrifice of Purusha, the “Cosmic Man”, and the officiating Brahman recites the Purusha sukta (RV 10.90 = AVS 5.19.6 = VS 31.1- 16). However, in a late Vedic Brahmana text, the Vadhula Anvakhyana 4.108 (ed. Caland, Acta Orientalia 6, p.229) actual human sacrifice and even ritual anthropophagy is attested: “one formerly indeed offered a man as victim for Prajapati”, for example Karnajaya. “Dhartakratava Jatikarni did not wish to eat of the ida portion of the offered person; the gods therefore exchanged man as a sacrificial animal with a horse.” References to anthropophagy are also found in Taittiriya 7.2.10 and Katha Samhita 34.11. YAJNA In Hinduism, Yajiia (also anglicized as Yagna, Yagya or Yadnya) is a ritual of sacrifice (Monier-Williams gives the meanings “worship, prayet, praise; offering, oblation, sacrifice”) derived from the practice of Vedic times. It is performed to please the gods or to attain certain wishes. An essential element is the sacrificial fire - the divine Agni - into which oblations are poured, as everything that is offered into the fire is believed to reach the gods. As the name of the service, the term Yagna is linguistically (but not functionally) cognate with Zorastrian (Ahura) Yasna. Unlike Vedic Yajna, Zoroastrian Yasna has “to do with water rather than fire” (Drower, 1944:78; Boyce, 1975:147-191) A Vedic (shrauta) yajfia is typically performed by an adhvaryu priest, with a number of additional priests such as the hotar, udgatar playing a major role, next to their dozen helpers, by reciting or singing Vedic verses, Usually, there‘Ashvamedha 65 will be one or three fires in the centre of the offering ground and items are offered into the fire. Among the items offered as oblations in the yajfia-include large quantities of ghee, milk, grains, cakes, or soma. The duration of a yajfia depends on the type; some can last a few minutes, hours or days and some even last for years, with priests continuously offering to the gods accompanied with sacred verses. Some -yajfias are performed privately, others with a large number of people in attendance. Post-Vedic yajfias, where milk products, fruits, flowers, cloth and money are offered, are called “yaga”, homa or havana. A typical Hindu marriage is a yajfia, because Agni is supposed to be the witness of all marriages. Brahmins and certain other castes receive a yajnopavita “sacred cord” at their upanayana rite of passage. The yajnopavita symbolizes the right of the individual to study the Vedas and to carry out yajfias or homas. Temple worship is called agamic, while communication to divinity through Agni, is considered Vedic. Today's temple rites are a combination of both Vedic and Agamic rituals. The sacrificial division of Hindu scripture is the Karma-Kanda portion of the Vedas which describe or discuss most sacrifices. The Nambudiri Brahmins of Kerala are among the most famous Shrauta Brahmins who maintain these ancient rituals. Today, only a few hundred individuals know how to perform these sacrifices and even fewer are able to maintain the sacred fires continuously and perform the shrauta rituals. Only a few thousand perform the Agnihotra or basic Aupasana fire sacrifice daily . Yajfias in the Vedas There are 400 yajfias described in the Vedas. Of these, 21 are theoretically compulsory for the Twice-Born (Dvijas: Brahmin, Ksatriya and Vaisya). They are also called66 Vedic Philosophy nityakarmas. The rest of the yajfias are optional, which are performed kamyakarma (for particular wishes and benefits). The Aupasana is not part of the above list, but is also compulsory . Out of the 21 nityakarmas, only the Agnihotra and the Aupasana are to be performed twice daily, at dawn and dusk. The remaining ones have certain allotted frequencies over the course of the year. The more complicated the yajfia, the less frequently it is performed. The most complex ones need to be performed only once in a lifetime. The first seven yajfias are called pakayajfias “cooked sacrifice”, the second seven haviryajfias “oblation, burnt offering”, and the third seven are called somayajfias “Soma sacrifice”. yajiias such as Putrakameshti (for begetting sons), Ashvamedha (to rule), Rajasuya (royal consecration) etc. are among the 400 which are not compulsory. Aupasana This is the basic simple fire sacrifice that is to be performed at home twice daily. The Aupasana agni is lit at the time of the groom's wedding from his father’s fire. The aupasana can be performed by all four varnas. It is also compulsory. However, it is not part of the 21 compulsory fire sacrifices, and is to be performed in addition to those. The various Sacred Agnis The Aupasana Agni it at the time of the grooms wedding is then divided into two in a sacrifice called Agnyadhana. One part becomes the Grhyagni the other becomes the Srautagni. These two fires are to be preserved throughout the individual's life. The son’s fire is lit from the father's fire at the time of his wedding . At the time of the individuals demise, cremation is done with the fires that have been preserved during his lifetime and then the deceased individual's fires are extinguished.Ashvamedha 67 The Grhyagni or Aupasanagni is used in the Paka Yajnas; such rituals are described in the Grhyasutras, such as in the Ekagni Kanda of the Apastambha Sutra. Normally this fire is located in the centre or north of the hall which accommodates the sacred fires. This fire may be circular or square . The rituals pertaining to the three Srautagnis are described in the Shrauta Sutras. Their performers are called Srautin. Fourteen of the 21 compulsory sacrifices are performed in the Srautagnis. They are called Garhapatya, Ahavaniya and Dakshinagni and collectively called the tretagni. The Garhapatya is circular in shape and is situated in the west of the offering ground. Fire is taken from the Garhapatya and kindled in the remaining two fires. The Dakshinagni is semi- circular, situated in the south and used for certain rituals, mainly for offerings to the forefathers. The Ahavaniya is square, situated in the east, and is used as the main offering fire of most Srauta sacrifices. The last three haviryajfias and ali the seven somayajfias are performed in a specially built yajfiashala. Pancha Mahayajnas Hindu tradition has the Paricha Mahayajnas (“Five Great Yajnas”, Taittiriya Aranyaka 2.10) namely: Devayajna- consists of offering ahutis to devas Pitryajna- consists of offering libations to ancestors or pits . Bhutayajna- consists of offering bali or food to all (departed) creatures Manushyayajna- consists of feeding guests Brahmayajna- consists of reciting of brahman, ie. the stanzas of the Vedas, namely Rigveda, Yajurveda, Samaveda and Atharvaveda68 Vedic Philosophy Other Yajnas Agnistoma This is form of Somayagam has been continued by the Nambudiri Brahmins in Kerala but has become extinct in other parts of India. The grand Yagam was performed for the first time since 1787, in Aluva, from 25th April till Ist May 2009. Jyotistoma This yajna is meant for the elevation of the yajamana to heaven, the lokas of the gods (e.g. Indraloka.this is also called agnistome yajya) Pitrloka Yajna This yajna is for obtaining the world of the ancestors and Yama. Panchagni Yajna This sacrifice is addressed in the Chandogya Upanishad. It enables one to achieve Brahmaloka. Dravyamayar Yajna This is where people open ashrams for who are in need of them. The five types of ashrams are: dharma-shala, anna- kshetra, atithi-shala, anaathaalya, visya-pitha. Candrayana and Caturmaasya These are several vows for conducting life according to certain rigid rules For example, a sacrificer does not shave for four months during year (usually in the July-October time period.) Other examples are that he does not eat certain foods, or does not eat twice a day, or does not leave home (Caturmaasya.)Ashvamedha 69 ASHVA Asvah is the Sanskrit word for a “horse”, one of the significant animals finding references in the Vedas as well as later Hindu scriptures. The corresponding Avestan term is aspa. The word is cognate to Latin equus, hippos, Germanic *ehwaz and Baltic *a5va all from PIE *hek’wos. Vedic Period ‘There are repeated references to the horse the Vedas (ca. 1500-500 BC). In particular the Rigveda has many equestrian scenes, often associated with chariots. The Ashvins are divine twins named for their horsemanship. The earliest undisputed finds of horse remains in South Asia are from the Swat culture (ca. 1500-500 BC). Puranic Legend The legend states that the first horse emerged from the depth of the ocean during the churning of the oceans. It was a horse with white color and had two wings. It was known by the name of Uchchaihshravas. The legend continues that Indra, one of the demigods of the Hindus, took away the mythical horse to his celestial abode, the svarga (heaven). Subsequently, Indra severed the wings of the horse and presented the same to the mankind. The wings were severed to ensure that the horse would remain on the earth (prithviy and not fly back to Indra’s suvarga. HINDU TEXTS. Literature regarded as central to the Vedic Hindu literary tradition was predominantly composed in Sanskrit, Indeed, much of the morphology and linguistic philosophy inherent in the learning of Sanskrit is inextricably linked to study of the Vedas and other Vedic texts. Vedic literature is divided into two categories: Sruti—that which is heard (i.e. revelation) and Smriti — that which is70 Vedic Philosophy remembered (i.e. tradition, not revelation). The Vedas constituting the former category are considered scripture by many followers of Vedic religion. The post-Vedic scriptures form the latter category: the various shastras and the itihaases, or histories in epic verse. A sort of cross-over between the religious epics and Upanishads of the Vedas is the Bhagavad Gita, considered to be revered scripture by almost all Hindus today. ‘THE VEDAS The Vedas form the oldest layer of Sanskrit literature and the oldest sacred texts of Hinduism. According to Vedic tradition, the Vedas are apauruseya “not human compositions”, being supposed to have been directly revealed, and thus are called wruti (what is heard”). Vedic mantras are recited at Hindu prayers, religious functions and other auspicious occasions. Philosophies and sects that developed in the Indian subcontinent have taken differing positions on the Vedas. Schools of Indian philosophy which cite the Vedas as their scriptural authority are classified as “orthodox” (astika). Two other Indian philosophies, Buddhism and Jainism, did not accept the authority of the Vedas and evolved into separate religions. In Indian philosophy these groups are referred to as. “heterodox” or “non-Vedic” (nastika) schools. ‘The central focus of all the Vedas is the Vedic sacrifice, officiated by four priests, each in charge of one of the Vedas. This karmic ritual is mediated by the fire-demigod named Agni. Only through Agni can the priests (and thus the rest of society) gain access to the Devas. The Vedas are four in number. The Rig-, Yajur-, Sama- and Atharva Vedas represent various shikhas, or branches, of knowledge. Depending on the branch, different commentaries and instructions are associated with each Veda.— Ashvamedha 71 1. The Rigveda contains hymns (mantras) that formulate the mythology of ancient Vedic practice; 2. The Sémaveda consists mostly of mantras from the Rig Veda, but arranged in an order specifically suited to the Soma sacrifice; 3. The Yajurveda contains detailed prose instructions for the sacrifices; and 4, The Atharvaveda comprises semi-magical spells against enemies, sorcerers, diseases and mistakes made during, the sacrificial ritual, as well as kingly duties and some deeper spiritual truths. Fach of the four Vedas may be divided into two sections: 1. The Mantra portion, also called the Samhita , is a collection of hymns to be used in Vedic sacrifices. 2. The Bréhmanas portion (not to be confused with Brahman, or the brahmin caste), contains specific rules and regulations for the sacrifices as well as prose commentaries explaining the meaning of the mantras and rituals. The Brahmanas, describing rules and purpose of Samhitas, are further divided: 1, the Aranyakas, which conclude the Brahmanas, are written along a blurry line between 2. the Upanishads, which contain highly philosophical and metaphysical writings about the natuse of, and the relationship between, the soul (étman) and Brahman. The Upanishads are often referred to collectively as Vedanta (“the end of the Vedas”), not only because they appear physically in the concluding pages of each Veda, but also because the mystical truths they express are seen by many as the culmination of all the other Vedic knowledge.72 Vedic Philosophy The Upanishads While the Upanishads are indeed classed within the fold of the “Vedas”, their actual importance to Hindu philosophy has far exceeded that of possibly any other set of Hindu scriptures, and even resulted in the Bhagavad Gita, which is a self-proclaimed yoga upanishad. Thus, they deserve a look that is independent from the sambhitas and brahamans, against whose excessive ritualism the Upanishads famously rebelled. They form Vedanta and are the basis of much of Classical Hindu thought. The Upanishads (“Sittings Near [a Teacher]”) are part of the Hindu Shruti; these religious scriptures primarily discuss philosophy and “cosmic reality”; they also contain transcripts of various debates or discussions. There are 123 books argued to be part of the Upanishads; however, only 13 are accepted by all Hindus as primary. They are commentaries on the Vedas and their branch of Hinduism is called Vedanta. See Upanishads for a much more detailed look at the mystic backbone of Hinduism. The Upanishads are acknowledged by scholars and philosophers from both East and West, from Schrédinger, Thoreau and Emerson to Rabindranath Tagore, Mahatma Gandhi and Aurobindo Ghosh, to be superlatively beautiful in poetry and rich in philosophy. Post-Vedic Hindu Scriptures The new books that appeared afterwards were called Smriti, Smrti literature includes Itihasas (epics like Ramayana, Mahabharata), Puranas (mythological texts), Agamas (theological treatises) and Darshanas (philosophical texts). ‘The Dharmashastras (law books) are considered by many to form part of the smrti. From time to time great law-givers (eg Manu, Yajnavalkya and Parashara) emerged, who codified existing laws and eliminated obsolete ones to ensure that theAshoamedha 73 Hindu way of life was consistent with both the Vedic spirit and the changing times. However, it must be noted that the Dharmashastras have long been discarded by many groups of Hindus, namely those following Vedanta, Bhakti, bhakit and Tantra streams of Hinduism, The Vedic philosophy reflected in the epics is the doctrine of avatar (appearance of God on the Earth), The two main avatars of Vishnu that appear in the epics are Rama, the hero of the Ramayana, and Krishna, the chief protagonist in the Mahabharata. Unlike the gods of the Vedic Samhitas and the more meditative, mystic and ethical Upanishadic ideas regarding the all-pervading and formless Brahman, the avatars in these epics are more developed personalities, loving and righteous descents of the Supreme Being among mortals. The Bhagavad Gita Many followers of the Vedic religion or Sanatan Dharma has said that the most succinct and powerful abbreviation of the overwhelmingly diverse realm of Vedic thought is to be found in the Bhagavad Gita (also known simpiy "The Gita”). Essentially, it is a microcosm of Vedanta- Bhakti, Yogi, and Karmi aspect of Sanatan Dharma, or Vedic religion. Bhagavad Gita (literally: Song of the God) is a part of the epic poem Mahabharata and is revered in Hinduism. It speaks not only to Vaishnavas but to all people of all faiths, and it is accepted by the members of all Vedic streams as a seminal text, Indeed, the “tag line” of each chapter of the Bhagavad Gita refers to. the book as the “Gita Upanishad” and as a “scripture of yoga,” thereby establishing that in this text, Lord Krishna speaks the truths of yoga and the Upanishads for all. What holds the devotee’s mind foremost is Krishna's repeated injunction to abandon the mortal self to the infinite love of the Lord. He not only speaks to the mind and to the Atma, individual spirit’s innate sense of Dharma, but calls for overwhelming love. By loving God one also loves the immortal74 Vedic Philosophy Self, finds harmony in oneself, and finds oneself at peace with the entire cosmos. The Gita speaks of cultivating the intellect, properly using the body, and always remaining equipoised in relation to the greater Self. The Bhagavad Gita truly presents itself as a liberation scripture universal in its message The Puranas The Puranas are a vast literature of stories and allegory. Eighteen are considered to be Mahapuranas, or Great Puranas, and thus authoritative references on the Gods and Goddesses, religious rites and holy places (most of which are in the Indian subcontinent, known as Bharat). The Tevaram Saivite Hymns The Tevaram is a body of remarkable hymns exuding Bhakti composed more than 1400-1200 years ago in the classical Tamil language by three Saivite composers. They are credited with igniting the Bhakti movement in the whole of India. Divya Prabandha Vaishnavite Hymns The Nalayira Divya Prabandha (or Nalayira(4000) Divya Prabhamdham) is a divine collection of 4,000 verses (Naalayira in Tamil means ‘four thousand’) composed before 8th century AD, by the 12 Alvars, and was compiled in its present form by Nathamuni during the 9th - 10th centuries, The work is the beginning of the canonization of the twelve Vaishnava poet saints, and these hymns are still sung extensively today. ‘The works were lost before they were collected and organized in the form of an anthology by Nathamunigal. The Prabandha sings the praise of Sriman Narayana (or Vishnu) and his many forms. The Alvars sung these songs at various sacred shrines. These shrines are known as the Divya Desams. In South India, especially in Tamil Nadu, the Divya Prabhandha is considered as equal to the Vedas, hence the epithet Dravida Veda. In many temples, Srirangarn, for example,Ashvamedha ve) the chanting of the Divya Prabhandham forms a major part of the daily service. Prominent among the 4,000 verses are the 1,100 verses known as the Thiru Vaaymozhi, composed by Nammalvar (Kaaril Maaran Sadagopan) of Thiruk Kurugoor. Other Vedic Texts Other famous texts of Hinduism include those of the bhakti yoga school (loving devotion to God) such as the Ramcharitmanas of Tulsidas {an epic poem on the scale of Milton’s Paradise Lost based on the Ramayana), the Gita Govinda of Jayadeva (a religious song of the divine love of Krishna and his consort Radha), Adi Shankara’s commentaries and other works, Ramanujacharya’s nine books including “Sri Bhasya”, Madhvacharya’s commentaries and the Devi Mahatmya (the tales of Devi, the Vedic mother goddess, in her many forms as Shakti, Durga, Parvati, etc.). ceRigveda The Rigveda (rgvedé, a compound of c “praise, verse” and veda “knowledge”) is an ancient Indian sacred collection of Vedic Sanskrit hymns. Itis counted among the four canonical sacred texts (eruti) of Hinduism known as the Vedas. Some of its verses are still recited as Hindu prayers, at religious functions and other occasions, putting these among the world’s oldest religious texts in continued use. It is one of the oldest extant texts of any Indo-European language. Philological and linguistic evidence indicate that the Rigveda was composed in the north-western region of the Indian subcontinent, roughly between 1700-1100 BC {the early Vedic period). There are strong linguistic and cultural similarities with the early Iranian Avesta, deriving from the Proto-Indo-Iranian times, often associated with the early Andronovo (Sintashta-Petrovka) culture of ca. 2200-1600 BC. The surviving form of the Rigveda is based on an early Iron Age (c. 10th c. BC) collection that established the core ‘family books’ (mandalas 2-7, ordered by author, deity and meter) and a later redaction, co-eval with the redaction of the other Vedas, dating several centuries after the hymns were composed. This redaction also included some additions (contradicting the strict ordering scheme) and orthoepic changes to the Vedic Sanskrit such as the regularization of sandhi (termed orthoepische Diaskeuase by Oldenberg, 1888). As with the other Vedas, the redacted text has been handed down in several versions, most importantly ‘theRigveda 77 Padapatha that has each word isolated in pausa form and is used for just one way of memorization; and the Samhitapatha that combines words according to the rules of sandhi (the process being described in the Pratisakirya) and is the memorized text used for recitation, The Padapatha and the Pratisakhya anchor the text’s fidelity and meaning and the fixed text was preserved with unparalleled fidelity for more than a millennium by oral tradition alone. In order to achieve this the oral tradition prescribed very structured enunciation, involving breaking down the Sanskrit compounds into stems and inflections, as well as certain permutations. This interplay with sounds gave rise to a scholarly tradition of morphology and phonetics. ‘The Rigveda was probably not written down until the Gupta period (4th to 6th century AD), by which time the Brahmi script had become widespread (the oldest surviving manuscripts date to the Late Middle Ages). The oral tradition still continued into recent times. The original text (as authored by the Rishis) is close to but not identical to the extant Samhitapatha, but metrical and other observations allow to reconstruct (in part at least) the original text from the extant one, as printed in the Harvard Oriental Series, vol. 50 (1994) . Organization The text is organized in 10 books, known as Mandalas, of varying age and length. The “family books”: mandalas 2- 7, are the oldest part of the Rigveda and the shortest books; they are arranged by length and account for 38% of the text. The eighth and ninth mandalas, comprising hymns of mixed age, account for 15% and 9%, respectively. The first and the tenth mandalas are the youngest; they are also the longest books, of 191 suktas each, accounting for 37% of the text. Each mandala consists of hymns called sikta (su-ukta, literally, “well recited, eulogy”) intended for various sacrificiala Vedic Philosophy rituals. The sktas in turn consist of individual stanzas called ¢ (“ptaise”, pl. cas), which are further analysed into units of verse called pada (“foot”). The meters most used in the cas are the jagati(a pada consists of 12 syllables), trishtubh(11), viraj(10), gayatri and anushtubh(s). For pedagogical convenience, each mandala is synthetically divided into roughly equal sections of several siiktas, called anuvéka (“recitation”), which modern publishers often omit. Another scheme divides the entire text over the 10 mandalas into astaka (“eighth”), adhyaya (“chapter”) and varga (“class”). Some publishers give both classifications in a single edition. The most common numbering scheme is by book, hymn and stanza (and pada a, b, ¢.... if required). E.g,, the first pada is * L1.la agnim ite purdhitam “Agni I invoke, the housepriest” and the final pada is © 10.191.4d yatha vahstisahdisati Recensions The major Rigvedic shakha (“branch”, i. e. recension) that has survived is Uakala. Another shakha reportedly surviving is Baskala, although this is uncertain; if genuine, it is practically identical to the Uakala text. The Uakala recension has 1,017 regular hymns, and an appendix of 11 vélakhilya hymns which are now customarily included in the 8th mandala (as 8.49-8.59), for a total of 1028 hymns. The Baskala recension includes 8 of these valakhilya hymns among its regular hymns, making a total of 1025 regular hymns for this iakha. In addition, the Baskala recension has its own appendix of 98 hymns, the KhilarRigoeda 79 In the 1877 edition of Aufrecht, the 1028 hymns of the Rigveda contain a total of 10,552 cs, or 39,831 padas. The Shatapatha Brahmana gives the number of syllables to be 432,000, while the metrical text of van Nooten and Holland (1994) has a total of 395,563 syllables (or an average of 9.93 syllables per pada); counting the number of syllables is not straightforward because of issues with sandhi and the post- Rigvedic pronunciation of syllables like stivar as svar. Rishis Tradition associates a rishi (the composer) with each c of the Rigveda. Most sdiktas are attributed to single composers. The “family books” (2-7) are so-called because they have hymns by members of the same clan in each book; but other clans are also represented in the Rigveda. In all, 10 families of tishis account for more than 95% of the cs; for them the Rigveda includes a lineage-specific apri hymn (a special sikta of rigidly formulaic structure, used for animal sacrifice in the soma ritual). Manuscripts There are 30 manuscripts of Rigveda at the Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute, collected in the 19th century by Georg Biihler, Franz Kielhorn and others, originating from different parts of India, including Kashmir, Gujarat, the then Rajaputana, Central Provinces etc. They were transferred to Deccan College, Pune, in the late 19th century. They are in the Sharada and Devanagari scripts, written on birch bark and paper. The oldest of them is dated to 1464. The 30 manuscripts were added to UNESCO’s “Memory of the World” Register in 2007. Of these 30 manuscripts, 9 contain the samhita text, 5 have the padapatha in addition. 13 contain Sayana’s commentary, At least 5 manuscripts (MS. no, 1/A1879-80, 1/ ‘A1881-82, 331/1883-84 and 5/Vice I) have preserved the complete80 Vedic Philosophy text of the Rigveda. MS no, 5/1875-76, written on birch bark in bold Sharada, was used by Max Miiller for his edition of the Rigveda with Sayana’s commentary. Max Miiller used 24 manuscripts, while the Pune Edition used over five dozen manuscripts, but the editors of Pune Edition could not procure many manuscripts used by Max Miiller and by Bombay Edition, as well as from some other sources; hence the total number of extant manuscripts must surpass perhaps eighty at least Contents The Rigvedic hymns are dedicated to various deities, chief of whom are Indra, a heroic god praised for having slain his enemy Vrtra; Agni, the sacrificial fire; and Soma, the sacred potion or the plant it is made from. Equally prominent gods are the Adityas or Asura gods Mitra-Varuna and Ushas (the dawn). Also invoked are Savitr, Vishnu, Rudra, Pushan, Brihaspati or Brahmanaspati, as well as deified natural phenomena such as Dyaus Pita (the shining sky, Father Heaven ), Prithivi (the earth, Mother Earth), Surya (the sun god), Vayu or Vata (the wind), Apas (the waters), Parjanya (the thunder and rain), Vac (the word), many rivers (notably the Sapta Sindhu, and the Sarasvati River). The Adityas, Vasus, Rudras, Sadhyas, Ashvins, Maruts, Rbhus, and the Vishvadevas (“all-gods”) as well as the “thirty-three gods” are the groups of deities mentioned. The hymns mention various further minor gods, persons, concepts, ‘phenomena and items, and contain fragmentary references to possible historical events, notably the struggle between the early Vedic people (known as Vedic Aryans, a subgroup of the Indo-Aryans) and their enemies, the Dasa or Dasyu and their mythica} prototypes, the Pani (the Bactrian Parna). * Mandala 1 comprises 191 hymns. Hymm 1.1 is addressed to Agni, and his name is the first word of the Rigveda.Rigveda . 81 The remaining hymns are mainly addressed to Agni and Indra, as well as Varuna, Mitra, the Ashvins, the Maruts, Usas, Surya, Rbhus, Rudra, Vayu, Brhaspati, Visnu, Heaven and Earth, and all the Gods, Mandala 2 comprises 43 hymns, mainly to Agni and Indra. It is chiefly attributed to the Rishi gtsamada c@aunahotra. Mandaia 3 comprises 62 hymns, mainly to Agni and Indra and the Vishvedevas. The verse 3.62.10 has great importance in Hinduism as the Gayatri Mantra. Most hymnsin this book are attributed to vitivimitra gathinah. Mandala 4 comprises 58 hymns, mainly to Agni and Indra as well as the Rbhus, Ashvins, Brhaspati, Vayu, ‘Usas, etc. Most hymns in this book are attributed to vimadeoa gautama. Mandala 5 comprises 87 hymns, mainly to Agni and Indra, the Visvedevas (“all the gods’), the Maruts, the twin-deity Mitra-Varuna and the Asvins. Two hymns each are dedicated to Ushas (the dawn) and to Savits. Most hymas in this book are attributed to the atri clan. Mandala 6 comprises 75 hymns, mainly to Agni and Indra, all the gods, Pusan, Ashvin, Usas, etc. Most hymns in this book are attributed to the barhaspatya family of Angirasas. Mandala 7 comprises 104 hymns, to Agni, Indra, the Visvadevas, the Maruts, Mitra-Varuna, the Asvins, Ushas, Indra-Varuna, Varuna, Vayu (the wind), two each to Sarasvati (ancient river/goddess of learning) and Vishnu, and to others. Most hymns in this book are attributed to vasistha maitravaruni. Mandala 8 comprises 103 hymns to various gods. Hymns 8.49 to 8.59 are the apocryphal vilakhilya.82 Vedic Philosophy Hymns 1-48 and 60-66 are attributed to the kanva clan, the rest to other (Angirasa) poets. Mandala 9 comprises 114 hymns, entirely devoted to Soma Pavamana, the cleansing of the sacred potion of the Vedic religion. Mandala 10 comprises additional 191 hymns, frequently in later language, addressed to Agni, Indra and various other deities. It contains the Nadistuti sukta which is in praise of rivers and is important for the reconstruction of the geography of the Vedic civilization and the Purusha sukta which has great significance in Hindu social tradition. It also contains the Nasadiya sukta (10.129), probably the most celebrated hymn in the west, which deals with creation. The marriage hymns (10.85) and the death hymns (10.10-18) still are of great importance in the performance of the corresponding Grhya rituals. Dating and Historical Context ‘The dating of Rigveda has been a center of controversies; there is a strong disagreement among scholars. The Rigveda is far more archaic than any other Indo-Aryan text. For this reason, it was in the center of attention of westem scholarship from the times of Max Mitller and Rudolf Roth onwards. The Rigveda records an early stage of Vedic religion. There are strong linguistic and cultural similarities with the early Iranian Avesta, deriving from the Proto-Indo-Iranian times, often associated with the early Andronovo culture of ca. 2000 BC. The Rigveda’s core is accepted to date to the late Bronze Age, making it one of the few examples with an unbroken tradition. Its composition is usually dated to roughly between 1700- 1100 BC.. The EIEC (s.v. Indo-Iranian languages, p. 306) gives 1500-1000. It is certain that the hymns post-date Indo- Iranian separation of ca. 2000 BC and probably that of the Indo-Aryan Mitanni documents of c. 1400 BC. Several otherRigveda 83 evidences also pointed out 1400 BC as the most reasonable date. Philological estimates tend to date the bulk of the text to the second half of the second millennium. Compare Max Milller’s statement “the hymns of the Rig-Veda are said to date from 1500 BC” (‘Veda and Vedanta’, 7th lecture in India: What Can It Teach Us: A Course of Lectures Delivered Before the University of Cambridge, World Treasures of the Library of Congress Beginnings by Irene U. Chambers, Michael S. Roth. some writers out of the mainstream claim to trace astronomical references in the Rigveda, dating it to as early as 4000 BC, a date corresponding to the Neolithic late Mehrgarh culture; summarized by Klaus Klostermaier in a 1998 presentation. The text in the following centuries underwent pronunciation revisions and standardization (samhitapatha, padapatha). This redaction would have been completed around the 6th century BC. Exact dates are not established, but they fall within the pre-Buddhist period (500, or rather 400 BC). Writing appears in India around the 3rd century BC in the form of the Brahmi script, but texts of the length of the Rigveda were likely not written down until much later, the oldest surviving Rigvedic manuscript dating to the 14th century. While written manuscripts were used for teaching in medieval times, they were written on birch bark or palm eaves, which decompose fairly quickly in the tropical climate, until the advent of the printing press from the 16th century. Some Rigveda commentaries may date from the second half of the first millennium CE. The hymns were thus preserved by oral tradition for up to a millennium from the time of their composition until the redaction of the Rigveda, and the entire Rigveda was preserved in shakhas for another 2,500 years from the time of its redaction until the editio princeps by Rosen, Aufrecht and Max Miiller. After their composition, the texts were preserved and codified by an extensive body of Vedic priesthood as the84 Vedic Philosophy central philosophy of the Iron Age Vedic civilization. The Brahma Purana and the Vayu Purana name one Vidagdha as the author of the Padapatha. The Rk-pratishakhya names Sthavira Shakalya of the Aitareya Aranyaka as its author. ‘The Rigveda describes a mobile, semi-nomadic culture, with horse-drawn chariots, oxen-drawn wagons, and metal (bronze) weapons. The geography described is consistent with that of the Greater Punjab: Rivers flow north to south, the mountains are relatively remote but still visible and reachable (Soma is a plant found in the high mountains, and it has to be purchased from tribal people). Nevertheless, the hymus were certainly composed over a long period, with the oldest (not preserved) elements possibly reaching back to times close to the split of Proto-Indo-Iranian (around 2000 BC) Thus there was some debate over whether the boasts of the destruction of stone forts by the Vedic Aryans and particularly by Indra refer to cities of the Indus Valley civilization or whether they rather hark back to clashes ‘between the early Indo-Aryans with the BMAC in what is now northern Afghanistan and southern Turkmenistan {separated from the upper Indus by the Hindu Kush mountain range, and some 400 km distant). While it is highly likely that the bulk of the Rigvedic hymns were composed in the Punjab, even if based on earlier poetic traditions, there is no mention of either tigers or rice in the Rigveda (as opposed to the later Vedas), suggesting that Vedic culture only penetrated into the plains of India after its completion. Similarly, there is no mention of iron as the term ayas occurring in the Rig Veda refers to useful metal in general. The “black metal’ (krsna ayas) is first mentioned in the post-Rigvedic texts (Atharvaveda etc.). The Iron Age in northern India begins in the 10th century in the Greater Panjab and at the 12th century BC with the Black and Red Ware (BRW) culture. There is a widely accepted timeframe for the beginning codification of the Rigveda by compiling the hymns very late in the Rigvedic or rather in the early post-Rigvedic period, including the arrangement ofRigveda 85 the individual hymns in ten books, coeval with and the composition of the younger Veda Samhitas. This time coincides with the early Kuru kingdom, shifting the center of Vedic culture east from the Punjab into what is now Uttar Pradesh. ~The fixing of the sambitapatha intact and of the padapatha, occurred during the later Brahmana period. Some of the names of gods and goddesses found in the Rigveda are found amongst other belief systems based on Proto-Indo-European religion, while words used share common roots with words from other Indo-European languages. An author, N. Kazanas in an argument against the so- called “Aryan Invasion Theory” suggests a date as early as 3100 BC, based on an identification of the early Rigvedic Sarasvati River as the Ghaggar-Hakra and on glottochronological arguments. This is in diametrical opposition to views in western academic historical linguistics, and supports the Out of India theory, which assumes a date as late as 3000 BC for the age of late Proto-Indo-European itself. Some writers based on astronomical calculations even claim dates as early as 4000 BC, a date well within the Indian Neolithic. The horse (ashva), cattle, sheep and goat play an important role in the Rigveda. There are also references to the elephant (Hastin, Varana), camel (Ustra, especially in Mandala 8), ass (Khara, rasabha), buffalo (Mahisa), wolf, hyena, lion (Simha), mountain goat (sarabha) and to the gaur in the Rigveda. The peafowl (mayura), the goose (hamsa) and the chakravaka (Anas casarca) are some birds mentioned in the Rigveda. Ancillary Texts Rigveda Brahmanas Of the Brahmanas that were handed down in the schools of the Bahvcas (i.e. “possessed of many verses”), as the followers86 Vedic Philosophy of the Rigveda are called, two have come down to us, nantely those of the Aitareyins and the Kaushitakins. The Aitareya- brahmana and the Kaushitaki- (or Sankhayana-) brahmana evidently have for their groundwork the same stock of traditional exegetic matter. They differ, however, considerably as regards both the arrangement of this matter and their stylistic handling of it, with the exception of the numerous legends common to both, in which the discrepancy is comparatively slight. There is also a certain amount of material peculiar to each of them. The Kaushitaka is, upon the whole, far more concise in its style and more systematic in its arrangement features which would lead one to infer that it is probably the more modern work of the two. It consists ‘of thirty chapters (adhyaya); while the Aitareya has forty, divided into eight books (or pentads, pancaka), of five chapters each. The last ten adhyayas of the latter work are, however, clearly a later addition though they must have already formed part of it at the time of Panini (ca. 5th c. BC), if, as seems probable, one of his grammatical sutras, regulating the formation of the names of Brahmanas, consisting of thirty and forty adhyayas, refers to these two works. In this last portion occurs the well- known legend (also found in the Shankhayana-sutra, but not in the Kaushitaki-brahmana) of Shunahshepa, whom his father Ajigarta sells and offers to siay, the recital of which formed part of the inauguration of kings. While the Aitareya deals almost exclusively with the Soma sacrifice, the Kaushitaka, in its first six chapters, treats of the several kinds of haviryajna, or offerings of rice, milk, ghee, &c., whereupon follows the Soma sacrifice in this way, that chapters 7-10 contain the practical ceremonial. and 11-30 the recitations (shastra) of the hotar. Sayana, in the introduction to his commentary on the work, ascribes the Aitareya to the sage Mahidasa Aitareya (ie. son of Itara), also mentioned elsewhere as a philosopher; and it seems likely enough that this person arranged the Brahmana and founded the school of the Aitareyins. Regarding the authorship of the sister work weRigveda 87 have no information, except that the opinion of the sage Kaushitaki is frequently referred to in it as authoritative, and generally in opposition to the Paingya — the Brahmana, it would seem, of a rival school, the Paingins. Probably, therefore, it is just what one of the manuscripts calls it — the Brahmana of Sankhayana (composed) in accordance with the views of Kaushitaki. Rigveda Aranyakas Each of these two Brahmanas is supplemented by a “forest book”, or Aranyaka. The Aitareyaranyaka is not a uniform production. It consists of five books (aranyaka), three of which, the first and the last two, are of a liturgical nature, treating of the ceremony called mahavrata, or great vow. The last of these books, composed in sutra form, is, however, doubtless of later origin, and is, indeed, ascribed by Hindu authorities either to Shaunaka or to Ashvalayana. The second and third books, on the other hand, are purely speculative, and are also styled the Bakorca-brahmana-upanishad. Again, the last four chapters of the second book are usually singled out as the Aitareyopanishad, ascribed, like its Brahmana (and the first book), to Mahidasa Aitareya; and the third book is also referred to as the Samhita-upanishad. As regards the Kaushitaki-aranyaka, this work consists of 15 adhyayas, the first two (treating of the mahavrata ceremony) and the 7th and 8th of which correspond to the Ist, 5th, and 3rd books of the Aitareyaranyaka, respectively, whilst the four adhyayas usually inserted between them constitute the highly interesting Kaushitaki (brahmana-) upanishad, of which we possess two different recensions. The remaining portions (9-15) of the Aranyaka treat of the vital airs, the internal Agnihotra, etc, ending with the vamsha, or succession of teachers. In Contemporary Hinduism According to Hindu tradition, the Rigvedic hymns were collected by Paila under the guidance of Vyasa, who formed88 Vedic Philosophy the Rigveda Samhita as we know it. According to the Uatapatha Brahmana, the number of syllables in the Rigveda is 432,000, equalling the number of muhurtas (1 day = 30 muhurtas) in forty years. This statement stresses the underlying philosophy of the Vedic books that there is a connection (bandhu) between the astronomical, the physiological, and the spiritual. The authors of the Brahmana literature discussed and interpreted the Vedic ritual. Yaska was an early commentator of the Rigveda by discussing the meanings of difficult words. In the 14th century, Sayana wrote an exhaustive commentary on it. Other Bhasyas (commentaries) that have been preserved up to present times are those by Madhava, Skandasvamin and Vefikatamadhava. Hindu Revivalism Since the 19th and 20th centuries, some reformers like Swami Dayananda, founder of the Arya. Samaj and Sri Aurobindo have attempted to re-interpret the Vedas to conform to modern and established moral and spiritual norms. Dayananda considered the Vedas (which he defined to include only the samhitas) to be source of truth, totally free of error and containing the seeds of all valid knowledge. Contrary to common understanding, he was adamant that Vedas were monotheistic and that they did not sanction idol worship. Starting 1877, he intended to publish commentary on the four vedas but completed work on only the Yajurveda, and a partial commentary on the Rigveda. Dayananda’s work is not highly regarded by Vedic scholars and Indologist Louis Renou, among others, dismissed it as, “a vigorous (and from out point of view, extremely aberrant) interpretation in the social and political sense.” Dayananda and Aurobindo moved the Vedantic perception of the Rigveda from the original ritualistic content to a more symbolic or mystical interpretation. For example,Rigveda 89 instances of animal sacrifice were not seen by them as literal slaughtering, but as transcendental processes. “Indigenous Aryans” Debate The Sarasvati river, lauded in RV 7.95 as the greatest river flowing from the mountain to the sea is sometimes equated with the Ghaggar-Hakra river, which went dry perhaps before 2600 BC or certainly before 1900 BC. Others argue that the Sarasvati was originally the Helmand in Afghanistan. These questions are tied to the debate about the Indo-Aryan migration (termed “Aryan Invasion Theory”) vs. the claim that Vedic culture together with Vedic Sanskrit originated in the Indus Valley Civilisation (termed “Out of India theory”), a topic of great significance in Hindu nationalism, addressed for example by Amal Kiran and Shrikant G. Talageri. Subhash Kak has claimed that there is an astronomical code in the organization of the hymns. Bal Gangadhar Tilak, also based on astronomical alignments in the Rigveda, in his “The Orion” (1893) claimed presence of the Rigvedic culture in India in the 4th millennium BC, and in his “Arctic Home in the Vedas” (1903) even argued that the Aryans originated near the North Pole and came south during the Ice Age. Translations ‘The first published translation of any portion of the Rigveda in any Western language was into Latin, by Friedrich August Rosen (Rigvedae specimen, London 1830), Predating Miiller’s editio princeps of the text, Rosen was working from manuscripts brought back from India by Colebrooke. LH. Wilson was the first to make a complete translation of the Rig Veda into English, published in six volumes during the period 1850-88. Wilson’s version was based on the commentary of Sayana. In 1977, Wilson's edition was enlarged by Nag Sharan Singh (Nag Publishers, Delhi, 2nd ed. 1990).90 Vedic Philosophy In 1889, Ralph T-HL Griffith published his translation as The Hymns of the Rig Veda, published in London (1889). ‘A German translation was published by Kail Friedrich Geldnes, Der Rig-Veda: aus dem Sanskrit ins Deutsche Ubersetzt, Harvard Oriental Studies, vols, 33-37 (Cambridge, Mass.: 1951-7). Geldner’s translation was the philologically best-informed to date, and a Russian translation based on Geldner’s by Tatyana Elizarenkova was published by Nauka 1989-1999 A 2001 revised edition of Wilson's translation was published by Ravi Prakash Arya and K. L. Joshi. The revised edition updates Wilson's translation by replacing obsolete English forms with more modern equivalents, giving the English translation along with the original Sanskrit text in Devanagari script, along with a critical apparatus. In 2004 the United States’ National Endowment for the ‘Humanities funded Joel Brereton and Stephanie W. Jamison as project directors for a new original translation to be issued by Oxford University Press. Numerous partial translations exist into various languages. Notable examples include: * A. A. Macdonell. Hymns from the Rigveda (Calcutta, London, 1922); A Vedic Render for Students (Oxford, 1917). * French: A. Langlois, Rig-véda, ou livre des hymnes, Paris © Hungarian: Laszlo Forizs, Riguéda - Teremtéshimnuszok (Creation Hymns of the Rig-Veda), Budapest, 1995 ISBN 963-85349-1-5 Hymns of the Rig-Veda * Wendy Doniger O'Flaherty issued a modern selection with a translation of 108 hymns, along with critical apparatus. A bibliography of translations of the Rig Veda appears as an Appendix that work.Rigoeda 1 * A new German translations of books 1 and 2 was presented in 2007 by Michael Witzel and Toshifumi Goto. * A partial Hindi translation by Govind Chandra Pande was published in 2008 (by Lokbharti Booksellers and Distributors, Allahabad, covering books 3-5). YAJURVEDA ‘The Yajurveda (yajurveda, a tatpurusha compound of yajus “sacrificial formula’, + veda “knowledge”) is the third of the four canonical texts of Hinduism, the Vedas. By some, it is estimated to have been composed between 1,400 and 1000 BCE, the Yajurveda ‘Samhita’, or ‘compilation’, contains the liturgy (mantras) needed to perform the sacrifices of the religion of the Vedic period, and the added Brahmana and Shrautasutra add information on the interpretation and on the details of their performance. Recensions There are two primary versions or Samhitas of the Yajurveda: Shukla (white) and Krishna (black). Both contain the verses necessary for rituals, but the Krishna Yajurveda includes the Brahmana prose discussions within the Samhita, while the Shukla Yajurveda has separately a Brahmana text, the Shatapatha Brahmana. Shukla Yajurveda ‘There are two (nearly identical) shakhas or recensions of the Shukla (White) Yajurveda, both known as Vajasaneyi- Samhita (VS): © Vajasaneyi Madhyandiniya (VSM), originally of Bihar © Vajasaneyi Kanon of originally of Kosala (VSK) The former is popular in North India, Gujarat, parts of Maharashtra (north of Nashik) and thus commands a2 Vedlic Philosophy numerous following. The Kanva Shakha is popular in parts of Maharashtra (south of Nasik), Orissa, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu. Sureshvaracharya, one of the four main disciples of Jagadguru Adi Shankara, is said to have followed the Kanva shakha, The Guru himself followed the Taittirlya Shakha with the Apastamba Kalpasutra. The Vedic rituals of the Ranganathaswamy Temple at Srirangam, the second biggest temple in India, are performed according to the Kanva shakha, Raghu vamsam; Dasaratha and Sti Rama's clan follows the Shukla Yajurveda branch. The White Yajurveda has two Upanishads associated with it: the Isha Vasya and the Brihadaranyaka Upanishads. The Brihadaranyaka Upanishad is the most voluminous of all Upanishads. The VS has forty chapters or adhryayas (but 41 in Orissa), containing the formulas used with the following rituals: 1.-2.: New and Fuli Moon sacrifices 3. Agnihotra .; Somayajna 9.-10.: Vajapeya and Rajasuya, two modifications of the Soma sacrifice 11-18.: construction of altars and hearths, especially the Agnicayana 19.-21.: Sautramani, a ritual originally counteracting the effects of excessive Soma-drinking 22.-25.: Ashvamedha 26.-29.: supplementary formulas for various rituals 30.-31.: Purushamedha 32.-34.: Sarvamedha 35.: Pitriyajna 36.-39.: Pravargya 40.: the final adhyaya is the famous Isha Upanishad seisRigveda 93 ‘The VSM was edited and published by Weber (London and Berlin, 1852), and translated into English by Ralph T. H. Griffith (Benares, 1899). Krishna Yajurveda There are four recensions of the Krishna (“black”) riya sanshita (TS) originally of Panchala © Maitrayani samhita (MS) originally of the area south of Kurukshetra © Caraka-Katha samhita (KS) originally of Madra and Kurukshetra © Kapisthala-Katha samhita (KapS) of the southern Panjab, Bahika Each of the recensions has or had a Brahmana associated with it, and most of them also have associated Shrautasutras, Grhyasutras, Aranyakas, Upanishads and Pratishakhyas. The Taittiriya Shakha: The best known and best preserved of these recensions is the TS, named after Tittiri, a pupil of Yaska, It consists of 7 books or kandas, subdivided in chapters or prapathakas, further subdivided into individual sections (anuvakas). Some individual hymns in this Samhita have gained particular importance in Hinduism; e.g. TS 4.5 and TS 47 constitute the Rudram Chamakam, while 1.8.6.1 is the Shaivaite Tryambakam mantra. The beejas bhiir bhuvah suvah prefixed to the (rigvedic) Savitur Gayatri mantra are also from the Yajurveda, The Taittiriya recension of the Black Yajurveda is the shakha now most prevalent in southern India, Among the followers of this Shakha, the Apastamba Sutras‘are the common. The Taittiriya Shakha consists of Taittiriya Samhita (having seven kandas), Taittiriya Brahmana (having three kandas), Taittiriya Aranyaka (having seven prashnas) (See Aranyaka Literature), Taittiriya Upanishad (having three prashnas or vallis - Shiksha valli, Ananda valli94 Vedic Philosophy and Bhrigu valli) and the Mahanatayana Upanishad. The Taittiriya Upanishad and Mahanarayana Upanishad are considered to be the seventh, eighth, ninth and tenth prashnas of the Aranyaka. The words prapathaka and kanda (meaning sections) are interchangeably used in Vedic literature. Prashna and valli refer to sections of the Aranyaka. ‘There is another Short tract apart from the above and that is commonly known as Ekagni Kanda which mainly consists of mantra-s used in the marriage and other rituals. Three recensions have been edited and published: the Taittiriya by Albrecht Weber in “Indische Studien”, XI, XII @erlin, 1871-72), the Maitrayani by Leopold von Schroeder (Leipzig, 1881-86) and the Kathaka by von Schroeder (Leipzig, 1900-09). Translations of the Taittiriya Samhita into English were composed by A. B. Keith (Oxford 1913) and Devi Chand. Legend According to tradition, the vedic seer Yajnavalkya studied the Yajurveda collection under the tutelage of sage Vaishampayana maternal uncle of Yajnavalkya. Yajnavalkya’s birth was with a purpose as purported by Gods. He was an Ekasandhigrahi, meaning he learnt anything with just once teaching. The two came te have serious differences in interpretation. On one occasion, Vaishampayana was so enraged that he demanded the return of all the knowledge he had imparted to Yajnavalkya. Yajnavalkya returned in indignation or (literally vomited) all the knowledge he had learnt. The other disciples of Vaishampayana, eager to receive this knowledge, assumed the form of tiftiri birds and absorbed. while being recited during the return (or ate the knowledge). Thus, that knowledge came to be called the Taittiriya Samhita (a derivation of tittiri). After having regurgitated the knowledge acquired from his teacher, Yajnavalkya worshipped Surya (the Sun God) and acquired new knowledge directly from Narayana who taught the Shukla Yajurveda taking the shape of a stallion (vdji-riipa). liaise...Rigveda 95 SAMAVEDA The Samaveda (sémaveda, from siman “melody” + veda “knowledge” ), is second (in the usual order) of the four Vedas, the ancient core Hindu scriptures. Its earliest parts are believed to date from 1000 BC and it ranks next in sanctity and liturgical importance to the Rigveda. It consists of a collection (samhita) of hymns, portions of hymns, and detached verses, all but 75 taken from the Rigveda, to be sung, using specifically indicated melodies called Samagana, by Udgatar priests at sacrifices in which the juice of the Soma plant, clarified and mixed with milk and other ingredients, is offered in libation to various deities. The verses have been transposed and re-arranged, without reference to their original order, to suit the rituals in which they were to be employed. There are frequent variations from the text of the Rigveda that are in some cases glosses but in others offer an older pronunciation than that of the Rigveda (such as for common ). When sung the verses are further altered by prolongation, repetition and insertion of stray syllables (stobha), as well as various modulations, rests and other ‘modifications prescribed in the song-books (Ganas). Samaveda’s Upaveda (technical manual) is Gandharvaveda that deals not only with the topics of music but also of dance and theatre. Recensions R. T. H. Griffith says that there are three recensions of the text of the Samaveda Samhita: * the Kauthuma recension is current in Gujarat, and since a few decades in Darbhanga, Bihar, * the Jaiminiya in the Carnatic and Kerala, * and the Ranayaniya in the Maharatta country. While the Kauthuma recension has been published (Samhita, Brahmana, Shrautasutra and ancillary Sutras,% Vedic Philosophy mainly by the late B.R. Sharma), parts of the Jaiminiya tradition remain unpublished . There is an edition of the first part of the Samhita by W. Caland and of the Brahmana by Raghu Vira and Lokesh Chandra , as well as the neglected Upanishad , but only parts of the Shrautasutra. The song books remain unpublished and the tradition is rapidly fading. However, an edition is now being prepared by some well-known Samaveda specialists. ATHARVAVEDA. The Atharvaveda (atharvaveda, a tatpurusha compound of atharvan, an ancient Rishi, and veda meaning “knowledge”) is a sacred text of Hinduism, and one of the four Vedas, often called the “fourth Veda”. According to tradition, the Atharvaveda was mainly composed by two groups of rishis known as the Atharvanas and the Angirasa, hence its oldest name is AtharvaEgirasa. In the Late Vedic Gopatha Brahmana, it is attributed to the Bhrigu and Angirasa. Additionally, tradition ascribes parts to other rishis, such as Kauceika, Vasistha and Kaceyapa. There are two surviving recensions (G&khas), known as Uaunakiya (AVS) and Paippalada (AVP). Status The Atharvaveda, while undoubtedly belonging to the core Vedic corpus, in some ways represents a independent parallel tradition to that of the Rigveda and Yajurveda. It incorporates much of early traditions of healing and magic that are paralleled in other Indo-European literatures, There are striking parallels with Hittite and Germanic sorcery stanzas. The Atharva Veda is less predominant than other Vedas as it is little used in solemn (Shrauta) ritual. The largely silent Brahman priest observes the procedures of the ritual and ‘heals’ it with two mantras and pouring of ghee when a mistake occurs. Though an early text, its status has been ambiguous, due to its magical character.Rigveda 97 Although it is stated that the Gayatri mantra used in Atharva Veda is different from other three Vedas. A special initiation of the Gayatri is required to learn the Atharva Veda.But so far many vedic schools are teaching the Atharva Veda without the UpanayanamFew Vidwan's in Atharva Veda state that they never came across such initiations before learning atharva veda.More over we cant find any Gayatree Mantra in atharva veda(Shaunaka Shaka)but we find Mantra at the end of the 19 Canto which praises Goddess gayatri. The Atharvaveda Parishishtas Pariceistas (appendices) state that priests of the Mauda and Jalada schools of the Atharvaveda should be avoided, or strict discipline should be followed as per the rules and regulations set by the Atharva Veda. It is even stated that women associated with Atharvan may suffer from abortions if pregnant women remain while the chants for warfare are pronounced. The Atharvaveda is considered by many to be as dark and secret knowledge, pertaining to the spirits and the afterlife. In the Mahabharata, when the Pandavas are exiled to the forests for thirteen years, Bhima, being frustrated, suggests to Yudhisthira that they consult the Atharvaveda, and “shrink time, and hereby compress thirteen years to thirteen days...” Recensions The Caranavyuha (attributed to Shaunaka) lists nine shakhas, or schools, of the Atharvaveda: 1. paippalada stauda mauda |. taunakiya jajala jalada . kuntap Naeeep98 Vedic Philosophy 8. brahmavada 9. devadarwea 10, cdvanavaidya Of these, only the Uaunakiya (AVS) and the Paippalada (AVP) recensions have survived. Both have some later additions, but the core Paippalada text is considered earlier than the Gaunakiya. Often in corresponding hymns, the two recensions have different verse orders, or each has additional verses not in the other. Samhitavidhi, Uantikalpa and Naksatrakalpa are some of the five kalpa texts adduced to the Uaunakiya tradition and not separate schools of their own. Two main post-Samhita texts associated with the AV are the Vaitina Satra and the Kauuika Sitra. The Vaitanasutra deals with the participation of the Atharvaveda priest (braliman) in the Shrauta ritual while the Kauceikasiitra contains many applications of Atharvaveda mantras in healing and magic. This serves the same purpose as the vidhana of the Rigveda and is of great value in studying the application of the AV text in Vedic times. Several Upanishads also are associated with the AV, but appear to be relatively late additions to the tradition. The most important of these are the mundaka and the pratina Upanishads. The former contains an important reference to Uaunaka, the founder of the Shaunakiya shakha, while the latter is associated with the Paippalada shakha. Dating It is clear that the core text of the Atharvaveda is not particularly recent in the Vedic Samhita tradition, and falls within the classical Mantra period of Vedic Sanskrit at the end of 2nd millennium BC - oughly contemporary with the Yajurveda mantras, the Rigvedic Khilani, and the Samaveda.Rigveda 99 The Atharvaveda is also the first Indic text to mention Iron (as tama ayas, literally “black metal”), so that scholarly consensus dates the bulk of the Atharvaveda hymns to the early Indian Iron Age, corresponding to the 12th to 10th centuries BC or the early Kuru kingdom. During its oral tradition, however, the text has been corrupted considerably more thar some other Vedas, and it is only from comparative philology of the two surviving recensions that we may hope to arrive at an approximation of the original reading. Tradition suggests that Paippalada, one of the early collators, and Vaidharbhi, one of the late contributors associated with the Atharvanic text, lived during the reign of prince Hiranyanabha of the Ikshvaku dynasty. Divisions and Issues of Note * The Shaunakiya text is clearly divided into four parts: KAndas 1-7 deal with healing and general black and white magic that is to be applied in all situations of life, from the first tooth of a baby to regaining kingship. Kandas 8-12 constitute early speculation on the nature of the universe and of humans as well as on ritual, and are thus predecessors of the Upanishads. They continue the speculative tradition of some Rigvedic poets. Kandas 13-18 deal with issues of a householder’s life, such as marriage, death and female rivalry, as well as with the ambiguous Vratyas on the fringes of society and with the Rohita sun as an embodiment of royal power. Kandas 19 is an addition and Kanda 20 is a very late addition containing Rgvedic hymns for the use of the Atharvanic Brahmanacchamsin priest as well as for the enigmatic Kuntapa ritual of the Kuru kingdom of Parikshit. The Paippalada text has a similar arrangement into four parts (Kandas 1-15, 16-17, 18, 19-20) with roughly the same contents.100 Vedic Philosophy * Jain and Buddhist texts are considerably more hostile to the Atharvaveda (they call it Aggvana or Ahavana Veda) than they are to the other Hindu texts. The AV is the first Indic text dealing with medicine. It identifies the causes of disease as living causative agents such as the yatudhana, the kimidin, the krimi or kmi and the durnama. The Atharvans seek to kill them with a variety of incantations or plant based drugs in order to counter the disease (see XIX.34.9). This approach to disease is quite different compared to the trihumoral theory of Ayurveda, Remnants of the original atharvanic thought did persist, as can be seen in Suceruta’s medical treatise and in (Garuda Purana, karma kaCda - chapter: 164). Here following the Atharvan theory, the Puranic text suggests germs as a cause for leprosy. In the same chapter Suceruta also expands on the role of helminths in disease. These two can be directly traced back to the Atharvaveda saChita. The hymn AV 123-24 describes the disease leprosy and recommends the rajani ausadhi for its treatment. From the description of the ausadhi as black branching entity with dusky patches, it is very likely that is a lichen with antibiotic properties. Thus the AV may be one of the earliest texts to record uses of the antibiotic agents. The Atharvaveda also informs about warfare. A variety of devices such as an arrow with a duct for poison (apaskambha) and castor bean poison, poisoned net and hook traps, use of disease spreading insects and smoke screens find a place in the Atharvaveda saChita (eg, hymns IX .9, 1X.10, the trisaCdi and nyarbudi hymns). These references to military practices and associated Ksatriya rites were what gave the Atharvaveda its reputation. In the Mahabharata there is a frequent comparison between weapons and the mantras of the heroes.Rigveda 101 * Several regular and special rituals of the Aryans arya are a major concern of the Atharvaveda, just as in the three other Vedas. The major rituals covered by the AV are marriage in kamda - XIV and the funeral in kamda -XVIIL There are also hymns that are specific to rituals, of the bhrgu-angirasas, vratyas and ksatriyas. One peculiar rite is the Visdsahi Vrata, performed with the mantras of the XVII kamda in a spell against female rivals. The Vratya rituals were performed by individuals who took on a seminomadic way of living and were generally roaming about in neighboring tribal territories to gain wealth in cattle by putting pressure on householders grihastha. Finally, there are some rituals aimed at the destruction of the enemies (Abhicarika hymns and rites), particularly found in chapters 1-7. While these support traditional negative views on the AV, in content they ate mirrored by several other hymns from the Rig as well as the Yajuses. Moreover, Abhicarika rites were an integral part of Vedic culture, as is amply attested in the brahmana literature. Thus the Atharvaveda is fully within the classic Vedic fold, though it was more specific to certain Brahmén clans of priests. The development of the Abhicharika rites to their more “modern” form is clearly seen in the vidhana literature. The author of the gvidhana provides passing reference to the developmentof similar rites in the AV tradition (the references to the Angirasa Krityas). These rites reached their culmination in the Kauceika Sutra and in some of the Pariceistas (appendices) of the athatvan literature. Philosophical excursions are found in books 8-12. One of the most spectacular expressions of philosophical thoughtis seen in the hymn XILI, the Hymn to goddess Earth or the Prthivi Siikta used in the Agrayana rite. The foundations of Vaisetiika Dardana is expressed in102 Vedic Philosophy the mantra XII.1.26 in which the ‘atoms’ (Pamsu) are described forming the stone, the stones agglutinating to form the rocks and the rocks held together to form the Earth. Early pantheistic thought is seen in the hymn X.7 that describes the common thread running, through all manifest and non-manifest existence as the skambha. This skaCbha is described as what poured out of the Hiranyagarbha, that was the precursor of the complex world in a very simple form (X,7.28). (Hiranyagarba =" The golden embryo, from which the Universe was formed.”) This Skambha is Indra and Indra is the Skambha which describes all existence. The hymn also describes a pantheistic nature of the Vedic gods (X.7.38): skaCbha is the heat (tapah) that spreads through the universe (Bhuvana) as waves of water; the units of this spreading entity are the gods even as branches of one tree. This theme is repeatedly presented in various interpretations in \ater Hindu philosophies. Editions The Shaunakiya text was edited by Rudolf Roth and William Dwight Whitney (Berlin, 1856) and by Vishva Bandhu (Hoshiarpur, 1960-62). Translations into English were made by Ralph Griffith (2 vols, Benares 1897), D. Whitney (revised by Lanman, 2 vols, Cambridge, Mass. 1905), and M. Bloomfield (SBE Vol XLII); also see Bloomfield, “The Atharvaveda” in “Grundriss der Indoarischen Philologie”, II (Strasburg, 1899). The bulk of the Paippaldda text was edited by Leroy Carr Barret from 1905 to 1940 (book 6 by F. Edgerton, 1915) from a single Kashmirian Uarada manuscript (now in Tiibingen). This edition is outdated, since various other manuscripts were subsequently discovered in Orissa. Some manuscripts are in the Orissa State Museum, but many manuscripts are in private possession, and are kept hidden byRigveda 108 their owners. A few manuscripts were collected by Prof. Durgamohan Bhattacharya of Bengal by deceiving their owners, as told by his son Dipak Bhattacharya in 1968 (below), who describes the theft as valiant daredevilry: ... The knowledge of the villagers, in whose possession many important manuscripts remain, about their possession is often very hazy Prof. Bhattacharya secured a manuscript from an illiterate Brahmin on promise of return ...” Books 1-15 were edited by Durgamohan Bhattacharya (1997). There is a provisional (unpublished) edition of book 20 by Dipak Bhattacharya. Book 2 was edited and translated by Thomas Zehnder (1999) and book 5 by Alexander Lubotsky (2002), and books 6-7 by Arlo Griffiths (2004). Recitation Style of the Atharva Veda The current recitation style of this Veda mostly resembles the Rigvedic one. The Shaunaka Shaka of the Atharva Veda is recited in western Saurasthra, at Benares, Gokarna and, after a recent introduction from Benares, also in South India (Tirupati, Chidamabaram, etc). The Gokarna version follows the northem style, which resembles the way the Maharashtrians recite the Rigveda Samhita. In Varanasi, that derives its style from Gujarat, the way of recitation is little different. Similarly in South India, the Shaunaka Shaka is recited using the Rig Veda as a base, with minute variations in Kampa Svara. The Paippalada Atharvaveda is recited, though only in portions and without svara, in Orissa and some neighboring districts, while its Kashmir branch has been extinct for some centuries, eo5 Ayurveda Ayurveda (the ‘science of life’) is a system of traditional medicine native to the Indian Subcontinent and practiced in, other parts of the world as a form of alternative medicine. In Sanskrit, the word Ayurveda consists of the words dyus, meaning ‘life’, and veda, meaning ‘related to knowledge’ or ‘science’. Evolving throughout its history, Ayurveda remains an influential system of medicine in South Asia. The earliest literature of Ayurveda appeared during the Vedic period in India. The Sushruta Samhita and the Charaka Samhita were influential works on traditional medicine during this era. Ayurvedic practitioners also identified a number of medicinal preparations and surgical procedures for curing various ailments and diseases. As per Indian heritage and science, “Ayurveda” is an Upaveda or annexure to the four main vedas (knowledge systems). The famous treaties of Ayurveda are Charaka Samhita by Sage Charaka, which details the prevention and treatment of disease, and Sushruta Samhita of Sage Sushruta, which deals with Ayurvedic surgical procedures. In the Ayurvedic system, the prevention of all types of disease has a prominent place in treatment, including restructuring a patient's lifestyle to align with the course of nature and the four seasons to guarantee complete wellness. Ayurveda is considered to be a form of complementary and alternative medicine (CAM) within the western world, where several of its methods, such as the use of herbs, massage, and Yoga as exercise or alternative medicine, are applied on“Ayurveda 105 their own as a form of CAM treatment. However, such alternative therapy approaches are not unique to Ayurveda because they are also available under the systems of Unani medicine, Greek medicine and Islamic medicine. Overview Ayurveda is grounded in a metaphysics of the ‘five [great] Elements’ (earth, water, fire, air and ether)—all of which compose the Universe, including the human body. Chyle (called Rasa dhatu), blood (called Rakta dhatu), flesh (called Mamsa dhatu), fat (called Medha dhatu), bone (called Asthi dhatu), marrow (called Maja dhatu), and semen or female reproductive tissue (called Shukra dhatu)are held to be the seven primary constituent elements of the body. Ayurveda stresses a balance of three Humors or Energies: vata (wind/ air), pitta (bile) and kapha (phlegm). According to Ayurveda, these three regulatory principles Doshas —are important for health, because when they are in balanced state, the body is healthy, and when imbalanced, the body has diseases. Ayurveda hold that humans possess a unique combination of Doshas. In Ayurveda, the human body perceives attributes of experiences as 20 Guna (meaning qualities). Surgery and surgical instruments are employed. Itis believed that building a healthy metabolic system, attaining good digestion, and proper excretion leads to vitality. Ayurveda also focuses on exercise, yoga, meditation, and massage. Thus, body, mind, and spirit/consciousness need to be addressed both individually and in unison for health to ensue. The practice of Panchakarma is believed to eliminate toxic elements from the body. Hight disciplines of Ayurveda treatment, called Ashtangas, are given below: * Internal medicine (Kaaya-chikitsa) * Paediatrics (Kaumarabhrtyam) * Surgery (Shalya-chikitsa)106 Vedic Philosophy © Treatment of diseases above the clavicle (Salakyam) * Demonic possession (Bhuta vidya): Bhuta vidya has been called psychiatry. * Toxicology (Agadatantram) * Prevention diseases and improving[[Immunity (medical) limmunity]and rejuvenation] (rasayanam) * [[Aphrodisiacs]and improving health of progeny] (Vajikaranam) Practices Buddhism may have been an influence on the development of many of Ayurveda’s central ideas — particularly its fascination with balance, known in Buddhism as Madhyamika. Balance is emphasized; suppressing natural urges is-seen to be unhealthy, and doing so may almost __sertainly lead to illness. To stay within the limits of reasonable balance and measure is stressed upon. Ayurveda places an emphasis on moderation in food intake, sleep, sexual intercourse, and the intake of medicine. Ayurveda incorporates an entire system of dietary recommendations. Chopra (2003) —on the subject of Ayurveda dietetics—writes: Ayurvedic dietetics comprise a host of recommendations, ranging from preparation and consumption of food, to healthy routines for day and night, sexual life, and rules for ethical conduct. In contrast to contemporary practitioners of New Age Ayurveda, older Ayurvedic authors tended to be religiously neutral. Even Buddhist authors refrained from trying to convert the patient to follow their particular religious ways. For diagnosis the patient is to be questioned and all five senses are to be employed. The Charaka Samhita recommends a tenfold examination of the patient. The qualities to be fiettiaitacseAyurveda 107 judged are: constitution, abnormality, essence, stability, body measurements, diet suitability, psychic strength, digestive capacity, physical fitness and age. Hearing is used to observe the condition of breathing and speech. The study of the vital pressure points or marma is of special importance. Chopra (2003) identifies five influential criteria for diagnosis: ‘origin of the disease, prodrominal (précursory) symptoms, typical symptoms of the fully developed disease, observing the effect of therapeutic procedures, and the pathological process’ Hygiene—also a component of religious virtue to many Indians—is a strong belief. Hygienic living involves regular bathing, cleansing of teeth, skin care, and eye washing, Occasional anointing of the body with oil is also prescribed. ‘Ayurveda stresses the use of vegetable drugs. Fats are used both for consumption and for external use. Hundreds of vegetable drugs are employed, including cardamom and cinnamon. Some animal products may also be used, for example milk, bones, and gallstones etc. Minerals—including sulfur, arsenic, lead, coppér sulfate, gold—are also consumed as prescribed.. This practice of adding minerais tc-herbal medicine is known as Rasa Shastra. In'some cases alcohol is used as a narcotic for the patient undergoing an operation. The advent of Islam introduced opium as a narcotic. Both oil and tar are used to stop bleeding. Oils may be used in a number of ways including regular consumption as a part of food, anointing, smearing, head massage, and prescribed application to infectéd areas. The proper function of channels—tubes that exist within the body and transport fluids from one point to another—is seen as vital, and the lack of healthy channels may lead to disease and insanity. Sushruta identifies that blockages of these channels may lead to theumatism, epilepsy, paralysis,108 Vedic Philosophy and convulsions as fluids and channels are diverted from their ideal locations. Sweating is favored as a manner in which to open up the channels and dilute the Doshas causing the blockages and harming a patient—a number of ways to take steam bathing and other steam related cures are recommended so that these toxins are released. History Ayurveda traces its origins to the Vedas—the Atharvaveda’ in particular—and is connected to Hindu religion. The Sushruta Samhita of Sushruta appeared during the ist millennium BC. Dwivedi & Dwivedi (2007)— on the work of the surgeon Sushruta—write: ‘The main vehicle of the transmission of knowledge during that period was by oral method. The language used was Sanskrit — the vedic language of that period (2000-500 BC). ‘The most authentic compilation of his teachings and work is presently available in a treatise called Sushruta Samhita. This contains 184 chapters and description of 1120 illnesses, 700 medicinal plants, 64 preparations from mineral sources and 57 preparations based on animal sources. Underwood & Rhodes (2008) hold that this early phase of traditional Indian medicine identified ‘fever (takman), cough, consumption, diarrhea, dropsy, abscesses, seizures, tumours, and skin diseases (including leprosy).’ Treatment of complex ailments— including angina pectoris, diabetes, hypertension, and stones—also ensued during this period. Plastic surgery, cataract surgery; puncturing to release fluids in the abdomen, extraction of foreign elements, treatment of anal fistulas, treating fractures, amputations, cesarean sections, and stitching of wounds were known. The use of herbs and surgical instruments became widespread. The Charaka Samhita text is arguably the principal classic reference. It gives emphasis to the triune nature of each person: body care, mental regulation, and spirtual/consciousness refinement. siveAyurveda 109 Other early works of Ayurveda include the Charaka Samhita, attributed to Charaka. The earliest surviving excavated written material which contains the works of Sushruta is the Bower Manuscript—dated to the 4th century AD. The Bower manuscript cites directly from Sushruta; and is of special interest to historians due to the presence of Indian medicine and its concepts in Central Asia. Vagbhata—the son ofa senior doctor by the name of Simhagupta— also compiled his works on traditional medicine. Early Ayurveda had a school of physicians and a school of surgeons. Tradition holds that the text Agnivesh tantra—written by the legendary sage Agnivesh, a student of the mythological sage Bharadwaja— influenced the writings of Ayurveda. The Chinese pilgrim Fa Hsien (ca. 337 - 422 AD) wrote about the health care system of the Gupta empire (320 - 550 AD) and—in the process—described the institutional approach of Indian medicine which is also visible in the works of Charaka, who mentions a clinic and how it should be equipped. Madhava (700 AD), Sarngadhara (1300 AD), and Bhavamisra (4500 AD) compiled works on Indian medicine. The medical works of both Sushruta and Charaka were translated into the Arabic language during the Abbasid Caliphate (750 AD). These Arabic works made their way into Europe via intermediaries. In Italy the Branca family of Sicily and Gaspare Tagliacozzi (Bologna) became familiar with the techniques of Sushruta. British physicians traveled to India’ to see Rhinoplasty being performed by native methods. Reports on Indian Rhinoplasty were published in the Gentleman's Magazine by 1794, Joseph Constantine Carpue spent 20 years in India studying local plastic surgery methods. Carpue was able to perform the first major surgery in the western world by 1815. Instruments described in the Sushruta Samhita were further modified in the Western World.110 Vedic Philosophy Current Status Within India In 1970, the Indian Medical Central Council Act was passed by the Parliament of India, which aims to standardize qualifications for Ayurveda and provide accredited institutions for its study and research. In India, over 100 colleges offer degrees in traditional Ayurvedic medicine. The Indian government supports research and teaching in Ayurveda through many channels—both at the national and state levels—and helps institutionalize traditional medicine so that it can be studied in major towns and cities. The state-sponsored Central Council for Research in Ayurveda and Siddha (CCRAS) is the apex institution for promotion of traditional medicine in India. The studies conducted by this institution encompass clinical, drug, literary, and family welfare research. Many clinics are run by professionals who qualify from these institutes—both in the urban and the rural areas. Mukherjee & Wahile cite World Health Organization statistics to demonstrate the popularity of traditional medicine, on which a significant number of the world’s population depends for primary health care. In Sri Lanka the number of traditional Ayurveda practitioners is greater than trained modem medicine professionals. The manufacture and marketing of Ayurvedic medicine has been commercially successful for several pharmaceutical companies. Old manufacturing companies such as Arya Vaidya Sala, Arya Vaidya Pharmacy, IMIS Pharmaceuticals, Dabur, Baidyanath have maintained the classical range, while also patenting certain own formulations, such as Gyncocalm, Jeevani, Eosinophal, Dabur Pancharishta. Similarly, MNCs like Hindustan Unilever Limited, in collaboration with Arya Vaidya Pharmacy, has been promoting its chain of Ayurvedic Massage Therapy Centres in the Brand name of [Ayush Therapy Centre], with two of the major centers located at Kalyan and Vashi.Ayurveda 11 Outside India Academic institutions related to traditional medicine in India have contributed to Ayurveda’s international visibility. Kurup (2003) comments on the role of Gujarat Ayurved University: The Gujarat Ayurved University has signed the Memorandum of Understanding (MoU) with nine Ayurvedic institutes functioning in Japan, Australia, the Netherlands, Italy, Argentina, and Germany to coordinate and facilitate the globalization of Ayurveda through academic collaboration. Earlier, Medical (Ayu) Institute of Russia had signed the MoU with the government of India, in which Gujarat Aryurved University is also one of the implementing authorities. Ayurveda gained recognition in the Western world as medical scholars, notably , Frank John Ninivaggi MD of Yale University School of Medicine, researched and outlined its various postulates in one major textbook form suitable to Western academic science. In the United States of America, the NIH NCCAM expends some of its $123 million budget on Ayurvedic medicine research. In addition, the National Institute of Ayurvedic Medicine, established by Dr. Scott Gerson, is an example of a research institute that has carried out research into Ayurvedic practices. Gerson has published part of his work on the antifungal activities of certain Ayurvedic plants in academic journals. The postulates and history of Ayurveda have alsobeen outlined by foreign scholars—such as Dominik Wujastyk in the United Kingdom. Questionable practices in research involving financial gains have resulted in the questioning of some of the research and cases such as the Maharishi Vedic Approach to Health have involved litigations. Journals A variety of peer reviewed journals focus on the topic of ayurvedic medicine, including the Theoretical and Experimental112 Vedic Philosophy Journal of Ayurveda and Siddha (TEJAS; published between 1981 and 2008 as Ancient Science of Life) the Journal of Research & Education in Indian Medicine (JREIM), AYU (published quarterly) and The International Journal for Ayurveda Research (published quarterly) None of the journals are PubMed indexed, Patents ‘In December 1993, the University of Mississippi Medical Center had a patent issued to them by United States Patent and Trademark Office on the use of turmeric for healing. The patent was contested by India’s industrial research organization, Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (C.$.LR), on the grounds that traditional Ayurvedic practitioners were already aware of the healing properties of the substance and have been for centuries, making this patent a case of bio-piracy. The Government of India had become involved in promoting traditional medicine by 1997. Sharma & Bodeker report on the various government activities in relation with Ayurveda: In India the government became involved in traditional drug production when the Central Drug Research Institute patented two new drugs from ancient Ayurvedic formulas. One, a mixture of black pepper, long pepper, and ginger, allows for the dosage of the antibiotic rifampicin to be halved in the treatment of tuberculosis and other mycobacterial infections. The other is a memory tonic produced from the traditional plant called brahmi, Overseas patenting of turmeric and products of the neem tree caused controversy in India and other nations. In August the U.S. Patent and Trademark Office canceled a U.S. patent on the wound-healing properties of turmeric when the Indian government proved that records had existed for this use for centuries. Scientific Evidence As a traditional medicine, many Ayurveda products have not been tested in rigorous scientific studies and clinicalAyurveda 13 trials. In India, research in Ayurveda is largely undertaken by the statutory body of the Central Government, the Central Council for Research in Ayurveda and Siddha (CCRAS), through a national network of research institutes. A systematic review of Ayurveda treatments for rheumatoid arthritis concluded that there was insufficient evidence, as most of the trials were not done properly, and the one high-quality trial showed no benefits. A review of Ayurveda and cardiovascular disease concluded that while the herbal evidence is not yet convincing, the spices are appropriate, some herbs are promising, and yoga is also a promising complementary treatment. Some ayutvedic products, mainly herbs used for phytotherapy, have been tested with promising results. Turmeric and its derivative curcumin appears to have beneficial Properties. Tinspora cordifolia has been tested, Among the medhya rasayanas (intellect rejuvenation), two varieties of Salvia have been tested in small trials; one trial provided evidence that Salvia lavandulifolia (Spanish sage) may improve word recall in young adults, and another provided evidence that Salvia officinalis (Common sage) may improve symptoms in Alzheimer’s patients. In some cases Ayurvedic medicine may provide clues to therapeutic compounds. For example, derivatives of snake venom have various therapeutic properties. Many plants used as rasayana (rejuvenation) medications are potent antioxidants. Neem appears to have beneficial pharmacological properties as well. Mitra & Rangesh (2003) hold that cardamom and cinnamon are believed to stimulate digestive enzymes that break down polymeric macromolecules in the human body. Research suggests that Terminalia arjuna is useful in alleviating the pain of angina pectoris and in treating heart failure and coronary artery disease. Terminalia arjuna may also be useful in treating hypercholesterolemia. Azadirachta indica is believed to have immunopotentiating abilities and is used often as annt Vedic Philosophy anti-infective. It has been found to enhance the production of IL-2 and increase immunity in human volunteers by boosting lymphocyte and T-cell count in three weeks. Both black pepper and long pepper find application in Ayurvedic medicine in conjunction with ginger to form trikatu—a traditional mixture. Trikatu has been suggested to increase appetite, promote the secretion of digestive juices, and cure certain gastric disorders— particularly achlorhydria and hypochlorhydria. Scientist Richard Dawkins has criticized the use of Ayurveda in the west, claiming that while westerners are turning to Ayurveda, Indians are “voting with their fect” and turning to modern medicine. Furthermore, he says that “"The idea that ancient equals years of accumulated wisdom is a fallacy... Resuscitating Ayurveda today is rather like bringing back bleeding with leeches.” Safety Major safety concerns include adulteration of herbal medicines with toxic metals, and intrinsic toxicity of herbal medications. Some traditional Ayurvedic treatments use toxic metals, herbs, and minerals as part of their remedies. Rasa Shastra, the practice of adding metals, minerals or gems to herbs, increases the likelihood of toxic metals such as lead, mercury, or arsenic in the remedy. A 2004 study found toxic heavy metals such as lead, mercury and arsenic in 20% of Ayurvedic preparations that were made in South Asia for sale around Boston and extrapolated the data to America. It concluded that excess consumption of these products could cause health risks. A 2008 study found that approximately 20% of remedies (and 40% of rasa shastra medicines) purchased over the internet from both US and Indian suppliers were contaminated with Jead, mercury or arsenic. More than 230 products were included in the study.Ayurveda 115 Traditionally the toxicity of these materials are believed to be reduced through processes such as samskaras or shodhanas (for metals), which is similar to the Chinese pao zhi, although the Ayurvedic technique is more complex and may involve prayers as well as physical pharmacy techniques. Rigorous evidence that the metals may be rendered nontoxic is not available, and case reports describe adverse effects to these metals. There is evidence that using some Ayurvedic medicines, especially those involving herbs, metals, minerals, or other materials involves potentially serious risks, including toxicity. Adverse reactions to herbs due their pharmacology are described in traditional Ayurveda texts, but Ayurvedic practitioners are reluctant to admit that herbs could be toxic and the reliable information on herbal toxicity is not easily available, Following concerns about metal toxicity, the Government of India ruled that Ayurvedic products must specify their metallic content directly on the labels of the product. The harmful effects of the samples is attributed in part to the adulterated raw material and lack of workers trained in traditional medicine. In a letter to the Indian Academy of Sciences, director of the Interdisciplinary School of Health Sciences, University of Pune Patwardhan Bhushan stated that the metal adulteration is due to contamination and carelessness during the much faster modern manufacturing processes, and does not occur with traditional methods of preparation. Publication of the levels of contamination found in the products has resulted in decline of Ayurveda in India as well as abroad. oo6 Indian Mathematics Indian mathematics is the mathematics that emerged in South Asia from ancient times until the end of the 18th century. In the classical period of Indian mathematics (400 AD to 1200 AD), important contributions were made by scholars like Aryabhata, Brahmagupta, and Bhaskara I. The decimal number system in use today was first recorded in Indian mathematics. Indian mathematicians made early contributions to the study of the concept of zero as a number, negative numbers, arithmetic, and algebra. In addition, trigonometry, having evolved in the Hellenistic world and having been introduced into ancient India through the translation of Greek works, was further advanced in India, and, in particular, the modem definitions of sine and cosine were developed there. These-mathematical concepts were transmitted to the Middle East, China, and Europe and led to further developments that now form the foundations of many areas of mathematics. Ancient and medieval Indian mathematical works, all composed in Sanskrit, usually consisted of a section of sutras in which a set of rules or problems were stated with great economy in verse in order to aid memorization by a student. This was followed by a second section consisting of a prose commentary (sometimes multiple commentaries by different scholars) that explained the problem in more detail and Provided justification for the solution. In the prose section, the form (and therefore its memorization) was not considered a5 important as the ideas involved. All mathematical works 4 i a© Indian Mathematics 17 were orally transmitted until approximately 500 BCE; thereafter, they were transmitted both orally and in manuscript form. The oldest extant mathematical document produced on the Indian subcontinent is the birch bark Bakhshali Manuscript, discovered in 1881 in the village of Bakhshali, near Peshawar (modern day Pakistan) and is likely from the seventh century CE. A later landmark in Indian mathematics was the development of the series expansions for trigonometric functions (sine, cosine, and arc tangent) by mathematicians of the Kerala School in the fifteenth century CE. Their remarkable work, completed two centuries before the invention of calculus in Europe, provided what is now considered the first example of a power series (apart from geometric series). However, they did not formulate a systematic theory of differentiation and integration, nor is there any direct evidence of their results being transmitted outside Kerala. Fields of Indian Mathematics Some of the areas of mathematics studied in ancient and medieval India include the following: © Arithmetic: Decimal system, Negative numbers (see Brahmagupta), Zero (see Hindu-Arabic numer?! system), the modern positional notation numeral system, Floating point numbers (see Kerala School); Number theory, Infinity (see Yajur Veda), Transfinite numbers, Irrational numbers (see Shulba Sutras) Geometry: Square roots (see Bakhshali approximation), Cube roots (see Mahavira), Pythagorean triples (see Sulba Sutras; Baudhayana and Apastamba state the Pythagorean theorem without proof), Transformation (see Panini), Pascal's triangle (see Pingala) Algebra: Quadratic equations (see Sulba Sutras, Aryabhata, and Brahmagupta), Cubic equations and118 Vedic Philosophy Quartic equations (biquadratic equations) (see Mahavira and Bhaskara II) Mathematical logic: Formal grammars, formal language theory, the Panini-Backus form (see Panini), Recursion (see Panini) * General mathematics: Fibonacci numbers (see Pingala), Earliest forms of Morse code (see Pingala), Logarithms. indices (see Jaina mathematics), Algorithms, Algorism (see Aryabhata and Brahmagupia) Trigonometry: Trigonometric functions (see Surya Siddhanta and Aryabhata), Trigonometric series (see Madhava and Kerala School) Indian mathematics show many different ways of Indian culture. Prehistory Excavations at Harappa, Mohenjo-daro and other sites of the Indus Valley Civilization have uncovered evidence of the use of “practical mathematics”. The people of the IVC manufactured bricks whose dimensions were in the proportion 4:2:1, considered favorable for the stability of a brick structure. They used a standardized system of weights based on the ratios: 1/20, 1/10, 1/5, 1/2, 1, 2, 5, 10, 20, 50, 100, 200, and 500, with the unit weight equaling approximately 28 grams (and approximately equal to the English ounce or Greek uncia). They mass produced weights in regular geometrical shapes, which included hexahedra, barrels, cones, and cylinders, thereby demonstrating knowledge of basic geometry. The inhabitants of Indus civilization also tried to standardize measurement of length to a high degree of accuracy. They designed a ruler—the Mohenjo-daro ruler —whose unit of length (approximately 1.32 inches or 3.4 centimetres) was divided into ten equal parts. Bricks manufactured in ancient Mohenjo-daro often had dimensions that were integral multiples of this unit of length.Indian Mathematics 119 Vedic Period Samhitas and Brahmanas The religious texts of the Vedic Period provide evidence for the use of large numbers. By the time of the YajurvedasaChita (1200-900 BCE), numbers as high as 10” were being included in the texts. For example, the mantra (sacrificial formula) at the end of the annahoma (’food-oblation rite”) performed during the acvamedha (“horse sacrifice”), and uttered just before-, during-, and just after sunrise, invokes powers of ten from a hundred to a trillion: “Hail to wata (“hundred,” 10), hail to sahasra (“thousand,” 10), hail to ayuta (“ten thousand,” 10), hail to niyuta (“hundred thousand,” 10), hail to prayuta “million,” 10), hail to arbuda (“ten million,” 10), hail to nyarbuda (“hundred million,” 10), hail to samudra (“billion,” 10, literally “ocean”), hail to madhya (“ten billion,” 10, literally “middle”), hail to anta (“hundred billion,” 10,lit,, “end”), hail to parérdha (“one trillion,” 10 lit, “beyond parts”), hail to the dawn (uceas), hail to the twilight (vyusti), hail to the one which is going to rise (udesyat), hail to the one which is rising (udyat), hail to the one which has just risen (udita), hail to the heaven (soarga), hail to the world (loka), hail to all.” The Satapatha Brahmana (ca. 7th century BCE) contains rules for ritual geometric constructions that are similar to the Sulba Sutras. Sulba Sitras The Sulba Siitras (literally, “Aphorisms of the Chords” in Vedic Sanskrit) (c. 700-400 BCE) list rules for the construction of sacrificial fire altars. Most mathematical problems considered in the Sulba Sfitras spring from “a single theological requirement,” that of constructing fire altars which have different shapes but occupy the same area. The altars were required to be constructed of five layers of burnt brick, with120 Vedic Philosophy the further condition that each layer consist of 200 bricks and that no two adjacent layers have congruent arrangements of bricks. According to (Hayashi 2005, p. 363), the Sulba Siitras contain “the earliest extant verbal expression of the Pythagorean Theorem in the world, although it had already been known to the Old Babylonians.” ‘The diagonal rope (aksnayé-rajju) of an oblong (rectangle) psoduces both which the flank (parivamdni) and the horizontal (tiryanméni) produce separately.” Since the statement is a siitra, itis necessarily compressed and what the ropes produce is not elaborated on, but the context clearly implies the square areas constructed on their lengths, and would have been explained so by the teacher to the student. They contain lists of Pythagorean triples, which are particular cases of Diophantine equations. They also contain statements (that with hindsight we know to be approximate) about squaring the circle and “circling the square.” According, to mathematician S. G. Dani, the Babylonian cuneiform tablet Plimpton 322 written ca. }850 BCE “contains fifteen Pythagorean triples with quite large entries, including (13500, 12709, 18541) which is a primitive triple, indicating, in particular, that there was sophisticated understanding on the topic’ in Mesopotamia in 1850 BCE. “Since these tablets predate the Sulbasutras period by several centuries, taking into account the contextual appearance of some of the triples, it is reasonable to expect that similar understanding would have been there in India.” Dani goes on to say: “As the main objective of the Sulvasutras was to describe the constructions of altars and the geometric principles involved in them, the subject of Pythagorean triples, even if it had been well understood may still not haveIndian Mathematics 121 featured in the Sulvasutras. The occurrence of the triples in the Sulvasutras is comparable to mathematics that one may encounter in an introductory book on architecture or another similar applied area, and would not correspond directly to the overall knowledge on the topic at that time. Since, unfortunately, no other contemporaneous sources have been found it may never be possible to settle this issue satisfactorily.” In all, three Sulba Sutras were composed. The remaining two, the Manava Sulba Sutra composed by Manava (fl. 750-650 BC) and the Apastamba Sulba Sutra, composed by Apastamba (c. 600 BO), contained results similar to the Baudhayana Sulba Sutra. Vyakarana ‘An important landmark of the Vedic period was the work of Sanskrit grammarian, Panini (c. 520-460 BCE). His grammar includes early use of Boolean logic, of the null operator, and of context free grammars, and includes a precursor of the Backus-Naur form (used in the description programming languages). Jaina Mathematics (400 BCE - 200 CE) Although Jainism as a religion and philosophy predates its most famous exponent, Mahavira (6th century BC), who ‘was a contemporary of Gautama Buddha, most Jaina texts on mathematical topics were composed after the 6th century BCE. Jaina mathematicians are important historically as crucial links between the mathematics of the Vedic period and that of the “Classical period.” A significant historical contribution of Jaina mathematicians lay in their freeing Indian mathematics from its religious and ritualistic constraints. In particular, their fascination with the enumeration of very large numbers and infinities, led them to classify numbers into three classes:122 Vedic Philosophy enumerable, innumerable and infinite. Not content with a simple notion of infinity, they went on to define five different types of infinity: the infinite in one direction, the infinite in two directions, the infinite in area, the infinite everywhere, and the infinite perpetually. In addition, Jaina mathematicians devised notations for simple powers (and exponents) of numbers like squares and cubes, which enabled them to define simple algebraic equations (beezganit samikaran). Jaina mathematicians were apparently also the first to use the word shunya (literally void in Sanskrit) to refer to zero. More than a millennium later, their appellation became the English word “zero” after a tortuous journey of translations and transliterations from India to Europe . In addition to Surya Prajnapti, important Jaina works on mathematics included the Vaishali Ganit (c. 3rd century BCE); the Sthananga Sutra (fl. 300 BCE - 200 CE); the Anoyogdwar Sutra (fl. 200 BCE - 100 CE); and the Satkhandagama (c. 2nd century CE). Important Jaina mathematicians included Bhadrabahu (d. 298 BCE), the author of two astronomical works, the Bhadrabahavi-Samhita and a commentary on the Surya Prajinapti; Yativrisham Acharya (c. 176 BCE), who authored a mathematical text called Tiloyapannati; and Umasvati (c. 150 BCE), who, although better known for his influential writings on Jaina philosophy and metaphysics, composed a mathematical work called Tattwarthadhigama-Sutra Bhashya. Pingala Among other scholars of this period who contributed to mathematics, the most notable is Pingala (pingalé) (fl. 300-200 BCE), a musical theorist who authored the Chandas Shastra (chandah-iiistra, also Chandas Sutra chandah-siitra), a Sanskrit treatise on prosody. There is evidence that in his work on the enumeration of syllabic combinations, Pingala stumbled upon both the Pascal triangle and Binomial coefficients, although he did not have knowledge of the Binomial theorem itself.Indian Mathematics : 123 Pingala’s work also contains the basic ideas of Fibonacci numbers (called maatraameru). Although the Chandah sutra hasn't survived in its entirety, a 10th century commentary on it by Halayudha has. Halayudha, who refers to the Pascal triangle as Meru-prastira (literally “the staircase to Mount Meru”), has this to say: “Draw a square. Beginning at half the square, draw two other similar squares below it; below these two, three other squares, and so on. The marking should be started by putting 1 in the first square. Put 1 in each of the two squares of the second line. In the third line put in the two squares at the ends and, in the middle square, the sum of the digits in the two squares lying above it. In the fourth line put 1 in the two squares at the ends. In the middle ones put the sum of the digits in the two squares above each. Proceed in this way. Of these lines, the second gives the combinations with one syllable, the third the combinations with two syllables, ...” Katyayana Though not a Jaina mathematician, Katyayana (c. 3rd century BCE) is notable for being the last of the Vedic mathematicians. He wrote the Katyayana Sulba Sutra, which presented much geometry, including the general Pythagorean theorem and a computation of the square root of 2 correct to five decimal places. Oral Tradition ‘Mathematicians of ancient and early medieval India were almost all Sanskrit pandits (pandita “learmed man”), who were trained in Sanskrit language and literature, and possessed “a common stock of knowledge in grammar (vydkarana), exegesis (mimaCsa) and logic (nyéya).” Memorization of “what is heard” {eruti in Sanskrit) through recitation played a major role in the transmission of sacred texts in ancient India. Memorization124 Vedic Philosophy and recitation was also used to transmit philosophical and literary works, as well as treatises on ritual and grammar. Modern scholars of ancient India have noted the “truly remarkable achievements of the Indian pandits who have preserved enormously bulky texts orally for millennia Styles of Memorization Prodigous energy was expended by ancient Indian culture in ensuring that these texts were transmitted from generation to generation with inordinate fidelity. For example, memorization of the sacred Vedas included up to eleven forms of recitation of the same text. The texts were subsequently “proof-read” by comparing the different recited versions. Forms of recitation included the jatd-patha (literally “mesh recitation”) in which every two adjacent words in the text were first recited in their original order, then repeated in the reverse order, and finally repeated again in the original onder. ‘The recitation thus proceeded as: word1word2, word2word1, word1word2; word2word3, word3word2, word2word3; In another form of recitation, dhvaja-patha (literally “flag recitation”) a sequence of N words were recited (and memorized) by pairing the first two and last two words and then proceeding as: word1word2, word(N-1)wordN; word2word3, word(N- 3)word(N-2); ...; word(N-1)wordN, word1word2; The most complex form of recitation, ghana-pitha (literally “dense recitation”), according to (Filliozat 2004, p. 139), took the form: wordlword2, word2word1, wordlword2word3, word3word2word1, wordlword2word3; word2word3, word3word2, word2word3word4, word4word3word2 © word2word3word4; ...Indian Mathematics 125 That these methods have been effective, is testified to by the preservation of the most ancient Indian religious text, the Rgveda (ca. 1500 BCE), as a single text, without any variant readings. Similar methods were used for memorizing mathematical texts, whose transmission remained exclusively oral until the end of the Vedic period (ca. 500 BCE). The Siitra Genre Mathematical activity in ancient India began as a part of a “methodological reflexion” on the sacred Vedas, which took the form of works called Vedangas, or, “Ancillaries of the Veda” (7th-4th century BCE). The need to conserve the sound of sacred text by use of ceiks@ (phonetics) and chandas (metrics); to conserve its meaning by use of vyakarana (grammar) and nirukta (etymology); and to correctly perform the rites at the correct time by the use of kalpa (ritual) and jyotisa (astronomy), gave tise to the six disciplines of the Vedangas. Mathematics arose as a part of the last two disciplines, ritual and astronomy (which also included astrology). Since the Vedangas immediately preceded the use of writing in ancient India, they formed the last of the exclusively oral literature. They were expressed in a highly compressed mnemonic form, the sftra (iterally, “thread”): The knowers of the sfttra know it as having few phonemes, being devoid of ambiguity, containing the essence, facing everything, being without pause and unobjectionable. Extreme brevity was achieved through multiple means, which included using ellipsis “beyond the tolerance of natural language,” using technical names instead of longer descriptive names, abridging lists by only mentioning the first and last entries, and using markers and variables. The siitras create the impression that communication through the text was “only a part of the whole instruction. The rest of the instruction must have been transmitted by the so-called Guru-shishya parampara, "uninterrupted succession from teacher (guru) to the student (@isya)’ and it was not open to the general126 Vedic Philosophy public” and perhaps even kept secret. The brevity achieved in a sftra is demonstrated in the following example from the Baudhayana Uulba Sittra (700 BCE). The domestic fire-altar in the Vedic period was required by ritual to have a square base and be constituted of five layers of bricks with 21 bricks in each layer. One method of constructing the altar was to divide one side of the square into three equal parts using a cord or rope, to next divide the transverse (or perpendicular) side into seven equal parts, and thereby sub-divide the square into 21 congruent rectangles. The bricks were then designed to be of the shape of the constituent rectangle and the layer was created, To form the next layer, the same formula was used, but the bricks were arranged transversely. The process was then repeated three more times (with alternating directions) in order to complete the construction. In the Baudhayana Uulba Sfttra, this procedure is described in the following words: “TL.64. After dividing the quadri-lateral in seven, one divides the transverse [cord] in three. 1165. In another layer one places the [bricks] North- pointing.” According to (Filliozat 2004, p, 144), the officiant constructing the altar has only a few tools and materials at his disposal: a cord (Sanskrit, rajju, f., two pegs (Sanskrit, e@anku, m.), and clay to make the bricks (Sanskrit, istakd, f.). Concision is achieved in the sfttra, by not explicitly mentioning what the adjective “transverse” qualifies; however, from the feminine form of the (Sanskrit) adjective used, it is easily inferred to qualify “cord.” Similarly, in the second stanza, “bricks” are not explicitly mentioned, but inferred again by the feminine plural form of “North-pointing.” Finally, the first stanza, never explicitly says that the first layer of bricks are oriented in the East-West direction, but that too is implied by the explicit mention of “North-pointing” in the second Pao aerrtsIndian Mathematics 127 stanza; for, if the orientation was meant to be the same in the two layers, it would either not be mentioned at all or be only mentioned in the first stanza. All these inferences are made by the officiant as he recalls the formula from his memory. The Written Tradition: Prose Commentary With the increasing complexity of mathematics and other exact sciences, both writing and computation were required. Consequently, many mathematical works began to be written down in manuscripts that were then copied and re-copied from generation to generation. “India today is estimated to have about thirty million manuscripts, the largest body of handwritten reading material anywhere in the world. The literate culture of Indian science goes back to at least the fifth century B.C. .. as is shown by the elements of Mesopotamian omen literature and astronomy that entered India at that time and (were) definitely not ... preserved orally.” The earliest mathematical prose commentary was that on the work, Aryabhatiya (written 499 CE), a work on astronomy and mathematics, The mathematical portion of the Aryabhatiya was composed of 33 sfitras (in verse form) consisting of mathematical statements or rules, but without any proofs. However, according to (Hayashi 2003, p. 123), “this does not necessarily mean that their authors did not prove them. It was probably a matter of style of exposition.” From the time of Bhaskara I (600 CE onwards), prose commentaries increasingly began to include some derivations (upapatti). Bhaskara I’s commentary on the Aryabhatiya, had the following structure: a Rule (‘siitra’) in verse by Aryabhata ¢ Commentary by Bhaskara I, consisting of: o Elucidation of rule (derivations were still rare then, but became more common later)128 Vedic Philosophy Example (uddesaka) usually in verse. Setting (nyasa/sthapand) of the numerical data. Working (karana) of the solution. Verification (pratyayakarana, literally “to make conviction”) of the answer. These became rare by the 13th century, derivations or proofs being favored by then. ooo 0 Typically, for any mathematical topic, students in ancient India first memorized the sittras, which, as explained earlier, were “deliberately inadequate” in explanatory details (in order to pithily convey the bare-bone mathematical rules). The stadents then worked through the topics of the prose commentary by writing (and drawing diagrams) on chalk- and dust-boards (i.e, boards covered with dust). The latter activity, a staple of mathematical work, was to later prompt mathematician-astronomer, Brahmagupta (fl. 7th century CE), to characterize astronomical computations as “dust work” (Sanskrit: dhulikarman). Numerals and the Decimal Number System It is well known that the decimal place-value system in use today was first recorded in India, then transmitted to the Islamic world, and eventually to Europe. The Syrian bishop Severus Sebokht wrote in the mid-seventh century CE about the “nine signs” of the Indians for expressing numbers. However, how, when, and where the first decimal place value system was invented is not so clear. The earliest extant script used in India was the Kharosthi script used in the Gandhara culture of the north-west. It is thought to be of Aramaic origin and it was in use from the fourth century BCE to the fourth century CE. Almost contemporaneously, another script, the Brahmi script, appeared on much of the sub-continent, and would later become the foundation of many scripts of South Asia and South-east llaIndian Mathematics 129 Asia. Both scripts had numeral symbols and numeral systems, which were initially not based on a place-value system. The earliest surviving evidence of decimal place value numerals in India and southeast Asia is from the middle of the first millennium CE. A copper plate from Gujarat, India mentions the’ date 595 CE, written in a decimal place value notation, although there is some doubt as to the authenticity of the plate. Decimal numerals recording the years 683 CE have also been found in stone inscriptions in Indonesia and Cambodia, where Indian cultural influence was substantial. There are older textual sources, although the extant manuscript copies of these texts are from much later dates. Probably the earliest such source is the work of the Buddhist philosopher Vasumitra dated,likely to the first century CE. Discussing the counting pits of merchants, Vasumitra remarks, “When [the same] clay counting-piece is in the place of units, it is denoted as one, when in hundreds, one hundred.” Although such references seem to imply that his readers had knowledge of a decimal place value representation, the “brevity of their allusions and the ambiguity of their dates, however, do not solidly establish the chronology of the development of this concept.” A third decimal representation was employed in a verse composition technique, later labeled Bhuta-sankya (literally, “object numbers”) used by early Sanskrit authors of technical books. Since many early technical works were composed in verse, numbers were often represented by objects in the natural or religious world that correspondence to them; this allowed a many-to-one correspondence for each number and made verse composition easier. According to Plofker 2009, the number 4, for example, could be represented by the word “Veda” (since there were four of these religious texts), the number 32 by the word “tooth” (since a full set consists of 32), and the number 1 by “moon” (since there is only one130 Vedic Philosophy moon). So, Veda/tooth/moon, when written from right to left, as was the convention for numbers, would correspond to the decimal numeral 1324. The earliest reference employing object numbers is a ca. 269 CE Sanskrit text, Yavanajataka (literally “Greek horoscopy”) of Sphujidhvaja, a versification of an earlier (ca. 150 CE) Indian prose adaptation of a lost work of Hellenistic astrology. Such use seems to make the case that by the mid-third century CE, the decimal place value system was familiar, at least to readers of astronomical and astrological texts in India. It has been hypothesized that the Indian decimal place value system was based on the symbols used on Chinese counting boards from as early as the middle of the first millennium BCE. According to Plofker 2009, These counting boards, like the Indian counting pits, ... had a decimal place value structure ... Indians may well have learned of these decimal place value “rod numerals” from Chinese Buddhist pilgrims or other travelers, or they may have developed the concept independently from their earlier non-place-value system; no documentary evidence survives to confirm either conclusion.” Bakhshali Manuscript The oldest extant mathematical manuscript in South Asia is the Bakhshali Manuscript, a birch bark manuscript written in “Buddhist hybrid Sanskrit” in the Udradé script, which was used in the northwestern region of the Indian subcontinent between the 8th and 12th centuries CE. The manuscript was discovered in 1881 by a farmer while digging ina stone enclosure in the village of Bakhshali, near Peshawar (then in British India and now in Pakistan). Of unknown authorship and now preserved in the Bodleian Library in Oxford University, the manuscript has been variously dated — as early as the “early centuries of the Christian era” and asIndian Mathematics 131 late as between the 9th and 12th century CE. The 7th century CE is now considered a plausible date, albeit with the likelihood that the “manuscript in its present-day form constitutes a commentary or a copy of an anterior mathematica! work.” The surviving manuscript has seventy leaves, some of which are in fragments. Its mathematical content consists of rules and examples, written in verse, together with prose commentaries, which include solutions to the examples. The topics treated include arithmetic (fractions, square roots, profit and loss, simple interest, the rule of three, and regula falsi) and algebra (simultaneous linear equations and quadratic equations), and arithmetic progressions. In addition, there is a handful of geometric problems (including problems about volumes of irregular solids). The Bakhshali manuscript also “employs a decimal place value system with a dot for zero.” Many of its problems are the so-called equalization problems that lead to systems of linear equations. One example from Fragment III-5-3v is the following: “One merchant has seven asava horses, a second has nine haya horses, and a third has ten camels, They are equally well off in the value of their animals if each gives two animals, one to each of the others. Find the price of each animal and the total value for the animals possessed by each merchant.” The prose commentary accompanying the example solves the problem by converting it to three (under-determined) equations in four unknowns and assuming that the prices are all integers. Classical Period (400 - 1200) ‘This period is often known as the golden age of Indian- Mathematics. This period saw mathematicians such as ~ Aryabhata, Varahamihira, Brahmagupta, Bhaskara I, Mahavira, and Bhaskara Il give broader and clearer shape to132 Vedic Philosophy many branches of mathematics. Their contributions would spread to Asia, the Middle East, and eventually to Europe. Unlike Vedic mathematics, their works included both astronomical and mathematical contributions. In fact, mathematics of that period was included in the ‘astral science’ (jyotihiiastra) and consisted of three sub-disciplines: mathematical sciences (ganita or tantra), horoscope astrology (hora or jataka) and divination (saChit4). This tripartite division is seen in Varahamihira’s sixth century compilation— Pancasiddhantika (literally panca, “five,” siddhanta, “conclusion of deliberation”, dated 575 CE)—of five earlier works, Surya Siddhanta, Romaka Siddhanta, Paulisa Siddhanta, Vasishtha Siddhanta and Paitamaha Siddhanta, which were adaptations of still earlier works of Mesopotamian, Greek, Egyptian, Roman and Indianastronomy. As explained earlier, the main texts were composed in Sanskrit verse, and were followed by prose commentaries. Fifth and Sixth Centuries Surya Siddhanta Though its authorship is unknown, the Surya Siddhanta (c. 400) contains the roots of modern trigonometry. Some authors consider that it was written under the influence of Mesopotamia and Greece. This ancient text uses the following as trigonometric functions for the first time: © Sine (Jya). * Cosine (Kojya). # Inverse sine (Otkram jya). It also contains the earliest uses of: * Tangent. * Secant.Indian Mathematics 133 * The Hindu cosmological time cycles explained in the text, which was copied from an earlier work, gives: o The average length of the sidereal year as 365.2563795 days, which is only 1.4 seconds longer than the modern value of 365.2563627 days. © The average length of the tropical year as 365.2421756 days, which is only 2 seconds shorter than the modern value of 365.2421988 days. Later Indian mathematicians such as Aryabhata made references to this text, while later Arabic and Latin translations were very influential in Europe and the Middle East. CHHEDI CALENDAR This Chhedi calendar (594) contains an early use of the modern place-value Hindu-Arabic numeral system now used universally (see also Hindu-Arabic numerals). Axyabhata I Aryabhata (476-550) wrote the Aryabhatiya. He described the important fundamental principles of mathematics in 332 shlokas. The treatise contained: * Quadratic equations * Trigonometry © The value of 8, correct to 4 decimal places. Aryabhata also wrote the Arya Siddhanta, which is now lost. Aryabhata’s contributions include: Trigonometry: © Introduced the trigonometric functions. © Defined the sine (jya) as the modern relationship between half an angle and half a chord. * Defined the cosine (kojya). * Defined the versine (ukramajya).134 Vedic Philosophy © Defined the inverse sine (otkram jya). * Gave methods of calculating their approximate numerical values. * Contains the earliest tables of sine, cosine and versine values, in 3.75° intervals from 0° to 90°, to 4 decimal places of accuracy. * Contains the trigonometric formula sin (n+ 1) x - sin nx = sin nx - sin (n - 1) x - (1/225)sin nx. © Spherical trigonometry. Arithmetic: * Continued fractions. Algebra: * Solutions of simultaneous quadratic equations. * Whole number solutions of linear equations by a method equivatent to the modern method. * General solution of the indeterminate linear equation Mathematical astronomy: . Proposed for the first time, a heliocentric solar system with the planets spinning on their axes and following an elliptical orbit around the Sun. Accurate calculations for astronomical constants, such as the: © Solar eclipse. © Lunar eclipse. © The formula for the sum of the cubes, which was an important step in the development of integral calculus. Calculus: * Infinitesimals: © In the course of developing a precise mapping of the lunar eclipse, Aryabhatta was obliged toIndian Mathematics * 135 introduce the concept of infinitesimals (tatkalika gati) to designate the near instantaneous motion of the moon. * Differential equations: © Heexpressed the near instantaneous motion of the moon in the form of a basic differential equation. * Exponential function: o He used the exponential function e in his differential equation of the near instantaneous motion of the moon. Seventh and Eighth Centuries In the seventh century, two separate fields, arithmetic (which included mensuration) and algebra, began to emerge in Indian mathematics. The two fields would later be called pati-ganita (literally “mathematics of algorithms”) and bija- ganita (lit. “mathematics of seeds,” with “seeds” —like the seeds of plants—representing unknowns with the potential to generate, in this case, the solutions of equations). Brahmagupta, in his astronomical work Brihma Sphuta Siddhanta (628 CE), included two chapters (12 and 18) devoted to these fields. Chapter 12, containing 66 Sanskrit verses, was divided into two sections: “basic operations” (including cube roots, fractions, ratio and proportion, and barter) and “practical mathematics” (including mixture, mathematical series, plane figures, stacking bricks, sawing of timber, and piling of grain). In the latter section, he stated his famous theorem on the diagonals of a cyclic quadrilateral: Brahmagupta’s theorem: If a cyclic quadrilateral has diagonals that are perpendicular to each other, then the perpendicular line drawn from the point of intersection of the diagonals to any side of the quadrilateral always bisects the opposite side.136 Vedic Philosophy Chapter 12 also included a formula for the area ofa cyclic quadrilateral (a generalization of Heron's formula), as well as a complete description of rational triangles (i.e. triangles with rational sides and rational areas). Ninth to Twelfth Centuries Virasena Virasena (9th century) was a Jain mathematician in the court of Rashtrakuta King Amoghavarsha of Manyakheta, Karnataka, He wrote the Dhavala, a commentary on Jain mathematics, which: * Deals with logarithms to base 2 (ardhaccheda) and describes its laws. * First uses logarithms to base 3 (trakacheda) and base 4 (caturthacheda). Virasena also gave: © The derivation of the volume of a frustum by a sort of infinite procedure. Mahavira Mahavira Acharya (c. 800-870) from Karnataka, the last of the notable Jain mathematicians, lived in the 9th century and was patronised by the Rashtrakuta king Amoghavarsha. He wrote a book titled Ganit Saar Sangraha on numerical mathematics, and also wrote treatises about a wide range of mathematical topics. These include the mathematics of: * Zero. © Squares. « Cubes. ‘* square roots, cube roots, and the series extending beyond these. © Plane geometry . * Solid geometry. iailiaacaaweIndian Mathematics 137 * Problems relating to the casting of shadows. * Formulae derived to calculate the area of an ellipse and quadrilateral inside a circle Mahavira also: Asserted that the square root of a negative number did not exist Gave the sum of a series whose terms are squares of an arithmetical progression, and gave empirical rules for area and perimeter of an ellipse. Solved cubic equations. Solved quartic equations. Solved some quintic equations and higher-order polynomials. Solved indeterminate quadratic equations. Solved indeterminate cubic equations. Solved indeterminate higher order equations. Shridhara Shridhara (c. 870-930), who lived in Bengal, wrote the books titled Nav Shatika, Tri Shatika and Pati Ganita. He gave: * A good rule for finding the volume of a sphere. © The formula for solving quadratic equations. The Pati Ganita is a work on arithmetic and mensuration. It deals with various operations, including: Elementary operations Extracting square and cube roots. Fractions. Eight rules given for operations involving zero. Methods of summation of different arithmetic and geometric series, which were to become standard references in later works.138 Vedic Philosophy Axyabhata II Aryabhata II (c. 920-1000) wrote a commentary on Shridhara, and an astronomical treatise Maha-Siddhanta. The Maha-Siddhanta has 18 chapters, and discusses: * Numerical mathematics (Ank Ganit). * Algebra. * Solutions of indeterminate equations (kuttaka). Shripati Shtipati Mishra (1019-1066) wrote the books Siddhanta Shekhara, a major work on astronomy in 19 chapters, and Ganit Tilaka, an incomplete arithmetical treatise in 125 verses based on a work by Shridhara. He worked mainly on: * Permutations and combinations. * General solution of the simultaneous indeterminate linear equation. He was also the author of Dhikotidakarana, a work of twenty verses on: * Solareclipse. * Lunar eclipse. The Dhruvamanasa is a work of 105 verses on: * Calculating planetary longitudes © eclipses. © planetary transits. Nemichandra Siddhanta Chakravati Nemichandra Siddhanta Chakravati (c. 1100) authored a mathematical treatise titled Gome-mat Saar. Bhaskara II Bhaskara II (1114-1185) was a mathematician-astronomer who wrote a number of important treatises, namely the ihiasieIndian Mathematics 139 Siddhanta Shiromani, Lilavati, Bijaganita, Gola Addhaya, Griha Ganitam and Karan Kautoohal. A number of his contributions were later transmitted to the Middle East and Europe. His contributions include: Arithmetic: Interest computation. Arithmetical and geometrical progressions. Plane geometry . Solid geometry. The shadow of the gnomon. Solutions of combinations. Gave a proof for division by zero being infinity. Algebra: The recognition of a positive number having two square roots. Surds. Operations with products of several unknowns. ‘The solutions of: © Quadratic equations. Cubic equations. Quartic equations. Equations with more than one unknown. Quadratic equations with more than one unknown. ooo 0 © The general form of Pell’s equation using the chakravala method. © The generai indeterminate quadratic equation using the chakravala method. © Indeterminate cubic equations. © Indeterminate quartic equations. © Indeterminate higher-order polynomial equations.140. Vedic Philosophy Geometry: © Gave a proof of the Pythagorean theorem. Calculus: Conceived of differential calculus. Discovered the derivative. Discovered the differential coefficient. Developed differentiation. Stated Rolle’s theorem, a special case of the mean value theorem (one of the most important theorems of calculus and analysis). Derived the differential of the sine function. Computed 6, correct to 5 decimal places. Calculated the length of the Earth’s revolution around the Sun to 9 decimal places. Trigonometry: * Developments of spherical trigonometry © The trigonometric formulas: Kerala Mathematics (1300 - 1600) The Kerala school of astronomy and mathematics was founded by Madhava of Sangamagrama in Kerala, South India and included among its members: Parameshvara, Neelakanta Somayaji, Jyeshtadeva, Achyuta Pisharati, Melpathur Narayana Bhattathiri and Achyuta Panikkar. It flourished between the 14th and 16th centuries and the original discoveries of the school seems to have ended with Narayana Bhattathiri (1559-1632). In attempting to solve astronomical problems, the Kerala school astronomers independently created a number of important mathematics concepts. The most important results, series expansion for trigonometric functions, were given in Sanskrit verse in a book by Neelakanta called 5 Tantrasangraha and a commentary on this work called”Indian Mathematics 141 Tantrasangraha-vakhya of unknown authorship. The theorems were stated without proof, but proofs for the series for sine, cosine, and inverse tangent were provided a century later in the work Yuktibhasa (¢.1500-c.1610), written in Malayalam, by Jyesthadeva, and also in a commentary on Tantrasangraha. Their discovery of these three important series expansions of calculus—several centuries before calculus was developed in Europe by Isaac Newton and Gottfried Leibniz—was a landmark achievement in mathematics. However, the Kerala School cannot be said to have invented calculus, because, while they were able to develop Taylor series expansions for the important trigonometric functions, they developed neither a comprehensive theory of differentiation or integration, not the fundamental theorem of calculus. The works of the Kerala school were first written up for the Western world by Englishman C. M. Whish in 1835. According to Whish, the Kerala mathematicians had “laid the foundation for a complete system of fluxions” and these works abounded “with fluxional forms and series to be found in no work of foreign countries.” However, Whish’s results were almost completely neglected, until over a century later, when the discoveries of the Kerala school were investigated again by C. Rajagopal and his associates. Their work includes commentaries on the proofs of the arctan series in Yuktibhasa given in two papers, a commentary on the Yuktibhasa’s proof of the sine and cosine series and two papers that provide the Sanskrit verses of the Tantrasangrahavakhya for the series for arctan, sin, and cosine (with English translation and commentary). ‘The Kerala mathematicians included Narayana Pandit (c. 1340-1400), who composed two works, an arithmetical treatise, Ganita Kaumudi, and an algebraic treatise, Bijganita Vatamsa. Narayana is also thought to be the author of an elaborate commentary of Bhaskara II's Lilavati, titledVedic Philosophy (or Karma-Paddhati). Madhava of Sangamagramma (c, 1340-1425) was the founder of the Kerala School. Although it is possible that he wrote Karana Paddhati a work written sometime between 1375 and 1475, all we really know of his work comes from works of later scholars. Parameshvara (c. 1370-1460) wrote commentaries on the works of Bhaskara I, Aryabhata and Bhaskara UJ. His Lilavati Bhasya, a commentary on Bhaskara Il’s Lilavati, contains one of his important discoveries: a version of the mean value theorem. Nilakantha Somayaji (1444-1544) composed the Tantra Samgraha' (which ‘spawned’ a later anonymous commentary Tantrasangraha-vyakhya and a further commentary by. the name Yuktidipaika, written in 1501). He elaborated and extended the contributions of Madhava. Citrabhanu (c. 1530) was a 16th century mathematician from Kerala who gave integer solutions to 21 types of systems of two simultaneous algebraic equations in two unknowns. Charges of Eurocentrism It has been suggested that Indian contributions to mathematics have not been given due acknowledgement in modern history and that many discoveries and inventions by Indian mathematicians were known to their Western counterparts, copied by them, and presented as their own original work; and further, that this mass plagiarism has gone unrecognized due to Eurocentrism. According to G. G. Joseph: [Their work] takes on board some of the objections raised about the classical Eurocentric trajectory. The awareness of Indian and Arabic mathematics] is all too likely to be tempered with dismissive rejections of their importance compared to Greek mathematics. The contributions from other civilizations - most notably China and India, are perceived either as borrowers from Greek sources or having made only ieicsssIndian Mathematics . 143 minor contributions to mainstream mathematical development. An openness to more recent research findings, especially in the case of Indian and Chinese mathematics, is sadly missing” The historian of mathematics, Florian Cajori, suggested that he “suspect that Diophantus got his first glimpse. of algebraic knowledge from India.” More recently, as discussed in the above section, the infinite series of calculus for trigonometric functions (rediscovered by Gregory, Taylor, and Maclaurin in the late 17th century) were described (with proofs) in India, by mathematicians of the Kerala School, remarkably some two centuries earlier. Some scholars have recently suggested that knowledge of these results might have been transmitted to Europe through the trade route from Kerala by traders and Jesuit missionaries. Kerala was in continuous contact with China and Arabia, and, from around 1500, with Europe. The existence of communication routes and a suitable chronology certainly make such a transmission a possibility. However, there is no direct evidence by way of relevant manuscripts that such a transmission actually took place. According to David Bressoud, “there is no evidence that the Indian work of series was known beyond India, or even outside of Kerala, until the nineteenth century.” Both Arab and Indian scholars made discoveries before the 17th century that are now considered a part of calculus. However, they were not able to, as Newton and Leibniz were, to “combine many differing ideas under the two unifying themes of the derivative and the integral, show the connection between the two, and turn calculus into the great problem- solving tool we have today.” The intellectual careers of both Newton and Leibniz are well-documented and there is no indication of their work not being their own; however, it is not known with certainty whether the immediate predecessors of Newton and Leibniz, “including, in particular, Fermat and144 Vedic Philosophy Roberval, learned of some of the ideas of the Islamic and Indian mathematicians through sources we are not now aware.” This is an active area of current research, especially in the manuscripts collections of Spain and Maghreb, research that is now being pursued, among other places, at the Centre National de Recherche Scientifique in Paris. HINDU UNITS OF MEASUREMENT Vedic and Puranic units of time span from the truti (microsecond) to the mahamantavara (311.04 trillion years). Hindu theology considers the creation and destruction of the universe a cyclic process. Old Indian measures are presently used primarily for religious purposes in Hinduism and Jainism. They also age employed in the teachings of Surat Shabda Yoga. The Hindu cosmological time cycles are described in verses 11-23 of Chapter 1, Surya Siddhanta : 11. That which begins with respirations (prina) is called real; that which begins with atoms (truti) is unreal Six respirations make a vinddi, sixty of these a nadi. 12. And sixty nadis make a sidereal day and night. Of thirty of these sidereal days is composed a month; a civil month (sévana) consists of as many sunrises. 13. A lunar month, of as many lunar days (tithi); a solar (sdura) month is determined by the entrance of the sun into a sign of the zodiac; twelve months make a year. This is called a day of the gods. 14. The day and night of the gods and of the demons are mutually opposed to one another. Six times sixty of them are a year of the gods, and likewise of the demons.