Paraguay culture is highly influenced by various European countries, particularly Spain, which are combined with indigenous culture.

This cultural blend is seen in Paraguay's forms of arts, crafts, music, festivals, literature, cinema, fashion, languages.

The two official languages of Paraguay are Spanish as well as Guarani, the indigenous language of Paraguay that is spoken by about 90 percent of the population. Of Paraguay's population of about 6.7 million people, about 95 percent are mestizo (mixed Spanish and indigenous), further reflecting the blended nature of the nation's culture. The Guarani are the earliest inhabitants of the country, inhabiting the region east of the Rio Paraguay. The western region was inhabited by the more reclusive and warlike Chaco tribesmen.

The majority of the population in Paraguay follows a form of Christianity, with almost 90 percent Roman Catholic, followed by Protestant groups with a significant minority of Muslims and Mennonites. The richness of the Paraguayan culture can be found also in the embracing of new technologies. Though, the latest techniques have been adopted, the roots have never been neglected by the Paraguay people. The mixture of the old and new have contributed profusely to the rich production of the arts and crafts of Paraguay. Paraguayan embroidery, lace making, and local music are representations of the cultural fusion. Food is an important part of the cultural ethos of any country, and in Paraguay, cottage cheese, cornmeal, milk, butter, eggs and fresh corn kernels are some of the major dishes. Sports are an important cultural aspect of Paraguay, which excels in football (soccer), as well as rugby, volleyball, and tennis. Paraguayan Food The food of modern Paraguay is highly influenced by Spain, but because of the varieties of crops commonly found in the country, its traditional foods are rooted in the country's own ground. The two ingredients forming the basis of Paraguayan cuisine are cassava and corn. Cassava is a root vegetable, also known as Yuca or manioc, and is used to make breads and cakes called chipa. Corn is another important ingredient in the food of Paraguay, used to make dishes like Paraguayan soup. Bori bori is one of the signature soups of Paraguay, usually made with chicken and cornmeal dumplings. The meat dishes are mainly prepared from chicken, pork as well as lamb. Some of the other renowned Paraguay foods include:

Famous

Reviro Jopara Arro Quesu Pastel Mandi'o Locro People

Lambreado Chicharo Payagua Mascada Caldo Ava So'o Yosopy from Paraguay

Paraguay, despite being a small and isolated Latin American country, has produced many famous personalities over the years who have contributed in various spheres of human activities in highly meaningful and significant ways. The famous people from Paraguay are recognized, not only within Paraguay, but all around the world. They vary from politicians to writers of literature, from human rights activists to musicians and from sports players to social reformers.

Paraguay stands witness to a long and eventful history, therefore it comes as no surprise that a number of great politicians and social reformers have graced its history at various points of time, who have influenced the country and the world through their thoughts and actions. Pedro Juan Caballero was the main figure in Paraguay's War for Independence, which eventually was declared on May 15, 1811. Jose Gasper Rodriguez de Francia was the first president of Paraguay, and is one of the most famous people from Paraguay. Francisco Solano Lopez, Carlos Antonio Lopez, Raul Cunas Grau and Luis Gonzalez Macchi were all presidents of Paraguay in history, famous for their political contribution to the country. Other major politicians of the country include:

Luis Maria Argana Mario Paz Castaing Lino Oviedo

Paraguay has traditionally produced renowned writers, musicians, composers, and performers. Many political figures of Paraguay are great writers as well. Some of the greatest Paraguayan cultural icons include:

Augusta Roa Bastos Roque Vallejos

Jose Ricardo Mazo Agustin Barrios-Mangore

The greatest athletes to emerge from Paraguay include footballer Jose Luis Chilavert and tennis star Rossana Festivals A large number of tourists visit De in Paraguay to witness the colorful Los Rios. Paraguay festivals.

Some

of

the

most

important

festivals

in

Paraguay

include:

San Blas Fiestas: This Paraguay festival is held in February, which is time for Carnival. It is celebrated nationally in almost all major towns and cities of Paraguay with great pomp and enthusiasm. However, the Nirgen de la Candelaria in Puno is the biggest celebration for carnival.

Semana Santa: Held in March, this popular festival is religious in nature. This Holy Week is celebrated with great solemnity. Festival de San Juan: The festival of San Juan is a major festival in Paraguay. Held around the country on June 24, this festival is best observed in the national capital of Asuncion. The nature of celebration for this festival varies from city to city. However, fire walking on hot coals and embers and the burning of an effigy of Judas Iscariot remain common rituals. Great food almost invariably accompanies the celebrations. Paraguayan Dances Paraguayan dances have a rich history and heritage and are among the most popular cultural activities. There are various forms of dance in Paraguay, which have developed out of the influence of the Spanish dances. There are also several traditional dances of Paraguay, which are practiced even today. Most of these traditional forms of dance emerged out of ballroom dances, which were performed by the early Paraguayan aristocrats. Paraguayan dances remained confined within the traditional and classical styles in the earlier parts of the twentieth century. However, during the 1980s, European influence came to Paraguay.

Some of the major dance forms of Paraguay are as follows:

Polka El Chopi La Palomita

Pericon Solito

Paraguay

Music

Paraguay music is overtly European in nature. Both the structure and the instrumentations employed in tradition Paraguayan music have clearly exhibit the strong European influences exerted on the indigenous culture of the land. However, it should be remembered that the people of Paraguay are largely Spanish mestizos, and are typically proud of their indigenous identities. Thus, it may come as a surprise to many that the European musical structures are so faithfully adhered to in the music of Paraguay. Therefore, despite all the similarities there are certain distinctive features to distinguish it from identical forms as practised in Europe. One such is the characteristic usage of Guarina in place of the official Spanish as the language for the songs.

Identifica

tion. The name "Paraguay" derives from the river that divides the eastern half of the nation from the western Chaco region. The vast majority of the population (95 percent) shares a Paraguayan identity, but several other cultural identities exist. The indigenous population is composed of seventeen ethnic groups from five linguistic families. Most immigrants have blended into the national population, but several groups have maintained distinct identities and cultures. Those groups include Mennonites, who settled in the western (Chaco) and the northern regions early in the early twentieth century; Japanese, who settled in agricultural colonies primarily during the 1950s and 1960s; and more recent Korean, Lebanese, and ethnic Chinese immigrants, who have settled in the urban centers of Asuncin and Ciudad del Este since the 1970s. In the 1960s and 1970s, large numbers of Brazilian immigrant farmers moved to the eastern frontier region and became the backbone of the soybean export sector. By the 1990s, a second generation of Brazilians had been born and raised in Paraguay, and a few intermarried with the local population. These brasiguayos form a distinct subgroup. Location and Geography. Paraguay is a land-locked nation of 157,047 square miles (406,752 square kilometers) in South America, surrounded by Brazil, Argentina, and Bolivia. The inhospitable and semiarid Chaco forms the western part of the nation. Flat and infertile, much of it covered by scrub forests, the Chaco contains approximately 61 percent of the national land area but less than 3 percent of the population. In contrast, eastern Paraguay has rolling hills, richer soils, lush semitropical forests, and grassy savannas. The region so impressed early explorers that they called it a "second Eden." Temperatures are high in a humid subtropical climate in the summer months of October to March, while in the winter months of July to September night frosts may occur. Rainfall occurs throughout the year but is usually heaviest between October and April; annual variations can be extreme. The capital, Asuncin, lies on the Paraguay River at the point dividing eastern and western Paraguay. The city was founded in 1537 by Juan de Salazar y

Espinoza, a Spanish explorer who led an expedition upriver from the fort at Buenos Aires. Befriended by the local Guarani, he established the fort of Nuestra Seora de la Asuncin overlooking the bay where Asuncin now stands. The Asuncin cabildo (city council) was established in 1541. Asuncin has dominated national society and politics since that time. Demography. In 1999 the population was estimated to be 5,222,000. Approximately 95 percent of the population is mestizo. The population has more than tripled since 1950 and is growing 2.5 percent annually, with a total fertility rate of 3.8 children per woman. The growth rate has declined slightly from the period preceding 1975. The population is relatively young; 40 percent is under age 15, and only 5 percent is sixty or older. Population figures for the ethnic populations are disputed. Estimates place the indigenous population at less than 3 percent of the national population. The largest groups are the Enxet Lengua, Pai-Tavyter, Nivacl (Chulup), Chirip, and Mby. The Japanese settlers and their descendants are estimated to number about eight thousand, and the Mennonites approximately fifteen thousand. There are no reliable estimates for Korean, Chinese, and Brazilian immigrants and their offspring. The 1992 census counted only several thousand Korean and Chinese immigrants, but observers place their numbers between thirty thousand and fifty thousand.

Linguistic Affiliation. The majority of the people speak an indigenous language, although they do not self-identify ethnically as indigenous. Guarani, a Tupi Guarani language and the language of eastern Paraguay's dominant precolonial indigenous population, is recognized as an official national language along with Spanish. Spanish is the language of business and government, and Guarani is spoken in everyday life. According to the 1992 census, nearly half the population speaks both Guarani and Spanish in the home and 39 percent speaks only Guarani. In rural areas and among the lower social classes, Guarani is the dominant language. Although most schooling is

conducted in Spanish, children are required to study Guarani as well. There is considerable lexical borrowing and linguistic code switching in informal conversation. The use of Guarani Language does not imply indigenous ethnicity; it is the language of the national culture. The form of Guarani spoken in the national culture is somewhat different from that used by indigenous Guarani speakers, and many indigenous people speak non-Guarani languages. Religion, residence, and community affiliationnot languageare the cultural markers of indigenous identity. Historians attribute the prominence of the Guarani language in the national culture to extensive interbreeding between Spanish men and Guarani women from the earliest colonial times. Symbolism. The most powerful symbols of the national culture are the Guarani language and imagery derived from Paraguay's national history, especially its wars. More than a means of communication, Guarani is a powerful marker of national identity that can be used to assert unity among Paraguayans of disparate social classes and political persuasions, especially in contrast to foreigners. Related images of Paraguay's indigenous heritage that also symbolize the national culture include traditional harp music, certain foods, and crafts. The national territory and sovereignty and the great sacrifices Paraguayans made historically to defend that territory and sovereignty figure prominently in the national imagery and tradition. The War of the Triple Alliance (1865 1870), in which Paraguay fought against Brazil, Argentina, and Uruguay, continues to haunt the national consciousness and remains a potent national symbol. The Chaco War (19321935)also symbolizes the sacrifices Paraguayans have made to defend their homeland. Key battles are commemorated with national holidays. The dominant imagery is that of blood shed to defend the national patrimony.

History and Ethnic Relations

Emergence of the Nation. The origins of the modern population lie in the cultural and biological mixing that occurred in the earliest period of Spanish contact. The Guarani were horticulturists organized in chieftainships based on extended kinship. Although they traced descent patrilineally, they had matrilocal settlement patterns and alliances were formalized through the exchange of women. Few women came with the handful of Spanish explorers who established the fort of Nuestra Seora de la Asuncin in 1537. The Guarani caciques (chiefs) exchanged women to formalize their alliance with the Spanish against the hostile peoples of the Chaco. The Paraguayan people trace their origins to the children of those unions. National traditions of autonomy and pride also have their origins in the early colonial years. Distant from colonial centers and lacking the mineral wealth of other regions, the colony remained isolated and impoverished. The Spanish landowners and encomenderos (recipients of Colonial grants to the labor and other tribute of specified indigenous groups) sometimes overruled and even overthrew the appointed governor. Colonial politics were tumultuous, with intense rivalry among the early conquerors and between the settlers and their economic rivals, notably the Jesuit missions. Colonists also chafed under the economic dominance of Buenos Aires and taxation of their exports by the Argentinians. The colony faced military threats from hostile indigenous peoples, Brazilian slave hunters, and Portuguese attempts to annex part of the colony. Left to their own devices by the Spanish, the colonists had to defend themselves against those threats by raising citizen militias and arming themselves as best they could, and as a result the colony has been described as the most militarized in Latin America. The colony was so impoverished and isolated that visitors commented on the obsolescence of the colonists' arms. Until the final years of the colonial period, barter was the normal means of exchange and the economy was based largely on subsistence activities. This period thus established the tradition of ethnic mixing, local self-sufficiency based on isolation and poverty, the need to defend life and land against

continuous threat, and resentment of economic exploitation by Brazil and Argentina. These orientations were reinforced by the experiences of the nineteenth century. After Argentinians deposed the Spanish viceroy in 1810, they attempted to extend their control to include the territory of Paraguay. Paraguayans resisted and in 1811 defeated the Argentinian army at the battle of Paraguari. In May of that year, Paraguayans overthrew the last Spanish governor. After several years of political maneuvering, Jos Gaspar Rodrguez de Francia emerged as the leader of the new republic and was elected perpetual dictator by the Popular Congress in 1816. Popular, iron-fisted, and fiercely nationalistic, Francia implemented policies that benefitted ordinary residents while limiting or destroying the power of the Spanish and creole elites, the Catholic Church, the mercantile houses, and the landed estates. Although he was derided by foreign critics and enemies as an isolationist madman who drove his country into poverty, scholars now argue that Francia expanded internal and external trade. However, he permitted trade only under his supervision, guaranteeing that the nation reaped the benefits, and strictly controlled the movements of foreigners in the national territory. After Francia's death in 1840, the presidency was assumed by Carlos Antonio Lpez and then, in 1862, by Lpez's son, Francisco Solano. In 1864, Francisco Solano Lpez declared war on the powerful Triple Alliance of Brazil, Argentina, and Uruguay. The events that provoked Lpez's declaration of war are debated. Although his motivations were long dismissed as megalomaniacal pretensions, some recent analysts have argued that Lpez was forced into declaring war to preempt Brazilian and Argentinian designs to assume dominion over their smaller neighbors, including Paraguay. This disastrous war resulted in the death of most Paraguayan men and many women and children and destroyed the nation's economy. It also ended Paraguay's brief period of self-determination and relatively egalitarian prosperity. Only the intervention of the U.S. president, Rutherford B. Hayes,

in 1878 prevented Argentina from claiming a large part of western Paraguay. Argentina became the middleman for most of Paraguay's international trade, and foreigners acquired vast expanses of the nation's land. The War of the Triple Alliance left Paraguay a nation largely of small farmers engaged in the production of basic food crops for subsistence and local trade. Ethnically and culturally, the population was homogeneous, with the family serving as the basic socioeconomic unit. Although the small political elite that emerged after the war emulated European styles, the vast majority of the population spoke Guarani and led a subsistence lifestyle based on indigenous and Spanish customs interwoven by the hardships of life on an isolated and impoverished frontier. National Identity. The national identity derives from these historical antecedents. Although the Guarani language is its most salient symbol, that identity is not based on an actual or mythologized pre-Columbian Guarani past. Instead, it has its origins in the fusion of indigenous and Spanish peoples in colonial times and was shaped by threats to territory and sovereignty from the earliest colonial times. The strong sense of national identity also has been nurtured by the homogeneity of the population throughout the country's modern history. Ethnic Relations. Despite the alliance of the Guarani and Spanish peoples that gave rise to the nation, Paraguayan relations with indigenous peoples typically have been marked by hostility and exploitation. Spanish colonists faced continual threats from the indigenous groups in the Chaco and repeatedly launched armed campaigns against them. Although the Guarani gave women to the Spanish to cement their alliance, the Spanish took many more women, as well as food and other goods, by force. The Spanish also quickly organized to establish their control over Guarani labor through the encomienda system. While Francia recognized the land claims of some indigenous villages, Paraguayans later appropriated indigenous land through

force, fraud, and bureaucratic maneuvers. Indigenous peoples remain at the fringes of the national society. Relations with Mennonite and Japanese settlers have been limited to occasional bureaucratic and economic transactions. These immigrant enclaves, located primarily in remote rural areas, maintain their own economic, social, and cultural institutions and in most cases have greater economic resources than do the surrounding Paraguayan communities made up primarily of small farmers. Intermarriage is rare and is disapproved. Paraguayans perceive the immigrants as disdaining and rejecting the national culture. In the 1970s and 1980s, critics charged that the influx of Brazilian immigrants threatened Paraguayan culture and national sovereignty in the eastern frontier region. However, most of those immigrants settled in ethnically homogenous communities, and there was little direct contact between them and the local population. Although there have been some confrontations between Paraguayan and Brazilian farmers over land, most conflicts have involved large tracts of land claimed by absentee owners rather than land farmed by immigrant settlers.Urbanism,

Architecture, and the

Use of Space
Until the mid-1970s, the majority of residents lived in rural areas, nearly all in the central region surrounding Asuncin. Most lived on farmsteads in small adobe houses with palm-thatched roofs, with their fields surrounding the house. Towns were of typical Spanish colonial design, built around a central plaza and home to a few administrative, craft, and professional workers and shopkeepers. The central institutions of the national government as well as religious and educational institutions, commerce, and industry were and still are in Asuncin. Since the 1970s, the population has become increasingly urban, and by 1992, just over 50 percent lived in urban areas. Asuncin is the largest urban center,

with an estimated population of 550,000. The extension of roads, the construction of massive

A brick kiln. The towns of Aregua and Tobat both produce ceramic and clay work. hydroelectric works on the eastern border, and agricultural colonization programs drew people from the central regions to the sparsely populated border regions, especially along the eastern border with Brazil. Ciudad del Este, founded in 1963, is now the second largest city and a major commercial center, with an estimated population of 234,000.Food

and Economy

Food in Daily Life. Corn, mandioca (cassava), and beef form the basic diet. Typical dishes include locro (a corn stew), sopa paraguaya (a rich corn flour and cheese bread), chipa guaz (a cross between sopa paraguaya and a corn souffl), and mbaipy so' (corn pudding with beef chunks). Mandioca root is commonly served boiled, and its starch is a main ingredient of several traditional foods, including chipa (a dense, baked bread of mandioca starch and cheese) and mbej (an unleavened fried bread). The main meal of the day is eaten at noon and usually includes corn- or mandioca -based food. A wide variety of tropical and semitropical fruits also are eaten. Drinks made ofyerba mat (Paraguayan tea) are ubiquitous. The tea may be drunk hot ( mat ) or cold ( terer ), and medicinal herbs often are added. The leaves also may be

toasted and boiled to make a tea that is served at breakfast or for a late afternoon snack. Food Customs at Ceremonial Occasions. Special family celebrations and social gatherings call for an asado, or barbecue, with beef roasted over open fires and accompanied by boiled mandioca and sopa paraguaya. Chipa traditionally is prepared for the major religious holidays of Christmas and Holy Week. Special meals during these holidays also may include an asado of beef or a pit-roasted pig. Basic Economy. Paraguay's currency is the guarani, with an exchange rate of approximately 3500 guarancies to one U.S. dollar in 1999. Until recently the economy was primarily rural and agricultural. The majority of the population, peasant farmers, produced subsistence crops as well as cash crops of cotton or tobacco. Approximately 40 percent of the population is still involved in agriculture, and the majority are small farmers who engage to some degree in subsistence production. Agriculture, together with forestry, hunting, and fishing, accounts for 25 percent of the gross national product (GDP) and nearly all exports. Paraguay has few mineral resources, but its rivers have made hydroelectric power generation a major source of revenue. The manufacturing sector is small (15 percent of GDP). The economy also has a very large informal sector composed of thousands of urban street vendors, domestic workers, and microenterprises. An estimated 10 percent of the labor force was unemployed in 1996, and almost half was underemployed. Despite government promises of reform, public sector employment, long a major source of political patronage, has continued to grow, increasing 17 percent from 1989 to 1995. Although the country is largely self-sufficient in the basic foodstuffs of corn, mandioca, and wheat, it depends on imports for processed foods, other consumer goods, capital goods, and fuels. Although many small farmers continue to rely on their own production for food, they have been drawn into

the market economy to purchase processed goods such as soap, cooking oil, clothing, medicine, and other basic consumer items. Land Tenure and Property. Land distribution is among the most unequal in Latin America. According to the 1991 agricultural census, 77 percent of the agricultural land was owned by barely 1 percent of the population. At the other extreme, small farms of less than 49.4 acres (20 hectares), accounting for over 80 percent of all agricultural holdings, occupied only 6 percent of the agricultural land. Although the system of land tenure is based on private property, common practice and historical tradition play an important role in shaping notions of land rights. Peasants have long claimed the right to occupy unused public lands for agricultural purposes. Mechanisms for formalizing occupation rights were specified in twentieth century legal codes and the 1967 constitution, which recognized the right of every citizen to a plot of land. The right to own land for investment or speculation is viewed by the majority of the rural population as secondary to the right of peasants to use land for subsistence. While some peasants own clear title to the land they cultivate and some rent or sharecrop, informal occupation of land is widespread. The private property regimen is complicated by a long history of bureaucratic fraud and ineptitude. During the Stroessner dictatorship (19541989), large tracts of land were illegally transferred to Stroessner's relatives and cronies, and some peasant and indigenous communities were violently displaced as powerful military figures took over their lands. Although most land claims have been regularized in central Paraguay, conflict over land continues to be a source of unrest in the eastern and northern frontier regions, where many titles are of questionable origin. Indigenous groups have lost vast expanses of their land and face legal and physical threats as a result of their efforts to gain recognition of their claims.

Commercial Activities. Agriculture and hydroelectric power account for the majority of commercial production. Major agricultural goods produced for sale include grains, oilseeds (soybeans), cotton, sugarcane, tobacco, meat and poultry, mandioca, fruits and vegetables, lumber, eggs, and milk. Large estates and immigrant settlers produce most of the grains, oilseeds, and beef. The Mennonites are known for dairy production. Small farmers produce mandioca, cotton, tobacco, and sugarcane as well as fruits and vegetables for sale on the domestic market. A multitude of microenterprises and artisans produce bricks for construction, clothing, furniture, and other small consumer items. Because of lax border controls and low tariffs, resale and transshipment of goods account for a significant part of the commercial economy. These activities range from illicit transshipment of cocaine and other drugs from producing countries to the markets of North America and Europe to the resale of clothing, vegetables, and other inexpensive consumer items by individuals who purchase them in Brazil or Argentina and bring them into the country without paying import duties. Major Industries. Aside from hydroelectric power generation, the major industries are heavily dependent on the agricultural sector. Small industries process flour, beer, cigarettes, soap, shoes, and furniture. There is some oilseed processing, meatpacking, and textile production, but most of the beef, cotton, and soybeans are exported in their raw state rather than being processed domestically. Trade. No reliable figures on international trade exist because a large part of that trade consists of the reexportation and transshipment of licit and illicit goods. The major recorded exports include soybeans and cotton, meat products, and timber. Half of Paraguay's international trade is with nations in the Southern Cone Common Market (Brazil, Argentina, and Uruguay). Brazil is the most important trade partner, followed by the Netherlands, which imports soybeans for crushing. Unrecorded reexports include a wide variety of

goods that range from cigarettes to automobiles, contraband compact discs, and drugs. Paraguay's major imports include machinery, vehicles, spare parts, fuels and lubricants, and alcoholic beverages and tobacco, much of which is reexported. Brazil and

An enclosed yard in Asuncin. The capital is the center of religious and educational institutions, commerce, and industry as well as government. Argentina provide most of Paraguay's imports, followed by the United States and Japan. Informal international trade centers on Ciudad del Este, which depends heavily on shopping "tourism." Brazilians and Argentinians travel to Ciudad del Este to take advantage of the low import duties to purchase consumer electronics, office equipment, perfumes, whiskey, cigarettes, and other consumer items. This trade, along with illicit trade through the area, has earned Ciudad del Este notoriety as a smuggler's paradise. Shopping tourism declined in 1997 and subsequent years, because of weakening economic growth in Brazil and Argentina and stricter controls by Brazilian authorities. Division of Labor. A person's economic position depends primarily on education and social status, with access to many positions in the government bureaucracy and state enterprises and sometimes private enterprises also

dependent on a personal connection with politically powerful benefactors. Among the poor and working classes, young children are expected to help assure family survival by assisting in agricultural production or working outside the home. Among small farmers, most agricultural labor is provided by family members. However, peasant farmers still practice a form of cooperative labor known as minga, in which at critical times in the agricultural cycle neighbors or kin work together to prepare or harvest each other's fields.ocial

Stratification

Classes and Castes. Wealth and income distribution are extremely unequal. A small elite owns most of the land and the commercial wealth and reaped most of the benefits of economic growth in recent decades. Recent surveys indicate that 20 percent of the population of the greater Asuncin metropolitan area and 60 percent of the population in rural areas live in poverty. Indigenous peoples are the most impoverished. Mennonite and Japanese immigrants have established thriving agricultural colonies, while the more recent Korean, Chinese, and Arab immigrant groups are concentrated in urban commercial activities and reexportation. Brazilian immigrants are disproportionately concentrated in midsize commercial farming enterprises but also include extremely impoverished small farmers and laborers as well as wealthy landowners and middle-class entrepreneurs. Symbols of Social Stratification. Language is an important marker of social status. Members of the upper classes primarily speak Spanish in public and in private, although they may understand Guarani. Members of the poorer social groups speak Guarani primarily or exclusively, and may have only a limited understanding of Spanish. The social distance between classes has traditionally been extreme, and peasants or workers were expected to show deference toward members of the political and landowning elite.olitical

Life

Government. Paraguay is a republic consisting of the city of Asuncin and seventeen additional departments, which are further subdivided into local

administrative units known as municipios . The executive branch consists of the president and vice president, who are directly elected to five-year terms, and a council of ministers appointed by the president. The legislative branch is made up of the Senate and the Chamber of Deputies, which also are directly elected for five-year terms. The judiciary, including the Supreme Court, is appointed. In 1991, Paraguay initiated direct election of departmental and municipal executives and councils. Contemporary political life has been shaped by General Alfredo Stroessner's thirty-five year dictatorship. After assuming power in a military coup in 1954, Stroessner ensured his control by fusing the ruling Colorado Party, government bureaucracies, and the military. Compliance to his personable authoritarian rule was achieved through a combination of brutal repression and patronage. Stroessner assured the allegiance of top military leaders and political cronies through grants of land, lucrative state contracts, and control of profitable smuggling activities. Benefits ranging from government posts to seeds were distributed to Colorado Party supporters, with the patron-client chains extending down to the poorest neighborhoods and rural towns. Although a formal judicial system existed, de facto adjudication was by the law of mbaret (the rule of the strong), in which the more powerful party or the party with the more powerful benefactor prevailed, thus ensuring the dominance of Stroessner's allies. In February 1989, Stroessner was removed from power in a coup led by General Andrs Rodrguez. Although Rodrguez was a longtime Stroessner ally, he carried out his promise to lead the nation to a more democratic government. Freedom of the press, freedom of association, and other basic rights are recognized, and civilian officials have gained office through open elections. However, the Colorado Party remains strongly entrenched, and many of Stroessner's top allies and officials are still in high government and party posts.

Leadership and Political Officials. Paraguay's two major political parties, the Colorados (National Republican Association), and the Liberals (Authentic Radical Liberal Party, have their roots in the period of the Triple Alliance. Affiliation with a political party commonly is based on family and personal ties. Both parties have hierarchical organizations with competing internal factions. In 1993, a new party, the Encuentro Nacional, was formed to challenge the traditional parties. Its strongest support is among younger, more educated urban voters. Several smaller parties also exist. There is little substantive difference among the major parties. Access to leadership positions is through the party hierarchy and personal ties. Social Problems and Control. Paraguay has a civilian police force responsible for public order and a legal system based on French and Roman law. At the local level, justices of the peace and magistrates are responsible for administrative and criminal proceedings. There are also courts of appeal, the Tribunal of Jurors and Judges of First Instance, and judges of arbitration. Street crime and violence increased during the 1990s with worsening economic conditions. The police force is widely perceived as corrupt and complicit in some crime. The judiciary has been the least affected among all the branches of government by the post-Stroessner political reforms, and local magistrates and justices of the peace are seen by many people as available for purchase, especially in rural areas. Government corruption at all levels is pervasive and contributes to widespread public cynicism toward politics and government. Conflict over land intensified dramatically in the 1990s, especially in the north and the eastern border region. While there have been reports of peasant farmers taking up arms, most of the violence has been directed against them. Landowners (whether or not they have legitimate title) have employed private gunmen to defend their claims and have forcibly and illegally evicted occupants and destroyed their homes and crops. In the early 1990s, a number

of peasant leaders were assassinated. The government has made no significant moves toward land reform and has acted slowly to resolve conflicting claims.

A muchacho herding cattle into a corral. Military Activity. Under Stroessner, Paraguay was one of the most heavily militarized nations in the world, with an extremely high ratio of police and military personnel to civilian population. Military personnel enjoyed great benefits and power. Efforts to depoliticize the military since 1989 have been tenuous, and military privileges remain considerable. In April 1996, General Lino Oviedo led an attempted coup against then-president Guillermo Wasmosy. Although most of the military remained loyal to Wasmosy and the coup was unsuccessful, Oviedo later ran for and the won the Colorado Party's nomination for president. His candidacy eventually was nullified and he was imprisoned, but the resultant political uncertainty immobilized the

government. Although the military has refrained from intervening directly in recent political affairs, it is never far from the halls of power.ocial

Welfare and Change Programs

The government runs a system of underfunded and understaffed public health posts and hospitals and provides retirement benefits for employees of the government and state enterprises and veterans of the Chaco War. Nominal government programs to benefit peasants and indigenous peoples are ineffective and corrupt. Religious organizations and nongovernmental agencies provide some social services and play a central role in promoting change.ssociations Workers are represented through four major unions. Currently, three confederations of peasant organizations work to promote peasants' interests in national public policy discussion and occasionally intervene to support peasants in land conflicts. A number of regional peasant organizations assume similar roles at the local level and promote local development initiatives. A number of trade and business associations exist, the most powerful of which represent the interests of rural landowners and ranchers, cotton exporters, and grain enterprises. Since 1989, a large number of nongovernmental organizations and associations have been formed, with interests ranging from the promotion of sustainable development to advocacy for women, street children, and indigenous peoples. Although the number of people directly involved in these organizations is small, they play an important role defending human rights and promoting social change.ender

Roles and

Statuses
Division of Labor by Gender. Although the dominant conception of gender roles gives responsibility for the domestic sphere to women while men dominate in the public sphere, women have long had a central role in providing for their families and are economically active outside the home. They played a critical role as workers in national reconstruction after the War of the Triple Alliance. They have always played an important role in

agriculture, both in subsistence production and in the production of cash crops on small peasant farms. However, the economic contributions of women frequently go unrecognized because their agricultural work, and informal sector work performed within the household, are difficult to distinguish from domestic activities. Recent surveys in urban areas indicate that women constitute at least one-third of the economically active population. Women are employed predominantly in domestic service and sales and as office workers, while men are employed across a wider range of activities. Women also are more heavily involved in the informal sector than are men. Women assumed more active roles in political parties and government after the fall of the Stroessner dictatorship in 1989, and several women now have high-level positions in political parties, the legislature, and government ministries. However, positions of power are still held overwhelmingly by men. Although men dominate the formal bureaucracy of the Catholic Church, women are important in the practice of folk Catholicism. The Relative Status of Women and Men. Paraguay is a conservative and male dominated society in which formal rights and privileges in many spheres were until recently denied to women. It was the last Latin American nation to grant women the right to vote (1961). Before the constitutional reforms of 1992, married women could not work outside the home, travel, or dispose of their own property without the consent of their spouses. Husbands had the right to dispose of conjugal property, including property the wife brought to the union, as they saw fit. The 1992 reforms modified those provisions, formally granting women equal rights and interests within the marriage. Women are also disadvantaged economically. A 1990 survey in the Asuncin metropolitan area found that women earned only 56 percent as much as men. The earnings gap was larger for more highly educated and trained workers. Female-headed households are among the poorest in the society.arriage,

Family, and Kinship

Marriage. Marriages are formed by the choice of the couple and may be church, civil, or consensual unions. According to the 1992 census, 68 percent of women above age nineteen were in unions, of whom 78 percent were married in a church or civil ceremony. Legal divorce is rare, although unions are often unstable, especially among the poor. Although it is a conservative Roman Catholic society, Paraguay has long been characterized by unstable consensual unions and a high illegitimacy rate. Men's extramarital behavior draws little criticism as long as it does not impinge on the family's security, but women's behavior reflects on the family, and women are expected to be faithful if they are in a stable union. Domestic Unit. Most people live in a nuclear family that consists of a married couple and their unmarried children or a single woman and her children. In 1992, 20 percent of households were

A sub-tropical rainforest in the Mbaracayu Reserve. Only about one-third of Paraguay consists of rainforest; the other two-thirds are semiarid and infertile. headed by women. Extended households are rare, although relatively well-off urban families may take in the children of poorer rural relatives or those of an unwed female relative. The man holds formal authority within the family and is treated with respect by the children. The woman is responsible for

managing the household, caring for the children, maintaining ties with extended kin, and often earning an income outside the home. Inheritance. Land and other property pass by inheritance to a surviving spouse and then to biological or adopted children. The right to specify an alternative disposition of property is granted to the husband, but his wife may legally contest his decision. Kin Groups. Family and extended kin are the most important center of loyalty and identity for individuals, and the ideal is an extensive and strong extended kin network. Kin may be called on to provide essential support and assistance in times of need, and the wealthy may mobilize extended kin to support their political ambitions. In addition to kinship ties by marriage and birth, great importance is placed on fictive kin ties established through godparenthood. Parents select godparents for their children's baptism, confirmation, and marriage. Those godparents have special rights and responsibilities toward their godchildren and are expected to assist in meeting a child's needs if necessary. Children are expected to show their godparents special deference and respect, but ties to the godchild's parents (coparents) may be even more important and extend beyond the death of the godchild. Social equals and extended kin are preferred as godparents, although poorer parents may seek more influential benefactors as godparents for their children.cialization Infant Care. Infants are showered with affection and attention by both women and men of all ages. A crying infant will be comforted instantly by the nearest adult or older child. Infants typically are carried in the arms rather than in a sling or stroller. They usually are left to play on the ground or floor or are placed on a bed to sleep, although the use of playpens and cribs is common among the urban middle and upper classes. Parents expect infants to be active and responsive.

Child Rearing and Education. While middle-class and upper-class children are indulged and expected to devote themselves to studying and playing, the children of poorer urban and rural families are expected to assume productive work roles at a very young age. These children assist in agricultural work, household chores, and the care of younger siblings. It is not unusual for very young children to work as street vendors. Physical discipline is common, and children are controlled through the threat of physical punishment. Formal education consists of six years of primary schooling followed by six years of secondary schooling. Primary education is compulsory from ages six to twelve, but there are not enough schools, especially in rural areas. Although poor families value education, their children often must miss classes or drop out an early age to help the family financially. In 1994, 90 percent of primary age children were enrolled, while only 34 percent of secondary age children were. Higher Education. Possession of a university degree is an important source of social prestige and access to higher-status jobs but is available to only a small proportion of the population.iquette Greetings vary by social class, gender, and the level of intimacy of the parties. Except in formal business situations, upper-class and middle-class women who are social equals greet each other with a kiss on each cheek, whether they are acquaintances or are meeting for the first time. Male and female acquaintances in these social classes greet each other the same way. Men in all social classes shake hands in formal situations. Leave-taking follows the same rules.ligion Religious Beliefs. Paraguay is overwhelmingly Roman Catholic. There are also several Protestant sects and small groups of the Baha'i, Buddhist, and Jewish faiths.

Rituals and Holy Places. In addition to Roman Catholic holy days and rituals, Paraguay honors the Virgin of the Immaculate Conception on 8 December. This day is celebrated with a pilgrimage led by religious and government officials to the holy shrine in Caacup. Death and the Afterlife. Beliefs and practices concerning death follow Roman Catholic tradition. The dead are interred in mausoleums, and the novena is traditionally observed, although this practice is declining in urban areas. Traditionally, All Saints' Day is celebrated on 1 November by decorating deceased family members' tombs and gathering in cemeteries to honor the dead.edicine

and Health Care

Modern biomedical practices are combined with herbal and folk remedies. Public health clinics and hospitals are inaccessible to many people, especially in rural areas, and the urban and rural working classes and the poor often depend on self-medication or private pharmacies for medical treatments. Herbal remedies are used simultaneously with pharmaceuticals. Some herbal specialists exist, but most people are knowledgeable about the medicinal uses of common plants or resort to relatives or neighbors for advice on their use.ular

Celebrations

National holidays include 1 January (New Year's Day), 3 February (Ban Blas, patron saint of the nation), 1 March (Heroes' Day), 1 May (Labor Day), 1415 May (Independence Day), 12 June (Peace of Chaco), 15 August (Foundation of Asuncin), 25 August (Constitution Day), 29 September (Battle of Boquern, the anniversary of a key victory in the Chaco War), 12 October (Day of the Race, the anniversary of the discovery of America), 1 November (All Saints' Day), 8 December (Immaculate Conception), and 25 December (Christmas). Maundy Thursday, Good Friday, Easter, Ascension Day, and Corpus Christi are recognized as national holidays and are observed according to the religious calendar.e

Arts and Humanities

Literature. The internal market for literature was constrained until recently by the poverty and the limited education of the majority of the population and by repression and censorship under Stroessner's dictatorship. Nonetheless, there is an active literary tradition. Most literature is in Spanish, although contemporary authors may include Guarani phrases and dialogue in their works. The most renowned contemporary authors are Augusto Roa Bastos and Josefina Pl. Graphic Arts. Traditional folk arts include anduti (a spider web-like lace made in the town of Itaugua), ao po (embroidered cloth), several kinds of ceramic and clay work (especially in the towns of Aregua and Tobat), and silver filigree jewelry (centered in the town of Luque). Paintings by contemporary

A forest cleared for farming in eastern Paraguay. artists are displayed in a number of galleries in Asuncin. Performance Arts. The country is known for slow and often melancholy harp and guitar music. Although European in origin, that music usually is performed in Guarani and reflects national themes. Music is performed by ordinary people for entertainment at social gatherings and celebrations as well as by professional musicians. Performances of traditional dance,

including the bottle dance (so called because the performers balance bottles on their heads) and polkas are popular. Theater was introduced by Francisco Solano Lpez, and in 1863 the first Italian opera by a touring company was performed in Asuncin's National Theater. Theater today is centered in Asuncin, and works occasionally are performed in Guarani as well as Spanish.he

State of the Physical and Social Sciences

The physical and social sciences as well as the humanities are taught at the two major universities (National University and Catholic University), as are applied sciences (agriculture and engineering) and the professions. Funding for basic research and teaching is limited, and the faculties were under close surveillance during the Stroessner years. The independent Paraguayan Center for Sociological Studies was established in 1963, and has been the most important center for social science research. In the last years of Stroessner's dictatorship, other private social science institutes were established, and the number of private research organizations grew rapidly after Stroessner's fall. These institutes obtain most of their funding from international sources.

The culture of Paraguay reflects the influences of the indigenous culture Guaran and of European cultures from the colonization era, mainly Spanish and Portuguese. In isolated regions there still live indigenous groups preserving their traditions. This small villages can be visited and visitors can get closer in touch with the indigenous culture and also by their crafts, a good way to support these small groups. An important element in arts is the embroidery and lace making. In the capital of the country, Asuncin, main attractions are a visit to the archeological Museum of Dr. Andrs Barbero with works by native cultures, the Museum of the Cathedral and the Museum of Natural Sciences and Botanic Garden showing species and fauna of the region. The architecture of buildings is a combination of modern and colonial architecture. The House of Independence and the Cathedral of Asuncin are cultural places worth to visit during a trip. Also Villarrica is of big cultural interest in Paraguay, considered like "the refined city" of the country. City of the poet Manuel Ortiz Guerrero, who has his own monument in town. One of the cultural main attractions is the Museum of Maestro Fermin Lpez with a collection of objects and works from the history of the region. This Paraguayan city is known also because of the manufacturing of Paraguayan harps, a very popular music instruments of exceptional beauty.

People of Paraguay : Almost 6,506,464 people reside in the Republic of Paraguay. The ethnic groups of the country are mestizo or people who are Spanish and Amerindian mixed and some other minorities. Spanish and Guarani are two official languages of Paraguay.

Art, Culture and Music of Paraguay : Art : Embroidery and lace making are two very important sections of art in Paraguay. Poetry is also considered as a very creative form of art. Some of the novelists and poets of Paraguay are Roque Vallejos, Jose Ricardo Maze, Augusto Roa Bastos and so on. Culture : Paraguay has a mixed culture. The tradition of Paraguay reflects various foreign influences especially European influence.

Music : The music of Paraguay is highly influenced by European music. However the language of the church music is Guarane Choice is performed especially in the religious occasions. Some of the famous music forms are Paraguayan polka, Guarania, zarzuela, the local folk song s and "Paraguayan Songs" etc.

Flag of Paraguay The flag of Paraguay three horizontal bands, which are same in size. The upper band is colored in red and the band in the bottom is blue. The middle one is white and it bears the coat of arms in the center. It is a strange flag. The two sides of the flag are designed in different manner. The obverse side of the flag features the national coat of arms. However the reverse side of the flag features the treasure seal. The coat of arms depicts a yellow star in its center that is surrounded by the words, REPUBL ICA DEL PARAGUAY. On the other hand the seal of the treasury depicts a yellow colored lion and a cap that is red. This is a symbol of liberty. Tha words that surround these things are "Paz y Justicia". It means peace and justice. Economy of Paraguay : The economy of the republic of Paraguay is stable and highly dependent on its agriculture and export trade. The natural resources of the country are timber, iron ore, hydropower, manganese, limestone etc. Cotton, soybeans, sugarcane, corn, tobacco, wheat, cassava, fruits, vegetables and son are the primary agricultural products. The fast growing industries of the Republic are cement industry, textile industry, sugar industry, beverages, steel industry, metallurgic industry, wood products, electric power etc. The export materials of Paraguay are feed, cotton, soybeans, meat, electricity, wood, edible oils, leather and so on. Uruguay, Brazil, Argentina and Chile are the nations that are involved in the export business with Paraguay. Paraguay Capital The capital of Paraguay is Asuncion. Paraguay is located at the Central part of South America. The geographic coordinates of Paraguay are 23 South latitude and 58 West longitude. Asuncion is the Paraguay Capital. The geographic coordinates of the Paraguay Capital Asuncion are 25 16' South latitude and 57 40' West longitude. The capital of Paraguay includes the cities of Fernando de la Mora, San Lorenzo, Luque, Lambare, Nemby, and Mariano Rouque Alonso. About 1.8 million people inhabit the capital city of Paraguay. In the capital of Paraguay there is the seat of the government and the chief port. Asuncion is also the most important manufacturing and cultural center of Paraguay. The local industrialized products of the Paraguay capital city are textiles, footwear and tobacco products. The capital of Paraguay is located on the left side of the river Paraguay. The city presents gorgeous scenery and spreads out on calm hills in a prototype of rectangular slabs. For the major part of the year the climate of Asuncion remains humid and warm. The literacy rate in the capital city is recorded to be 95 percent which is the highest in the country. Schools have come up in a large number in the city and the number of the students has also doubled. The important universities in Asuncion are Universidad Americana and Universidad Catolica Nuestra Senora de la Asuncion Paraguay History

The history of Paraguay dates back to the sixteenth century when the country was inhabited by seminomadic tribes. The first European conquest in the region took place in the early sixteenth century by the Spanish while the first settlement was established at Asuncion on August 15, 1537 by a Spanish explorer Juan de Salazar de Espinosa. From the beginning of the seventeenth century the Jesuit missionaries dominated the lives of the inhabitants of Paraguay. These settlements witnessed religious conversion and various economic activities like agricultural and pastoral production were undertaken. Between 1721-35, the Spanish land owners declared a war against the Jesuits and broke their monopoly in trade. In 1767, they were expelled by the Spanish forces. The vice royalty of Rio De La Plata was established in the year of 1776 which made Paraguay dependent on Buenos Aires putting an end to the colonial dominance. Paraguay got independence from Spain but did not want to be under the leadership of Buenos Aires. Under the leadership of Pedro Juan Cabellero and Fulgencio Yegros, the Paraguayans declared their independence on May 14, 1811 putting an end to the colonial period in Paraguay. Paraguay Independence is celebrated on the 14th May every year with great pomp and splendor. In the 1930s and 1940s, the country was stormed by civil war. It was a war fought against the Bolivian regime and is better known as the Chaco War. This period was marked with dictatorships, and extreme political instability. The reins of power fell in the hands of General Alfredo Stroessner from May 1954 and he continued to rule for thirty-five years. The war was waged to claim dominance over the Gran Chaco Region of South America as it was wrongly understood to be the rich in oil. The discovery of the oil in the foothills of Andes, led them to believe that the land was extremely rich in oil. Two big large companies Standard Oil supported and backed Bolivia while Shell Oil backed Paraguay. The war started on the orders of Daniel Salamanca, the then president of Bolivia. Paraguay had far lesser population but Bolivia adopted guerilla strategy of fighting. This helped them to win battles as Bolivians adopted formal strategy of war. Paraguay received military assistance from Argentina. Another advantage that Paraguay had over Bolivia was that Paraguay could communicate through radio in Guarani language which was not comprehended by the Bolivian soldiers. The War of Chaco brought huge losses to both the countries. About 100,000 soldiers were killed. In 1935, three quarters of the Chaco Boreal was given to Paraguay and Bolivia got only a strip of land. After few years, no oil reserve was found in Chaco. Years later on February 3, 1989, Stroessner was overthrown in a military coup headed by General Andres Rodriguez.

Since then, Paraguay established a democratic system of government. The President is the head of state and the government. Paraguay Banks Paraguay banks are mostly found in the Asuncion region and the Villa Morra area. The banks in Paraguay also have ATMs in their respective branches to make money exchange convenient for the people. As per the report of 1995, there were about a total of 35 banks in Paraguay. The banks in Paraguay are open to the public on all the weekdays from 7:30 am to 11 am. Some of the Paraguay banks include:

Banco Central de Paraguay Cooperativa Universitaria Banco Nacional de Fomento Interbanco Banco Regional

Paraguay Currency The Paraguay currency is the Guarani. The currency of Paraguaycame into circulation in the middle of the 20th century. The high inflation of the Paraguayan economy have forced the Paraguayan government to deissue the centimos. 100 centimos made up a Guarani. The Paraguay currency of Guarani is available in only paper form. The denominations of the Guarani start from 1000 Guaranies. The complete list of denominations are 1000, 5000, 10,000, 20,000, 50,000 and 100,000 Guaranies. The Guarani is a sophisticated banknote containing many special security safeguards. This is done to protect the Paraguayan currency against counterfeiting. The Guarani banknote has a border less under print. Paraguay Hospitals Paraguay Hospitals are mainly located in the city of Asuncion. There is lack of Paraguay Hospitals in the rural areas of the country. The hospitals in Paraguay are not very well equipped. The health sector of Paraguay has seen major changes in the early twentieth century. The national constitution, which was adopted in 1992, laid great emphasis on Heath and identified it as the basic right of the people. The National Heath System decided to provide services to people in coordination with private and public sectors. Post 1990s there were great up gradations in the hospitals of Paraguay. The environment of the hospitals became more hygienic. The health sectors also received great financial and human resources as a result of decentralization in the country. Many hospitals were established in the twentieth century. In 1996, public, private, and semiprivate health sectors consisted of 1,140 establishments which included:

47 hospitals 25 regional hospitals 197 health centers 657 health posts or infirmaries 214 clinics and sanatoriums

Out of which the majority were administered by the Ministry of Health. According to the estimate taken in 1996, the hospital beds amounted to 1.3 per 1,000 inhabitants. Though the ratio has increased over the years, but there is still scarcity of hospitals in the rural areas. The main hospitals of Paraguay include:

Centro Medico Bautista/Baptist Medical Center Hospital de Clnicas Cruz Roja Paraguaya H. Barrio Obrero Instituto de Prevision Social Centro Materno Infantil H. Central FF.AA. H. Neuropsiquiatrico Instituto de Medicina Tropical

Though, majority of hospitals are located at Asuncion, few hospitals are also located at San Lorenzo and Itaugua in Paraguay. Information on Paraguay The Republic of Paraguay is situated on the South American continent. The information on Paraguay lists relevant facts like its industry and naturally occurring resources. The foremost of the information on Paraguay is the country's languages. Two languages- Spanish and Guarani is in colloquial use. Spanish is the language that is imported from Europe in colonial times. Guarani is the indigenous language that is a result of decades of colonialism. Spanish is spoken in the urban areas. Guarani is spoken in the rural hinterlands. The Paraguayan culture is a mix of the Spanish settler and indigenous South American cultures. The Republic of Paraguay can be visited all around the year. The country does not fall on the standard tourist trail. This lends a certain frisson of adventure to the activity oriented traveler visiting the country. The principal resources of Paraguay is centered around the natural beauty prevalent in the South American region. The activity of fishing forms the bulwark of the rural Paraguayan economy. The rivers of the country are used for physical transportation from one place to another. The economy of Paraguay is dependent on

farm products and its further downstream processing industries. Agricultural products like sugarcane, soybean, wheat, potatoes, and tobacco provide much needed foreign currency through exports. Paraguay Embassy Paraguay embassy is positioned in various countries of the world. The Paraguay embassy helps in maintaining the positive relationship between Paraguay and the other countries. From the embassy office of Paraguay information regarding various issues on the country of Paraguay is provided to the foreign tourists. Some of the countries where the embassies of Paraguay are located are:

Embassy of Paraguay in Ottawa: in Canada Embassy of Paraguay in La Paz: in the country of Bolivia Embassy of the Republic of Paraguay in London: in the country of United Kingdom Embassy of Paraguay in Tokyo: in the country of Japan Embassy Paraguay in Washington DC : in Massachusetts Avenue, New York

All the persons can get information on visa related issues of the country from the Paraguay embassy. The Paraguay Embassy is actually an official mission through which Paraguay usually carry out the foreign affairs.

Paraguay RELIGION IN SOCIETY

In the 1980s an estimated 92 to 97 percent of all Paraguayans were Roman Catholics. The remainder were Mennonites or members of various Protestant groups. The 1967 Constitution guarantees freedom of religion, but recognizes the unique role that Catholicism plays in national life. The president must be a Roman Catholic, but clergy are enjoined from serving as deputies or senators and discouraged from partisan political activity. Relations between church and state traditionally were close, if not always cordial. A papal decree created the Bishopric of Asuncin in 1547, and the first bishop arrived in the diocese in 1556. In 1588 three Jesuits came with the intent of pacifying and converting the Indians. After the arrival of additional Jesuits and Franciscans, the

priests began working in the southeastern area of modern Paraguay and on the shores of the Ro Paran in parts of what is now Argentina and Brazil. The Jesuits soon realized that they had to protect the Indians from enslavement by the growing numbers of Spanish and Portuguese if they were going to convert them. They accomplished this by settling the Indians inreducciones (townships) under Jesuit direction. At one point about 100,000 Indians lived in the reducciones; the system lasted a century and a half until the Jesuits' expulsion (1767). Following the end of the Jesuit regime, the reduccin Indians were gradually absorbed into mestizo society or returned to their indigenous way of life (see The Sword of the Word , ch. 1). For much of the nineteenth century, church-state relations ranged from indifferent to hostile. The new state assumed the prerogatives of royal patronage that the Vatican had accorded to the Spanish crown and sought to control bishops and the clergy. Jos Gaspar Rodrguez de Francia (1814-40) was committed to a secular state. He suppressed monastic orders, eliminated the tithe, instituted civil marriage, and cut off communication with the Vatican. Francisco Solano Lpez (1862-70) used the church as a branch of government, enlisting priests as agents to report on the population's disaffection and signs of subversion. Church-state relations reached their nadir with the execution of the bishop of Asuncin, Manuel Antonio Palacio, during the War of the Triple Alliance (1865-70). By the war's end, there were only fifty-five priests left in the country,and the church was left leaderless for eleven years. The modern Paraguayan church was established largely under the direction of Juan Sinforiano Bogarn (archbishop of Asuncin, 1930- 49) and Anbal Mena Porta (archbishop of Asuncin, 194969). Both envisioned a church whose role in the country's endemic political struggles was that of a strictly neutral mediator among the rival factions. Starting in the late 1950s, the clergy and bishops were frequently at odds with the government. Confrontations began with individual priests giving sermons calling for political freedom and social

justice. The activities of the clergy and various lay groups like Catholic Action (Accin Catlica) pushed the church hierarchy to make increasingly critical statements about the regime of Alfredo Stroessner Mattiauda (president since 1954). In the 1960s the Catholic University of Our Lady of Asuncin became a center of antiregime sentiment. Students and faculty began cooperation with workers and peasants, forming workers' organizations as an alternative to the government-sponsored union. They organized Christian Agrarian Leagues (also known as peasant leagues) among small farmers. The organizations sponsored literacy programs, welfare activities, and various types of cooperatives. In addition, Catholics operated a news magazine and radio station-- both critical of the government. Throughout the 1970s and 1980s, there were sporadic student demonstrations and government crackdowns. The church criticized the lack of political freedom and the government's human rights record. The government's principal countermeasures included expelling foreign-born clergy and periodically closing the university, news magazine, and radio station. In response, the archbishop of Asuncin excommunicated various prominent government officials and suspended Catholic participation at major civic and religious celebrations (see Interest Groups , ch. 4). On a popular level, Catholicism was an essential component of social life. Even the poorest of homes contained pictures of the saints and a family shrine. Catholic ritual marked the important transitions in life: baptism, confirmation, marriage, and burial. Participation in the rites of the church reflected class and gender expectations. The poor curtailed or delayed rituals because of the costs involved. Sex roles also affected religious participation. Devotion fell into the female sphere of activities. Men were not expected to show much concern about religion. If they attended mass, it was infrequently, and normally men stood in the rear of the church ready to make a quick exit. Women were supposed to be more devout. Regular participation in church services was seen as a virtue on their part. They were more likely to seek the church's blessing at critical points in the family's existence.

Religion served as perhaps the only institution in society that transcended kinship relations. Both politics and economic activities were enmeshed in the relations of kin; they reflected the family feuds and the accumulated loyalties of generations past. It was in popular religion, however, especially in the communal religious fiestas, that Paraguayans of every social stratum participated and the concerns of family and kin were, to a degree, muted. Fiestas were community and national celebrations; they served as exercises in civic pride and Paraguayan identity. Church holidays were public holidays as much as religious occasions. The populace enjoyed the celebrations associated with fiestas, but actual belief and practice were typically uninformed by orthodox Catholic dogma. Especially in rural Paraguay, the saints associated with popular devotion were often no more than revered local figures. Religious societies played an important role, planning and organizing local fiestas and undertaking welfare activities. Various lay brotherhoods assumed responsibility for assisting widows and children, among other duties associated with the care of the poor. Data as of December 1988

OFFICIAL NAME: Republic CAPITAL: Asuncion SYSTEM OF AREA: 406,752 Sq Km ESTIMATED 2000 POPULATION: 5,434,400

of

Paraguay

GOVERNMENT: Multiparty Republic (157,048 Sq Mi)

LOCATION & GEOGRAPHY: Paraguay is a landlocked country located in the heart of South America. It is bound by Bolivia and Brazil to the north and Argentina to the south. The country is divided into two topographical regions by the Paraguay River, with 60% of the land west and north of the river. (1.) Occidental or Western Paraguay which is a waterless prairie covered by dry grass and shadeless trees. (2.) Eastern Paraguay also known as Paraguay

Proper consists of sparse plains, broad valleys and rolling hills. Rivers dominate the country's natural features and the three principal rivers are the Paraguay, Parana and Pilcomayo while the largest lakes are Lake Ypoa and Lake Ypacarai. Major Cities (pop. est.); Asuncion 502,400, Ciudad del Este 133,900, San Lorenzo 133,300, Lambare 99,700, Fernando de la Mora 95,300 (1992). Land Use; forested 32%, pastures 55%, agricultural-cultivated 6%, other 7% (1993).

CLIMATE: Paraguay has two climatic zones. (1.) A temperate climate which is experienced by 66% of the country and is characterized by mild conditions. (2.) A tropical climate with hot and humid conditions which is experienced by 33% of the country. The prevailing summer wind is the hot Sirocco from the northeast while the cold Pompero is experienced in winter. Average annual precipitation in the east is around 2,030 mm (80 inches) and diminishes westward to an average of 1,190 mm (47 inches). Average temperature ranges in Asuncion are from 12 to 22 degrees Celsius (54 to 70 degrees Fahrenheit) in June to 22 to 35 degrees Celsius (72 to 95 degrees Fahrenheit) in January.

PEOPLE: The principal ethnic majority are the Mestizos who account for 91% of the population and are of mixed AmerIndian and Spanish descent. The remainder are divided amongst the Europeans mainly Spanish, AmerIndians and Black Africans. The two main ethnic alien groups are Japanese and German M ennonites.

DEMOGRAPHIC/VITAL STATISTICS: Density; 11 persons per sq km (28 persons per sq mi) (1991). Urban-Rural; 46.1% urban, 53.9% rural (1988). Sex Distribution; 50.6% male, 49.4% female (1988). Life Expectancy at Birth; 64.8 years male, 69.1 years female (1990). Age Breakdown; 41% under 15, 29% 15 to 29, 17% 30 to 44, 8% 45 to 59, 4% 60 to 74, 1% 75 and over (1988). Birth Rate; 34.8 per 1,000 (1990). Death Rate; 6.6 per 1,000 (1990). Increase Rate; 28.2 per 1,000 (1990). Infant Mortality Rate; 42.0 per 1,000 live births (1990). RELIGIONS: The official religion is Roman Catholicism which accounts for 96% of the population. Other religious minorities include Protestants and Jews.

LANGUAGES: The official languages are Spanish, which is spoken by 75% of the population, and Guarani, an AmerIndian language understood by 90% of the population, while almost 50% of the population are bi-lingual.

EDUCATION: Aged 25 or over and having attained: no formal schooling 13.6%, primary 64.7%, secondary 15.5%, higher 3.4%, unspecified 2.8% (1982). Literacy; literate population aged 15

or over 90.1% (1990).

MODERN HISTORY - WWII TO 1993: In 1947 civil war broke out in Paraguay as rebels attempted to overthrow Pres. Gen. Higinio Moringo who had ruled as a dictator since 1940. From 1948 to 1954 seven presidents held office for short periods of time. In 1954 the military led by Gen. Alfredo Stroessner took control of the government. During Pres. Stroessner's 35 year dictatorship, he used military and police forces to keep control of the Paraguayan government through the imprisonment of many of his opponents while others were sent into exile. In Feb. 1989 the military led by Gen. Andres Rodriguez ousted Stroessner and forced him into exile. In May 1989 Rodriguez convincingly won presidential elections. In Mar. 1991 Paraguay, Argentina, Brazil and Uruguay signed an accord to create a common market between them by 1994. In June 1991 the opposition Partido Liberal Radical Autentico (PLRA) made considerable gains in local municipal elections. On June 12, 1991 the National Assembly approved full reforms of the constitution and in July 1991 the Colorado Party approved a statute for the establishment of an electoral tribunal and an ethnic tribunal, independent of the party authority. On Dec. 1, 1991 the ruling Colorado Party won legislative elections. During 1991 the government announced privatization plans for the national airline, telecommunications and state steel and cement firms. In June 1991 the National Assembly approved steps in which Pres. Rodriguez was included in the constitutional ban on the reelection of Presidents for two consecutive terms. The inclusion of Pres. Rodriguez fueled fears that his supporters were planning a military coup, although fears diminished after Pres. Rodriguez sworn allegiance to the new constitution during a ceremony on June 22, 1992. On Dec. 27, 1992 the Colorado Party elected Luis Maria Argana as their presidential candidate, although his opponent Juan Carlos Wasmosy alleged vote fraud and announced he would contest the results while the PLRA elected Domingo Laino as their candidate. In the running up to presidential elections the ruling Colorado government increased the country's minimum wage while Pres. Rodriguez called on civil servants to vote for the Colorado Party candidate. May 9, 1993 Juan Carlos Wasmosy of the Colorado Party was elected President and became the first elected civilian head of state since 1954. Observers from the National Democratic Institute for International Affairs and the OAS announced the elections as fair, although some fraud and irregularities were reported during voting.

CURRENCY: The official currency is the Guarani (G) divided into 100 Centimos.

ECONOMY: Gross Nationl Product; USD $6,995,000,000 (1993). Public Debt; USD $1,309,000,000 (1993). Imports; USD $2,140,400,000 (1994). Exports; USD $816,833,000 (1994). Tourism Receipts; USD $204,000,000 (1993). Balance of Trade; USD -$752,300,000

(1993). Economically Active Population; 1,039,258 or 51.5% of total population (1982). Unemployed; 9.2% (1989).

MAIN TRADING PARTNERS: Its main trading partners are Argentina, the USA, Germany and the Netherlands. MAIN PRIMARY PRODUCTS: Cassava, Cattle, Coffee, Cotton, Fruit, Iron Ore, Maize, Manganese, Rice, Soya Beans, Sugar Cane, Timber, Tobacco. MAJOR INDUSTRIES: Agriculture, Cement, Food Processing, Forestry, Textiles, Timber Products, Vegetable Oil Refining. MAIN EXPORTS: Cotton, Fruit, Meat Products, Soya Beans, Timber, Tobacco, Vegetable Oils, Vegetables.

TRANSPORT: Railroads; route length 441 km (274 mi) (1988), passenger-km 21,843,000 (13,573,000 passenger-mi) (1988), cargo ton-km 19,826,000 (13,579,000 short ton-mi) (1988). Roads; length 25,681 km (15,957 mi) (1988). Vehicles; cars 34,015 (1988), trucks and buses 4,968 (1988). Merchant Marine; vessels 39 (1990), deadweight tonnage 41,603 (1990). Air Transport; passenger-km 571,349,000 (355,020,000 passenger-mi) (1990), cargo ton-km 3,543,000 (2,427,000 short ton-mi) (1990).

COMMUNICATIONS: Daily Newspapers; total of 5 with a total circulation of 203,000 (1994). Radio; receivers 700,000 (1994). Television; receivers 350,000 (1994). Telephones; units 142,300 (1993).

MILITARY: 20,300 (1995) total active duty personnel with 73.9% army, 17.7% navy and 8.4% air force while military expenditure accounts for 1.8% (1992) of the Gross National Product (GNP).

Climate
Located on the Tropic of Capricorn, Paraguay enjoys a climate that varies from temperate to hot during the majority of the year, withan average temperature of 75 degrees Fahrenheit. The Eastern Region enjoys a more humid and rainy climate; the Western Region is arid and dry. Summers are long, with temperatures that reach 105 degrees on peak days; winters are mild and short, albeit in the months of July and August, some days the temperature can dip down to 0 degrees centigrade.

Arts and culture of Paraguay

Music Music is one of the single most identifiable expressions of Paraguay. This music came about as the creation of Paraguayan nationals, around the middle of the 19th Century. Polka, which adopted the name from a European beat, is the most typical type of music and has relatively different versions including the Galopa, the Krye and the Cancin Paraguaya, or Paraguayan Song. The first two are faster and more upbeat than the standard polka, and the third, a slight bit slower and melancholic. Other popular styles include the Purahi Jaheo and the Compuesto, which generally tell sad, epic or love stories. The Polka usually is based on poetic lyrics, but there are some emblematic pieces of Paraguayan music that exist, such as Pjaro Campana, or Songbird, by Flix Prez Cardozo.

Guarania is the second best known Paraguayan music style and was created by the great musician Jos Asuncin Flores in 1925, with a slower beat that admirably expresses the melancholy mood of this Paraguayan man. When this new style achieved great success, the musician advanced his innovation even more and created the symphonic guarania, examples of which include the well known pieces Mburica and Panamb Ver. His most ambitious compositions were the symphonic poems such as Mara de la Paz and anderuvus. Paraguayan music depends largely upon two instruments: the guitar and the harp, whose first copies were brought by the conquistadors and found their own style in the country. Fliz Prez Cardoso was the artist that brought the Paraguayan harp to international fame, along with Digno Garca, Luis Bordn, and Lorenzo Leguizamn. Among the best contemporary artists are Nicolasito Caballero, Csar Cataldo and Ismael Ledesma, the latter of which is a great innovator of harp music.

The guitar found an illustrious composer and interpreter inAugustn Po Barrios (also known as "Mangor"), dubbed by critics as the Paganini of the Guitar, who created highly difficult compositions such as La Catedral (The Cathedral), Las Abejas (The Bees), and Danza Paraguaya (Paraguayan Dance). Since the 40s, many Paraguayan musicians, who could be called the countrys best, suffered exile or fled because of the difficult situation in the country. Together with Jos Asuncin Flores an Agustn Barrios, other noteworthy musicians include Herminio Gimnez, Carlos Lara Bareiro, and Francisco Alvarenga. Among the musicians that remained in the country, Remberto Gimnez founded the Symphony Orchestra of the City of Asuncin and Juan Carlos Moreno Gonzlez created the ParaguayanZarzuela. Other important late writers include Florentn Jimnez, Luis Caete, Nicols Prez Gonzlez and Luis Szarn. Among the great folk music composers are Mauricio Cardozo Ocampo, Agustn Barboza, Herminio Jimnez, Demetrio Ortiz and the four-string guitarist, Efrn Echeverra. Since the 70s, Paraguayan music has shown signs of renewal and the New Artist movement and the Advancement of Oscar Nelson Safun have come about. The New Artist movement had prolific creators such as Maneco Galeano and Carlos Noguera, and standout interpreters such as the group amand and the group Sembrador. In another experimental line that combines different musical languages, you find the musicians Ren Ayala and Rolanco Chaparro. Closer to the more traditional line of music, you must mention the four-string guitarist Juan Cancio Barreto and the the duo of Vocal Dos, among others. Since the 80s, there is evidence of great activity in refined music, with new names that are gaining recognition: Daniel Luzco, Sal Gaona and Diego Snchez Haase. The folk guitar has had two new interpreters of particularly refined technique: Berta Rojas and Luz Mara Bobadilla, who together created the National Symphony Orchestra and various childrens orchestras. A growing national rock movement and the new Urban Social Song hold their own in the rich current-day panorama of Paraguayan music.

Dance
Paraguayan dance had a history parallel to that of theater, progressing based on a strong Spanish influence. The Polka dance, known today as the typical beat of Paraguay, takes after the European polka brought by colonizers, and the traditional dances, like the Pericn, la Palomita, el Chop and the Solito, emerged as popular variations to ballroom dances performed by the aristocrats. Until well into the the 20th Century, dance in Paraguay was limited to these popular forms and to the classical dance that had begun to be taught in schools like those run by Tala Ern de Retivoff and Bertha Ortiz Faithman. Among the first important dance troops that were formed are the Municipal Folkloric Ballet and the Municipal Classical and Modern Ballet, in the second half of the 20th Century. Among the names that made headway for dance in Paraguay are Teresa Capurro, Celia Ruiz de Domnguez, Reina Menchaca, Nicole Dijhuis, and the brother-sister duo of Miguel and Perla Bonnn. Contemporary dance language began to filter into Paraguay in the 80s, with the arrival of some foreign instructors and the introduction of an internship for Paraguayan dancers to dance with important dance companies abroad. The most renowned name in this period, continuing the classical lineage of dance in the majority of her roles of repertoir, was Eliana Rodas. Among the innovators of Paraguayan dance are Graciela Meza, Marisol Pecci, Carmia Martnez, Mary Carmen Niela and Wal Mayans. The National Ballet and other new casts opened the way for this dance, that today takes on worldwide and indigenous subjects with a new language that does not turn away from combining with theater or other forms of artistic expression.

Visual arts
Paraguayan painting showed its first signs in the last decades of the 19th Century, around the time of the postwar era of the 70s. Two Italian artists, Guido Boggiani and Hctor Da Ponte introduced academic

techniques to the country and formed and important group of Paraguayan artists. That first generation, whose work matured by the 20th Century into impressionist influences, perfected its knowledge and techniques in Europe and was integrated by the painters Pablo Alborno, Juan A. Samudio, Jaime Bestard and Modesto Delgado Rodas. Belonging to the same period are Andrs Campos Cervera and Josefina Pl. Pl, a Spaniard by birth, arrived in 1926, married to the Paraguayan Campos Ververa, from whom she would receive her first lessons and would become a main figure in Paraguayan art, as well as literature and cultural works in its broadest sense. Other foreigners like the German Wolf Bandurek, with his paintings resembling expressionism, joined the movement before the 50s, which marked an important innovation in Paraguayan art. In 1950, the Brazilian teacher Joo Rossi, who brought the concepts and techniques for contemporary art and formed the bases for creating the group New Art, arrived in the country. The New Art group marked a rift between Paraguayan art and standards taught in higher institutions of learning. The group was created in 1954 and presented the First Week of Modern Paraguayan Art. It was made up of Josefina Pl, Lil del Mnico, Jos Laterza Parodi and Olga Blinder. Shortly thereafter, Edith Jimnez and Hermann Guggiari united with the artistic movement. In the 60s and 70s there was a flourishing of plastic arts in Paraguay, with the arrival of artists that knew how to express the deep characteristics of Paraguayan culture. Carlos Colombino, the plastics artist who has achieved the greatest international recognition, works especially with his Xilo paintings that seem to evoke the pain of the great tragedy of mankind. For his part, another important figure to come on the scene during this time wasRicardo Migliorisi, who painted his period as a great irreverent carnaval. Ignacio Nez Soler, Mabel Arcondo and Laura Mrquez are other important names from the painting medium. In 1964, another significant group appears under inspiration from Laura Mrquez: Los Novsimos, or the High Innovators, made up of Enrique Careaga, Angel Yegros, Jos Antonio Pratt Mayans and William Riquelme.

Some years later, the group El Aleph was formed, which brought together Marit Zaldvar, Carlo Spatuzza, Engelberto Jimnez, Ftima Martini, Marcos Bentez, Mnica Gonzlez and other artists. The lines of Paraguayan art begin to diffuse with new combinations, like the mixed techniques of Osvaldo Salerno and Bernardo Krasnianksky, and the experimentations of Miguel Heyn, Lucy Yegros and Flix Toranzos. And painting continues to produce new artists like Genaro Morales and Ysanne Gayet and the expressionist Enrique Collar. Paraguayan visual arts are arriving at the climax of combined techniques and systems. In the last five years or so, standout artists include Ofelia Olmedo, Celso Figueredo, Marcelo Medina, Claudia Casarino, Bettina Brizuela, Enrique Espnola and Fredy Casco. And a core group is now emerging that not only includes artists, but also art critics, gallery owners and people involved with plastic art in general: Art People, who are searching for affirmation and a place for Paraguayan art in a worldwide context.

Visual arts - Sculpture and photography

The field of sculpture gave us an important figure in Jos Laterza Parodi, a fellow member of the generation of the multi-faceted Josefina Pl. En later years, the names Hermann Guggiari, Hugo Pistilli, Gustavo Beckelmann and Angel Yegros have surged to the forefront. Photography in Paraguay, as in other countries, achieved its legitimate place as an artistic discipline in the last decades of the 20th Century. Within this medium of expression, the work of Juan Carlos Meza, Carlos Bittar, Juan Britos y Gabriela Zuccolillo stands out.

Indigenous art
The indigenous cultural influence has produced a wide array of artistic expressions in Paraguay. Originally considered a simple handicraft, its rescue and recognition as an art is owed in large part to archeologists, ethnologists, and general researchers of indigenous cultures who were developing their studies at the beginning of the 20th Century.

Within the indigenous art of Paraguay, those forms that stand out are basketwork and feathered ornaments, which constitute the oldest esthetic forms of the Guaran peoples. Wickerwork, related to indigenous weaving, includes a wide array of baskets and bags created for various uses. The different consistency comes from the different materials, such as native bromeliads known as tacuaremb and caraguat, and the pindo palm. Indigenous feather art comes from distinct ethnicities, such as the Guaran who use the jeguaka or adorning headdress for special ceremonies, or the Nivacl that wear plumes made with colorful feathers. In addition to collars, bracelets and anklets from various indigenous groups, one of the most impressive feather art creations are the ornately detailed cloaks made of beautiful feathers, the kind that once upon a time were reserved only for Guaran shamans. Ceramics is another standout of the indigenous artistic expression of Paraguay. Ceramics deals with pieces ranging from ancient funerary urns to jugs used for culinary purposes, which are known for their ornamentation with engobe, uruc designs, or being corrugated, and works from Western Paraguay show Andean influences. Finally there is the substantial branch of wood carving, that ranges from masks used for ethnic rituals, pipes, apyk or small chairs, to various types of animal- and human-like figures.

Contact with the colonizers produced transformations or adaptations in some expressions of indigenous art, like for example the necklaces and other ornaments, that today are made with glass beads from Europe, or the Kurus poty, the flowery crosses adopted by the missionaries, that the shamans began to use as protective elements. And at the same time, its esthetic guidelines, as well as its techniques, profoundly influenced the mestizo or folk art that appeared in Paraguay with the colonization.

Among all the museum space dedicated to indigenous art, the most important is the Andrs Barbero Ethnographic Museum, created in 1929, located in Asuncin, the Guido Boggiani Museum, founded in 1989 over the base of the works of the Paraguayan Institute of Prehistory, located in San Lorenzo, and theMuseum of Indigenous Art, whose heritage dates from 1987, when the Center for the Visual Arts that is located in the same facility, was founded, and inaugurated as an individual space in 1995, in Asuncin. These museums house important samples of indigenous art from different ethnicities that inhabit the Paraguayan territory. In the last few decades, it has become easier to enjoy samples of indigenous art in Paraguay, and it is possible to acquire pieces in numerous businesses that specialize in the various genres.

Folk art
Folk art in Paraguay is an expression of the cultural mixture of the Spanish and Guaran and it has its roots in the old handicraft workshops created in the first towns of the colony. This branch demonstrates the

admirable fusion of elements and techniques of the two cultural heritages that it represents. The great innovations that contribute to the new folk art are the use of kilns for ceramics and the use of the loom for weaving, along with the use of leather and metals in new art forms. In the field of weaving, the old indigenous geometric motifs became the new wool handicrafts of San Miguel and the cotton handicrafts of Guair. The Typi, an old traditional outfit worn by Paraguayan women, represents not only the introduction of the loom for working the material called Ao PoI, but also the embroidery, learned in the workshops in the colony. The andut, a fine lace shaped like a spider web, made in places like Itaugu and Paraguari, was born as a local adaptation of the lace of Tenerife, Canary Islands.

Basketwork, performed especially in towns like Luque and Limpio, showed equal innovations in the use of new dyes and designs, and by doing so changed some its old guidelines into new objects like woven mby-style screens. Ceramics achieved great development in some towns such as It and Tobat, ancient settlements of indigenous. And as is the case with other handicraft expressions, it introduced new techniques and forms, like manger scenes, whose original models were brought by evangelical Christians, but transformed into unique designs in Paraguay. The ancient a and other large vases adopted handles modeled after Spanish designs, and the ceramic forms diversified into a large variety of human-like objects, such as the erotic figures of It, and into animal-like objects that likened the most diverse animals.

In the area of wood carvings, the colonial missionaries introduced religious handicrafts, promoting the carving of saints and diverse objects for worship. The carving of saints such as Saint Son, Saint Judas and Saint Death has spread considerably, so that the ancient indigenous masks changed to the worship of the Kamba Raanga (figure of the Black King), each 6th of January, in Tobat. Silver handicrafts, which encompasses everything from fine jewelry to religious objects, found its place in Luque, and at the same time adopted Spanish guidelines. On a smaller scale, there was development of handicrafts using gold and stones such as coral. And in the area of metals, ironworks also appeared, with the creation of admirable railings and other forms, in the style used in Spain. Finally, leather handicrafts, likewise started during the colony, is expressed in a great variety of objects that includes horseback riding accessories, to furniture, to trunks to jugs that flaunt beautiful embossed arabesques, like those made in Carapegu and other places. An admirable sample of the most exquisite folk art can be seen in the Museum of Clay, inside the Center for Visual Arts, in the Paraguayan capital. And those who wish to acquire objects of this type, there is a large number of businesses specializing in these wares in the main cities throughout the country.

Popular religion
Popular religion is a rich field of cultural expression for the Paraguayan people. The imposition of the Catholic religion that precedes colonial times produced in Paraguay the same cultural phenomenon created in other American countries: a syncretism of original elements of religion brought by the European missionaries with elements of indigenous beliefs. This syncretism preserved an important space for the way of feeling and expression ones own religion for the inhabitants of the old territory that extended into both sides of the Paraguay River. Thus, the evangelicals themselves, by example, adopted the rich Guaran theogony, the figure of the god Tup, which they found to be similar to the Christian god. The mother of this god, the revered Virgin of the Catholics, thus became Tupsy (mother of Tup). Another striking example is the festival of San Juan, celebrated the 23rd of June, which adopted the rituals of the annual festival of fire, or the European

Solstice, with its ancient origins, and in Paraguay they inspired a rich demonstration of magic games and unique celebrations. The adoption of the Guaran language by the evangelicals, and their use of it in the teaching of religion, and in the writings of the catechisms and sermons, gave favor to them and to the process of acceptance by the indigenous and mestizos in the new religion, and fostered the creation of self expression in religion. This is how the religious chants came about, tied to the most important religious festivities for the Paraguayans: la Semana Santa, or Holy Week, the week preceding and including Easter. These melancholy and moving chants are sung in long processions laden with personal symbols, related to the passion of Christ. The Paraguayan calendar is speckled with festivities that express the popular religion with its rituals and unique symbols. Among those important holidays are: the Kurus Ara (Day of the Cross), the 3rd of May; Saint Johns Day, the 23rd of June; Christmas Day, the 25th of December, All Saints Day, December 1st; Saint Balthazars Day, January 6th; Patron Saint Blas Day, 3rd of February; Day of the Patron Saint Our Lady of Asuncin, 15th of August; the Day of the Virgin of Vaacup, 8th of December. The list goes even further with Patron Festivals that are celebrated in each town of the country, in honor of a sacred figure, protector of that particular place. The expression of popular religion maintains validity in Paraguay, and some sects that had fallen into certain decline, have awoken praiseworthy attempts at revitalization and revalorization in recent years, with the support of the public and the defenders of popular culture. Among these are the chant processions, and Christmas nativity scenes, which, in Paraguay, have found very exuberant creativity in local handicrafts.

Paraguayan gastronomy - Food and recipes

The Paraguayan kitchen, as is the case in all cultural expressions, has a strong indigenous roots, although the eating habits of Paraguayans became much more open since colonization, and cooking standards now come European origins, as well as the rest of the countries of the world, in modern times.

The bases for Paraguayan gastronomy are found in two main staples of indigenous origin: cassava (a tuber with generous roots, also known as mandioca or yuca) and corn (American grain), from which a variety of products are made for consumption in varying forms. Cassava processing gives us faria (a type of flour), typyraty and almidn, three very distinct products, used in different dishes. The presence of cassava at the Paraguayan dinner table spans a variety of presentations, from the root boiled in salt as a side dish, to the exquisite chip, traditional bread kneaded with cassava starch, milk, cheese and eggs, which is the focal point of some festivities such as Holy Week. Also, corn takes various shapes, from sweet kernels in the deliciouschip guas to corn flour used in dishes as diverse as Paraguayan soupthe worlds only known solid soupor bor bor, a thick broth to which balls of corn and cheese are added.

Other basic elements of the oldest Paraguayan kitchen are yams, beans, squash, peanuts and coconuts, as well as fowl and wild game. In modern times, we can add to the list: beef, absolute king among Sunday barbeques; and in smaller quantities, pork, chicken and fish; and in even smaller amounts, meat from other animals, such as lamb.

Typical Paraguayan foods cover a wide variety which includes some oldfashioned dishes like mbey, a delicious omelet with cassava starch, drizzled with cheese, and puchero, a traditional stew, of obvious Spanish origin. From the extensive list, we can extract dishes with such names as jopara, reviro, locro, arr ques(Paraguayan-style rice with cheese), lambreado, pastel mandio, payagu mascada, chichar (cracklings), soo yosopy, caldo av, and the clearly Paraguayan-adapted bife koygu, a succulent and juicy beef cut with onions and fried eggs. Ques paragui, cheese made by Paraguayan artisans from the countryside, adds a special touch to many recipes.

Among the typical desserts we can mention kaguyjy (mazamorra, a traditional sweet dish made from crushed corn, sugar and honey),kivev, sweet polenta made with corn flour and pumpkin;koserev, a dessert prepared with citrus fruits such as the sour orange; kai ladrillo, a sweet made with peanuts, cut into small cubes that remind one of bricks; dulce de mamn, a dessert made from the genip; and arr kamby, a local version of European rice pudding. Finally, mate cannot be forgotten, the infallible infusion and ritual that Paraguayans consume everyday, with its stimulating abilities which come from the gourd flask in which one puts the yerba mate(Ylex paraguayensis) and then adds hot water, then sucks through a metal straw. The flavor and the goodness of the mate can improve ones wellbeing with medicinal herbs. The variants of mate are mate cocido (boiled mate), that is drunk from a cup and can be mixed with milk, and teter, which is consumed cold, and is a refreshing drink for long and hot Paraguayan summers.

Typical Paraguayan foods, which until recently were enjoyed almost exclusively in the homerestaurants offered only a few dishes such as Paraguayan soup and chip guas, in the last few years inspired the opening of specialized stores, where one can enjoy a Paraguayan lunch or dinner from appetizers to dessert, in an accordingly decorated ambience, with the best artisanship in the country.

History of Paraguay
History is a chapter of special interest in order to come to know Paraguay and the Paraguayan people. It offers an understanding of the values, the struggles and the character of its men, throughout time, to students throughout the world.

Pre-colonial Period
To offer a general overview of the rich Paraguayan history, one first has to outline the situation found by the Spanish colonizers upon their arrival to the lands bordering the Paraguay River, in the 16th Century, with diverse indigenous populations that inhabited both sides of the river, many of whom belonged to the Tupi-Guaranlinguistic branch, and others, to branches of the Toba-Maskoy language, Mataco Mataguayo, Zamuco and Guaicur.

These peoples, generally classified as pertaining to the Neolithic period, were hunter-gatherers, and in some cases, when confronted with each other, like the Guaicur, were enemies of the Guaran.

Colonial Period
From the point of the arrival of the Spanish colonizers, which occurred in the 16th Century, some main facts need mentioning:

The discovery of the Rio de la Plata by Juan Daz de Sols, in 1515. The expedition of Alejo Garca, who is considered the discoverer of Paraguay, arrived from Brazil in 1524. The exploration of the de la Plata, Paran and Paraguay rivers by Sebastin Gaboto, who arrived in 1528 at the headwaters of the Paran and Paraguay rivers. The expedition of Juan de Ayolas and Domingo Martnez de Irala, in 1536, by mandate of Pedro de Mendoza, First Governor of the Rio de la Plata, predecessor of the former, achieved by Gonzalo de Mendoza and Juan de Salazar, the end result that was the founding of the fort Our Lady of Asuncin by Salazar, in 1537.

Regarding these historic landmarks, and the decision to give Asuncin the character of Mother City, from which expeditions set forth to found numerous towns and cities in the region, such as Santa Fe and Buenos Aires, the process was formed that used the indigenous population in encomienda labor and the gradual mixture of races through the marriage of Spanish men to indigenous women, in an institution that was named the cuadazgo. The Jesuit Missions constituted a unique experience of spreading the gospel and of community government, which began in 1604 and culminated with the expulsion of the Jesuits in 1777. This experience left its traces, through knowledge, technology and art, in the ruins that even today can be admired in some places in the southern part of the country. The Rebel Revolution, taking place between 1717 and 1735, constituted another unavoidable act in the period that created the

foundation for independence. Led in its first phase by Jos de Antequera y Castro, it was founded on the idea that real power should be exercised by natural right delegated by the people. Commissioned by the Tribunal of Charcas, Antequera proved the truthfulness of the accusations of misgovernment that weighed on the governor Balmaceda and assumed the temporary government, matters that culminated in the war between the rebels and the Jesuits. Antequera was finally imprisoned by the realists and executed, although the Rebel Revolution persisted in various revolts, until the last, led by Friar Juan Jos de Vargas, and quashed by the governor Rafael de la Moneda.

Period of Independence
The Revolution of Independence occurred in the early morning hours of May 15th, 1811, culminating in a conspiracy led by Pedro Juan Caballero. The Spanish governor, Bernardo de Velasco, dismissed from his office, joined the first provisional forces, along with Capitan Juan Valeriano Zeballos and Dr. Jos Gaspar de Francia. The Dictatorship of Dr. Jos Gaspar de Francia began as a result of the Congress of October 3rd, 1814, which named him as Supreme Dictator of the Republic. The long and rigid government of Francia signified on one hand the rigid defense of Paraguayan Independence, but on the other hand the shutdown of the country, which the dictator considered necessary in order to achieve the objectives that he had proposed. Francia firmly met the ideas of annexation that had been brewing between Spain and Buenos Aires, and in 1816, before the possibility of an invasion from Buenos Aires, he convened Congress, where his fellow party members enabled the declaration of Perpetual Dictatorship. The resistance, styled by Francias government, that was in motion from the first phase, finally crystallized in a conspiracy commanded by Fulgencio Yegros, harshly beheaded later by the Dictator, along with the execution of his primary conspirators, in 1821. Francia died the 20th of September, 1840, ending one of the most polemic times in Paraguayan history.

The insertion of Don Carlos Antonio Lpez in the political life of the country began with the death of dictator Francia, when he was named as consul and secretary to Mariano Roque Alonso, during the Command of Arms government. Subsequently, in 1841 he is named Consul of Paraguay, and in 1844, Congress bestows him with powers of the President of the Republic, for 10 years. Don Carlos Antonio Lpez continued, although with a different style, Paraguays national defense, threatened especially by the plans of Argentine Juan Manuel de Rosas to create a confederation of United Provinces of the Rio de la Plata. Among the progressive actions of Lpezs government, standouts include the creation of the first national newspaper, The Independent Paraguayan, the Merchant Fleet, and the Railroad; the development of the Ybycu foundry, and the hiring of important European technicians that lent their knowledge and labor in order to modernize the capital of the country. Education and culture were other areas for which Don Carlos created initiatives. He won second and third terms in office, until his death, in 1862.

The War of the Triple Alliance

Upon the death of Don Carlos, his eager son appeared, Francisco Solano Lpez, a military man, with strong patriotic convictions. Soon he was raised to the status of leader of the heroic Paraguayan resistance in light of the War of the Triple Alliance, which began in 1864. First designated as interim president then confirmed shortly thereafter, Francisco Solano carried out an initial period of continuity to his fathers government, to the point that the political situation of the region resulted in conflict. The intention of helping Uruguay, threatened by an imminent intervention by Brazil to its delicate panorama of internal divisions, and the subsequent negative situation in having Paraguayan troops marching through Argentine territory, ended in unforeseen mixup, which broke out on Paraguays doorstep. Lpez headed the Paraguayan defense in the lopsided war that covered three campaigns en Matto Grosso, as well as in Corrientes and Uruguayana, in which Paraguay assumed the offensive. The subsequent campaigns, in Humait, Pikysyry and Las Cordilleras, all taking place on Paraguayan soil, encountered local forces already in defensive positions and gradually weakening.

The Paraguayan army, which accompanied Lpez until his fall inCerro Cor, on March 1st, 1870, was made up of even women and children, the last defense of a people that was nearly exterminated by a triple invasion. Francisco Solano Lpez, at the time of being acclaimed the greatest hero in all of Paraguay, also became one of the most questioned figures in Paraguayan history, due to the radical and extreme way in which he defended national sovereignty.

Post-war and the 20th Century

The post war period went by with the occupation of invading forces and the beginning of the era called the constitutional period, with the enactment of the Constitution of 1870. In 1887, the two main national parties were founded: the Colorado and the Liberal, both ideologically liberal, which would face off as adversaries during all of subsequent history. The history of the 20th century marks a first event: the revolution of 1904, which signifies the beginning of the liberal dominance, as was the case during a long period of conflict in the politics of the country. In 1922, a civil war developed between the two sides of liberalism. In 1923, Dr. Eligio Ayala assumed the presidency; he was recognized as one of the best statesmen in Paraguays history.

Post-war and the 20th Century - The Chaco War

In 1932, there was a breakout of a second military conflict en less than a century: the Chaco War. President Ayala organized all the sectors that had been marginalized by flighty politics of the previous few years and prepared a peaceful occupation of these territories, at the same time, reinforcing the army. With the attack by the Bolivians in Pitiantuta, the three-year war began, and again brought great economic and human loss to the country. Paraguay won important victories in Boquern and Campo Va, and fought battles with admirable resistance in Nanawa and El Carmen, as

well as they did on many other fronts. The Paraguayan troops, commanded by Jos Flix Estigarribia won back the land and ended the conflict in 1935, although in the final peace accord, it conceded a large piece of land to Bolivia. With the Chaco War finally ended, another period of conflicts began, with the revolution of Colonel Franco, in 1936. Upon the death of Jos Flix Esigarribia, General Higinio Mornigo assumed the presidency. In 1947, another civil war broke out that caused several political partiescolorados, liberals, febreristas, and communiststo face off and resulted in exile of numerous compatriots.

Post-war and the 20th Century - The Stroessner dictatorship

In 1954, General Alfredo Stroessner took control of the government, via a military coup. Stroessner would be at the helm of political life in the country for several decades. Affiliated with the Colorado party, Stroessner prefaced his government as a dictatorship from the beginning, jailing and exiling his main political foes, and through successive elections, perfectly coordinated, which gave him a certain faade of democracy, albeit hardly believable. Stroessner aligned himself with the famous Condor Plan of the other totalitarian governments of South America, which produced thousands of victims, especially in the 70s and 80s, under the dictation of the National Security Doctrine promoted by the United States. During Stroessners government some important works were completed, such as the construction of the Itaip Dam, whose numerous benefits, however, in the opinion of practically all of the scholars of the time, do not outweigh the negative impact of this regime. The military coup on February 3rd, 1989, headed by General Andrs Rodrguez, father-in-law of General Stroessners son, ended one of the longest and most rigid dictatorships in Latin America, which had been maintained for 35 years.

Post-war and the 20th Century - Democratic transition

With the fall of the dictatorship, an auspicious period of democracy began. The commander of the coup, Andrs Rodrguez, was elected constitutional president in the first democratic elections, in May of 1989. Also, in 1991, the first direct municipal elections were held, with the unprecedented election of a non-colorado official, Dr. Carlos Filizzola. And in 1992, the new National Constitution was adopted, which establishes fundamental liberties not recognized in the previous constitution. Under the protection of the new Magna Carta, public liberties were regained and since then, there have been several general elections. Other signs of this new period were the removal of party affiliations of the police and military, the renovation of the Supreme Court of Justice, the creation of the General Finance Office of the Republic and the Peoples Defense Office. In 1992, the so-called Terror File was discovered, a record of all the political arrests and persecutions of the Stroessner regime, which became a valuable testimony that will safeguard the memory of a difficult time shared and experienced by the entire country. Succeeding the Rodrguez presidency were Juan Carlos Wasmosy in 1993 and Ral Cubas in 1998. The presidency of Cubas was cut short by a revolt called Paraguayan March in 1999, which resulted in the governing of Luis Angel Gonzlez Macchi, until 2003. And in the most recent elections, Dr. Nicanor Duarte Frutos was elected, and whose term will expire in 2008. Duarte Frutos, a politician affiliated with the Colorado party throughout his lauded career, was Minister of Education and Culture in the first years before the transition, during whose tenure theEducation Reform was implemented. This has been an important instrument of modernization in Paraguayan education. Among the achievements of the Duarte Frutos administration we can mention the rising increase of tax collection, as well as improvement in education and healthcare.